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> Revised Costs of Large Truck- and Bus-Involved Crashes
>
> *Final Report for*
>
> *Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration*
>
> *Federal Highway Administration*
>
> *400 Seventh Street, SW, Washington, DC*
>
> *(Project Number: DTMC75-01-P-00046)*
>
> *by*
>
> *Eduard Zaloshnja, Ph.D.*
>
> *Ted Miller, Ph.D.*
>
> Technical Report Documentation Page

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| 4\. Title and    |   |                | 5 |        |                      |
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|                  |   |                | t |        |                      |
|                  |   |                | e |        |                      |
+------------------+---+----------------+---+--------+----------------------+
| Revised Costs of |   |                | N |        |                      |
| Large Truck- and |   |                | o |        |                      |
| Bus-Involved     |   |                | v |        |                      |
| Crashes          |   |                | e |        |                      |
|                  |   |                | m |        |                      |
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| 7\. Author(s)    |   |                | 8 |        |                      |
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+------------------+---+----------------+---+--------+----------------------+
| Eduard           |   |                |   |        |                      |
| Zaloshnja, Ph.D. |   |                |   |        |                      |
| & Ted Miller,    |   |                |   |        |                      |
| Ph.D.            |   |                |   |        |                      |
|                  |   |                |   |        |                      |
+------------------+---+----------------+---+--------+----------------------+
| 9\. Performing   |   |                | 1 |        |                      |
| Organization     |   |                | 0 |        |                      |
| Name and Address |   |                | \ |        |                      |
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| Pacific          |   |                |   |        |                      |
| Institute for    |   |                |   |        |                      |
| Research and     |   |                |   |        |                      |
| Evaluation       |   |                |   |        |                      |
|                  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| 11710 Beltsville |   |                |   |        |                      |
| Drive, Suite 300 |   |                |   |        |                      |
|                  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| Calverton, MD    |   |                |   |        |                      |
| 20705            |   |                |   |        |                      |
|                  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| Phone:           |   |                |   |        |                      |
| 301-755-2700     |   |                |   |        |                      |
| Fax: (301)       |   |                |   |        |                      |
| 755-2799         |   |                |   |        |                      |
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| 12\. Sponsoring  |   |                | 1 |        |                      |
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+------------------+---+----------------+---+--------+----------------------+
| Federal Motor    |   |                |   |        |                      |
| Carrier Safety   |   |                |   |        |                      |
| Administration   |   |                |   |        |                      |
|                  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| Federal Highway  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| Administration   |   |                | \ |        |                      |
|                  |   |                | F |        |                      |
| 400 7^th^        |   |                | i |        |                      |
| Street, SW       |   |                | n |        |                      |
|                  |   |                | a |        |                      |
| Washington, DC   |   |                | l |        |                      |
| 20590            |   |                | R |        |                      |
|                  |   |                | e |        |                      |
|                  |   |                | p |        |                      |
|                  |   |                | o |        |                      |
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|                  |   |                |   |        |                      |
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+------------------+---+----------------+---+--------+----------------------+
| 15\.             |   |                |   |        |                      |
| Supplementary    |   |                |   |        |                      |
| Notes            |   |                |   |        |                      |
+------------------+---+----------------+---+--------+----------------------+
|                  |   |                |   |        |                      |
+------------------+---+----------------+---+--------+----------------------+
| 16\. Abstract    |   |                |   |        |                      |
+------------------+---+----------------+---+--------+----------------------+
| This study       |   |                |   |        |                      |
| provides the     |   |                |   |        |                      |
| latest estimates |   |                |   |        |                      |
| of the costs of  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| highway crashes  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| involving large  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| trucks and buses |   |                |   |        |                      |
| by severity.     |   |                |   |        |                      |
| Based on the     |   |                |   |        |                      |
| latest data      |   |                |   |        |                      |
| available, the   |   |                |   |        |                      |
| estimated cost   |   |                |   |        |                      |
| of               |   |                |   |        |                      |
| police-reported  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| crashes          |   |                |   |        |                      |
| involving trucks |   |                |   |        |                      |
| with a gross     |   |                |   |        |                      |
| weight rating of |   |                |   |        |                      |
| more than 10,000 |   |                |   |        |                      |
| pounds averaged  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| \$59,153 (in     |   |                |   |        |                      |
| 2000 dollars).   |   |                |   |        |                      |
| The average cost |   |                |   |        |                      |
| of               |   |                |   |        |                      |
| police-reported  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| crashes          |   |                |   |        |                      |
| involving        |   |                |   |        |                      |
| transit or       |   |                |   |        |                      |
| inter-city buses |   |                |   |        |                      |
| was \$32,548 per |   |                |   |        |                      |
| crash. These     |   |                |   |        |                      |
| costs represent  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| the present      |   |                |   |        |                      |
| value, computed  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| at a 4% discount |   |                |   |        |                      |
| rate, of all     |   |                |   |        |                      |
| costs over the   |   |                |   |        |                      |
| victim's         |   |                |   |        |                      |
| expected life    |   |                |   |        |                      |
| span that result |   |                |   |        |                      |
| from a crash.    |   |                |   |        |                      |
| They include     |   |                |   |        |                      |
| medically        |   |                |   |        |                      |
| related costs,   |   |                |   |        |                      |
| emergency        |   |                |   |        |                      |
| services costs,  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| property damage  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| costs, lost      |   |                |   |        |                      |
| productivity,    |   |                |   |        |                      |
| and the          |   |                |   |        |                      |
| monetized value  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| of the pain,     |   |                |   |        |                      |
| suffering, and   |   |                |   |        |                      |
| quality of life  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| that the family  |   |                |   |        |                      |
| loses because of |   |                |   |        |                      |
| a death or       |   |                |   |        |                      |
| injury.          |   |                |   |        |                      |
+------------------+---+----------------+---+--------+----------------------+
| 17\. Key Words   |   |                | 1 |        |                      |
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+------------------+---+----------------+---+--------+----------------------+
| truck; bus;      |   |                | C |        |                      |
| bobtail; crash;  |   |                | o |        |                      |
| costs            |   |                | p |        |                      |
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|                  |   |                | 2 |        |                      |
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|                  |   |                | 1 |        |                      |
|                  |   |                | 6 |        |                      |
|                  |   |                | 0 |        |                      |
|                  |   |                | . |        |                      |
+------------------+---+----------------+---+--------+----------------------+
| 19 Security      |   | 20\. Security  |   | 21\.   | 22\. Price           |
| Classif. (of     |   | Classif. (of   |   | No of  |                      |
| this report)     |   | this page)     |   | Pages  |                      |
+------------------+---+----------------+---+--------+----------------------+
| Unclassified     |   | Unclassified   |   |        |                      |
+------------------+---+----------------+---+--------+----------------------+

