Session No. 10

Course Title: Theory, Principles, and Fundamentals of Hazards,
Disasters, and U.S.

Emergency Management

Session Title: The Scope of Emergency Management

Time: 1 Hour

**Objectives:**

10.1 To define the term, emergency management.

10.2 To examine definitions of emergency management by defining some key
characteristics of emergency management as a profession within a broad
societal context.

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**Scope:**

To introduce this session, the professor initiates a discussion of the
term, "emergency management," during which the students are asked to
suggest alternative terms. The professor then describes a short list of
terms, briefly elaborating on their usage within various sectors and
touching on their evolution and implications. Next, the discussion turns
to defining the term, based on key characteristics of the profession,
and viewed in a broader societal context. As part of this context, the
professor suggests that emergency management is not a "standalone"
profession, but is one with ever-expanding boundaries that operates both
within political, social, economic, and legal constraints and under
heightened public expectations. Finally, the professor transitions to
the upcoming sessions by assuring the students that they will deal in
more depth with various models and approaches to emergency management.

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**Suggested Student Homework Reading Assignment:**

Need to determine specifics.

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**Additional Sources to Consult:**

Alexander, David. 2000. *Confronting Catastrophe*. New perspective on
natural disaster. Oxford University Press.

Crews, David. 1999. "Why Emergency Management as a Profession?" *The
ASPEP Journal 1999*. American Society of Professional Emergency
Planners.

Fothergill, Alice. 2000. "Knowledge Transfer Between Researchers and
Practitioners." *Natural Hazards Review*, May, pp. 91-98.

Pearce, Laurie. 2000. Chapter 2, pp. 7-11, in *An Integrated Approach
for Community Hazard, Impact, Risk and Vulnerabilty Analysis: HIRV*.
Doctoral Dissertation, University of British Columbia.

Waugh, William L. Jr. 2000. "Expanding the Boundaries of Emergency
Management." *IAEM Bulletin*, Vol. 17, No. 10, October, pp. 1 & 4.

**Instructor Reading:**

Buckle, Phillip 1998-99. "Re-defining community and vulnerability in the
context of emergency management." *The Australian Journal of Emergency
Management* Vol. 13 No. 4 1999.

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#### General Requirements:

PowerPoint slides have been prepared to support this session. The
session is not dependent upon the utilization of these visual aids. They
are provided as a tool that the Professor is free to use as PowerPoints
or overhead transparencies.

**Note to the Instructor:**

A student handout containing definitions of emergency management and
other related terms can be found at the end of this session. You may
want to make it a homework reading assignment in preparation for this
session. Or, you may want to hand it out in class as a means of
stimulating discussion on the question, "what is emergency management?"
and how it differs from other related terms, such as crisis management
or civil defense.

You may wish to incorporate emergency management definitions found in
the handout, but not in the notes that follow, in your presentation
material.

You might consider asking your students to find and bring to class a
definition that is not found on the handout (complete with source
citation).

Objective 10.1 To define the term, emergency management.

*You may wish to begin by asking the class to name all of the terms that
they are aware of that are alternatives to the term, "emergency
management." These can be noted on the board or on chart paper, and then
the students can be asked to try to define or make distinctions between
the varying terms.*

*If the students have not pointed out the differences in focus or
orientation among the concepts of emergency management, hazards
management, risk management, crisis management, and civil defense, then
some distinctions should be made, as well as an explanation of the
implications.*

*You might explain that people can bring many different meanings to
terms that are used. If terms are not defined, people can talk past each
other and not actually know it. So, understanding the common terms and
definitions used in emergency management is vitally important. Introduce
the terms by showing Visual 10.1, "Other Terms."*

**Visual 10.1**

-   Other terms that are sometimes used as alternatives to the term,
    "emergency management," include:

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-   Civil Defense.

-   Civil Emergency Preparedness.

-   Business Continuity Planning (also, Crisis or Consequence
    Management, Contingency Planning, Business Resumption, or Recovery
    Planning).

-   Disaster Management or Services.

-   Emergency Services.

-   Hazard Management.

-   Risk Management.

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-   **Civil Defense** in the United States is often associated with
    nuclear attack or national security preparedness. As such, it was
    viewed as something one did not want to think about---it was not
    very popular, even before the end of the Cold War.

