##### Session No. 6

## Session Title: Direct Sensing Technology in Emergency Management

**Time:** Three Hours

**Objectives:**

At the conclusion of this session, students should be able to:

1.  Define direct sensing and its application to emergency management.

2.  Explain the U.S. Geological Survey real time water data sensors and
    their application to emergency management.

3.  Provide illustrations of direct sensing that could be used in
    emergency management (weather stations and National Weather Service
    Data).

4.  Discuss trends in technology affecting direct sensing.

**Scope:** This session will demonstrate the types of direct sensing
data available for hazards analysis and emergency response. Sources of
natural hazards data including river/stream gages, weather stations, and
National Weather Service forecasts will be discussed. Chemical air
monitoring systems and data sources will be examined.

**Readings:**

**Instructor**

Edward Kiester, Jr., "Water, Water, Everywhere." *Smithsonian.*
Washington, D.C. August 1997, Vol. 28, No. 3. Pp. 34 -- 45.

Wahl, Kenneth L., Wilbert O. Thomas, Jr., and Robert M. Hirsch.
"Stream-Gauging Program of the U.S. Geological Survey," U.S. Geological
Survey Circular 1123, Reston, Virginia, 1995,
<http://water.usgs.gov/public/realtime.html>.

\[For a copy of this reading see Readings: 6-USGS-Stream Gauge Word
Document.\]

###  **Students**

Kiester, Edward Jr., "Water, Water, Everywhere." *Smithsonian.*
Washington, D.C. August 1997, Vol. 28, No. 3. Pp. 34 -- 45.

Wahl, Kenneth L., Wilbert O. Thomas, Jr., and Robert M. Hirsch.
"Stream-Gauging Program of the U.S. Geological Survey," U.S. Geological
Survey Circular 1123, Reston, Virginia, 1995,
<http://water.usgs.gov/public/realtime.html>.

\[For a copy of this reading see Readings: 6-USGS-Stream Gauge Word
Document.\]

> **References**

Golombek, Matthew P., "The Mars Pathfinder Mission," *Scientific
American.* Vol. 279 No. 1, July 1998.

Haimes, Yacov Y.; Krzysztofowicz, Roman; Lambert, James H.; Li, Duan;
Tulsiani, Vigay. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Institute for Water
Resources. "Risk Based Evaluation of Flood Warning and Preparedness
Systems," Volumes 1 & 2. Water Resources Support Center National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va. November 1996.

Newcott, William R., "Return to Mars," *National Geographic.* Vol. 194,
No. 2, August 1998.

# Remarks:

####### 6.1 Direct Sensing: How It Fits into the Emergency Management System

The collection of data relating to disasters is critical in emergency
planning, response, recovery, and mitigation efforts. Data relating to
the actual or potential disaster allows the emergency manager to
understand the phenomenon, whether it is a natural occurrence or man
made as in an accidental chemical release of hazardous materials. Data
also allows the emergency management community to use real data to
simulate potential disasters as in the case of floods, a storm surge,
earthquakes, or wind. Models have been developed to allow for the
simulation of a disaster. These simulations require specific data
concerning the natural or man made circumstances, the weather
conditions, terrain, or physical structures.

The collection data can be obtained directly as in the case of a weather
station or flood gage or indirectly as in the case of an aerial
photograph, weather radar, or satellite images. The means of collecting
the data have changed greatly because of developments in technology.
Computerized sensors allow us today to see more clearly than ever before
from aircraft as well as satellites; the sensors also allow us to
understand the nature of the natural environment including winds, soil
types, terrain, water movement, and vegetation. The following section
provides an overview of direct and remote sensing data systems and their
use in emergency management.

**6.2 Direct Sensing: An Overview of the Technology**

Direct sensing obtains data of phenomena from direct contact with the
physical environment. Weather stations provide data from direct contact
with the air, wind, and temperature gages; these collect ongoing
readings for digital transfer of the data by phone or direct input into
computers. Weather stations today provide a means of collecting data but
also a means of storage and communication of the data.