**Form DOT F 1700.7 (8/72)** Reproduction of completed page authorized

# Table of Contents

Technical Report Documentation Page (Form DOT F 1700
7)..................................VI

Executive Summary [1](#executive-summary)

Introduction [2](#introduction)

Methods [3](#methods)

Results [12](#results)

References [27](#references)

Appendix [31](#appendix)

# Executive Summary

This study provides the latest comprehensive, economically sophisticated
estimates of the costs of highway crashes involving large trucks and
buses by severity. Based on the latest data available, the estimated
cost of police-reported crashes involving trucks with a gross weight
rating of more than 10,000 pounds averaged \$59,153 (in 2000 dollars).
The average cost of police-reported crashes involving transit or
inter-city buses was \$32,548 per crash. These costs represent the
present value, computed at a 4% discount rate, of all costs over the
victims' expected life span that result from a crash. They include
medically related costs, emergency services costs, property damage
costs, lost productivity, and the monetized value of the pain,
suffering, and quality of life that the family loses because of a death
or injury. Other notable findings include:

-   The cost of crashes in which truck-tractors with two or three
    trailers were involved was the highest among all crashes -- \$88,483
    per crash.

-   Among crashes with all configuration information available,
    bus-involved crashes had the lowest cost -- \$32,548 per crash.

-   The costs per crash with injuries averaged \$164,730 for large truck
    crashes and \$77,043 for bus crashes.