    This term can still be found in the United States, though, and is
    often encountered abroad. For example the United Nations frequently
    uses this terminology and defines "civil defense" as:

> **"The system of measures, usually run by a government agency, to
> protect the civilian population in wartime, to respond to disasters,
> and to prevent and mitigate the consequences of major emergencies in
> peacetime"** (UN 1992, 17).

David Alexander sees a progression from civil defense to a more
collaborative style of "civil protection" and---since September 11,
2001---back toward "**more authoritarian, less participatory, forms of
crisis management**."[^1]

> "Civil defence is administered by a combination of military and
> paramilitary forces acting under military regulations (Anderson 1970).
> As its plans and strategies are supposed to be kept secret from a
> putative enemy power, **it is not usually subject to rules of
> accountability and freedom of information. Considerable risks
> therefore exist that civil defense become an instrument of repression,
> subtle or otherwise in character**. Plans to manage civilian
> populations can turn into strategies for ensuring that protests are
> repressed and revolts subdued, even when these are stimulated by a
> desire to defend or restore democratic rights. In short, **civil
> defence can be subverted to protect the state against its people; it
> is a potential instrument of coup d'état**. (Achille 2000)."
> (Alexander, p. 5)

-   **Civil emergency preparedness** is similarly associated with
    nuclear attack or national security concerns---thus the emphasis on
    "civil" preparedness---as opposed to military oriented "defense"
    preparedness.

-   Business and industry sectors tend to prefer the use of such terms
    as **"business continuity planning," "crisis** or **consequence
    management," "contingency planning,"** or **"business resumption**
    or **recovery planning"** to the term **"emergency management**,"
    which is more often found in the public sector.

-   These terms seem to **focus primarily on preparedness, response, and
    recovery** and **less on prevention and mitigation.**

-   Quarantelli interprets the terms this way:

> " . . . the use of the term, "**emergency management**" typically
> means a major concern with mostly the preparedness and response phases
> of disasters. On the other hand, "**disaster planning**" frequently
> has reference to the full range of activities from mitigation through
> recovery. As to "**civil protection,**" it often has less reference to
> a time stage than to the social arrangements in place for generally
> dealing with disasters and other civilian type kinds of societal and
> community crises."[^2]

-   **Disaster management** or **services** seems to imply a focus on
    the response to something that has already happened---a response
    orientation.

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-   To point up the importance of having like understanding of terms,
    here is how one writer differentiates "disaster management" from
    "emergency management":

> "**Emergency management refers to the day-to-day activities that fire
> or police departments perform** that are part of their planned,
> anticipated, budgeted daily routine. These activities may include
> putting out fires, rescuing injured victims from vehicle accidents,
> tending to heart attack victims, directing traffic, or even rescuing
> cats from trees. In addition to being part of the planned daily
> routine which does not upset the overall patterns of a community,
> these types of events do not generate unmet organizational needs.
> **Disaster management refers to those situations, events, or occasions
> when a community's resources are perceived as not sufficient,** and
> unmet social needs are generated. Social life becomes disrupted for
> much of the community, and the community must reach to the outside
> environment for additional resources.[^3]

-   Contrast those definitions with the term, "emergency services."

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-   **Emergency services** is a term that is identified in this country
    with existing emergency offices such as police, fire, and ambulance.
    "Emergency Management" offices with such names report that they
    frequently receive 911 calls from the public, looking for an
    ambulance, or someone to put out a fire.

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-   But, **local emergency managers are not responders**---they are
    coordinators.

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-   **Hazard management** is a very infrequently used term in this
    country as applied to the names of government offices---it is found
    much more frequently in the disaster research literature. A possible
    shortcoming with this term could be a sense that an organization's
    focus was only on dealing with a "threat" prior to its
    actualization---becoming then a "disaster" that a different set of
    folks would then become involved with---say emergency services
    personnel. As Bolin and Stanford note, "Hazard management as a
    technically specialized field necessarily avoids the broader
    environmental and social contexts of disasters..." (Bolin with
    Stanford 1998, 219).

-   **Risk management** is a term that has only recently entered the
    field of hazards, disasters and society's organized response to
    them. The term "risk management" has typically been applied to
    private sector efforts to manage or limit injuries and losses. In
    the past, this term has dealt with the indexing of critical
    operations, assessing risk exposure for those operations designated
    as "vital" or "high," and then developing a mitigation plan which
    outlines the who, what, when, and how of preventive or corrective
    actions.

