[Coastal and Marine Ecological Classification Standard]{.smallcaps}

[Version III]{.smallcaps}

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Front cover photos:

United States Department of Commerce NOAA. NOAA Central Library. NOAA
Sanctuaries Collection. Paige Gill. Florida Keys National Marine
Sanctuary.

United States Department of Commerce NOAA. NOAA CCMA Biogeography Team.
Barrel, Tube Sponge \[Upright/Erect Sponge\] (*Porifera* btv. Spp

Citation: Madden, C, K. Goodin, B. Allee, M. Finkbeiner, D. Bamford.
2008. Coastal and Marine Ecological Classification Standard. NOAA and
NatureServe. 77p

[]{.mark}

This work was supported in part with funding to NatureServe from the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf of Mexico Program (Assistance
Agreement MX 96473607-0) and the Organization of American States
(Inter-American Biodiversity Information Network - Ecosystem Thematic
Network).

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NatureServe

1101 Wilson Boulevard, 15^th^ Floor

Arlington, VA 22209

703-908-1800

www.natureserve.org

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NOAA Coastal Services Center\
2234 South Hobson Avenue

Charleston, SC 29405-2413\
843-740-1200 (phone) • 843-740-1224 (fax)

www.csc.noaa.gov

[]{.mark}

[]{.mark}

**[Coastal and Marine]{.smallcaps}**

**[Ecological Classification Standard]{.smallcaps}**

[Version III]{.smallcaps}

**Christopher J. Madden, Ph. D**

**Kathleen L. Goodin**

**Rebecca Allee, Ph.D.**

**Mark Finkbeiner**

**Danielle E. Bamford**

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# Acknowledgements 

Placeholder for final document.

# Table of Contents {#table-of-contents .TOC-Heading}

[Acknowledgements 4](#acknowledgements)

[Executive Summary 6](#executive-summary)

[Introduction 9](#introduction)

[Guiding Principles 11](#guiding-principles)

[The Benthic Cover Component 13](#the-benthic-cover-component)

[System 14](#system)

[Subsystem 17](#subsystem)

[Cover Type 18](#cover-type)

[Class and Subclass 18](#class-and-subclass)

[Group 23](#__RefHeading___Toc197144114)

[Biotope 26](#biotope)

[The Water Column Component 27](#the-water-column-component)

[System 27](#system-1)

[Water Column Depth Zones 27](#water-column-depth-zones)

[Water Column Structure 28](#water-column-structure)

[Macrohydroform 28](#macrohydroform)

[Mesohydroform 29](#mesohydroform)

[Lifeform 29](#lifeform)

[Biotope 30](#biotope-1)

[The Geoform Component 31](#the-geoform-component)

[Megageoform 32](#megageoform)

[Mesogeoform 32](#mesogeoform)

[Macrogeoform 33](#macrogeoform)

[Microgeoform 33](#microgeoform)

[Anthropogenic Geoforms 34](#anthropogenic-geoforms)

[Standard Attributes 35](#standard-attributes)

[Classifiers 35](#__RefHeading___Toc197144131)

[Modifiers 35](#__RefHeading___Toc197144132)

[Glossary 46](#glossary)

[References 52](#references)

[Literature Cited 53](#literature-cited)

[Appendix A -- Benthic Cover Component Units
56](#appendix-a-benthic-cover-component-units)

[Appendix B -- Water Column Component Classifiers
59](#appendix-b-water-column-component-classifiers)

[Appendix C -- GeoForm Component Classifiers
60](#appendix-c-geoform-component-classifiers)

[Appendix D -- Standard Attributes 62](#appendix-d-standard-attributes)

[Appendix E - Comparison of CMECS Version III to CMECS Version II
64](#appendix-e---comparison-of-cmecs-version-iii-to-cmecs-version-ii)

[Appendix F -- Comparison of CMECS Benthic Component to FGDC Wetlands
Classification Standard
73](#appendix-f-comparison-of-cmecs-benthic-component-to-fgdc-wetlands-classification-standard)

[Appendix G - Ecoregions for the United States
76](#appendix-g---ecoregions-for-the-united-states)

# [Executive Summary]{.underline} 

Coastal and marine planners and managers are faced with a complex
environment in which to make difficult decisions about habitat
conservation and resource management. Given this complexity and
recognizing the vastness of the marine environment for which the United
States has jurisdiction, there is an urgent and increasing need for a
national habitat classification approach that can be used to develop
strategies for resource management and conservation. To meet this need
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and NatureServe
developed the Coastal and Marine Ecological Classification Standard
(CMECS), a classification standard that is relevant to all U.S. coastal
and marine environments and that can be applied on local, regional and
continental scales. The classification provides a structure for
synthesizing data so that habitats can be characterized and reported in
a standard way, and information can be aggregated and evaluated across
the national landscape and seascape. Built on existing classification
efforts and informed by a series of technical meetings and workshops,
the CMECS standard integrates the current state of knowledge about
ecological and habitat classification. The result is an
ecosystem-oriented, science-based framework to allow effective
identification, monitoring, protection, and restoration of unique biotic
assemblages, protected species, critical habitat, and important
ecosystem components.

A few of the many potential applications of the classification include:

> • Development of a coastal marine biodiversity inventory for North
> America
>
> • Delineation of regions for Marine Protected Areas and developing
> guidelines for their management
>
> • Identification of important habitats and critical hotspots for
> conservation
>
> • Identification of Essential Fish Habitat
>
> • Formation of a scientific basis for the development, implementation
> and monitoring of ecosystem-based management strategies for coastal
> systems

Previous versions of CMECS (Madden *et al.* 2004, Madden *et al.* 2005)
and a precursor (Allee *et al* 2000) were developed with the input of
over 40 coastal and marine habitat experts. CMECS Version III is the
product of further refinement with an added emphasis on mapping
applications. Most changes in Version III were made to align CMECS with
two Federal Geographic Data Committee Standards: 1) the *Classification
of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the United States* (Cowardin *et
al*. 1979) -- the federal standard for classifying and mapping wetland
and deepwater habitats, and 2) The *U.S. National Vegetation
Classification* -- the federal standard for classifying vegetation
(Jennings *et al*., in press, FGDC 2007). The resulting CMECS Version
III standard is applicable on spatial scales of less than one square
meter to thousands of square kilometers and can be used in littoral,
benthic and pelagic zones of estuarine, coastal and open ocean systems.

CMECS Version III has three distinct components each describing a
different aspect of the coastal and marine environment. Taken together,
these components provide a structured way to organize information about
coastal and marine habitats and a standard terminology for describing
them. The fundamental component is the Benthic Cover Component (BCC).
This hierarchical system describes the geomorphologic, physico-chemical
and biological composition of the coastal and marine substrate. The
Water Column Component (WCC) describes the structure, patterns,
processes and biology of the overlying water column. The Geoform
Component (GFC) describes the major geomorphic or structural
characteristics of the coast and seafloor at various scales. The
flexibility of the CMECS classification standard will support a variety
of local and regional applications.

In addition to the three components, CMECS provides a list of standard
attributes \-- a consistent set of variables that provide the basis for
classification and description of the CMECS units. When required to
define a unit, these standard attributes are called "classifiers". When
used to further describe a unit, these standard attributes are called
"modifiers". Standard attributes provide a consistent standard for data
collection and application

Specifically, the Benthic Cover Component (BCC) classifies geologic and
biotic cover of the substrate at different spatial scales and places the
associated biology in the context of the physical habitat. This
component is organized into a branched hierarchy of seven nested levels
which correspond to both functional ecological relationships at
progressively smaller spatial scales. The BCC branches into five Systems
(nearshore neritic, oceanic, estuarine and freshwater influenced) at the
highest level based on salinity, depth and enclosure and two Subsystems
defined by tidal regime (i.e., intertidal or subtidal). Each Subsystem
further divides into Classes (e.g. coral reef, aquatic bed) and then
Subclasses (e.g. spur and groove reef, rooted vascular vegetation),
largely adopting the values in the FGDC wetland classification standard
(Cowardin *et al*. 1979). Groups are defined within the Subclasses based
on factors that reflect the variance in biotic composition of the
Biotopes. Biotopes represent broad biological associations identified by
dominant or diagnostic species that are fixed to the substrate.

The Water Column Component (WCC) describes the structure, pattern and
processes of the water column. While highly variable spatially and
temporally, conceptually the water column is composed of repeating
structures and processes that strongly influence the distribution and
condition of the biota. This classification component employs seven
classifiers. The WCC classifiers can be used alone or in combination to
describe the structure and composition of the water column -- the
classification of the water column is not strictly hierarchical. The
first category, System, is the same as that of the BCC and should always
be used to put the water column units into the same context as the BCC.
Additional classifiers address depth (vertical zonation), structure
(upper and lower water column), macrohydroform (e.g., major ocean
currents, large coastal fronts) mesohydroform hydrographic features
(e.g. waves), dominant lifeforms and biotopes. Because of its dynamic
and three-dimensional nature, the water column can be a challenge to
map. The WCC is intended to be mapped independently of the other
components of the classification standard to provide information on
distinct water column ecological units as necessary. However, it can be
overlain on the BCC and GFC components to help users understand the
vertical component of the marine environment.

The Geoform Component (GFC) describes the structure of the coastline and
sea floor at multiple scales. A Geoform is equivalent in concept to a
terrestrial landform (e.g., mountain, butte, moraine etc) and likewise
varies in scale from very large (e.g., seamount, embayment) to very
small (e.g., tidepool, sand ripple). Geoforms shape the large scale
seascape in repeatable and predictable ways by providing structure,
channeling energy flows, regulating bioenergetics, and controlling
transfer rates of energy, material and organisms. The morphology of
these features controls such processes as water exchange rates and water
turnover times, hydrologic transport, energy and nutrient cycling,
shelter and exposure and migration and spawning patterns. The framework
for the GFC is based largely on the structure described by Greene *et
al.* (2007), but expands it and re-organizes some options to encompass a
larger number of coastal and nearshore features. As with the WCC, the
GFC is intended to be mapped as a separate layer from the BCC. When
overlain on the BCC, the GFC layer can provide additional insight into
how benthic patterns vary with the structure of the substrate. GFC types
may also be used independently when information on structure is required
to meet the objectives of a given project.

Each component of the classification is in different stages of
development. The BCC framework is complete and all types though from
System through the Subclass level have been identified and described.
The concepts of the Group and Biotope level have been developed, but
additional work is needed to identify and describe the units within
these levels. Some Group and Biotope units listed in this document are
considered "draft" and may be subject to modification as the standard is
applied at local levels. The framework of the GFC is also complete, but
additional work may be needed to identify and describe the units at all
levels. The framework of the WCC is in the process of being reviewed and
refined and additional work will be completed to develop the rules for
combining the classifiers to identify and describe the water column
units.

# [Introduction]{.underline}

Coastal and marine planners and managers are faced with a complex
environment in which to make difficult decisions about habitat
conservation and resource management. Given this complexity and
recognizing the vastness of the marine environment for which the United
States has jurisdiction, there is an urgent and increasing need for a
national habitat classification approach that can be used to develop
strategies for resource management and conservation. To meet this need
NOAA and NatureServe developed the Coastal and Marine Ecological
Classification Standard (CMECS), a classification standard that is
relevant to all U.S. coastal and marine environments and that can be
applied on local, regional and continental scales. The continuing goal
of the CMECS standard is to permit the classification of ecological and
habitat units within a simple standard format that uses a common
terminology. This is intended to allow effective identification,
monitoring, protection, and restoration of unique biotic assemblages,
protected species, critical habitat, and important ecosystem components.
This classification standard will provide a standard protocol for
identifying and naming both new and existing ecological types.

Previous versions of CMECS (Madden et al. 2004, Madden et al. 2005) and
a precursor (Allee et al. 2000) were developed with the input of over 40
coastal and marine habitat experts. CMECS Version III is the product of
further refinement with an added emphasis on mapping applications. Most
changes in Version III were made to align CMECS with two Federal
Geographic Data Committee Standards: 1) the *Classification of Wetlands
and Deepwater Habitats of the United States* (Cowardin et al. 1979) --
the federal standard for classifying and mapping wetland and deepwater
habitats, and 2) The *U.S. National Vegetation Classification* -- the
federal standard for classifying vegetation (Jennings et al., in press,
FGDC 2007). See Appendix E for a discussion of the differences between
Version II and Version III and the relationship between Version III and
the wetland and vegetation standards.

CMECS Version III has three distinct components each describing a
different aspect of the coastal and marine environment. Taken together,
these components provide a structured way to organize information about
coastal and marine habitats and a standard terminology for describing
them. The fundamental component is the Benthic Cover Component (BCC).
This hierarchical system describes the geologic and biotic composition
and cover of the coastal and marine substrate \[example types include
Unconsolidated Bottom -- Sand, Spur and Groove Reef, and Rooted Vascular
Vegetation (=seagrass bed)\]. The Water Column Component (WCC) describes
the structure, patterns and processes of the overlying water column
(example types are defined by depth, water column structure, hydrologic
formation and biotic composition). The Geoform Component (GFC) describes
the major geomorphic or structural characteristics of the coast and
seafloor at various scales (example units include abyssal plain,
seamount, delta, and beach).

The three component systems can be used alone or together depending on
user needs.

The BCC is the primary component of CMECS and should be the starting
point and reporting standard used for projects that require inventory,
classification, description or mapping of benthic communities. The GFC
can be used to provide additional structural information to augment the
information in the BCC. The GFC is intended to be mapped as a separate
layer from the BCC. When overlain on the BCC, the GFC layer can provide
additional insight into how benthic patterns vary with the structure of
the substrate. GFC types may also be used independently when information
on structure is required to meet a given project's objectives. Likewise
the WCC is intended to be mapped independently from the other components
of the Standard to provide information on distinct water column
ecological units. It can be overlain on the BCC and GFC components to
help users understand the vertical component of the marine environment.
Application of these three components over time will help users better
understand interactions and patterns of covariance among them.

In addition to the three components, CMECS provides a list of standard
attributes \-- a consistent set of variables that provide the basis for
classification and description of the CMECS units. When required to
define a unit, these standard attributes are called "classifiers". When
not required for classification, but used to further describe a unit,
these standard attributes are called "modifiers". Standard attributes
provide a consistent standard for data collection and application.

> ![](media/image6.jpeg){width="3.1145833333333335in"
> height="2.90625in"}

The domain of CMECS Version III extends from land within the tidal
splash zone and continental waters where ocean derived salts measure
more than 0.5 PSU (Practical Salinity Units), seaward to the deep ocean.
It encompasses estuaries, tidal wetlands, euhaline and oligohaline
rivers, anchialine lakes, shorelines, islands, the intertidal zone, the
benthic zone and the entire water column from the coast to the deep
ocean.

## Guiding Principles

*Meet National, Regional and Local Needs*

Most existing classification systems have been developed for regional or
local applications. The operative scales of these classifications, from
tens of meters to thousands of meters, reflect the scale at which many
state agencies monitor and manage resources. These local and regional
classifications do not readily support the comparison of results across
different systems, habitats and classifications nationally. A national
classification standard incorporates the knowledge provided by local
classifications and allows aggregation and assessment across diverse
systems.