-   As expected, fatal crashes cost more than any other crash. The
    average cost of fatal crashes involving bobtails was the highest
    among all fatal crashes -- \$4.2 million per crash.

-   The crash costs per 1,000 truck miles are \$157 for single unit
    trucks, \$131 for single combination trucks, and \$63 for multiple
    combinations.

-   The average annual cost of large truck crashes in 1997-99 exceeded
    \$19.6 billion. That total included \$6.6 billion in productivity
    losses, \$3.4 billion in resource costs, and quality of life losses
    valued at \$9.6 billion.

-   Bus crashes were a much smaller factor than truck crashes, costing
    \$0.7 billion annually in 1997-99.

-   The cost estimates exclude mental health care costs for crash
    victims, roadside furniture repair costs, cargo delays, earnings
    lost by family and friends caring for the injured, and the value of
    schoolwork lost.

# Introduction

Trucks and buses with a gross weight rating of over 10,000 pounds
constitute the majority of interstate commercial vehicles. They are the
primary focus of Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regulations. Crashes
involving such vehicles impose a variety of costs on the vehicle and its
driver, other drivers either directly or indirectly involved in the
crash, and society as a whole. In addition to costs such as property
damage, emergency services, and travel delays, injuries and fatalities
impose significant costs. This report provides unit costs of large
(medium and heavy) vehicle crashes, stated in 2000 dollars.

Safety analysts use crash cost data for a variety of purposes, from
analyzing the effectiveness of a particular roadway enhancement to
measuring the impact of seatbelt use. Crash costs are used to compare
the relative efficacy of various crash countermeasures, which are
expected to have a differential impact on crashes of different severity.
These figures are also used to calculate and compare the
cost-effectiveness of proposed safety regulations. Efficient allocation
of research, enforcement, and analysis resources requires reliable data
on crash costs.

Miller, Viner et al. (1991) made a first attempt to estimate truck and
bus crash costs. They first computed costs by threat-to-life severity
measured by Maximum Abbreviated Injury Score (MAIS; AAAM, 1985). The AIS
scheme is a detailed medical classification developed by physicians as a
basis for rating the survival threat injuries pose. It assigns a numeric
rating ranging from 0 (uninjured) to 6 (maximum, generally
unsurvivable). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)
data sets that are AIS coded add codes for "injured, severity unknown"
and "unknown if injured". MAIS is simply the maximum AIS among the
multiple injuries a victim suffers. The purpose of the AIS scale is to
differentiate injuries by survival threat, not the cost, functional
losses, or course of recovery they involve. For example, loss of teeth
is an AIS-1 injury that can involve substantial costs and lifetime pain
and suffering. Conversely, timely surgery often allows complete and
rapid recovery from ruptured spleens and other AIS 3-5 internal
injuries. Nevertheless, average costs per case within a body region
almost always rise with MAIS (Miller 1993).

By multiplying average costs per highway crash victim by MAIS times the
MAIS distribution of victims in crashes sorted by the heaviest vehicle
involved, Miller, Viner et al. (1991) estimated costs by vehicle type.
Those estimates implicitly assumed that the distribution of injuries by
body region within an AIS severity level did not vary with vehicle type.
Only property damage and crash-related travel delay costs were tailored
to truck and bus crashes.

Miller, Levy et al. (1998) and Miller, Spicer et al. (1999) improved on
Miller, Viner et al. (1991) by computing medium/heavy vehicle crash
costs by vehicle type from 1982-1992 data on victim MAIS and body region
in medium/heavy vehicle crashes. Zaloshnja, Miller, and Spicer (2000)
paralleled their methods. It updated their estimates and substantially
increased the number of cases used to estimate the injury distribution
for occupants of light passenger vehicles involved in medium/heavy
vehicle crashes. With the larger sample, it was able to more finely
differentiate costs among heavy vehicle types. That study was the first
to differentiate costs of single versus multiple trailer crashes.