***U.S. Geological Survey: Real-Time Water Data***

\[The following summary was adapted from information provided by U.S.
Geological Survey. <http://water.usgs.gov/public/realtime.html>.\]

**Note to the Instructor:** A *description of the USGS River Gauge
System is provided as a student reading for this session. It is
suggested that you set aside class time to discuss the article and the
application of the system to emergency management. A class assignment is
also included with this session, which requires the student to complete
a different assessment of this system.*

The stream-gauging program of the USGS does not represent a single
"network" of stations, but an aggregation of networks and individual
stream flow stations that originally were established for various
purposes. Because the data from about 4,200 of the 7,292 stations are
linked by an earth-satellite-based communications system, the data is
available in real-time to many agencies for conducting water-resources
projects and for the National Weather Service (NWS) to forecast floods.
Data from the active stations, as well as from discontinued stations,
are stored in a computer data base that currently holds mean
daily-discharge data for about 18,500 locations and more than 400,000
station-years of record, or more than 146 million individual mean
daily-discharge values. Additional data are added to the database each
year. The stream-discharge database is an ever-growing resource for
water-resources planning and design, hydrologic research, and operation
of water-resources projects.

> **Question for the Class:** Funding technology for emergency
> management can be very expensive. Explain to the class how the USGS
> collaborates with other governmental and private agencies to fund the
> installation and maintenance of the gage stations. How could emergency
> managers work with other public and private organizations to obtain
> the desired technology for their operations?
>
> *Just as the network of stations represents an aggregation, so does
> the program funding. Operating funds for individual stations in the
> program may come from a blend of Federal funds appropriated to the
> USGS, funds from State and local agencies, and funds appropriated to
> other Federal agencies. Federal funds are allocated to the USGS for
> matching State or local agency offerings under the USGS
> Federal---State Cooperative Program (herein referred to as the
> "Cooperative Program").*
>
> *More than 50 percent of the 7,292 stations operated by the USGS are
> funded through the Cooperative Program. Under that program, the USGS
> provides up to 50 percent of the funds, and the State or local agency
> provides the remainder. Currently, more than 600 State and local
> agencies participate in the stream-gauging program. Other stations in
> the program are operated by the USGS and funded by other Federal
> agencies, such as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) and the
> Bureau of Reclamation (BOR), to provide those agencies with the
> hydrologic data needed for planning and operating water-resources
> projects. Additionally, some of the stations are funded by the USGS to
> support national programs of water-resources investigations; to
> collect data required by court decree, treaty, or compact; and to
> conduct hydrologic research. The USGS provides full support for fewer
> than 10 percent of the stations that it operates. Many of the stations
> funded primarily by State or local funds are critically important to
> USGS-funded programs, such as the National Water Quality Assessment
> (NAWQA) Program.* (*Leahy and Thompson, 1994).*
>
> **Question for the Class: Uses of Stream Flow Data---**How could
> emergency managers use the information obtained from the stream
> gauging system?
>
> *The USGS stream-gauging program provides hydrologic information
> needed to help define, use, and manage the Nation's water resources.
> The program provides a continuous, well-documented, well-archived,
> unbiased, and broad-based source of reliable and consistent water
> data. Because of the nationally consistent, prescribed standards by
> which the data are collected and processed, the data from individual
> stations are commonly used for purposes beyond the original purpose
> for an individual station. Those possible uses include the following:*

-   *Enhancing the public safety by providing data for forecasting and
    managing floods*

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-   *Characterizing current water-quality conditions*

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-   *Determining input rates of various pollutants into lakes,
    reservoirs, or estuaries*

-   *Computing the loads of sediment and chemical constituents*

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-   *Understanding the biological effects of contamination*

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-   *Delineating and managing flood plains*

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-   *Operating and designing multipurpose reservoirs*

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-   *Setting permit requirements for discharge of treated wastewater*

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-   *Designing highway bridges and culverts*

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-   *Setting minimum flow requirements for meeting aquatic life goals*

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-   *Monitoring compliance with minimum flow requirements*

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-   *Developing or operating recreation facilities*

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-   *Scheduling power production*

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-   *Designing, operating, and maintaining navigation facilities*

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-   *Allocating water for municipal, industrial, and irrigation uses*

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-   *Administering compacts or resolving conflicts on interstate rivers*

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-   *Defining and apportioning the water resources at our international
    borders*

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-   *Evaluating surface---and ground-water interaction*