CMECS was designed to operate at different spatial scales that may
address different objectives. For example, a federal management agency
seeking to identify and catalog the benthic habitats of the large
estuaries in North America can restrict its analysis to the upper four
levels of the benthic classification hierarchy. A local agency
classifying habitats within a single estuary may want to use the bottom
two or three levels of the benthic classification hierarchy. Using CMECS
as a common standard, both agencies will be able to organize and compare
results using a unified vocabulary within a common and interoperable
data framework. The framework provides the end-user with the tools to
build the bottom levels of habitat and biology into the larger
conceptual framework and into a database catalog of types.

*Build on Existing Work*

A goal of CMECS is to integrate both existing data and ongoing data
collection efforts to ensure that existing data and knowledge are
reflected in the standard. Few continental-scale classifications
currently exist. Examples include the EUNIS system in Europe (EEA 1999,
Connor 1997), the Integrated Marine and Coastal Regionalization for
Australia (IMCRA 1998), the *Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater
Habitats of the U.S.* (Cowardin et al. 1979) and the NOAA classification
draft (Allee et al. 2000). CMECS incorporates portions of and
articulates with these existing coastal and marine classifications where
appropriate. Concepts, units and definitions from these and other
classification frameworks such as the classification of potential marine
benthic habitats by Greene et al. 2007, and the NOAA Coral
Classification (U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
2001) provide input to this classification. CMECS also draws on the
concepts identified in other state-level classifications such as the
SCHEME system in Florida (Madley et al. 2002) and that of Dethier (1990)
for the state of Washington.

*Create an Ecological Classification*

CMECS was developed to provide a comprehensive approach to classify
repeating, ecologically meaningful habitats -- similar to the Linnaean
goal of classifying and describing all species on earth. CMECS units
(especially lower level units on the scale of a few meters) are not
solely defined based on whether they can be identified from remote
imagery or other currently available sensing technology. However, the
mapping of CMECS units will be one of the primary applications of the
system, and each classification unit represents a measurable space and
can be ascribed to a specific place in the marine realm with defined
geographic boundaries. The "mappability" of each classification unit has
been considered during the process of defining the unit, and ease of
mapping application was accommodated wherever possible. Because current
mapping technology is limited in the details that can be interpreted,
*in situ* data collection may be required for identifying and mapping
the lower level types.

*Allow for a Dynamic Content Standard*

CMECS Version III will provide a catalogue of accepted standard types.
The classification structure, content, and definitions will grow and
evolve with use of the classification and associated development of new
information. Following the model of the FGDC vegetation standard, CMECS
will be a dynamic content standard (FGDC 2007). The overall structure
and format will remain relatively stable, but a formal peer review
process will be established for submitting new types for acceptance into
the standard.

*Provide Modifiers to Meet Individual Needs*

CMECS was developed for application at both national and local scales.
Local users may be interested in tracking a finer level of detail on a
particular unit than is provided in the standard catalogue of types. To
meet this need, CMECS provides a standard list of modifiers that allows
users to further parse standard types at any level of the hierarchy
based on such qualities as substrate, energy, salinity, turbidity or
characteristic structural components. This will provide flexibility to
local users while allowing them to report on the standard types to meet
national-level reporting needs.

*Document Terminology*

A glossary of terms representing the official classification
nomenclature is an integral part of the classification standard.
Universally recognizable and accepted terms for classification
descriptors are used, and they replace or translate local vernacular or
popular usages.

# [The Benthic Cover Component]{.underline}

The benthic component of CMECS is a classification of the geologic and
biotic cover of the substrate at different spatial scales and places the
associated biology in the context of the physical habitat. The benthic
component is organized into a branched hierarchy of seven nested levels
(Figure 1). The levels correspond to both functional ecological
relationships and progressively smaller map scales from the order of
1:1,000,000 (System) to the order of 1:1 (Group/Biotope). The
classification branches into five Systems at the highest level based on
salinity, depth and enclosure. Subsystems are defined by tidal regime
(*i.e.*, intertidal or subtidal). Each Subsystem further divides into
Classes and then Subclasses, largely adopting the values in the FGDC
wetland classification standard (Cowardin et al. 1979) (although some
definitions have been modified to accommodate uniquely marine
characteristics -- see Appendix A). The Groups include factors or groups
of factors within subclasses that collectively reflect the ecological
function and biotic composition of the Biotopes. Biotopes represent
broad associations identified by dominant or diagnostic species that are
fixed to the substrate.

See Appendix A for a table of the BCC and Appendix D for a table of
Standard Attributes.

![](media/image7.wmf){width="4.989583333333333in"
height="3.751388888888889in"}

*Figure 1. The CMECS Benthic Cover Component Hierarchy, an overview. The
left side depicts the levels of the hierarchy. The right column
highlights an example classification.*

## System 

Systems are differentiated from one another by a combination of
salinity, geomorphology and depth. Salinity is first used to separate
the truly marine systems from those influenced by freshwater. Three
systems, Nearshore, Neritic and Oceanic, are truly marine \-- all having
salinities greater than 30 PSU throughout the year (Figure 2). They are
distinguished from each other by depth and relative distance from the
continental shelf. Two Systems, Estuarine, and Freshwater Influenced,
are at least occasionally diluted (\<30PSU) by significant freshwater
input during the year. The Estuarine and Freshwater Influenced Systems
are distinguished from each other by the degree of enclosure by land.

### Nearshore 

Nearshore Systems are truly marine in character (\> 30 PSU throughout
the year). The Nearshore System extends from the land margin to the 30 m
depth contour. The proximity of land and nearshore processes strongly
influences waters and benthos of these systems although the biota and
physics are marine. In these systems, water column and benthic processes
are strongly coupled to each other. The vertical circulation of the
water column generally distributes bottom nutrients and sediments
throughout the water column and the photic zone generally extends
through a significant portion of the entire water column. This supports
the growth of vegetation on the bottom, and so seagrass and macroalgal
beds are often found in these systems.

### Neritic 

The Neritic System is also truly marine (\> 30 PSU throughout the year)
and extends from the 30 m depth contour to the continental shelf break,
which occurs at approximately at 200 m (150 m -- 300 m) water depth. The
seaward boundary is at the shelf break, regardless of depth. Neritic
waters and benthos are less coupled to terrigenous processes and more
strictly marine in character. Depending on shelf morphology, waters at
the 30 m isobath can be quite distant from the continent or they may lie
relatively close to land. For example in waters offshore of South
Carolina and Georgia, the 30 m isobath can be more than 30 mi offshore
in some places while the Neritic System along the south Florida coast
occurs within five miles of shore. These systems are strongly influenced
by deep ocean biogeochemistry and physical processes and their water
columns and benthos are less physically coupled, often reflected in
distinct surface and bottom water layers. Because these waters are less
influenced by coastal inputs, they are generally clearer than in
Nearshore systems and light penetration in Neritic systems can reach
significant depths and often the ocean bottom.

![](media/image8.png){width="6.25in" height="4.6875in"}

*Figure 2. Relationship between Water Column Depth Zones and Benthic
Environment. Modified from McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.*

### 

### Oceanic

The Oceanic System has true marine salinity levels (\> 30 PSU- although
oceanic salinity is typically 35 PSU) and represents the marine realm
beyond the continental shelf break, which generally occurs at 150m-300m
depth. Water depth in these systems can range to several thousand
meters. The boundary created by the depth discontinuity at the shelf
break establishes strong and identifiable constraints on the processes
in the system and represents a logical breakpoint in the classification
for the division of major marine Systems. The marine waters of the
Oceanic System are sufficiently distant from land that they receive
little or no influence of fresh water, nutrient and sediment inputs,
except around islands. With great depth, the sea bottom diminishes in
importance in influencing pelagic processes and there is little or no
interaction of ocean bottom with the vast majority of the overlying
water column. Light is greatly attenuated within the water column and
does not reach the bottom. Surface waters do not mix to the bottom and
an upper mixed layer is separated from bottom waters by a density
gradient or pycnocline generated by a strong temperature or salinity
differential. In the case of oceanic islands where a continental shelf
is absent, the island itself possesses a Nearshore System to a depth of
30 m and a Neritic System to a depth of 200 m. The Oceanic System is
defined in the case of steep-sided islands to begin beyond the shelf
break if applicable or where water depth exceeds the 200 m depth
contour.

### Estuarine 

The Estuarine System consists of tidal habitats and adjacent tidal
wetlands with water that is at least occasionally diluted by freshwater
runoff from the land (\<30PSU) and is at least partially enclosed by
land but has open, party obstructed, or sporadic access to the open
ocean. The salinity may be periodically increased above that of the open
ocean by evaporation. The Estuarine System extends upstream and landward
to where ocean derived salts measure less than 0.5%◦ during the period
of average annual low flow and seaward to an imaginary line closing the
mouth of a river, lagoon, fjord or embayment.

The geomorphology and hydrology determine the degree of the physical
enclosure, which in turn impacts the residence time for water within an
estuary and the steepness of biological, physical and chemical gradients
between terrestrial and marine end members. The degree of enclosure
defines Estuarine Systems, and establishes a degree of temporal,
chemical, biological and ecological distinctiveness from marine waters
and biogeochemistry. A river flowing directly into the ocean is very
different than a coastal Estuarine System that slowly discharges into
the ocean.

Estuarine Systems can occur on the continental land mass or on islands
in waters of any depth, provided they have sufficient enclosure and
significant freshwater flow. Although they are coastal features by
definition, many Estuarine Systems have water depths much greater than
30 m. In parts of the Puget Sound, Chesapeake Bay, and San Francisco
Bay, the 30 m isobath is contained within the enclosed area of the
estuary, and central channels can be much deeper than 30 m. All areas
within the enclosed morphology that generally defines the estuary are
classified as Estuarine, regardless of depth. The depth of an estuarine
water column can be significantly greater than 30 m and retain the
characteristics of an estuary.

### Freshwater Influenced 

Freshwater Influenced Systems are systems that have no distinct
enclosing morphology, yet receive a significant amount of fresh water
input from land during at least part of the year (\<30 PSU). In such
cases, an unenclosed marine water column may be influenced by fresh
water in the form of an active river plume, direct freshwater runoff,
diffuse non-point runoff, an advected fresh water lens, mesohaline
coastal water mass or a ground water seep discharge. The Freshwater
Influenced Systems can occur in waters of Nearshore or Neritic depths,
provided the region is influenced by fresh water that reduces salinity
to below 30 PSU. These systems are more spatially and temporally
variable than others, strongly influenced by seasonal outflow from
rivers, true estuaries or land and ocean currents (Figures 3 and 4).
Because of the frequently stratified nature of waters in this class,
Freshwater Influenced Systems may spatially overlay water of true marine
salinities (Nearshore).

![](media/image9.png){width="3.6951388888888888in"
height="3.9277777777777776in"}
![](media/image10.png){width="1.9493055555555556in"
height="2.597916666666667in"}

*Figures 3 and 4. Mississippi River plume in the Gulf of Mexico.
Freshwater plume edge.*

## Subsystem 

The Subsystems are defined by their tidal regime.

**Subtidal** -- The substrate is continuously submerged relative to the
extreme low tide line.

**Intertidal** -- The substrate is regularly and periodically exposed
and flooded by tides. This zone includes the supratidal zone \-- the
area above the high tide line in the splash zone that is affected by
spray, splash, aerosols and overwash. This interface is regularly
exposed to the air by tidal movement. Aquatic organisms inhabiting these
physically energetic habitats are adapted to periods of exposure to the
air and to wave action. Included in these subsystems is the region of
non-tidal wetlands and uplands that are periodically saturated by saline
waters at or above the soil surface.

## Cover Type

Cover is determined by the percent cover of biota.

**Biotic Cover** - A substrate characterized by a growth, colonization,
or encrustation of vegetation or epifauna with greater than 10 % cover.

**Abiotic Cover -** Abiotic substrate features are dominant. Less than
10% of the substrate is covered with either vegetation or epifauna
(infauna may be present at any density).

## **Class and Subclass** 

Classes and Subclasses are determined by the dominant (in terms of
percent cover) geologic or biotic cover of the substrate. For Classes
defined by biota, Subclasses are defined by either structure (for coral
reefs) or dominant lifeforms or taxa (for all other classes). For all
Classes defined by geologic substrate, the Subclasses are defined by the
composition and particle size of the substrate. Class and Subclass
definitions largely follow that of the FGDC Wetland Standard (Cowardin
et al. 1979). See Appendix F for a discussion of departures from the
wetland standard. Reef Subclasses are largely based on the NOAA Coral
Classification (U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
2001).

**Mollusc Communities** - Ridge-like or mound-like structures or beds
formed by the colonization and growth of mollusks. These classes occur
in both the intertidal and subtidal subsystems.

> *Bivalve Bed/Reef* - Ridge-like or mound-like structures formed by the
> colonization and growth of bivalve mollusks.
>
> *Gastropod Bed/Reef* - Gastropod reefs or beds consist of consolidated
> aggregations of living or dead gastropod mollusks, usually those of
> the vermetidae and turritellidae families.

**Worm Reefs and other Worm Communities -** Areas dominated by worm
species including structures formed by the colonization and growth of
Sabellariid worm species, tube worms as well as burrowing worms that
form above ground structures. These classes occur in both the intertidal
and subtidal subsystems.

*Worm Reefs* **-** Ridge-like or mound-like structures formed by the
colonization and growth of Sabellariid worm species.

*Tube Worms* **--**Areas dominated by tube forming worms.

**Coral Reefs and other Coral Communities --** Includes ridge-like or
mound-like structures formed by the colonization and growth of hard
coral species as well as assemblages of non reef-forming hard corals,
soft corals and associates such as sponges and hydroids. These
environments occur in both the intertidal and subtidal subsystems.

> *Spur and Groove Reef* - A system of shallow ridges (spurs) separated
> by deep channels (grooves) oriented perpendicular to the reef crest
> and extending down the upper seaward slope.
>
> *Patch Reef(s)* **-** Coral formations that have no organized
> structural axis relative to the contours of the shore or shelf. A
> surrounding halo of sand is often a distinguishing feature of this
> habitat type when it occurs adjacent to submerged vegetation.
>
> *Linear Reef* - A linear coral formation that is oriented parallel to
> the shore or the shelf edge.
>
> *Aggregate Reef* **--** Reef with high relief, lacking the sand
> channels of the spur and groove reef.
>
> *Reef Rubble*** -** Dead, unstable coral pieces. This habitat often
> occurs landward of well-developed reef formations in the reef crest or
> back reef zone
>
> *Deep Coral Reef* **-** Non-photosynthetic coral formed in deep waters
> averaging 70-1000 m. Deep-water coral reefs typically consist of
> thickets of live coral atop unconsolidated sediment and coral rubble,
> usually on an underlying rock base structure. Deep reefs are found in
> strong currents or upwelling zones.
>
> []{.mark}
>
> *Scattered Coral/Rock* - Scattered rocks or small, isolated coral
> heads that are too small to be delineated individually (*i.e.*,
> smaller than individual patch reef).
>
> *Coral Garden* **-** Aquatic beds dominated by non-reef forming soft
> corals, sponges or other sedentary or attached macro-invertebrates.
> Scattered hard corals may be present, but not dominant. Seagrass cover
> less than 10%.

**Aquatic Bed** (= Submerged Aquatic Vegetation) -- Subtidal or
intertidal bottoms vegetated by communities of a dominant type of
greater than 10% vascular plant, macroalgae, or microorganism and its
associated biota. Bed organisms are obligately hydrophytic but can
withstand periods of exposure to air.