*You might want to point out that Australia and New Zealand have in
recent years turned more to the use of the term "risk management." Their
approach implies priority attention to prevention and mitigation.*

**Objective 10.2: To examine definitions of emergency management by
defining some key characteristics of emergency management as a
profession within a broad societal context**.

**WHAT IS EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT?**

Visual 10.2

> **"Emergency Management: Organized analysis, planning,
> decision-making, and assignment of available resources to mitigate
> (lessen the effect of or prevent), prepare for, respond to, and
> recover from the effects of all hazards. The goal of emergency
> management is to save lives, prevent injuries, and protect property
> and the environment if an emergency occurs."** (FEMA, Introduction to
> Emergency Management Course, 1995, p. 1-6.)

-   This overhead captures a 1995 FEMA definition of emergency
    management.

*You may wish to elicit student input by posing the following
questions:*

-   **Do you agree that the primary goal of emergency management, as
    this overhead seems to indicate, is "to save lives, prevent
    injuries, and protect property and the environment if an emergency
    occurs?"**

-   **What about the more recent U.S. movement towards building disaster
    resilient communities within the context of sustainable
    development?**

> The primary emphasis of "building disaster resilient communities" is
> on prevention, risk minimization, and vulnerability reduction rather
> than more efficient and effective disaster response.

-   **What about the following definition of Emergency Management?**

**Visual 10.3**

> **"The discipline and profession of applying science, technology,
> planning, and management to deal with extreme events that can injure
> or kill large numbers of people, do extensive damage, and disrupt
> community life."** (Sylves 1998)

-   This definition does not focus upon any one of the disaster life
    cycle phases. It focuses upon hazards as a problem and the kinds of
    things---science, technology, planning, and management---that can
    address or solve the problem.

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-   **Does this, though, say all that we want a definition of emergency
    management to say?**

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-   To address properly the question of "what is emergency management,"
    we need to consider **alternative ways** people approach the
    subjects of hazards, disasters, and emergency management.

-   To help think about how to view emergency management, consider what
    Doctors Bolin and Stanford have to say in their book on disaster and
    vulnerability:

> **"In characterizing the social research on hazards and
> disasters...the literature can be divided into two general approaches,
> technocratic and vulnerability 'paradigms' . . . The former conceives
> of disasters as events caused by physical hazard agents and views
> human behaviors primarily as responses to the impacts. It emphasizes
> the application of science and technology, usually directed by
> government agencies and scientific experts, to restore order and
> control hazards.**
>
> **"Elements of this 'dominant' view . . . appear with some frequency
> in US disaster research, reflected in its ongoing concern with
> defining unique features of disasters and how *they differ* from other
> types of phenomena . . .**
>
> **"In contrast, the vulnerability paradigm stresses various political
> and economic factors which unequally place people at risk to hazardous
> environments. In this view, disasters are not discrete events but are
> part of the larger patterns and practices of societies viewed
> geographically and historically.**" (Bolin with Stanford 1998, 27-28).

-   To summarize and somewhat expand upon this position, let's look at
    the following:

**Visual 10.4**

### Technocratic vs. Vulnerability Approach to Emergency Management

-   Technocratic Model

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-   Focus on Physical Processes of Hazards

-   Apply Managerial Problem Solving

-   Apply Technology, Engineering, Money

-   Tends to be Top-Down

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-   Vulnerability Model

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-   Focus on Socioeonomic-Political Factors

-   Seeks to Reduce the Vulnerability of People---Particularly those
    most at risk

-   Sensitive to Social Justice and Equity within Hazards Reduction

-   Bottom-Up Approach

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-   The quest for good emergency management practices should seek to
    find an **appropriate balance** between the technocratic and the
    vulnerability approaches.

-   This "balance" will vary from one community to another because each
    has its own set of hazards and social makeup and structure.

-   Thus, while **no "perfect" definition of emergency management
    exists**, we have noted **the types of considerations that have to
    be made** in reaction to the threat posed by the physical phenomenon
    of hazards and the needs of people in a social and community
    context.

-   The next two upcoming sessions will deal in more depth with various
    **models** of, and **approaches** to, emergency management.