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-   *Undertaking scientific studies of long-term changes in the
    hydrologic cycle*

> *Data for one or more of these purposes are needed at some point in
> time on virtually every stream in the country, and a data-collection
> system must be in place to provide the required information. The
> general objective of the stream-gaging program is to provide
> information on or to develop estimates of flow characteristics at any
> point on any stream. Streamflow data are needed for immediate decision
> making and future planning and project design. Data such as those
> needed to issue and update flood forecasts are referred to as "data
> for current needs." Other data, such as that needed for the design of
> a future, but currently unplanned, bridge or reservoir or development
> of basin wide pollution control plans, are referred to as "data for
> future or long-term needs." Some data, of course, fit into both
> classifications; for example, a station that supplies data for flood
> forecasting and also provides data to define long-term trends.*
>
> **Question for the Class:** Using the stream flow data from the USGS
> Gauging System, explain how the data could be used.
>
> *Stream flow data are needed at many sites on a daily basis for
> forecasting flow extremes, making water-management decisions,
> assessing current water availability, managing water quality, and
> meeting legal requirements. These activities require stream flow
> information at a given location for a specified time. These needs
> generally are best satisfied by operating a station to produce a
> continuous record of flow. The locations of the stations and the
> periods of operation are dictated by the uses to be made of the data.*
>
> *More than one-half of the USGS stations provide current information
> (mostly by way of satellite telemetry) to agencies that operate
> water-resource systems and forecast floods. The NWS is charged by law
> with the responsibility of issuing forecasts and warnings of floods to
> the Nation to help save lives and to help mitigate property damage.
> The NWS uses data from USGS stations to forecast river stages and flow
> conditions on large rivers and their associated tributaries. Flood
> forecasts are issued at about 4,000 locations strategically located
> throughout the Nation. The reliability of flood forecasts depends on
> having reliable current data for precipitation and stream flow. The
> USGS collects the stream flow data, and the NWS collects the
> precipitation data and combines both types of data when making the
> flood forecasts.*
>
> *The U.S. Geological Survey stream gauging network is vital to the
> National Weather Service's river forecast and warning program and the
> goal to reduce flood damages and loss of life. Without data from this
> network, the nation would experience increased life and property
> losses from floods. During the 1993 Mississippi River floods, USGS
> field personnel made more than 2,000 visits to stations in the
> flood-affected areas to verify that the instruments were working
> properly, to make repairs as needed, and to make direct measurements
> of the stream flow. Data from these stations were provided
> continuously to the NWS and the COE and formed the basis for flood
> forecasts that allowed people to be evacuated from areas about to be
> inundated. The COE and local agencies used the stream flow information
> to protect lives and property and to focus flood-fighting activities
> where they were most needed. As a national organization, the USGS was
> able to move staff from other offices into the disaster areas. Because
> these hydrologists and technicians were already familiar with the
> equipment and procedures, they could begin to work immediately upon
> arrival in the area. This same experience with the real-time use of
> USGS streamflow data is repeated several times each year as
> catastrophic floods strike various sections of the Nation.*

To obtain data from this program see
<http://water.usgs.gov/public/realtime.html>.

**6.3 Other Applications of Direct Sensing in Organizations**

> **Question for the Class:** Organizations are using sensors in many
> different ways. Identify and discuss the various types of sensors that
> are currently in use in organizations.
>
> *Alter (1996, p. 314) notes that many organizations use technology to
> monitor offices and buildings. Security systems using small cards
> (similar to gas charge cards) control access to offices. Video cameras
> record activity in sensitive areas (banks and quick shop businesses
> have used this technology to prevent criminal activity). Sensors also
> detect motion in an area as well as sudden impact such as the breaking
> of glass. Parking gate cards control access to personnel approved for
> the area. Automatic doors control access to buildings.*

**Class Activity**

Doppler Radar Images are available to local communities from the Weather
Channel, local weather stations, and private weather information
providers.

Doppler Radar offers the emergency management community a real time
image of severe weather patterns. Showers and severe thunderstorms may
be viewed by the public, media, and emergency management organizations
as the storms approach a community. Discuss how this technology could be
used by emergency managers. What problems could be encountered in using
"Doppler Radar" data?