> *Macroalgae* **--** Aquatic beds dominated by macroalgae such as kelp,
> fucoids and other seaweeds.
>
> *Rooted Vascular* (=seagrass bed) -- Aquatic beds dominated by
> submerged rooted vascular species such as seagrasses (Figure 5).
>
> ![](media/image2.png){width="3.9930555555555554in"
> height="2.6958333333333333in"}

*Figure 5. Tropical rooted vascular seagrass bed. Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary.*

> *Microbial Mat* **-** Microbial mats are colonies of microscopic
> organisms including benthic microalgae such as diatoms, as well as
> photosynthetic and chemoautotrophic bacteria that form a film on the
> surface of the sediment either subtidally or subaereally (Figure 6).
> There may be high levels of biotic diversity within microbial mats.
> Microbial mats are often encountered in extreme environments where
> grazing pressure is reduced. They can be observed from the high
> intertidal zone to deep sea areas around thermal vents.
>
> ![](media/image11.wmf){width="3.4972222222222222in"
> height="2.4791666666666665in"}

*Figure 6. Microbial Mat. Tidal flat Humboldt Bay, California.*

**Emergent/Low Shrub Wetland --** The emergent/low shrub wetland class
is characterized by erect, rooted, herbaceous hydrophytes and low
shrubs. These wetlands are usually dominated by perennial plants and the
emergent vegetation is present for most of the growing season in most
years. Though the FGDC wetland standard identifies many types of
emergent wetland types, only the coastal marshes and shrublands are
saltwater influenced and therefore the only emergent wetlands included
in this classification. These environments occur only within the
intertidal subsystem.

> *Coastal Marsh* (=salt marsh) - Communities dominated by emergent
> herbaceous halophytic vegetation along low-wave energy intertidal
> areas and river mouths. Low shrubs may be present.
>
> *Tidal Shrubland* **--** Communities dominated by low shrub halophytic
> vegetation along low-wave energy intertidal areas and river mouths.

**Forested Wetland --** The forested wetland class is characterized by
areas dominated by tree species (*i.e.*, single stemmed woody plants).
Areas dominated by tree seedlings, saplings and dwarf trees are placed
in this Class. Though the FGDC wetland standard identifies many types of
forested wetlands, only the mangroves are saltwater influenced and are
therefore the only forested wetlands included in this classification.
These environments occur only within the intertidal subsystem.

> *Mangrove* **-** Tidally influenced, dense, low forests dominated by
> true mangroves and associates (Figure 7). Non-tidal basin wetlands are
> out of the scope of this classification. See the USNVC for
> classification of these communities.
>
> ![](media/image12.png){width="3.207638888888889in"
> height="2.1131944444444444in"}

*Figure 7. Red mangrove forest*

**Rock Bottom --** Subtidal benthic substrates having a cover of large
rocks, boulders, pavement or bedrock 75% or greater and vegetative cover
of less than 10%.

> *Bedrock* -- Substrate with bedrock covering 75% or more of the
> surface and less than 10% aerial coverage of macrophytes.
>
> *Pavement* **-** Substrate has less than 75% aerial cover of bedrock,
> but pavement \-- flat, generally unbroken hard bottom substrate formed
> by deposition and consolidation of soft material and overlying a
> deeper bedrock substrate \-- alone or in combination with bedrock
> cover 75% or more of the area.
>
> *Boulder/Rubble* -- Substrate has less than 75% aerial cover of
> bedrock, but stones and boulders (\>257 mm) alone or in combination
> with bedrock cover 75% or more of the area. Coverage of macrophytes is
> less than 10%.

**Unconsolidated Bottom --** Subtidal benthic substrates having at least
25% cover of particles smaller than stones, and a vegetative cover less
than 10%.

> *Cobble/gravel* - Greater than 50% of the unconsolidated particles
> smaller than stones are cobble/gravel (grain size 2-257 mm).  Shell
> fragments, sand and silt often fill the spaces between the larger
> particles.  Stones and boulders may be found scattered on some
> cobble-gravel shores or benthos. 
>
> *Sand* -- Greater than 50% of the unconsolidated particles smaller
> than stones are sand (particles 0.07-2mm) which may be either
> calcareous or terrigenous in origin.
>
> *Mud* **--** Greater than 50% of the unconsolidated particles smaller
> than stones are silt and clay or carbonate mud (grain size \<0.07
> mm).  Anaerobic conditions often exist below the surfaces and often
> have a higher organic content than cobble-gravel or sand shores or
> benthos. Mud may include:
>
> ***Clay:*** fine mineral particulates of kaolin with high cohesiveness
>
> ***Silt:*** very fine mud particles laid down after water transport
> and deposition
>
> ***Carbonate muds:*** fine particulates of calcium carbonate with high
> cohesiveness
>
> *Organic* **-** Unconsolidated substrate largely comprised of
> decomposing particles of dead plant and animal tissue.
>
> *Shell*  - Substrate that is dominated by and composed of small bits
> of broken shell remnants.
>
> *Mixed Sediments* -- No single unconsolidated substrate type
> represents more than 50% of the total composition.
>
>  

**Rocky Shore -** Exposed intertidal shoreline characterized by bedrock,
stones or boulders which singly or in combination have an aerial cover
of 75% or more and an aerial coverage by vegetation of less than 10%.

> *Bedrock* -- Substrate with bedrock covering 75% or more of the
> surface and less than 10% aerial coverage of macrophytes.
>
> *Pavement* **-** Substrate has less than 75% aerial cover of bedrock,
> but pavement \-- flat, generally unbroken hard bottom substrate formed
> by deposition and consolidation of soft material and overlying a
> deeper bedrock substrate \-- alone or in combination with bedrock
> cover 75% or more of the area.
>
> *Boulder/Rubble* -- Substrate has less than 75% aerial cover of
> bedrock, but stones and boulders (\>257 mm) alone or in combination
> with bedrock cover 75% or more of the area. Coverage of macrophytes is
> less than 10%.

**Unconsolidated Shore --** Exposed intertidal unconsolidated shoreline
having at least 25% cover of particles smaller than stones, and a
vegetative cover less than 10%.

> *Cobble/gravel* - Greater than 50% of the unconsolidated particles
> smaller than stones are cobble/gravel (grain size 2-257 mm).  Shell
> fragments, sand and silt often fill the spaces between the larger
> particles.  Stones and boulders may be found scattered on some
> cobble-gravel shores or benthos. 
>
> *Sand* -- Greater than 50% of the unconsolidated particles smaller
> than stones are sand (particles 0.07-2mm) which may be either
> calcareous or terrigenous in origin.
>
> *Mud* **--** Greater than 50% of the unconsolidated particles smaller
> than stones are silt and clay or carbonate mud (grain size \<0.07
> mm).  Anaerobic conditions often exist below the surfaces and often
> have a higher organic content than cobble-gravel or sand shores or
> benthos. Mud may include:
>
> ***Clay*:** fine mineral particulates of kaolin with high cohesiveness
>
> ***Silt*:** very fine mud particles laid down after water transport
> and deposition
>
> ***Carbonate muds*:** fine particulates of calcium carbonate with high
> cohesiveness
>
> *Organic* **-** Unconsolidated substrate largely comprised of
> decomposing particles of dead plant and animal tissue.
>
> *Shell* - Substrate that is dominated by and composed of small bits of
> broken shell remnants.
>
> *Mixed Sediments* -- No single unconsolidated substrate type
> represents more than 50% of the total composition.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc197144114 .anchor}***Group***

The Group level is defined by factors or groups of factors within
subclasses that collectively reflect the ecological function and biotic
composition of the biotope. These factors may be structural, positional,
taxonomic, ecological or environmental and vary by Subclass. Some units
within the Group level have been developed, additional work will be
needed to identify and describe additional units within these levels.
Some group types listed in this document are considered "draft" and are
subject to modification as the standard is applied at local levels.

**Scattered Hard Coral/Rock Subclass Groups**

[]{.mark}

> *Scattered Hard Coral/Rock in Unconsolidated Sediment* - Scattered
> rocks or small, isolated coral heads that are too small to be
> delineated individually (*i.e.*, smaller than individual patch reef)
> occurring on cobble/gravel, sand, mud or mixed unconsolidated
> sediments.
>
> []{.mark}
>
> *Scattered Hard Coral/Rock in Hard Sediment* - Scattered rocks or
> small, isolated coral heads that are too small to be delineated
> individually (*i.e.*, smaller than individual patch reef) occurring on
> bedrock, pavement, boulders or other hard sediment.

### Macroalgae Subclass Groups

> *Attached or Encrusting Algae -* submersed non-vascular macrophyte
> vegetation attached to a hard substrate by a holdfast or root, *e.g.*
> Kelp (*Fucus* sp.) (Figure 8).

![](media/image13.jpeg){width="4.120833333333334in"
height="2.786111111111111in"}

*Figure 8. Attached Macroalgae; Giant kelp forest, coastal California.*

> *Floating Algae*- See water column component.
>
> *Drift Algae***-** Habitat with 10% or more cover of mixed or
> monospecific macroalgae that is not attached to the substrate (Figure
> 9).
>
> ![](media/image14.jpeg){width="3.2493055555555554in"
> height="2.9791666666666665in"}

*Figure 9. Drift macroalgae accumulated on top of seagrass meadow;
Indian River Lagoon, Florida (Courtesy of St. John's River Water
Management District).*

### Organic Subclass Groups

> *Woody Debris -* Softbottom or unconsolidated sediment characterized
> by the presence of coarse partially decomposed recalcitrant woody
> plant material from trees and shrubs.
>
> *Detritus -* Fragments of dead organic, primarily soft plant material.
>
> *Ooze* - Soft unconsolidated bottom material in the deep sea formed
> from the tests of deposited and partially decomposed phytoplankton.
> Types of oozes include globagarina, diatomaceous and siliceous.
>
> *Peat -* Highly organic semi-consolidated substrate characterized by
> soft, compressible remnants of partially decomposed plant material
> with high humic content. The original plant material is generally dead
> emergent vegetation in a wetland environment that is prevented from
> fully decomposing by acidic and anaerobic conditions.

### Shell Subclass Groups

> *Hash* **-** Subtidal bottom sediments principally comprised of
> mollusc or bivalve shell fragments mixed with sand or mud.
>
> *Coquina Sediment* **-** Unconsolidated intertidal/supratidal
> sediments consisting almost exclusively of broken shell fragments.

### Rocky Shore Class/Boulder Subclass Groups

Potential Classes

> *No energy* - No detectable waves or current motion
>
> *Low energy* - Very weak currents (0-2 kn) or wave action (gentle
> swell)
>
> *Moderate energy* - Wind waves or moderate tidal currents (2-4 kn)
>
> *High energy* - Strong currents (\>4 kn), oceanic swell, breaking
> waves

## Biotope

A Biotope is a repeatable physical habitat and its biological
associations. A Biotope is uniform in structure and environment, and is
defined by conspicuous diagnostic species \[*i.e.* those species whose
relative abundance or constancy distinguish one association from another
(FGDC 2007)\]. The diagnostic species can include plants, attached
sessile fauna and unattached but relatively non-motile fauna and
bacterial colonies.

The biotope concept has been employed for several years in Europe and
has been defined as the "physical habitat... and its community of
animals and plants (Costello 2003)." The primary characteristic of the
Biotope is the "high fidelity" relationship between the physical habitat
and strongly associated diagnostic plant and animal species. Biotope
occurrences have similar biotic composition and structure and must have
diagnostic features that enable their recognition repeatably. A species
is used to define and name a Biotope if it is conspicuous, dominant, or
has a high constancy and is physically linked to the habitat.
"Non-motile" is defined as an individual organism that cannot move
beyond the frame of reference of the habitat unit boundary within one
day. Epibenthic organisms like corals anemones, sponges, hydroids, and
benthic infauna such as polychaetes can define a Biotope.

For habitats dominated by vegetation such as mangroves, coastal marshes
and seagrass beds, the biotope is equivalent to the "Alliance" level of
the National Vegetation Classification -- "a vegetation classification
unit defined on the basis of a characteristic range of species
composition, diagnostic species occurrence, habitat conditions and
physiognomy" (FGDC 2007).

The concepts of the Biotope level have been developed, but additional
work is needed to identify and describe the types within these levels.
Biotope types listed in this document are considered "draft" and are
subject to modification as the standard is applied at local levels.

# [The Water Column Component]{.underline}

The Water Column Component (WCC) describes the structure, pattern and
processes of the subtidal water column. While highly variable spatially
and temporally, conceptually, the water column is composed of repeating
structures and processes that strongly influence the distribution and
condition of the biota. Because of its dynamic and vertical nature, the
water column can be a challenge to map. For this reason, CMECS
identifies the water column as a separate component of the standard that
can be mapped independently from the BCC. In fact in many cases it will
be preferable to map individual zones of the WCC as separate layers.

The WCC framework classifiers can be used alone or in combination to
describe the structure and composition of the water column -- the
framework of the water column is not strictly hierarchical. The System
is the same as that of the BCC and should always be used to put the
water column types into the same context as the BCC. Water Column Depth
provides a standard list of vertical depth zones of the water column.
Water Column Structure provides an ecological zonation of the water
column determined by water density differences caused by clines in
temperature or salinity. Macrohydroform and Mesohydroform describe major
hydrographic features at different scales. Generally, Macrohydroforms
are large scale features associated with Neritic and Oceanic Systems and
Mesohydroforms are smaller hydrographic features associated with
Estuarine and Nearshore Systems. Lifeforms are groups of Biotopes
defined by dominant lifeform such as phytoplankton, zooplankton,
vegetation mats etc. Biotopes of the water column are repeating dominant
floating or suspended taxa (usually genera or species). The framework of
the WCC is in the process of being reviewed and refined and additional
work needs to be completed to develop the rules for combining the
classifiers to identify and describe the water column units.

See Appendix B for a table of the WCC and Appendix D for a table of the
Standard Attributes.

[]{.mark}

## System

System is also used as a primary attribute of the WCC. The definitions
and values are the same as for the BCC. See System definitions above.

## Water Column Depth Zones

The water column is divided into several vertical zones based on water
depth.

  ------------------------------------------- ---------------------------
  **Zone**                                    **Depth (m)**

  Sea Surface                                 0

  Epipelagic                                  \> 0-200

  Mesopelagic                                 200-1000

  Bathylpelagic                               1000-4000

  Abyssalpelagic                              4000-7000

  Hadalpelagic                                \>7000
  ------------------------------------------- ---------------------------

## Water Column Structure

The water column can be subdivided into an upper mixed layer and a
bottom layer, separated by a pycnocline. This is often ecologically
relevant in terms of habitat, although two layers are not always
present. An important functional distinction is created by temperature
or salinity differences in the upper and bottom layers of the water
column. When present, the upper layer is separated from the lower layer
by a difference in density, which results in a barrier to mixing between
the layers. The two water layers define separate mixing zones and energy
regimes, create barriers to movement of materials and fauna and create
an interface where intense biological processes may occur. Stratified
water masses are highly stable, and waters may maintain stratification
for many months. Stratification is broken down usually on a seasonal or
annual basis by wind or current energy input. In the case of thermally
stratified water columns, breakdown is usually initiated by homogenation
of the densities of the two vertically separated water masses by a
convergence in their temperatures.

**Upper water column layer** - in a two-layer water column, the area
above the sharp density gradient (pycnocline) which includes the
air-water interface. Pycnoclines are generally formed by salinity or
temperature differences between the upper and lower water layers and
create effective barriers to transport across layers. The water layers
remain largely distinct even having current regimes that flow in
opposite directions in certain estuaries.