-   An important consideration to keep in mind while trying to define
    emergency management is that it is **not a "standalone"**
    profession. It is integrated broadly throughout public and private
    entities, and it has ever-expanding---if even
    definable---boundaries:

> "For some, the complexity of emergency management is a problem of
> boundaries. Waugh (2000) states that **a major problem in defining
> emergency management today is finding the boundaries of the field** in
> order to accommodate professional interests in everything from
> structural engineering to psychological counseling for disaster
> workers and victims. **The field is becoming increasingly complex and
> more than ever, needs a myriad of disciplines to accomplish its
> mission**. Professionalization of emergency management means that
> emergency managers should become the integrators of the theoretical
> and practical knowledge of the field."[^4]
>
> "Clearly, the field of emergency management is evolving quickly.
> **HIV/AIDS, famine, and global warming** are providing new challenges.
> **Terrorism and war** are putting a new face on old challenges.
> Increasingly **fragile transportation, power, and communications
> systems** suggest future challenges. **Even defining the boundaries of
> emergency management is a difficult task."**[^5]

-   The public expects more and more, and the economic resources do not
    always keep pace with the expectations:

> "Long before Sept. 11, emergency management's challenges were
> expanding both rapidly and geometrically. Consider once again the
> chain of events confronting each of us. It begins with **the increased
> expectations of the nation's emergency management system to handle an
> ever expanding range of responsibilities.**
>
> "Who thought much about **mitigation** a decade ago? We have now
> rightly made prevention or reduction of potential hazards a
> centerpiece of the emergency management process. And how about
> **agricultural issues, such as animal disease and drought**? Once the
> exclusive purview of agencies such as USDA, these contingencies are
> now an integral part of the emergency management portfolio. We now
> have added such issues as **land use, building codes, weather
> prognostication, high tech applications, expanded partnerships with
> the private sector, academia, media, citizens groups and much more**
> to our assignment lists. What's more, **most of this has been
> accompanied by decreasing budgets**."[^6]

-   It is expected that:

> "Emergency management professionals have to be prepared to meet the
> challenges brought by technological and social change.
>
> "When a city is threatened by an impending or actual hazard that puts
> lives and/or property at risk, emergency managers must interact with
> different departments and agencies in anticipation of changes that
> must be made to reduce losses or avoid them altogether. **Emergency
> management is basically all about managing and coordinating a complex
> system.**"[^7]

-   Real-world emergency management does not exist in a vacuum---it
    operates within **social and legal** constraints:

> "There is also an **increasing linkage of disaster management to other
> programs** (e.g., homeless shelters, HIV/AIDs hospices, children's
> services, veterinarian services, food banks, social services for
> non-English-speaking groups, crisis counseling, employment services,
> and charitable organizations). Guiding emergency management agencies
> through the intergovernmental and multiorganizational maze requires
> **administrative and political experience and skill, as well as
> personal qualities that facilitate communication and encourage
> cooperation**.
>
> **"Failure of local officials in fulfilling their tasks can result in
> significant legal liability**, particularly if the failure was in one
> of their areas of discretion. Federal and state officials enjoy the
> protection of sovereign immunity, meaning they cannot be sued unless
> their government agrees to permit it. Local officials are protected by
> the same principle of sovereignty as long as they are exercising
> authority or implementing policies and programs mandated by State or
> Federal officials. However, much of the business of emergency
> management is discretionary on the part of local officials. Land-use
> regulation, building codes, and other hazard reduction mechanisms
> typically are local responsibilities. **Local officials may also be
> held liable for evacuation orders that prove unnecessary, loss of
> property value when development is restricted, loss of property value
> when hazards are identified and the risk is publicized, and other
> decisions. The potential legal costs of poor decision making are
> strong arguments for effective, professional emergency managers.
> Political skill is also needed as the reliance on nonstructural
> mitigation increases**. Land-use regulation and building codes, in
> particular, are intensely political issues in local government and
> often involve groups, such as developers, who are very influential in
> community affairs.