####  

#### *Case Example: Direct Sensor Weather Stations*

One of the most common emergency management applications of direct
sensing is the use of weather stations. Campbell Scientific manufactures
rugged, battery-operated, precision data loggers, data acquisition and
control systems, and sensors for environmental measurements. Campbell
Scientific is just one of many companies that manufacture meteorological
measurement stations. Table 1, which follows, provides a list of other
companies that manufacture and distribute these systems. The information
provided by Campbell Scientific is intended to be used as an
illustration of the technology that is available for the emergency
management community and not an endorsement of this manufacturer.

**Table 1**

**Vendors of Portable Meteorological Measurement Stations**

**(Compatible with ALOHA)**

**Weather Station Vendors**

> Campbell Scientific Company
>
> 815 W 1800 N
>
> Logan, UT 84321-1784 801/753-2342 801/752-3268 -- fax
>
> Climatronics Corporation---METRAC
>
> 140 Wilbur Place
>
> Bohemia, NY 11716 516/567-7300 516/567-7585 -- fax
>
> Coastal Environmental Systems
>
> 1000 1st Ave. S, Suite 200
>
> Seattle, WA 98134
>
> 800/488-8291 206/682-6048 206/682-5658 -- fax
>
> RainWise
>
> 25 Federal St.
>
> Bar Harbor, ME 04609 207/288-5169 207/288-3477 -- fax
>
> Qualimetrics, Inc.
>
> 1165 National Drive
>
> Sacramento, CA 95834 916/928-1000 916/928-1165 - fax
>
> R.M. Young Company
>
> 2801 Aero-Park Drive
>
> Traverse City, MI 49686 616/946-3980 616/946-4772 -- fax
>
> Scientific Sales, Inc.
>
> P.O. Box 6725
>
> Lawrenceville, NJ 08648
>
> 800/788-5666 609/844-0055 609/844-0466 - fax

The sensor is the device that measures temperatures, wind speed, or
water level. The reading is then sent to a data logger that translates
the information into digital form which can be saved in a database
format or transferred using land lines to other computers or through
telecommunication connections to other sites by phone. The data logger
processes the data and can be programmed to store only the information
needed. The vendor can help the user to choose a system that is
customized to provide data in the emergency management information
system. Many weather station products, as illustrated by Campbell
Scientific, are operable down to -55 degrees C and have minimal power
requirements, allowing use in extremely inhospitable environments. In
addition, data loggers store data in a memory which provides a reliable
backup even if primary power supplies fail.

Ski areas, public works agencies, transportation departments, and
forestry offices commonly use weather stations equipped with snow depth
sensors for avalanche prediction. Campbell Scientific data loggers have
also been linked to GPS receivers to record position on the Earth's
surface (ice sheet monitoring, movement of the Himalayas).

The Campbell direct sensors have other capabilities in addition to
meteorology weather and climate data. Review the Campbell Internet site
for illustrations of air quality monitoring and diffusion modeling
capabilities. For more information on Campbell Scientific Weather
Stations see:

> [http://www.campbellsci.com](http://www.campbellsci.com/)

### ***Case Example: Emergency Managers Weather Information Network (EMWIN) from the National Weather Service***

As mentioned in the previous session, the EMWIN is an integral part of
the mission of the National Weather Service (NWS). EMWIN provides the
emergency management community with access to a set of basic NWS
warnings, watches, forecasts, and other products at no recurring cost.
EMWIN is a suite of methods of making available a live data stream of
basic weather data, and providing access to stored sets of basic
unenhanced data, using a variety of techniques and technologies. Each
method has advantages and disadvantages over the others, hence this
multi-layered approach to enable multiple methods of availability.
EMWIN's present methods in use or under development for disseminating
the basic data stream include:

-   Radio---formerly called the Wireless Weather Information Network
    (WWIN)

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-   Internet---the Interactive Weather Information Network (IWIN) online
    graphics version (for Netscape viewers, etc., that support tables
    and in-line graphics)

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-   Satellite---currently on GOES 8, GOES 9, Galaxy 4, etc.