**Pycnocline** - The layer of rapid density transition between the upper
and bottom layers.

**Bottom water column layer**- In a two-layer water column, the waters
below the pycnocline or mixed layer compose the bottom water column
layer.

**Benthic boundary layer** - A thin water layer just above the bottom
that is strongly influenced by the benthos and distinct from the
overlying waters. It is often characterized by sharp reduction in
current speeds, a nephelitic turbidity layer and high rates of diffusive
interaction with biogeochemical components in the sediments. This layer
is often strongly associated with small benthic or demersal organisms.

## Macrohydroform

Major hydrographic features of marine systems are called
Macrohydroforms. Macrohydroforms are large physical features or
boundaries created by water masses of 10,000 m^2^ or larger in area.
These are generally (but not exclusively) associated with the deeper
waters of the Neritic and Oceanic Systems. Examples include major ocean
currents (such as the Gulf Stream), large coastal fronts, the great
ocean gyres and upwellings. Macrohydroforms represent hydrological
environments that define large scale patterns in the composition and
dynamics of both the smaller scale physical worlds contained within them
and the biota associated with its divisions. While dynamic in nature,
Macrohydroforms shape the large scale seascape in repeatable and
predictable ways by providing structure, channeling energy flows,
regulating bioenergetics, and controlling transfer rates of energy,
material and organisms. See Appendix B for specific macrohydroforms.

## Mesohydroform

Mesohydroforms are mid- to small scale hydrographic features generally
associated with Estuarine and Nearshore Systems. See Appendix B for
specific mesohydroforms.

## Lifeform

Groups of Biotopes identified by dominant lifeforms or taxa.

[]{.mark}

**Phytoplankton bloom** -- A high concentration of phytoplankton in an
area, caused by increased reproduction (Garrison, 2005).   Blooms
reflect populations above the normal level for an area.

**Floating microbial mat** - Microbial accumulations that occasionally
form on the water surface as a film or scum.

**Floating vegetation mat** - Accumulations of floating vascular
plants.  In the marine environment these can often consist of rafts of
detached leaves and stems from either terrestrial or aquatic
vegetation.   As these rafts either sink or wash up on shore they become
either detritus or wrack respectively.

**Floating Vascular** -- Aquatic beds dominated by floating vascular
species such as pondweeds (mostly occurring in the oligohaline areas of
estuaries). May include rooted species that float on the surface (such
as *Lirio acuatica*)

**Phytoplankton maximum layer** - A layer of the water column where
phytoplankton have accumulated.  These can be associated with
thermoclines or other strata in the water column. 

**Drift macroalgae** - Macroalgal accumulations suspended in the water
column.

**Floating macroalgae** - Macroalgal accumulations at the surface. 
Often these are formed of algae specifically adapted for this
environment such as *Sargassum*.

**Zooplankton swarms** - Large concentrations of zooplankton such as
crustaceans and copepods that form in response to specific light,
current, turbulence, and abundance conditions.

**Zooplankton patches** - Smaller accumulations of planktonic
crustaceans, copepods, etc.

**Jelly fish aggregations** - Schools or large numbers of jellyfish
within the water column. 

## Biotope

Biotopes of the Water Column are floating or suspended aggregations of
biota and are defined by the dominant taxa (usually genera or species).
Biotope patterns and distributions are determined by and associated with
water column structure and dynamics. Motile, free-swimming or vagile
faunal species are not included in the biotope. Biotopes for the Water
Column Component will be determined as the standard continues in
development.

# [The Geoform Component]{.underline}

The Geoform Component (GFC) describes the structure of the coastline and
sea floor at multiple scales. A Geoform is equivalent in concept to a
terrestrial landform (*e.g.*, mountain, butte, moraine, etc.) and
likewise varies in scale from very large (*e.g.*, seamount, embayment)
to very small (*e.g.*, tidepool, ripple). Geoforms shape the large scale
seascape in repeatable and predictable ways by providing structure,
channeling energy flows, regulating bioenergetics, and controlling
transfer rates of energy, material and organisms. The morphology of
these features controls such processes as water exchange rates and water
turnover times, hydrologic and energy cycling, shelter and exposure to
energy inputs and migration and spawning patterns.

The framework for the GFC is based largely on the structure described by
Greene et al. (2007), but expands the options to include a larger number
of coastal and nearshore features. At the largest scale, Megageoforms
(equivalent to Greene's Megahabitat) are large structures that range
from kilometers to 10's of kilometers in size (e.g., Abyssal Plain,
Seamount). The Mesogeoform (equivalent to Greene's Mesohabitat) are
structures that are 10's of meters to kilometers in size (e.g., delta,
embayment, lagoon) (Figure 10). The Macrogeoform (equivalent to Greene's
Macrohabitat) range in size from 1 m to 10's of meters (e.g., coral
head, rock outcrop). The Microgeoform ranges in size from centimeters to
less than a meter (riffle, individual coral head). This level is
slightly different from Greene's Microhabitat in that it does not
include substrate particles such as sand, gravel, and cobble because
these attributes are included in the BCC of CMECS III. Because many of
these general Geoform types can occur at multiple spatial scales (e.g.,
an island can occur from continental scale to the scale of several
meters), the same Geoforms occur in more than one category. Where this
occurs, it is modified with an indication of the scale at which it
occurs (e.g. island (meso-scale). In addition to the natural geoforms
from Greene we also include artificial structures that can be applied at
any scale. The standard attribute categories are available to further
describe geoform features.

Additional work is needed to identify and describe the types at all
levels in the GFC. GFC types listed in this document are considered
"draft" and are subject to modification as the standard is applied at
local levels. See Appendix C for a table of the GFC and Appendix D for a
table of the Standard Attributes.

![](media/image15.jpeg){width="2.115972222222222in"
height="1.4986111111111111in"}![](media/image16.jpeg){width="2.002083333333333in"
height="1.4972222222222222in"}![](media/image17.jpeg){width="2.1194444444444445in"
height="1.5006944444444446in"}

*Figure 10. Examples of Meso, Macro, and Micro-scale Channel Geoforms.
Hamlin Sound, South Carolina.*

## Megageoform

*Definition taken directly from Greene et al. 2007 definition of
Megahabitat.*

Large feature that has dimensions ranging from kilometers to 10s of
kilometers, and larger. Megageoforms lie within major physiographic
provinces such as the continental shelf, continental slope, or abyssal
plain. These features can be defined with the use of small-scale
(1:1,000,000 or greater) bathymetric maps and satellite topographic
images.

## Mesogeoform 

*Definition taken directly from Greene et al. 2007 definition of
Mesohabitat.*

Mesogeoforms range in size from 10s of meters to kilometers and include
such features as small seamounts, canyons and extensive bedrock outcrops
(Figure 11). These morphological features can be defined using geologic
or geomorphic maps and bathymetric images of the seafloor at scales of
1:250,000 or less.

![](media/image18.jpeg){width="2.9381944444444446in"
height="3.229861111111111in"}

*Figure 11. Example of Meso-scale Geoform: Inlet. Fripp Inlet, South
Carolina.*

## Macrogeoform 

*Definition taken directly from Greene et al. 2007 definition of
Macrohabitat.*

A macrogeoform ranges in size from one to 10 meters and may consist of
features such as large boulders, reefs, bedrock outcrops and bedforms
(sediment waves) (Figure 12). These features can be defined using
sediment or geologic maps and bathymetric images of the seafloor at
scales of 1:50,000 and less. In addition, macrogeoforms can be defined
through in situ observational data such as video and photographs.

![](media/image19.jpeg){width="3.498611111111111in"
height="2.6243055555555554in"}

*Figure 12. Example of Macro-scale Geoform: Flat. Lower Laguna Madre,
Texas.*

## Microgeoform 

*Definition adapted from Greene et al., 2007 definition of
Microgeoform.*

A microgeoform ranges in size from centimeters to one meter and consists
of holes, interfaces and cracks and crevices in bedrock outcrops,
ripples (Figure 13). Individual biogenic structures such as redtree
corals (*Primnoa* spp.) and anemones (*e.g.*, *Metridium farcimen*) are
included.

![](media/image20.jpeg){width="3.0in" height="2.227777777777778in"}

*Figure 13. Pacific coast tide pool; a micro-scale Geoform. (Courtesy
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service).*

## Anthropogenic Geoforms

In many coastal regions artificial structures are a significant part of
the environment.  Features such as piers, breakwaters, bulkheads, and
berms provide attachment surfaces for plants and sessile animals.  They
can also provide shelter from predators and from prevailing current, and
can support small niche communities that increase overall biodiversity. 
However, these structures can also have negative effects such as
altering natural hydrodynamic patterns, interfering with animal
movement, and increasing contaminant loading into nearshore areas and
thus are often of interest to resource managers.  Appendix C lists some
of the more common anthropogenic geoforms.  Included in this list are
features that are the result of human activity such as scars and trawl
marks.  Since these features vary widely in size, the types in this
category can be applied at any scale (Figure 14).  

![](media/image21.jpeg){width="3.25625in" height="2.452777777777778in"}

*Figure 14. Example of an anthropogenic Geoform structure. Abandoned
rail trestle, Humboldt Bay, California.*

# 

# [Standard Attributes]{.underline}

Standard attributes are physico-chemical, physical, spatial,
geomorphologic, biological, anthropogenic, and biogeographic variables
with defined categorical values that are used to classify or further
describe CMECS types. Standard attributes fall into two general
categories, classifiers and modifiers.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc197144131 .anchor}***Classifiers***

Are standard attributes that are **necessary** to define a type and
distinguish one type in the classification from another. The thresholds
and ranges of these attributes determine the conceptual boundaries of
each type. For example, salinity is a classifier for the System level. A
salinity value of \>30 PSU separates the truly marine systems from the
Estuarine and Freshwater Influenced Systems. A user must have
information on the classifiers in order to fit a given type into the
classification.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc197144132 .anchor}***Modifiers***

Are standard attributes that can be applied when additional information
is needed to further characterize the type for individual applications.
Modifiers provide additional environmental, structural, or biotic
information about the type that is useful for description and
application, but are not required to classify it.

Some standard attributes may be used as classifiers in one component of
the classification but can also be used as modifiers in another
component of the classification. Standard attributes that are used as
classifiers are noted in italics below.

### Salinity 

*Classifier for System*

Salinity is grouped into categories in units of PSU (practical salinity
units, nearly equivalent to PPT, parts per thousand) following Cowardin
et al. (1979), Dethier (1990) and with ranges slightly modified from
Howes (1994, 2002):

  ------------------------------ ----------------------------------------
  **Salinity Category**          **Salinity Level**

  Fresh                          0 PSU

  Oligohaline                    \>0-5 PSU

  Mesohaline                     5-18 PSU

  Polyhaline                     18-30 PSU

  Euhaline                       30-40 PSU

  Hyperhaline                    \>40 PSU
  ------------------------------ ----------------------------------------

An underlying benthic area subjected to overlying waters of a particular
salinity regime will be designated according to the category of the
overlying water. Thus characterizing the benthos will require
measurement of overlying water characteristics. This is particularly
important close to shore or in estuaries as the tendency of the coastal
water column to stratify will often result in water mass characteristics
at the surface that are not the same as the bottom water layer that
influences the benthos.

### Enclosure

*Classifier for System*

Enclosure represents the degree of isolation of a water body from other
waters due to enclosure by a land mass. In estuaries, enclosure
determines the degree of exchange of water, materials, energy and biota
between the estuary and the sea. More enclosed waterbodies have longer
water residence times, can tend to be more evaporative and hypersaline,
and can more readily trap and retain materials within them.

  -------------------- --------------------------------------------------
  **Closure**          **Angular Gap (Degree)**

  Unenclosed           150^^ - \>180^^ angular gap from estuary head to
                       estuary mouth. No confining land masses seaward of
                       estuary headwaters.

  Partially enclosed   90^^ - 150^^ angular gap from estuary head to
                       estuary mouth.

  Significantly        45^^ - 90^^ angular gap from estuary head to
  enclosed             estuary mouth.

  Very enclosed        10^^ - 45^^ angular gap from estuary head to
                       estuary mouth.

  Enclosed             Essentially separated from the ocean. Waters that
                       are completely surrounded by land or with a narrow
                       channel connection to the sea. Includes perched
                       estuaries and lagoonal estuaries.

  Intermittent         Class of estuaries that regularly close due to low
                       flow, opening seasonally during high flow. Also
                       called ICOLL (Intermittently Closed and Open Lake
                       or Lagoon)
  -------------------- --------------------------------------------------

#### 

### 

### Position Relative to Shelf Break

*Classifier for System*

This classifier indicates the position of an area of the ocean relative
to the edge of the Continental Shelf. There are two positions considered
here:

> **Seaward of the shelf break** - Where the continental platform begins
> to steepen toward the continental slope, defines the Oceanic System;
> and
>
> **Landward of the shelf break -** Defines the outer limit Neritic
> System.

The depth at which the Shelf Break occurs ranges from 150 to 300 m and
generally averages approximately 200 m.

### Benthic Depth Zones 

The depths of these zones vary depending on regional geology. It is
often useful to describe a specific depth or range of depths for the
bottom.  The CMECS depth zones represent the major divisions in a
gradient from land to the deep ocean bottom.  They are generally based
on the zones in which surf or ocean swell influences bottom communities,
the lower limits of vegetation such as kelp, overall photic availability
and temperature.   The types within this category are drawn or adapted
from Greene *et al*, and Connor.  This category is intended for use with
the Benthic Cover and GeoForm components as Water Column Depth Zone is
part of the Water Column framework. 

  --------------------------------------------- -------------------------
  **Zone**                                      **Depth (m)**

  Shallow Infralittoral                         0 - 5

  Deep Infralittoral                            5 - 30

  Circalittoral                                 30 - 80

  Circalittoral (offshore)                      80 - 200

  Mesobenthic                                   200-1000

  Bathybenthic                                  1000-4000

  Abyssalbenthic                                4000-7000

  Hadalbenthic                                  \>7000
  --------------------------------------------- -------------------------

#### 

### Substrate Composition 

*Classifier for Class and Subclass (with Percent Cover Range)*

To identify Classes and Subclasses, the user must know the relative
percent cover of the following biotic and abiotic features of the
substrate.

  ----------------------- --------------------------- -------------------
  Bivalve                 Emergent Herbaceous         Cobble/Gravel
                          Vegetation                  

  Gastropod               Shrub                       Sand

  Worm                    Tree                        Mud

  Coral                   Bedrock                     Organic

  Macroalgae              Pavement                    Shell

  Rooted Vascular         Boulder                     
  ----------------------- --------------------------- -------------------

### Percent Cover Range

*Classifier for Class and Subclass (with Substrate Composition)*

This standard attribute is used to describe the density of substrate
components.

To classify a unit to the Class and Subclass level, a user needs to know
the relative percent cover of each of the components of the substrate
(see substrate composition above). The degree of substrate cover for
each is assessed using the following ranges (after the Scheme
classification of Madley et al. 2003).

It can also be used as a modifier to describe the density of vegetation
such as seagrasses or other substrate components.