-   It operates within **political** and **economic** constraints, both
    alone and intertwined:

> "As President \[George H.W.\] Bush almost found in south Florida in
> the aftermath of Hurricane Andrew, **there can be significant
> political costs if officials do not prepare reasonably and respond
> decisively to a major disaster**. The poor showing of officials of the
> Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) almost cost \[former\]
> President Bush the state's electoral votes in the 1992 election. That
> lesson has not been lost on \[former\] President Clinton, governors,
> mayors, and other elected officials. **None would wish to entrust
> their political careers to ineffective emergency management
> officials."**[^8]
>
> "Just as individuals take calculated risks or risks out of ignorance,
> so too do governments. In many areas of government, including hazard
> management, short-term thinking prevails. **Preparing for and
> mitigating hazards often take a back seat to other priorities. Rescue
> and relief get much more financial support---and have more political
> appeal---than preparing for an event that may not happen during a
> politician's term in office."**[^9]

-   Some scholars see politics as the deciding factor alone:

> **"When all is said and done. . . it is a community's political system
> that decides authoritatively through the public policy process who
> will get how much life safety and who will pay for it. In the end,
> that is all that matters."**[^10]

-   Tierney, however, focuses on the broader context of how societal
    factors have influenced emergency management:

> "The **approaches** used by different societies to manage hazards and
> disasters **are in large measure a reflection of the distinctive
> characteristics** of those societies. Preparedness and response
> activities take place within particular governmental systems and are
> **shaped by larger cultural, economic, and political forces**. Taking
> those broader societal factors into consideration can shed light on
> the manner and the reasons why particular hazard adjustments are
> preferred over others. . . . **situating hazard and disaster
> management policies in their societal contexts can lead to a better
> understanding** of the extent to which both research findings and
> policies and practices can be generalized from one society to
> another."[^11]

*At this point, you may wish to elicit comments or entertain questions
about this session's focus and then remind the students that the next
two sessions will deal in greater depth with models of and approaches to
emergency management.*

**References**

Abramovitz, Janet. *Unnatural Disasters*. Worldwatch Institute,
Worldwatch Paper 158. October 2001.

Alexander, D. 2002. "From civil defence to civil protection\--and back
again." *Disaster\
Prevention and Management* 11(3).

Andrews, Bob, CEM. "IAEM Today: The 21^st^ Century Challenge." *IAEM
Bulletin*, May 2002.

Neal, David M.. "Feedback from the Field. Developing Degree Programs in
Disaster Management: Some Reflections and Observations." *International
Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters*. November 2000, Vol. 19, No.
3.

Olson, Richard Stuart, Robert A. Olson, and Vincent T. Gawronski. *Some
Buildings Just Can't Dance*. Stamford, Connecticut: JAI Press, Inc.
1999.

Quarantelli, E.L*. Disaster Planning, Emergency Management, and Civil
Protection: The Historical Development and Current Characteristics of
Organized Efforts to Prevent and Respond to Disasters*. Preliminary
Paper #224. Disaster Research Center, University of Delaware. 1995.

Stanley, Ellis M., Sr. and William Lee Waugh, Jr. "Emergency Managers
for the New Millennium." *Handbook of Crisis and Emergency Management*.
Ali Farazmand, Ed. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York-Basel.

Tierney, Kathleen J., Michael K. Lindell and Ronald W. Perry. "The Wider
Context: Societal Factors Influencing Emergency management Policy and
Practice." *Facing the Unexpected: Disaster Preparedness and Response in
the United States*. Washington DC: Joseph Henry Press. 2001.

Waugh, William L., Jr.. "Emergency management today and tomorrow."
*Journal of Emergency Management*. Vol. 1, No. 1, Spring 2003.

Wilson, Jennifer, and Arthur Oyola-Yemaiel. "An Emergency Management
Profession: Will We Make It?" *The Journal of the American Society of
Professional Emergency Planners*. Bruce Binder, Ed. 2002.

**What is Emergency Management?**

**Some Definitions**

The Instructor may wish to ask the class what they think emergency
management is. Following are several definitions that the instructor can
use to compare and contrast with those offered by the students. One
option is to prepare overheads or handouts of these definitions.

The discipline and profession of applying science, technology, planning,
and management to deal with extreme events that can injure or kill large
numbers of people, do extensive damage, and disrupt community life.
(Sylves 1998)

The process by which the uncertainties that exist in potentially
hazardous situations can be minimized and public safety maximized. The
goal is to limit the costs of emergencies or disasters through the
implementation of a series of strategies and tactics reflecting the full
life cycle of disaster (i.e., preparedness, response, recovery, and
mitigation). (Drabek 1998)

Organized analysis, planning, decision-making, and assignment of
available resources to mitigate (lessen the effect of or prevent),
prepare for, respond to, and recover from the effects of all hazards.
The goal of emergency management is to save lives, prevent injuries, and
protect property and the environment if an emergency occurs. (FEMA 1995,
p. I-6).