***Note:** The above methods are intended simply to provide a basic
level of data support to users who currently have none or who can afford
very little. Each of these methods has significant limitations. Be aware
that there are better methods available, at higher cost to the end-user,
including various more robust commercial weather distribution systems.
EMWIN is a supplement to other NWS dissemination services, which
include: NOAA Weather Radio (NWR), NOAA Weather Wire System (NWWS),
Family of Services (FOS), NOAAPORT, and NEXRAD Information Dissemination
Service (NIDS).*

**Local Weather:** This selection allows you to pick any state you want
detailed information on. Each state screen selected then allows you to
easily find and observe:

-   Current hourly reports---weather condition reports for each state,
    issued every hour.

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-   State forecasts---twice daily for each state and covers 1-5 day
    forecasts.

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-   Local forecasts---city-specific and covers 1-3 days, not all sites
    issue this.

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-   Zone forecasts---twice daily for individual county/zones in every
    state.

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-   Short term forecasts (NOWcasts)---several times per day and covers
    next 4 to 8 hours, not all sites issue this.

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-   Public information area---current record reports, public information
    statements, recreational reports, and additional state information
    reports.

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-   Climatic data---historical comparisons, running totals for
    precipitation, etc. Issued daily for each state.

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-   Coastal, river, and hydrologic information---various hydro reports,
    some water related recreation reports.

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-   Special weather statements---additional details on current
    conditions. Can give more detailed information on any current severe
    weather in each state.

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-   Watches, warnings, and advisories

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-   Tornado severe thunderstorm

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-   Flood

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-   Flash flood

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-   Hurricane local statement

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-   Winter storm

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-   Special marine warning

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-   Severe weather statement

[http://www.nws.noaa.gov/oso/oso1/oso12/document/wintip.htm](http://www.nws.noaa.gov/oso/oso1/oso12/document/emwin.htm)

**6.4 Trends in Technology Affecting Networks and Direct Sensing**

**Remote access to information:** Critical information is now more
available to emergency managers as a result of our expanding networks.
For example, the U.S. Geological Survey has installed a system of stream
monitoring gages to provide timely information on water levels in
streams and rivers. These sensors are installed in the streams and
rivers and send available information over networks to the emergency
manager in a remote location. More widespread use of sensors by means of
a phone or Internet network may be used to generate valuable input in a
crisis.

**Information overload:** With the increasing attention to technology,
we may inadvertently cause information overload. If a communication
system is highly centralized, even a limited emergency can result in
communication bottlenecks. Sub-networks may need to be created to divert
communication from the operations center. By examining elements of the
emergency management system, emergency managers can design a plan for
distributing computing capability. Who needs to communicate directly and
frequently with whom?

**Data integration:** Many organizations have been struggling to cope
with increasing demands for timely and accurate data to support
continuous decision making. As a result, large centralized systems have
been adapted to more distributed databases. Maintaining linkages and
integration of the data is critical in times of crisis. In the future,
data will include more databases (relational), but also digital
libraries and multimedia databases maintained in a distributed
environment. Documentation on the source of data and on data types will
be critical to ensuring that information is used for its intended
purpose. What barriers hinder agency data integration efforts?

**Real time response data:** In a disaster, complex computing may not be
possible for those directly involved in the response. As in other
disaster management situations, a rear support team can be organized to
carry out high performance modeling and analysis. Dependable networks
should be designed to allow detailed analysis to occur even during very
stressful events. Linkages between support staff and operations units
must be maintained in a secure environment.

***Case Example of Direct Sensing: NASA's Mars Pathfinder***

NASA has successfully demonstrated the application of direct sensing in
the space program using robot technology. Using sensors, the Mars
Pathfinder is able to provide information on Mars surface pressure, air
temperature, wind direction, and wind speed by utilizing electronic
weather measuring devices on the mast of the Pathfinder. In addition,
electronic probes provide readings of the rocks from the surface of
Mars. These probes provide scientists with valuable information on the
nature of the surface of Mars. For a close look at the Pathfinder and
the type of data provided by its sensors see:
<http://www.nasa.gov/hqpao/pathfinder.html>.