  --------------------------------------------- -------------------------
  **Percent Cover Category**                    **Range**

  Bare/Sparse                                   \<10% cover

  Moderately Sparse                             10- 25%

  Moderate                                      25-75 %

  Dense                                         75%-90%

  Complete                                      90-100%
  --------------------------------------------- -------------------------

### 

### Energy Type

For energy type, CMECS follows a simplification of the concept
introduced by Dethier (1990), and as employed in several subsequent
classifications (Holthus and Maragos 1995, Howes 1994, 2002, Schoch
1999, Allee et al. 2000). The work of Schoch (1999) provides the basis
for a detailed near-shore classification of energy intensity and type on
land-sea margins. This classification utilizes a very simple energy
classification related to the force of water movement, whether tidal,
wave or current. This force is an important sieve that determines the
kinds of animals and flora that can maintain attachment or position in a
particular habitat. Energy level also determines the substrate type by
suspending, transporting and sorting fractions of substrate particulates
of smaller grain size. A winnowing of, or absence of, fine sediments
characterizes high current and wave energy areas. Finally, energy can
shape the bed form (sand waves, sand ripples) and erode or accrete
geoforms. Highly impacted areas are typified by the presence of erosive
features, such as beach scarps or bare rock substrates.

The terminology of "degree of exposure" common in many other
classifications is not used in CMECS in favor of the more accurate term
"energy." Exposure is a subjective term that includes qualification of
both the direction of the feature relative to hydrodynamic energetics
and the energy of the system at a given point in time. An exposed and
open coast may in fact be very quiescent depending on the season or
direction facing. "Energy," along with a quantitative scale, is a more
accurate indicator of the actual force with which a particular coastal
or marine feature is impacted.

The energy modifier applies to all three components of the
classification (benthic, water column and geoform). Within the
intertidal and subtidal benthic zones the energy acts on shaping the
geoforms. Within the water column, the energy is related to current
speeds (in knots), wave intensity and tidal motions. The concept is
modified from Dethier (1990) and Zacharias et al. (1998) with type
categories as follows:

  ------------------- ---------------------------------------------------
  **Energy Type**     **Intensity**

  Wind                coherent directional motion of the atmosphere

  Current             coherent directional motion of the water

  Surface wave        vertical and transverse oscillating surface water
                      motion due to wind or seismic energy

  Internal wave       vertical and transverse oscillating water motion
                      below the surface due to seismic energy or pressure
                      differential

  Tide                periodic horizontally oscillating water motion
  ------------------- ---------------------------------------------------

### 

### Energy Intensity

*Potential Classifier for Group*

Energy intensity is classified according to the following scale:

  ------------------- ---------------------------------------------------
  **Energy**          **Intensity**

  No energy           no detectable waves or current motion

  Low energy          very weak currents (0-2 kn) or wave action (gentle
                      swell)

  Moderate energy     wind waves or moderate tidal currents (2-4 kn)

  High energy         strong currents (\>4 kn), oceanic swell, breaking
                      waves
  ------------------- ---------------------------------------------------

### 

### Energy Direction

Energy can also be classified according to its principal direction of
travel or influence. In the case of tidal energy, this is generally an
oscillation between onshore and offshore motions. In the case of
currents and waves, the energy is direction. The following energy
direction categories are used:

  ----------------- -----------------------------------------------------
  **Energy          **Description**
  Direction**       

  Upward            ascending and perpendicular to the sea surface or
                    bottom

  Downward          descending and perpendicular to the sea surface or
                    bottom

  Horizontal        parallel to the sea surface or bottom

  Baroclinic        motion along lines of equal pressure within the water
                    column

  Seaward           on land, water currents following topographic
                    gradient toward the sea

  Circular          motion in a closed circular form

  Mixed             combination of more than one of above directions
  ----------------- -----------------------------------------------------

### Tide Range

The tide range modifier refers to the difference between mean high tide
and mean low tide at the coast. While the intertidal Subsystem is
defined by the area submerged by tide between the extreme high and low
tides, the mean range gives a more consistent idea of the energy and
amplitude of the average tide. Tide range is categorized as:

  --------------------------------- -------------------------------------
  **Tide Category**                 **Range**

  Microtidal                        \<0.1 m

  Small tide range                  0.1- 1 m

  Moderate tide range               1-5 m

  Large tide range                  \>5 m
  --------------------------------- -------------------------------------

### Primary Water Source

The primary water source modifier refers to the provenance of water
flowing through or into a formation. This can range from freshwater
inputs from river watersheds or sloughs to local exchanges through tidal
passes. The categories are as follows:

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Primary Water Source**            **Provenance**

  Watershed                           for flowing freshwater, the
                                      upstream watershed

  Local estuary exchange              tidal exchange that is primarily
                                      estuarine water

  Local ocean exchange                tidal exchange that is primarily
                                      marine water

  River                               tidal exchange or plume flow that
                                      is primarily river water

  Estuary                             plume flow that is from the estuary

  Marine                              unidirectional flow that is
                                      primarily marine
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### 

### Profile 

Profile refers to the elevation of the feature relative to surrounding
level of the water or bed:

  ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------
  **Profile**                           **Relative Height**

  None                                  0

  Low                                   0-2 m

  Medium                                2-5 m

  high                                  \>5 m
  ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------

### 

### Slope 

Slope refers to the angle of the substrate; Greene et al.'s (1999)
geological classification is followed here to characterize slope as:

  ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------
  **Slope**                             **Vertical Angle**

  Flat                                  0-5°

  Sloping                               5-30°

  Steeply sloping                       30-45°

  Vertical                              45-90°

  Overhang                              \>90°
  ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------

####  {#section-10 .Style-Heading-4-+-Black-Small-caps-Justified-Before:--0-pt-Line...}

### Temperature

Temperature categories are established in intervals of 10°C, deemed
sufficient in range and resolution to provide meaningful differences yet
yielding a parsimonious number of categories. Temperature categories are
based on the BCMEC classification for Canada (Howes 1994, 2002,
Zacharias et al*.* 1998), modified to add the higher temperature ranges
typical of the subtropics and tropics. The caveat that differential
surface and bottom characteristics occur in the water column holds for
temperature as well as salinity. Categories for water mass temperature
are established as follows:

  ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------
  **Temperature Category**              **Degrees**

  Frozen                                ≤ 0° C with surface ice

  Superchilled                          ≤ 0° C without ice

  Cold                                  0-10° C

  Temperate                             10-20° C

  Warm                                  20-30° C

  Hot                                   \>30° C
  ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------

### Anthropogenic Impact

*Development* **-** coastal or marine areas that have been modified by
construction of durable and persistent human construction (e.g.,
artificial reef, pier, seawall, marina, residence, drilling platform).

*Impoundment/Diversion* **-** artificial construction that impedes,
redirects or retains hydrological flow by building or placing barriers
such as levees or dams, either to retain water or to prevent inundation
(e.g., dam, levee, dike, berm, seawall, pier).

*Dredged area/Channel* **-** Landscape that is mechanically altered by
the removal of sediments or other materials (e.g. shell), for deepening
or widening channels (e.g. for navigation or alteration to hydrology),
or for other bathymetric modification.

*Deposition* **-** materials such as sand or shell that are placed on or
in an area of coast or a water body.

*Contamination* **-** discharge of unnatural compounds or levels of
nutrient, sewage, metals or pesticide to coastal waters or substrates
from anthropogenic sources significantly above natural loading levels.

### Rugosity

Definition adapted from Green et al., 2007. Rugosity is a function of
the amount of surface area for a given planar area of the seafloor and
is quantified through gridded X, Y, Z data. The following table
illustrates the five rugosity types and their associated numeric values.

  ------------------------------- ---------------------------------------
  **Rugosity Types**              **Values**

  Very Low                        -1 -- 0

  Low                             0 -- 1

  Moderate                        1 - 2

  High                            2 -- 3

  Very High                       3+
  ------------------------------- ---------------------------------------

####  {#section-11 .Style-Heading-4-+-Black-Small-caps-Justified-Before:--0-pt-Line...}

### Oxygen

Oxygen concentration is often an important water column modifier. Oxygen
is critical to aerobic organisms and aerobic processes, such as chemical
oxidation and microbial respiration. The oxygen regime modifier is
determined according to the following ranges:

  --------------------------------------- -------------------------------
  **Oxygen Regime**                       **Concentration**

  Anoxic                                  0-2 mg/L

  Hypoxic                                 2-4 mg/L

  Oxic                                    4-10 mg/L

  Oxygen saturated                        10-12 mg/L

  Oxygen supersaturated                   \>12 mg/L
  --------------------------------------- -------------------------------

### Turbidity 

Turbidity is important for organisms that hunt for prey or escape using
visual cues, and of course for photosynthetic organisms. Categories for
the turbidity modifier have not previously been established in a
coastal-marine classification system. The proposed categories for
turbidity are based on simple secchi depth readings:

  ------------------------------- ---------------------------------------
  **Turbidity Category**          **Secchi Depth Reading**

  Extremely Turbid                \<1 m

  Highly Turbid                   1-2 m

  Moderately turbid               2-5 m

  Clear                           5-20 m

  Extremely clear                 \>20 m
  ------------------------------- ---------------------------------------

### Turbidity Type and Turbidity Provenance

An important qualitative characteristic of turbidity is the provenance
of the attenuating substance - whether the reduced water clarity is
derived from chlorophyll pigments (i.e. phytoplankton blooms), from
color due to dissolved substances in the water (gelbstoffe, tannin),
from mineral imported terrigenous sediments or from carbonate
particulates in resuspension. It is proposed that this qualitative
assessment be classified in addition to a qualitative or quantitative
evaluation of the degree of turbidity in the water column. The following
qualitative classification of turbidity type and provenance should be
applied to the degree best discernable in the field:

**Turbidity Type**

*Chlorophyll* **-** attenuation produced by chlorophyll a, b, c or d as
constituents of live phytoplankton in the water column

*Mineral particulates* **-** attenuation produced by suspended inorganic
sediments derived from soil and rock weathering

*Carbonate particulates* **-** attenuation produced by suspended
precipitated CaCO~3~ in the water column, generally creating an opaque
"milky" appearance

*Colloidal precipitates* **-** dispersed particulates which precipitate
out of the dispersion medium (water) to form aggregations such as marine
snow

*Dissolved color* **-** substances dissolved in water that have color
and absorb light within a specific wavelength band depending on the
color

*Detritus* **-** attenuation due to larger organic detritus particles in
suspension

*Mixed* **-** attenuation due to a variety of the above sources and
substances

### Turbidity Provenance

*Autochthonous* **-** (e.g. bloom) generated in situ by biogenic
processes

*Allochthonous* **-** originating outside of the system and transported
into the system

*Resuspended* **-** deposited materials mixed into the water column by
currents (e.g. bottom sediments)

*Precipitated* **-** solutes such as CaCO~3~ that precipitate out of
solution

*Terrigenous origin* **-** materials, water or energy in a water body in
land drainage

*Marine origin* **-** materials, water or energy originating in the
ocean

### Photic Quality

Photic quality is a highly variable parameter. In many Nearshore cases,
light penetrates deeply, and the photic zone extends to the bottom of
the water column; in others, almost the entire water column is dark. All
Systems are aphotic for at least part of every day, during nighttime.
Degree of exposure of a particular place to light depends on the depth,
sun angle, time of year etc. Moreover, the depth of the shift from
photic to aphotic occurs at different points in the water column,
depending on the ecosystem, watershed, the amount of turbidity in the
water, etc. The important functional distinction of the photic regime is
between the part of the water column within which plants can
photosynthesize and animals can feed and defend visually, and where they
cannot.

Vertical zones are relative to the penetration of light: photic and
aphotic, for both water column and benthic components:

> *Photic* **-** that region of the water column that is lighted, i.e.
> ambient light is \> 2% of surface light. This is ecologically
> significant because it is considered the photosynthetic compensation
> point, where respiration equals autotrophic production

*Aphotic* **-** that part of the water column below the compensation
depth that receives less than 2% of the surface light, and where plants
cannot achieve positive photosynthetic production

*Seasonally photic* **-** regularly varies between photic and aphotic

### Trophic Status 

Trophic status is a general categorization of the abundance of dissolved
macronutrients (DIN and DIP) and level of primary productivity of a
unit. In broad terms, the trophic status gives an indication of the
health of the system via the balance of production and consumption and
is measured by chlorophyll concentration in water columns and by total
biomass in macroalgal and rooted vascular plant communities. For water
column phytoplankton communities, the modifier categories are:

  ------------------------------- ---------------------------------------
  **Trophic Status -              **Chlorophyll Level**
  Phytoplankton**                 

  Oligotrophic                    \< 5 µg/L chlorophyll a

  Mesotrophic                     5-50 µg/L chlorophyll a

  Eutrophic                       \> 50 µg/L chlorophyll a
  ------------------------------- ---------------------------------------

The trophic categories were derived, with modification, from the NOAA
Estuarine Eutrophication Survey (NOAA 1997).

### Temporal Persistence

The temporal persistence descriptor describes the permanency or
variability of a hydromorphic or geomorphic feature. Though qualitative
and relative, it is useful is distinguishing between features that are
similar in morphology but are temporally diverse in terms of stability.
An example is a mud shoal versus a mudbank. The former tends to be moved
by changing currents or storms, while the latter is more stable and
persistent. Classes are:

  -------------------------------------- --------------------------------
  **Persistence**                        **Stability**

  Low                                    weeks to months

  Medium                                 Months to years

  High                                   Decadal

  Permanent                              Stable

  Variable                               Varies regularly

  Stochastic                             Varies stochastically
  -------------------------------------- --------------------------------

[]{.mark}

### Ecological Region

The Coastal and Marine Ecological Classification Standard provides a
means to identify the ecological region within which a particular unit
resides via the use of a biogeographic descriptor called Ecoregion. 
Ecoregions are defined as very large areas of the coasts and oceans that
are relatively homogeneous with regard to physical and biological
variables and reflect ecological boundaries determined by climate
(temperate, tropical, polar), physical structure, such as major currents
or ocean basins, and the characteristics of the biological associations,
such as isolation or endemism.  Marine ecoregions are defined by large
seas, currents and regions of coherent sea surface temperature or ice
cover.  Spalding et al. (2007) recently published an article defining
marine ecoregions for the world based on extensive literature review and
workshops. CMECS will adopt these ecoregions as defined (Appendix G).

[]{.mark}

# [Glossary]{.underline}

Abyssal: Deep bottom area or portion of submerged earthform between
4000-7000 m.

Abyssalpelagic: A vertical depth zone of the water column defined only
by depth of the water; 4000 -- 7000 meters.

Anthropogenic: Caused by humans.

Artificial reef: Man-made reef formed by placing suitable long-lived,
stable and environmentally safe materials (usually steel or concrete) on
a selected area of ocean bottom. Once the material is in place it acts
in the same way that naturally occurring rock outcroppings do in
providing hard substrate necessary in the basic formation of a
live-bottom reef community.

Atoll: A ringlike coral island and reef that nearly or entirely encloses
a lagoon.

Bank: Submerged earthform with a crest at a depth of 20-200 m in oceanic
waters and of 0-5 m in nearshore and neritic waters. The rising ground
bordering a lake, river or sea.

Bathyl: Deep oceanic bottom areas between depths of 200- 4000 m.

Bathypelagic: A vertical depth zone of the water column defined only by
depth of the water;; 1000 -- 4000 meters.

Beach: The zone above the water line at the shore of a body of water,
marked by an accumulation of sand, stone, or gravel that has been
deposited by the tide or waves.