A range of measures to manage risks to communities and the environment.
It involves the development and maintenance of arrangements to prevent
the effect of, prepare for, respond to, or recover from events causing
significant community disruption or environmental damage. (Salter
1997-98, p. 28.)

The organization and management of resources for dealing with all
aspects of emergencies. Emergency management involves the plans,
structures, and arrangements which are established to bring together the
normal endeavors of government, voluntary, and private agencies in a
comprehensive and coordinated way to deal with the whole spectrum of
emergency needs including prevention, response and recovery. (Victorian
Department of Justice 1997)

The entire process of planning and intervention for rescue and relief to
reduce impact of emergencies as well as the response and recovery
measures, to mitigate the significant social, economic and environmental
consequences to communities and ultimately to the country, usually
through an emergency operations center, EOC. (Reference Center 1998)

**Course Audiences**

The primary audience for this course is those individuals who wish to
enter the profession of emergency management---who wish to be emergency
managers. What, then, is an emergency manager?

An emergency manager is generally thought of as a government employee
who has the day-to-day responsibility for emergency management programs
and activities. This role is often one of coordinating all aspects of a
jurisdiction's mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery
activities.

Other emergency services personnel, also are very much concerned with
hazards, disasters, and emergency management. Indeed in this day and age
of prevention, mitigation, and building disaster resilient and
sustainability communities, a wide range of individuals need to know the
principles of hazards and emergency management---executives, decision
makers, department heads, planners, and all sorts of operations
personnel.

In the private sector, virtually every business of any appreciable size
needs someone or some office dedicated to risks, hazards, vulnerability,
security, and safety issues. Health care, medical, educational and child
care organizations each need to be engaged in the subject of hazards,
disasters, and their "management." In addition, as we shall see later in
the course, there are many volunteer organizations, such as the American
Red Cross, with disaster service specialists.

Each of these, as well as other individuals and groups, has one or more
roles to play in emergency management and thus has emergency management
educational needs.

[^1]: David E. Alexander. 2002. "From civil defense to civil
    protection---and back again." *Disaster Prevention and Management*
    11(3): 209-213.

[^2]: E.L. Quarantelli*. Disaster Planning, Emergency Management, and
    Civil Protection: The Historical Development and Current
    Characteristics of Organized Efforts to Prevent and Respond to
    Disasters*. Preliminary Paper #224. Disaster Research Center,
    University of Delaware. 1995. p. 2.

[^3]: David M. Neal. "Feedback from the Field. Developing Degree
    Programs in Disaster Management: Some Reflections and Observations."
    *International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters*. November
    2000, Vol. 19, No. 3. p. 417.

[^4]: Jennifer Wilson and Arthur Oyola-Yemaiel. "An Emergency Management
    Profession: Will We Make It?" *The Journal of the American Society
    of Professional Emergency Planners*. Bruce Binder, Ed. 2002. p. 80.

[^5]: William L. Waugh, Jr. "Emergency management today and tomorrow."
    *Journal of Emergency Management*. Vol. 1, No. 1, Spring 2003. p. 5.

[^6]: Bob Andrews, CEM. "IAEM Today: The 21^st^ Century Challenge."
    *IAEM Bulletin*, May 2002. p. 22

[^7]: Ellis M. Stanley, Sr. and William Lee Waugh, Jr. "Emergency
    Managers for the New Millennium." *Handbook of Crisis and Emergency
    Management*. Ali Farazmand, Ed. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York-Basel.
    p. 695.

[^8]: Stanley and Waugh, p. 698.

[^9]: Janet Abramovitz. *Unnatural Disasters*. Worldwatch Institute,
    Worldwatch Paper 158. October 2001. p. 7

[^10]: Richard Stuart Olson, Robert Al. Olson, and Vincent T. Gawronski.
    *Some Buildings Just Can't Dance*. Stamford, Connecticut: JAI Press,
    Inc. 1999. p. 169.

[^11]: Kathleen J. Tierney, Michael K. Lindell and Ronald W. Perry. "The
    Wider Context: Societal Factors Influencing Emergency management
    Policy and Practice." *Facing the Unexpected: Disaster Preparedness
    and Response in the United States*. Washington DC: Joseph Henry
    Press. 2001. p. 199.