> **Question for the Class:** EPA has sensors in communities that fail
> air quality requirements. Region 1, EPA has made access to this data
> from the Internet public.
>
> How could the emergency management community use this application of
> "direct sensing" for emergency planning, response, recovery, or
> mitigation?
>
> ***Response:** Provide a basis for decisions involving warning for
> emergencies. Provide a basis for decisions involving evacuations.*
>
> ***Recovery:** Damage assessment teams need accurate information on
> the extent of damage in a disaster. Data collected from weather
> stations, chemical sensors, or stream gauge stations identify the high
> priority areas affected by the flood. The data collection stations
> provide a basis for identifying the areas most affected by the event
> and in directing responders to priority areas. In the past, response
> operational decisions were based on personal observations of emergency
> management personnel making actual observations in the event. With
> remote sensing capabilities, the emergency manager can direct response
> personnel to critical parts of the disaster without waiting for
> personal observation of responders.*
>
> ***Mitigation:** The data that was collected by public agencies during
> the crisis may also be used to understand the actual impact of a
> flood, a fire, or wind damage. Data collected in an event can be used
> as the input for flood, fire, wind, or chemical modeling and provide
> the basis for replicating the event and its use in hazards analysis.*
>
> What is the value of having real time access to sensors (available
> through the Internet) providing access to chemical emissions, weather,
> or flood data?
>
> *In times of crisis, access to accurate data in a timely basis is
> essential to understanding the nature and extent of an incident.
> Public agencies such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (both
> regional and national offices), the U.S. Geological Survey, and the
> National Weather Service are moving to provide immediate access to
> information through the Internet.*
>
> What problems could be encountered in using real time data such as
> portable weather stations described in this course guide?
>
> Access to the data: Is access dependable and protected from being cut
> off during the event? Can the emergency manager understand the data
> obtained from the sensors? Is assessment of the data dependent on a
> few key personnel who could be lost in an event?

**Class Assignment**

**USGS River Gauging System**

**System Capabilities and Compatibility**

*Computing and Communications in the Extreme: Research for Crisis
Management and Other Applications* notes several problems that could
dramatically affect emergency management including (1) system
flexibility, (2)) interoperable systems, (3) security, (4) lack of
current relevant information on technology (infrastructure and
applications), (5) financial constraints, (6) collaboration with other
agencies.

-   Discuss these issues in relation to the U.S. Geological Survey's
    River Gaging System.

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-   Extensive rainfall may cause considerable damage in local
    communities. How could local officials use the U.S. Geological
    Survey's river sensing technology to understand how the local area
    would be affected by heavy rains?

Be prepared to discuss your results at the next class.

**Note to the Instructor:** Have members of the class prepare a written
response to these questions and be prepared to discuss their answers at
the beginning of the next class.

**System flexibility:** Once the system is designed, is it possible to
make changes in an easy manner and in a timely basis? Can changes in the
type and nature of data be made without totally replacing the sensor?
Can alternative communication technology be used without major changes
and additional replacement of the technology?

**Interoperable systems**: Most industry efforts are targeted to the
commercial market and focused on providing a communications
infrastructure whose underlying organization is static (placement of
routers and sites as hosts). Current systems are designed to carry
anticipated loads and provide security. Communication patterns in times
of crisis may be unpredictable. It may be impossible to establish and
maintain a static routing structure since the host and units are
inherently unstable. A "self-organizing" system may need to be designed.

**Security:** Direct sensing data systems are often in an open
environment and subject to tampering by the public. An example is the
river gage system operated by the Corps of Engineers. These units are
often found on bridges in public view and easily accessable to anyone.
The only security is a simple locking system. Are these direct sensing
systems able to communicate data frequently so that if tampering is
detected, the data collected is not sacrificed?

**Lack of current relevant information on technology:** A key factor in
selecting a data collection system is the use of current technology. The
emergency manager can examine whether the system is using the most
current communication technology and is thus able to take advantage of
current digital transfer technology (wireless communication) and use of
direct record communication rather than having to reenter the data after
collecting the information from the sensor.

#### 

#### Financial constraints: Are the sitemaps available to the emergency management community at a reasonable cost? The current remote sensing weather stations are an example of systems that are reasonably priced, easy to install and maintain, and reliable over a long period.

#### Collaboration with other agencies: May the system be sponsored by multiple agencies and thus more useful to a wider user group? In some cases, the direct sensing system is collecting information that cannot be shared with other agencies without significant oversight by the sponsoring agency. Some regulatory agencies are subject to significant legal and programmatic restrictions limiting access to data by other public bodies.