Benthic boundary layer: A thin water layer just above the bottom that is
strongly influenced by the benthos and distinct from the overlying
waters. It is often characterized by sharp reduction in current speeds,
a nephelitic turbidity layer and high rates of diffusive interaction
with biogeochemical components in the sediments. This layer is often
most strongly associated with small benthic or demersal organisms.

Biotope: A repeatable physical habitat and its biological associations,
uniform in structure and environment, defined by conspicuous diagnostic
species. These are broad associations identified by dominant or
diagnostic species that are fixed to the substrate for the benthic
component or floating or suspended aggregations of biota for the WCC.

Canyon: Submerged earthform consisting of an incised large-scale
submarine feature on a high angle slope normally associated with the
continental shelf.

Channel: The bed of a stream or river; the deeper part of a river or
harbor, especially a deep navigable passage; a broad strait, especially
one that connects two seas; a trench, furrow, or groove.

Cobble: A rock fragment between 64 and 256 millimeters in diameter,
especially one that has been naturally rounded.

Coastal Marsh (=Salt Marsh): Area of low, flat, poorly drained ground
that is subject to daily or occasional flooding by salt water or
brackish water. Communities dominated by emergent herbaceous halophytic
vegetation along low-wave energy intertidal areas and river mouths. Low
shrubs may be present or even dominant.

Continental Rise: Part of the continental margin; the ocean floor from
the continental slope to the abyssal plain; generally has a gentle slope
and smooth topography.

Continental Shelf: The part of the continental margin from the coastal
shore to the shelf break and continental slope; usually extending to a
depth of about 200 meters and with a very slight slope, roughly 0.1
degrees; includes continental and oceanic sediments down to the ocean
floor. The zone bordering a continent extending from the line of
permanent immersion to the depth, usually 200 m, where there is a marked
or rather steep descent toward the great depths. The region of the
oceanic bottom that extends outward from the shoreline with an average
slope of less than 1:100, to a line where the gradient begins to exceed
1:40 (the continental slope).

Continental Shelf Break: The edge of the continental shelf, usually at a
depth of 200m, where depths and slope begin to increase rapidly.  The
depth at which the Shelf Break occurs ranges from 150 to 300 m and
generally averages approximately 200 m.

Continental Slope: Part of the continental margin; the ocean floor from
the continental shelf to the continental rise or oceanic trench. Usually
to a depth of about 200 meters. The continental slope typically has a
relatively steep grade, from 3 to 6 degrees. The declivity from the
offshore border of the continental shelf to oceanic depths. It is
characterized by a marked increase in slope.

Coral head: Colony made up of individual coral polyps.

Coral reef: Massive limestone structure built up through the
constructional cementing and depositional activities of hermatypic fauna
(e.g., hard corals) and flora (e.g., coralline algae). This class
includes ridge-like or mound-like structures formed by the colonization
and growth of hard coral species as well as assemblages of non
reef-forming hard corals, soft corals and associates such as sponges,
hydroids. These environments occur in both the intertidal and subtidal
subsystems.

Delta: A low triangular area where a river divides before entering a
larger body of water.

Dune: A ridge of sand created by the wind.

Dune System: Coastal dunes featuring succession.

Embayment: Coastal water body that is partially enclosed or surrounded
by a landmass but that has a significant open connection to the sea.

Emergent Wetland: Class characterized by erect, rooted, herbaceous
hydrophytes and low shrubs. These wetlands are usually dominated by
perennial plants and the emergent vegetation is present for most of the
growing season in most years. Only coastal marshes and shrublands that
are saltwater-influenced are included in this classification. These
environments occur only within the intertidal subsystem.

Epibenthic: Relates to the area on top of the sea floor; benthic
organisms that live on top of the sediments, rocks, logs or plants.
These organisms may be freely moving or sessile (permanently attached to
a surface) and can define a Biotope.

Epipelagic: A vertical depth zone of the water column defined only by
depth of the water; greater than 0 meters up to 200 meters.

Estuarine System: Tidal habitats and adjacent tidal wetlands with water
that is at least occasionally diluted by freshwater runoff from the land
(\<30PSU) and is semi-enclosed by land but has open, party obstructed,
or sporadic access to the open ocean. The salinity may be periodically
increased above that of the open ocean by evaporation. Extends upstream
and landward to where ocean derived salts measure less than 0.5%◦ during
the period of average annual low flow and seaward to an imaginary line
closing the mouth of a river, lagoon, fjord or embayment.

Fault: A fracture in rock along which there has been an observable
amount of displacement. Faults are rarely single planar units; normally
they occur as parallel to sub-parallel sets of planes along which
movement has taken place to a greater or lesser extent. Such sets are
called fault or fracture-zones.

Flat: A level landform composed of unconsolidated sediments (usually
sand or mud) which are normally contiguous with the shore.

Freshwater Influenced System: Systems that have no distinct enclosing
morphology, yet receive a significant amount of fresh water input from
land during at least part of the year (\<30 PSU); may be influenced by
freshwater in the form of an active river plume, direct freshwater
runoff, diffuse non-point runoff, an advected fresh water lens,
mesohaline coastal water mass or a ground water seep discharge.

Forested Wetland: Class characterized by areas dominated by tree species
(i.e., single stemmed woody plants). Areas dominated by tree seedlings,
saplings and dwarf trees are placed in this class. Only
saltwater-influenced mangroves are included in this classification.
These environments occur only within the intertidal subsystem.

Front: The phenomenon created at the boundary between two different
water masses.

Geoform: Describes the structure of the coastline and sea floor at
multiple scales; equivalent in concept to a terrestrial landform (e.g.,
mountain, butte, moraine etc) and likewise varies in scale from very
large (e.g., seamount, embayment) to very small (e.g., tidepool,
ripple). Geoforms shape the large scale seascape in repeatable and
predictable ways by providing structure, channeling energy flows,
regulating bioenergetics, and controlling transfer rates of energy,
material and organisms.

Hadal: Deepest bottom area or portion of submerged geoform at depths of
\>7000 m.

Hadalpelagic: Deepest vertical depth zone of the water column; greater
than 7000 meters.

Hole: A deep place in a body of water.

Hydroform: Large physical structures formed by water movements within a
system; describes major hydrographic features at different scales
(macro/meso).

Intertidal: Subsystem where substrate is regularly and periodically
exposed and flooded by tides. This subsystem includes the supratidal
zone \-- the area above the high tide line in the splash zone that is
affected by spray, splash, aerosols and overwash. This interface is
regularly exposed to the air by tidal movement.

Island: Emergent land mass larger than 1 km^2^ in area completely
surrounded by water.

Kelp: any of numerous large seaweeds found in colder seas and belonging
to the order Laminariales (about 30 genera) of brown algae.

Lagoon: Coastal water body entirely or almost entirely enclosed by a
landmass with minimal connection to the sea; a shallow, sheltered body
of water separated from the open sea by coral reefs, sand bars, and/or
barrier islands. A shallow body of water, as a pond or lake, which
usually has a shallow restricted inlet from the sea.

Ledge: An underwater ridge or rock shelf.

Littoral: The zone on the coast where land meets sea. Often called the
intertidal zone but is more comprehensive, including the supratidal and
infratidal zones. Of, or pertaining to, a shore, especially a seashore.
The region of land bordering a body of water. The shallow water region
with light penetration to the bottom.

Mangrove: Tidally influenced, dense, low forests dominated by true
mangroves and associates; common name for any of several species of
inshore tropical trees or shrubs that dominate the mangal associations.

Marine: Waters that receive no freshwater input from land and are
substantially of full oceanic salinity (\>30 psu) throughout the year.

Mesopelagic: A vertical depth zone of the water column defined only by
depth of the water; 200 -- 1000 meters.

Moraine: General term for material deposited beneath, along the sides,
and/or at the terminus of a glacier.

Nearshore System: Waters that are truly marine in character (\> 30 PSU
throughout the year); extends from the land margin to the 30 m depth
contour. The proximity of land and nearshore processes strongly
influences waters and benthos of these systems although the biota and
physics are marine.

Neritic System: Marine waters (\> 30 psu year round) between the 30 m
depth contour and the continental shelf break, which occurs at
approximately at 200 m water depth.

Oceanic System: The marine realm beyond the continental shelf break;
waters that are generally deeper than 200 m.

Patch Reef: Coral formations that have no organized structural axis
relative to the contours of the shore or shelf. A surrounding halo of
sand is often a distinguishing feature of this habitat type when it
occurs adjacent to submerged vegetation.

Peninsula: An elongated portion of land nearly surrounded by water and
connected to a larger body of land, usually by a neck or an isthmus.

Pycnocline: A region of rapid density change with vertical position,
caused usually by temperature (thermocline) or salinity (halocline)
stratification.

Reef: A large ridge or mound-like structure within a body of water that
is built by calcareous organisms such as corals, red algae, and
bivalves; a ridge of rock or other material lying just below the surface
of the sea.

Rocky Shore: Exposed intertidal shoreline characterized by bedrock,
stones or boulders which singly or in combination have an aerial cover
of 75% or more and an aerial coverage by vegetation of less than 10%.

Sand Waves: Longshore sand waves are large-scale features that maintain
form while migrating along the shore with speeds on the order of
kilometers per year; Large-scale asymmetrical bedforms in sandy river
beds having high length to height ratios and continuous crestlines.

Sea Surface: A vertical depth zone of the water column defined only by
depth of the water; 0 meters.

Seabed: Subtidal ocean bottom, completely covered by the water at all
times. Distinct from the bottom within the littoral intertidal zone.

Seamount: Conical mountain rising 1000 m or more above the sea floor; a
submarine volcano in the abyssal plain.

Shoal: A detached area of any material except rock or coral. The depths
over it are a danger to surface navigation. Similar continental or
insular shelf features of greater depths are usually termed banks; To
become shallow gradually; To cause to become shallow; To proceed from a
greater to a lesser depth of water.

Slough: A small muddy marshland or tidal waterway which usually connects
other tidal areas.

Spur and Groove Reef: A system of shallow ridges (spurs) separated by
deep channels (grooves) oriented perpendicular to the reef crest and
extending down the upper seaward slope.

Supratidal: The area above the level of high tide affected by spray,
splash, aerosols and overwash.

System: Areas differentiated from one another by a combination of
salinity, geomorphology and depth.

Trench: An elongated submerged geoform depression on the deepest margin
of the ocean floor generally at depths \>7000; typically associated with
subduction zones along boundaries between oceanic and continental
plates.

Unconsolidated: Substrates having at least 25% cover of particles
smaller than stones, and a vegetative cover less than 10%.

Upper Water Column: In a two-layer water column, the area above the
sharp density gradient (pycnocline) which includes the air-water
interface.

Upwelling: Hydroform created by wind action or divergent surface
currents that cause deeper waters to move up and replace the surface
water. These areas are often exposed to nutrient-rich deep waters rising
to the surface from below the pycnocline. The process by which water
rises from a deeper to a shallower depth, usually as a result of
offshore surface water flow. It is most prominent where persistent wind
blows parallel to a coastline so that the resultant Ekman transport
moves surface water away from the coast.

Worm Reef: Class representing areas dominated by worm species including
structures formed by the colonization and growth of Sabellariid worm
species, tube worms as well as burrowing worms that form above ground
structures. This class occurs in both the intertidal and subtidal
subsystems.

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Development, and Verification. Coastal Management 26:105-124.

# Appendix A -- Benthic Cover Component Units

  ------------ --------------- --------- ---------------- ---------------- ------------------- --------------
  **System**   **Subsystem**   **Cover   **Class**        **Subclass**     **Group**           **Biotope**
                               Type**                                                          

  Estuarine    Intertidal      Abiotic   Mollusc          Bivalve Bed/Reef Oyster Bed/Reef     *Crassostrea
  \[ES\]       \[1\]           \[a\]     Communities      \[1\]            \[a\]               sp.* Oyster
                                         \[MC\]                                                Reef

  Nearshore    Subtidal \[2\]  Biotic                                      Mussel Bed \[b\]    *Mytilus sp.*
  \[NS\]                       \[b\]                                                           Mussel Bed

  Neritic                                                 Gastropod                            * *
  \[NE\]                                                  Bed/Reef \[2\]                       

  Oceanic                                Worm Reef and    Worm Reefs \[1\]                     *Sabellaria
  \[OC\]                                 other Worm                                            sp*. Worm Reef
                                         Communities                                           
                                         \[WC\]                                                

  Freshwater                                              Tube Worms \[2\]                      
  Influenced                                                                                   
  \[FI\]                                                                                       

  ** **                                  Coral Reefs and  Spur and Groove                      *Porites sp.*
                                         other Coral      Reef \[1\]                           Reef
                                         Communities                                           
                                         \[CC\]                                                

                                                                                               *Acropora sp.*
                                                                                               Reef

                                                                                               *Montipora
                                                                                               sp*. Reef

                                                          Patch Reef \[2\]                      

                                                          Linear Reef                           
                                                          \[3\]                                

                                                          Aggregate Reef                        
                                                          \[4\]                                

                                                          Reef Rubble                           
                                                          \[5\]                                

                                                          Deep Coral Reef                      *Oculina sp*
                                                          \[6\]                                Deep Coral
                                                                                               Reef

                                                                                               *Lophelia sp.*
                                                                                               Deep Coral
                                                                                               Reef

                                                          Scattered        Scattered            
                                                          Coral/Rock \[7\] Coral/Rock on       
                                                                           unconsolidated      
                                                                           bottom \[a\]        

                                                                           Scattered            
                                                                           Coral/Rock on hard  
                                                                           bottom \[b\]        

                                                          Coral Garden                         * *
                                                          \[8\]                                

                                         Aquatic Bed      Macroalgae \[1\] Attached or         *Macrocystis
                                         \[AB\]                            Encrusting algae    sp.* Kelp Bed
                                                                           \[a\]               

                                                                                               *Porolithon
                                                                                               sp.*
                                                                                               Encrustation

                                                                           Drift algae \[b\]   *Laurrentia
                                                                                               sp*. Drift
                                                                                               Algae

                                                                                               *Gracilaria
                                                                                               sp*. Drift
                                                                                               Algae

                                                          Rooted Vascular  NVC Groups TBD      *Zostera sp.*
                                                          \[3\]                                Seagrass
                                                                                               Meadow

                                                                                               *Thalassia
                                                                                               sp.* Seagrass
                                                                                               Meadow

                                                          Floating                              
                                                          Vascular \[4\]                       

                                                          Microbial Mat    Microphytobenthos    
                                                          \[1\]            \[a\]               

                                                                           Bacterial Mat \[b\]  

                                                                           Mixed Phytoplankton  
                                                                           \[c\]               

                                         Emergent/Low     Coastal Marsh    NVC Groups TBD      *Spartina sp.*
                                         Shrub Wetlands   \[1\]                                Salt Marsh
                                         \[EM\]                                                

                                                          Tidal Shrubland  NVC Groups TBD      *Baccharis
                                                          \[2\]                                sp.* Shrub
                                                                                               Salt Marsh

                                         Forested         Mangrove \[1\]   NVC Groups TBD      *Rhizophora
                                         Wetlands \[FO\]                                       sp.* Forest

                                         Rock Bottom      Bedrock \[1\]    TBD (possibly        
                                         \[RB\]                            energy classes)     

                                                          Pavement \[2\]                       * *

                                                          Boulder/Rubble                        
                                                          \[3\]                                

                                         Unconsolidated   Cobble/Gravel    TBD (possibly        
                                         Bottom \[UB\]    \[1\]            energy classes)     

                                                          Sand \[2\]                            

                                                          Mud \[3\]        Clay                 

                                                                           Silt                *Mercenaria
                                                                                               sp.* Clam Bed

                                                                           Carbonate mud        

                                                          Organic \[4\]    Woody Debris \[a\]   

                                                                           Detritus \[b\]       

                                                                           Ooze \[c\]           

                                                                           Peat \[d\]           

                                                          Shell \[5\]      Hash \[a\]           

                                                                           Coquina \[b\]        

                                                          Mixed Sediments                       
                                                          \[6\]                                

                                         Rocky Shore      Bedrock \[1\]    TBD (possibly        
                                         \[RS\]                            energy classes)     

                                                          Pavement \[3\]                        

                                                          Boulder/Rubble                        
                                                          \[2\]                                

                                         Unconsolidated   Cobble/Gravel    TBD (possibly        
                                         Shore \[US\]     \[1\]            energy classes)     

                                                          Sand (\> 50%)                         
                                                          \[2\]                                

                                                          Mud \[3\]                             

                                                          Organic (\>50%)  Woody Debris \[a\]   
                                                          \[4\]                                

                                                                           Detritus \[b\]       

                                                                           Ooze \[c\]           

                                                                           Peat \[d\]           

                                                          Shell (\>50%)    Hash \[a\]           
                                                          \[5\]                                

                                                                           Coquina \[b\]        

                                                          Mixed Sediments                       
                                                          \[6\]                                
  ------------ --------------- --------- ---------------- ---------------- ------------------- --------------

#  Appendix B -- Water Column Component Classifiers

  ----------------------- ---------------- ------------- --------------------- -------------------- --------------- -------------
  **System**              **Depth Zones**  **Water       **Macrohydroforms**   **Mesohydroforms**   **Life Form**   **Biotope**
                                           Column                                                                   
                                           Structure**                                                              

  Estuarine               Sea surface      Upper (mixed) Coastal water mass    Counter current      Phytoplankton    
                                           water layer                                              bloom           

  Freshwater-influenced   Epipelagic       Pycnocline    Gyre                  Convergence          Floating         
                                                                                                    microbial mat   

  Nearshore marine        Mesopelagic      Bottom water  Plume                 Divergence           Floating         
                                           layer                                                    vegetation mat  

  Neritic                 Bathylpelagic    Benthic       Freshwater lens       Effluent             Zooplankton      
                                           boundary                                                 swarm           
                                           layer                                                                    

  Oceanic                 Abyssalpelagic                 Frontal boundary      Entrainment          Zooplankton      
                                                                                                    patch           

                          Hadalpelagic                   Mesoscale eddy        Tributary discharge  Jelly fish       
                                                                                                    assemblage      

                                                         Major ocean current   Groundwater seep     Floating        *Sargassum
                                                                                                    macroalgae      natans* mats

                                                         Density current       River current        Phytoplankton    
                                                                                                    maximum layer   

                                                         Plunging current      Small fresh water                     
                                                                               lens                                 

                                                         Turbidity current     Internal wave                         

                                                         Downwelling           Surface wave                          

                                                         Upwelling             Surf                                  

                                                         Ocean counter current Surface foam                          

                                                         Warm and cold core    Salt wedge                            
                                                         rings                                                      

                                                         Ice                   Langmuir cell                         

                                                         Hydrothermal vents                                          

                                                         Turbidity current                                           

                                                                                                                     
  ----------------------- ---------------- ------------- --------------------- -------------------- --------------- -------------

#  Appendix C -- GeoForm Component Classifiers

  ----------------- ----------------- ------------------ ------------------ -----------------
  **Megageoform**   **Mesogeoform**   **Macrogeoform**   **Microgeoform**   **Anthropogenic
                                                                            Geoforms**

  Abyssal plain     Anchialine lake   Bank               Channel            Artificial reef

  Basin floor,      Apron, deep fan,  Base               Flat               Berm
  borderland        bajada                                                  

  Bight             Atoll             Boulder            Fracture           Dam

  Continental       Bank              Coral head         Gully              Dredge
  margin                                                                    deposit/Mound

  Continental rise  Basin/island      Crown              Hole               Dredged channel,
                    flank, Flank                                            groove or hole

  Continental       Bay               Fan                Hummock            Dike
  shelf, island                                                             
  shelf                                                                     

  Continental slope Beach             Flank              Ledge              Drilling platform

  Enclosed sea      Canyon            Flat, floor        Pavement           Harbor

  Fracture zone,    Carbonate reef    Head               Sand ripple        Jetty
  spreading center  (Coral Reef)                                            

  Island            Channel bank      Hole               Scour mark         Levee

  Ridge, seamount   Crown             Rock outcrop       Solution pit       Marina

  Shelf break       Delta             Sediment wave      Sand wave          Pier

                    Embayment         Streambed          Tidepool           Seawall

                    Face              Swale               Pockmark          Shipwreck

                    Fjord             Tidal channel                         Trawl disturbance

                    Flank             Trench                                Scar/Prop scar

                    Flat, floor       Wall                                  Pilings

                    Guyot              Dune                                  

                    Harbor                                                   

                    Ice feature                                              

                    Inland sea                                               

                    Inlet, tidal                                             
                    channel                                                 

                    Island                                                   

                    Lagoon                                                   

                    Landslide                                                

                    Levee                                                    

                    Moraine                                                  

                    Mound,                                                   
                    depression,                                             
                    linear ridge                                            

                    Non-coral reef                                           

                    Open shoreline                                           

                    Overbank deposit                                         
                    (levee)                                                 

                    Peninsula                                                

                    Pinnacle                                                 

                    Rill (linear                                             
                    deposit or                                              
                    depression)                                             

                    River channel                                            

                    Rock outcrop                                             

                    Rubble zone                                              

                    Scarp, cliff,                                            
                    fault, slump                                            

                    Seabed                                                   

                    Seamount                                                 

                    Shoal                                                    

                    Slough                                                   

                    Slump                                                    

                    Sound                                                    

                    Terrace                                                  

                    Trench                                                   

                    Wall                                                     

                    Fore reef                                                

                    Back reef                                                

                    Reef crown                                               

                    Reef halo                                                

                    Reef crest                                               

                    Back reef                                                

                    Reef flat                                                

                    Lava Field                                               

                    Volcanic Plain                                           
  ----------------- ----------------- ------------------ ------------------ -----------------

#  Appendix D -- Standard Attributes 

# 

  -------------- --------------- ------------ ---------------- ------------- ---------- -------------
  **Salinity**   **Enclosure**   **Position   **Depth Zones**  **Percent     **Energy   **Energy
                                 Relative to                   Cover**       Type**     Intensity**
                                 Shelf                                                  
                                 Break**                                                

  Fresh          Unenclosed      Seaward      Shallow          Bare/Sparse   Wind       No Energy
                                              Infralittoral                             

  Oligohaline    Partially       Landward     Deep             Moderately    Current    Low Energy
                 enclosed                     Infralittoral    Sparse                   

  Mesohaline     Significantly                Circalittoral    Moderate      Surface    Moderate
                 enclosed                                                    Wave       Energy

  Polyhaline     Very enclosed                Circalittoral    Moderately    Internal   High Energy
                                              (offshore)       Dense         Wave       

  Euhaline       Enclosed                     Mesobenthic      Complete      Tide        

  Hyperhaline    Intermittent                 Bathybenthic                               

                                              Abyssalbenthic                             

                                              Hadalbenthic                               
  -------------- --------------- ------------ ---------------- ------------- ---------- -------------

  ------------- ------------ ----------- ------------- ----------- ----------------- -----------------------
  **Energy      **Tide       **Primary   **Profile**   **Slope**   **Temperature**   **Anthropogenic
  Direction**   Range**      Water                                                   Impact**
                             Source**                                                

  Upward        Microtidal   Watershed   None          Flat        Frozen            Development

  Downward      Small Tidal  Local       Low           Sloping     Superchilled      Impoundment/Diversion
                Range        Estuary                                                 
                             Exchange                                                

  Horizontal    Moderate     Local Ocean Medium        Steeply     Cold              Dredged Area/Channel
                Tidal Range  Exchange                  Sloping                       

  Baroclinic    Large Tidal  River       High          Vertical    Temperate         Deposition
                Range                                                                

  Seaward                    Estuary                   Overhang    Warm              Contamination

  Circular                   Marine                                Hot               Trawled/Harvested

  Mixed                                                                              Restoration Area

                                                                                     Scarring

                                                                                     Aquaculture
  ------------- ------------ ----------- ------------- ----------- ----------------- -----------------------

  -------------- ---------------- --------------- ------------ -------------- ---------------
  **Rugosity**   **Oxygen**       **Turbidity**   **Photic     **Trophic      **Temporal
                                                  Quality**    Status**       Persistence**

  Very Low       Anoxic           Extremely       Photic       Oligotrophic   Low
                                  turbid                                      

  Low            Hypoxic          Highly turbid   Aphotic      Mesotrophic    Medium

  Moderate       Oxic             Moderately      Seasonally   Eutrophic      High
                                  turbid          photic                      

  High           Oxygen saturated Clear                                       Permanent

  Very High      Oxygen           Extremely clear                             Variable
                 Supersaturated                                               

                                                                              Stochastic
  -------------- ---------------- --------------- ------------ -------------- ---------------

# Appendix E - Comparison of CMECS Version III to CMECS Version II 

The following discussion identifies the major differences between CMECS
Version III and CMECS Version II and references the concepts in the FGDC
Wetland Classification Standard (based on Cowardin et al, 1979 - from
here on "the wetland standard") that provided impetus for making the
changes. Refer to Tables 1 and 2 for a comparison diagram.

**Regime to System**

CMECS Version III renames the highest level of the hierarchy to the
wetland standard's "System," terminology, replacing 'Regime.' Both
versions of the classification define types at this level as large scale
areas differentiated by a combination of salinity, geomorphology and
depth using similar parameters. Because the wetland standard does not
differentiate the marine environment by significant parameters such as
depth, both CMECS Versions II and III split the wetland standard's
single "Marine System" into three Systems: "Nearshore", "Neritic" and
"Oceanic" based on ocean depth (see "System" in main document for
definitions of these systems). CMECS Version III retained the Estuarine
system as in CMECS II, with minor modification to the definition to
align it to the wetland standard. Because they are defined as freshwater
systems, the "Riverine", "Lacustrine", and "Palustrine" systems found in
the wetland standard are not part of the CMECS classification in either
version II or III.

**Subsystems**

The wetland standard divides Systems into two Subsystems, the Intertidal
and Subtidal. CMECS Version III adopts these two wetland standard
Subsystems with no further modification. In CMECS Version II, tidal
regimes were considered under the Zone category and included 1) the
Littoral Zone --encompassing both exposed and submerged littoral
habitats -- 2) the Bottom Zone encompassing all subtidal habitats beyond
the littoral zone and 3) the Water Column Zone. The CMECS II Littoral
Zone included supratidal areas, defined as the area of littoral land
above the high tide line in the splash zone that is affected by spray,
splash, aerosols, and overwash. These areas are now included in the
Intertidal Subsystem. The Littoral Zone also include infratidal areas,
defined as the area of littoral land below the waterline that is
completely covered by water but experiences the effects of waves and
tides. These are now subsumed in the Subtidal System but can be applied
as a specific modifier within the Subtidal Subsystem as needed.

**Formations and Macrohabitats**

Geomorphic features of coastal-marine systems, referred to as Formations
in CMECS Version II, represent the physiognomic structures that define
patterns in compositions and dynamics of associated biota. In CMECS
Version III, formations are now called Geoforms (the equivalent concept
in the terrestrial realm is the landform) and are no longer included
directly in the benthic hierarchy but have been retained as a separate
Geoform Component (GFC). Likewise, the "macrohabitat" level of CMECS
Version II, defined as "spatially large and complex geomorphic,
hydromorphic or vegetative structures of the coastal and marine
environment which support multiple distinct biological associations"
(Madden et al. 2005) were ported to the new GFC to represent smaller
scale geomorphic categories that nest within the "Formations." See the
section on GFC for further detail.

**Zones**

Pilot mapping applications of CMECS Version II identified that mapping
the benthic zone and the overlying water column on the same GIS layer
caused a proliferation of map units. To clarify the distinction between
the benthic and water column components of the classification the WCC
portions of CMECS II were pulled out of the hierarchy and are handled as
a separate component. Separating the WCC from the BCC provides users
greater flexibility to create separate GIS layers for each and overlay
them based on the objectives of their individual projects.

Because the BCC includes both benthic and littoral values from the Zone
level in Version II and the WCC handles the water column value, there
was no longer a need for Zone as a separate level of the classification
so it was removed from the hierarchy.

**Cover**

CMECS Version III was not only guided by the desire to provide more
consistency with the wetland standard but also to accommodate the needs
for the coastal and marine mapping community. The original intent behind
developing a national coastal and marine classification standard was to
provide a means for consistent analyses of the biodiversity within these
systems. Developers desired a standard that provided a comprehensive
list of existing ecological units and that was not limited by what could
be sensed with currently available technology. However, realistically
managers rely on available technology when a map is required as a
management tool. Current mapping technologies allow managers to assess
habitats based on expectations of its suitability for a particular
species of concern. In response to and recognition of practical
applications of a classification standard, CMECS Version III has a new
hierarchical level based on the aerial percent cover of biota. Visual
cover was noted as an important distinction among habitat mappers who
rely on data that current technology can provide. In many cases, one
will not be able to identify substrates if there is flora or fauna
covering the surface. Adding a level to address cover will provide
mappers with an avenue to continue the classification process without
requiring knowledge of the underlying substrates within a colonized
benthic habitat.

**Class and Subclass**

CMECS Version III has adopted the Class and Subclass levels of the
wetland standard with some revision. CMECS Version III retained the
wetland standard classes of Rock Bottom, Unconsolidated Bottom, Aquatic
Bed, Rocky Shore, Unconsolidated Shore and Forested Wetland. Because the
need for differentiation among types of reefs or other bioengineered
structures within the Estuarine and marine Systems is critical, the Reef
Class from the wetland standard was divided into three new classes
representing different reef or other bioengineered community types (e.g.
mussel beds): mollusc, worm and coral. The wetland standard Classes,
Emergent Wetland and Scrub-shrub Wetland were combined in CMECS Version
III into one Class, Emergent/Low Shrub Wetland. This was done to better
accommodate the salt marsh communities described in the FGDC Vegetation
Classification that does not differentiate herbaceous from shrub
dominated communities at this level. While some Subclasses from the
wetland standard are easy to transition into a coastal and marine
classification standard, e.g., those found under Classes such as Rock
Bottom and Unconsolidated Bottom, the unique flora and fauna found in
the coastal and marine environments necessitates definition of multiple
Subclasses that one will not find in the wetland standard.

**Habitat to Group**

In CMECS Version II, Habitats were defined as physical units of the
environment that are directly used by the biota for food, shelter,
spawning and/or refuge. This unit was generally used to identify the key
structural characteristics that reflect the variation in Bi**o**topes
within a given Macrohabitat. This concept was difficult to apply because
of the variation in scale of habitats that are used to complete life
history stages of different organisms. The term "habitat" also conjures
many different meanings to different potential users of the
classification. As a result, this unit was replaced with the new "Group"
level in CMECS Version III. In CMECS III, the Group plays a similar
role, but is not restricted to geomorphic characters and does not imply
that particular life history stages are associated with individual
habitats.

**Biotope**

No significant definitional changes were made to the Biotope level in
CMECS Version III, but USNVC Alliances were adopted as Biotopes for
types dominated by vascular vegetation (e.g., mangroves, salt marshes,
seagrasses).

**Table 1. Cross-walk of Littoral and Bottom Zone Types from CMECS
Version II to CMECS Version III Benthic Cover Component**

  ---------------- --------------- ---------------- --------------- -----------------
  **Coastal and    ** **           ***Fate of       **Coastal and   ** **
  Marine                           Version II types Marine          
  Ecological                       or Source of     Ecological      
  Standard Version                 Version III      Standard        
  II**                             types***         Version III**   

  **Regime**       Nearshore       No Change        **System**      Nearshore
                   Marine                                           

                   Estuarine       No Change                        Estuarine

                   Neritic         No Change                        Neritic

                   Oceanic         No Change                        Oceanic

                   Freshwater      No Change                        Freshwater
                   Influenced                                       Influenced

                                   Adopted from     **Subsystem**   Intertidal
                                   Cowardin                         

                                   \" \"                            Subtidal

  **Formation**    GeoForm         Moved upward to                   
                                   Geo Form                         
                                   Component                        

                                   Newly developed  **Cover Type**  Biotic Cover

                                   \" \"                            Abiotic Cover

  **Zone**         Littoral        Now reflected in                  
                                   BCC/Intertidal                   
                                   units                            

                   Bottom          Moved upward to                   
                                   BCC/Subtidal                     
                                   units                            

                                   Adopted from     **Class**       Mollusc
                                   Cowardin                         Communities

                                   Modified from                    Worm Reefs and
                                   Cowardin                         Worm Communities

                                   \" \"                            Coral Reefs and
                                                                    Coral Communities

                                   Adopted from                     Aquatic Bed
                                   Cowardin                         

                                   Modified from                    Emergent-Low
                                   Cowardin                         Shrub Wetland

                                   Adopted from                     Forested Wetland
                                   Cowardin                         

                                   \" \"                            Rock Bottom

                                   \" \"                            Unconsolidated
                                                                    Bottom

                                   \" \"                            Rocky Shore

                                   \" \"                            Unconsolidated
                                                                    Shore

  **Macrohabitat   ex.             These categories                  
  (Littoral)**     Supratidal -    translated to                    
                   Sand Dune       Intertidal Cover                 
                                   Type, Class and                  
                                   Subclass. Scale                  
                                   dependencies                     
                                   removed                          

                   ex.             \" \"                             
                   Intertidal -                                     
                   Rocky                                            
                   Intertidal                                       

  **Macrohabitat   ex. Sandy -     These categories                  
  (Bottom)**       Softbottom      translated to                    
                                   Subtidal Cover                   
                                   Type, Class and                  
                                   Subclass. Scale                  
                                   dependencies                     
                                   removed.                         

                   ex. Subbenthic  \" \"                             
                   Sands                                            

                                   Adopted from     **Subclass**    Bivalve Bed/Reef
                                   SCHEME                           

                                   \" \"                            Gastropod
                                                                    Bed/Reef

                                   Adopted from                     Spur and Groove
                                   NOAA Corals                      Reef
                                   Classification                   

                                   \" \"                            Patch Reef

                                   \" \"                            Linear Reef

                                   \" \"                            Aggregate Reef

                                   \" \"                            Reef Rubble

                                   Newly developed                  Deep Coral Reef

                                   Adopted from                     Scattered
                                   NOAA Corals                      Coral/Rock
                                   Classification                   

                                   Newly developed                  Coral Garden

                                   Adopted from                     Macroalgae
                                   SCHEME                           

                                   Adopted from                     Rooted Vascular
                                   Cowardin                         

                                   Newly developed                  Microbial Mat

                                   Modified from                    Coastal Marsh
                                   Cowardin                         

                                   Adopted from NVC                 Mangrove

                                   Adopted from                     Bedrock
                                   Cowardin                         

                                   Adopted from                     Pavement
                                   SCHEME                           

                                   Adopted from                     Boulder/Rubble
                                   Cowardin                         

                                   \" \"                            Cobble/Gravel

                                   \" \"                            Sand

                                   \" \"                            Mud

                                   \" \"                            Organic

                                   Newly developed                  Shell

                                   Newly developed                  Mixed Sediments

  **Habitat        ex. Dune Swale  These categories                  
  (Littoral)**     in Saltwater    distributed to                   
                   Splash Zone     Intertidal                       
                                   Groups. Physical                 
                                   elements                         
                                   translated to                    
                                   GeoForm Types                    

                   ex. High Energy \" \"                             
                   Rocky                                            
                   Intertidal -                                     
                   Boulders                                         

  **Habitat        ex. Sparsely    These categories                  
  (Bottom)**       Vegetated Sand  distributed to                   
                   Ripples         Subtidal Groups.                 
                                   Physical                         
                                   elements                         
                                   translated to                    
                                   GeoForm Types                    

                   ex. Bioturbated \" \"                             
                   Sulfitic Muds                                    

                                   Newly developed  **Group**       ex. Woody debris

                                   \" \"                            ex. Shell hash

  **Biotope**      ex. *Laminaria  No Change        **Biotope**     ex. *Laminaria
                   digitata* kelp                                   digitata* kelp
                   bed                                              bed
  ---------------- --------------- ---------------- --------------- -----------------

**Table 2. Cross-walk of Water Column Zone Types from CMECS Version II
to CMECS Version III Water Column** Component

  -------------- --------------------- ----------------- ----------------- --------------------
  **Coastal and  ** **                 ***Fate of        **Coastal and     ** **
  Marine                               Version II types  Marine Ecological 
  Ecological                           or Source of      Standard Version  
  Standard                             Version III       III**             
  Version II**                         types***                            

  Regime         Nearshore Marine      No Change         System            Nearshore

                 Estuarine             No Change                           Estuarine

                 Neritic               No Change                           Neritic

                 Oceanic               No Change                           Oceanic

                 Freshwater Influenced No Change                           Freshwater
                                                                           Influenced

  Formation      HydroForm             Moved to          Macrohydroforms   Coastal Water Mass
                                       macrohydroforms                     
                                       and                                 
                                       mesohydroforms.                     
                                       Scale parameters                    
                                       adopted from                        
                                       Greene et al.                       

                                                                           Gyre

                                                                           Plume

                                                                           Freshwater Lens

                                                                           Frontal Boundary

                                                                           Macroscale Eddy

                                                                           Major Ocean Current

                                                                           Density Current

                                                                           Plunging Current

                                                                           Turbidity Current

                                                                           Downwelling

                                                                           Upwelling

                                                                           Ocean Counter
                                                                           Current

                                                                           Warm and Cold Core
                                                                           Rings

                                                                           Ice

                                                                           Hydrothermal Vents

                                                         Mesohydroforms    Counter Current

                                                                           Convergence

                                                                           Divergence

                                                                           Effluent

                                                                           Entrainment

                                                                           Tributary Discharge

                                                                           Groundwater Seep

                                                                           River Current

                                                                           Small Fresh-Water
                                                                           Lens

                                                                           Internal Wave

                                                                           Surface Wave

                                                                           Surf

                                                                           Surface Foam

                                                                           Salt Wedge

                                                                           Langmuir Cell

                                       Drawn from VII    Depth Zones       Sea Surface
                                       Water Column                        
                                       descriptors                         

                                                                           Epipelagic

                                                                           Mesopelagic

                                                                           Bathylpelagic

                                                                           Abyssalpelagic

                                                                           Hadalpelagic

  Zone           Water Column          Moved upward to                      
                                       WCC                                 

                                       Drawn from VII    Water Column      Upper (mixed) Layer
                                       Water Column      Structure         
                                       descriptors                         

                                                                           Pycnocline

                                                                           Bottom Water Layer

                                                                           Benthic Boundary
                                                                           Layer

  Macrohabitat   ex. Upper Layer -     These categories                     
  (Water Column) Estuarine-Turbidity   distributed among                   
                 Maximum               WCC Categories.                     

                 ex. Bottom Layer -                                         
                 Benthic- Boundary                                         
                 Layer                                                     

  Habitat (Water ex. Oligohaline -     These categories                     
  Column)        Photic- Mixing Zone   distributed among                   
                                       WCC Categories.                     

                 ex. Euryhaline -                                           
                 Aphotic - Hypoxic                                         
                 Zone                                                      

                                       Newly developed   Biotic Clusters   Phytoplankton Bloom

                                                                           Floating Microbial
                                                                           Mat

                                                                           Floating Vegetation

                                                                           Zooplankton Swarms

                                                                           Zooplankton Patches

                                                                           Jellyfish
                                                                           Assemblages

                                                                           Floating/Suspended
                                                                           Macroalgae

                                                                           Phytoplankton
                                                                           Maximum Layer

                                       Drawn from VII    Salinity          Fresh
                                       Water Column                        
                                       descriptors                         

                                                                           Oligohaline

                                                                           Mesohaline

                                                                           Polyhaline

                                                                           Euhaline

                                                                           Hyperhaline

                                       Drawn from VII    Oxygen            Anoxic
                                       Water Column                        
                                       descriptors                         

                                                                           Hypoxic

                                                                           Oxic

                                                                           Oxygen Saturated

                                                                           Supersaturated

                                       Drawn from VII    Turbidity         Extremely Turbid
                                       Water Column                        
                                       descriptors                         

                                                                           Highly Turbid

                                                                           Clear

                                                                           Extremely Clear

                                       Drawn from VII    Photic Quality    Photic
                                       Water Column                        
                                       descriptors                         

                                                                           Aphotic

                                                                           Seasonally Photic

                                       Drawn from VII    Trophic Status    Oligotrophic
                                       Water Column                        
                                       descriptors                         

                                                                           Mesotrophic

                                                                           Eutrophic

                                       Drawn from VII    Temperature Class Frozen
                                       Water Column                        
                                       descriptors                         

                                                                           Superchilled

                                                                           Cold

                                                                           Temperate

                                                                           Warm

                                                                           Hot
  -------------- --------------------- ----------------- ----------------- --------------------

# Appendix F -- Comparison of CMECS Benthic Component to FGDC Wetlands Classification Standard

One objective for developing a national coastal and marine habitat
classification standard was to provide common terminology. Many of the
changes evident in CMECS Version III were made to better align CMECS
with the existing wetland standard where possible and to ensure that
like concepts and units in the two classifications are defined
consistently providing for a seamless classification data layer from the
continental divide to out beyond the continental shelves. A major
benefit of aligning with the wetland standard is its proven utility and
well defined protocols for mapping wetlands (National Wetland
Inventory).

Although the wetland standard has been widely used for mapping U.S.
freshwater and estuarine wetland systems, its application in marine
systems has not been as widespread. In the coastal and marine realm, the
wetland standard does not differentiate habitats sufficiently suitable
for management purposes. CMECS departs from the wetland standard in
several areas to address this need. Refer to the Table below for a
comparison diagram.

**Relationship Between FGDC Wetland Classification Standard and CMECS
Benthic Cover Component.**

  --------------- ----------------------------- -------------------------------
                  **Classification of Wetlands  **Coastal and Marine Ecological
                  and Deepwater Habitats of the Classification Standard**
                  United States**               

  **System**      Marine                        Nearshore

  ** **           *included in Marine*          Neritic

  ** **           *included in Marine*          Oceanic

  ** **           *included in Marine*          Freshwater Influenced

  ** **           Estuarine                     Estuarine

  **Subsystem**   Intertidal                    Intertidal

  ** **           Subtidal                      Subtidal

  **Cover Type**  *not included*                Biotic Cover

  ** **           *not included*                Abiotic Cover

  **Class**       Unconsolidated Shore          Unconsolidated Shore

  ** **           Rocky Shore                   Rocky Shore

  ** **           Emergent Wetland              Emergent-Low Shrub Wetland

  ** **           Scrub-Shrub Wetland(SS)       *included in Emergent-Low Shrub
                                                Wetland*

  ** **           Forested Wetland(F)           Forested Wetland

  ** **           Aquatic Bed                   Aquatic Bed

  ** **           Reef                          Coral Reefs and Coral
                                                Communities

  ** **           *included in Reef*            Worm Reefs and Worm Communities

  ** **           *included in Reef*            Mollusc Communities

  ** **           Rock Bottom                   Rock Bottom

  ** **           Unconsolidated Bottom         Unconsolidated Bottom

  **Subclass**    Cobble/Gravel                 Cobble/Gravel

  ** **           Sand                          Sand

  ** **           Mud                           Mud

  ** **           Organic                       Organic

  ** **           *included in Organic*         Shell

  ** **           *not included*                Mixed Sediments

  ** **           Bedrock                       Bedrock

  ** **                                         Pavement

  ** **           Rubble                        Boulder/Rubble

  ** **           Persistent\*                  Coastal Marsh

  ** **           Non-Persistent\*              *included in Coastal Marsh*

  ** **           Needle-Leaved Evergreen(SS)   *included in Coastal Marsh*

  ** **           Broad-Leaved Evergreen(SS)    *included in Coastal Marsh*

  ** **           Needle-Leaved Deciduous(SS)   *included in Coastal Marsh*

  ** **           Broad-Leaved Deciduous(SS)    *included in Coastal Marsh*

  ** **           Dead(S)                       *not included*

  ** **           Needle-Leaved Evergreen(F)    *reflected in Group and Biotope
                                                levels*

  ** **           Broad-Leaved Evergreen(F)     Mangroves

  ** **           Needle-Leaved Deciduous(F)    *reflected in Group and Biotope
                                                levels*

  ** **           Broad-Leaved Deciduous(F)     *reflected in Group and Biotope
                                                levels*

  ** **           Dead(F)                       *not included*

  ** **           Algal                         Macroalgae

  ** **           Rooted Vascular               Rooted Vascular

  ** **           *not included*                Microbial Mat

  ** **           Aquatic Moss                  *not included*

  ** **           Floating                      *included in Water Column
                                                Component*

  ** **           Mollusc                       Bivalve Reef

  ** **           *included in Mollusc*         Gastropod Reef

  ** **           Worm                          Worm Reef

  ** **           Coral                         Spur and Groove Reef

  ** **           *included in Coral*           Patch Reef

  ** **           *included in Coral*           Linear Reef

  ** **           *included in Coral*           Aggregate Reef

  ** **           *included in Coral*           Reef Rubble

  ** **           *included in Coral*           Deep Coral Reef

  ** **           *included in Coral*           Scattered Coral/Rock

  ** **           *included in Coral*           Coral Garden
  --------------- ----------------------------- -------------------------------

\* Emergent Wetland Persistence addressed through CMECS
descriptor/modifier

# Appendix G - Ecoregions for the United States

**Adapted from Marine Ecoregions of the World (Spalding et al. 2007)**

12\. Beaufort Sea---continental coast and shelf

13\. Chukchi Sea

14\. Eastern Bering Sea

39\. Scotian Shelf

40\. Gulf of Maine/Bay of Fundy

41\. Virginian

42\. Carolinian

43\. Northern Gulf of Mexico

53\. Aleutian Islands

54\. Gulf of Alaska

55\. North American Pacific Fijordland

56\. Puget Trough/Georgia Basin

57\. Oregon, Washington, Vancouver Coast and Shelf

58\. Northern California

59\. Southern California Bight

70\. Floridian

152\. Hawaii

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