The present study updates the results of Zaloshnja, Miller, and Spicer
(2000) using methods described in Blincoe, Seay, et al (2002) and
Zaloshnja, Miller, et al (2002). Notably, costs per non-fatally-injured
victim of a highway crash were estimated by maximum AIS (MAIS), body
part, and whether the victim suffered a fracture/dislocation. In
addition to the more detailed diagnoses used in estimation, the accuracy
of our estimates was increased by using current medical cost, wage, and
income data. Property damage costs were updated using the latest
insurance data on commercial vehicles. In estimating the productivity
loss due to travel delays, we now assume that only police reported
crashes delay traffic. This was based on the premise that any
substantial impact on traffic would attract the attention of police.
Within the constraints of available data, this study provides
economically sophisticated, reliable estimates of the average costs of
medium/heavy vehicle crashes with different levels of severity.

# Methods

Estimating crash costs requires estimates of the number of people and
vehicles involved in a crash, the severity of each person's injuries,
and the costs of those injuries and associated vehicle damage and travel
delay. The following section describes the methodology used to estimate
the incidence and severity of large truck and bus crashes. The
succeeding section explains how the costs of crashes were estimated.

***Incidence and Severity Estimation***. To Incidence and Severity
Estimation. To estimate injury incidence and severity, we followed
procedures developed by Miller and Blincoe (1994) and Miller, Galbraith
et al. (1995) and also applied in Zaloshnja, Miller, and Spicer (2000),
and Blincoe, Seay, et al (2002). Our estimates of the average number of
people and vehicles involved in a medium/heavy vehicle crash by vehicle
type, restraint use, crash severity, and police-reported injury severity
come from NHTSA's Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) and General
Estimates System (GES).

Crash databases do not accurately describe the severity of large truck
and bus crashes. Accordingly, we made several adjustments to more
accurately reflect the severity of crashes. These adjustments are
described below.

FARS is a census of U.S. fatal crashes but it does not describe injuries
to survivors in these crashes. GES provides a sample of U.S. crashes by
police-reported severity for all crash types. GES records injury
severity by crash victim on the KABCO scale (National Safety Council,
1990) from police crash reports. Police reports in almost every state
use KABCO to classify crash victims as K-killed, A-disabling injury,
B-evident injury, C-possible injury, or O-no apparent injury. KABCO
ratings are coarse and inconsistently coded between states and over
time. The codes are selected by police officers without medical
training, typically without benefit of a hands-on examination. Some
victims are transported from the scene before the police officer who
completes the crash report even arrives. Miller, Viner et al. (1991) and
Blincoe and Faigin (1992) documented the great diversity in KABCO coding
across cases. O'Day (1993) more carefully quantified the great
variability in use of the A-injury code between states. Viner and Conley
(1994) explained the contribution to this variability of differing state
definitions of A-injury. Miller, Whiting et al. (1987) found
police-reported injury counts by KABCO severity systematically varied
between states because of differing state crash reporting thresholds
(the rules governing which crashes should be reported to the police).
Miller and Blincoe (1994) found that state reporting thresholds often
changed over time.

Thus, police-reporting does not accurately describe injuries medically.
To minimize the effects of variability in severity definitions between
states, reporting thresholds, and police perception of injury severity,
we turned to NHTSA data sets that included both police-reported KABCO
and medical descriptions of injury in the Occupant Injury Coding system
(OIC; AAAM 1990, AAAM 1985). OIC codes include AIS score and body
region, plus more detailed type injury descriptors that changed from the
1985 to the 1990 edition. We used both 1993-99 Crashworthiness Data
System (CDS; NHTSA 2000) and 1982-86 National Accident Sampling System
(NASS; NHTSA 1987) data. CDS describes injuries to passenger vehicle
occupants involved in towaway crashes. The 1982-86 NASS data provide the
most recent medical description available of injuries to medium/heavy
truck and bus occupants, non-occupants, and other non-CDS crash victims.
The NASS data were coded with the 1980 version of AIS, which differs
slightly from the 1985 version; but NHTSA made most AIS-85 changes well
before their formal adoption. CDS data were coded in AIS-85 through
1992, then in AIS-90.

We used 1990-1999 GES data to weight the CDS and NASS data so they
represent the annual estimated GES injury victim counts in medium/heavy
vehicle crashes by CDS and NASS sample strata. In applying these weights
we controlled for crash type (as defined by the truck/bus type involved)
police-reported injury severity, restraint use, and vehicle occupied (or
non-occupant). Weighting the NASS data to GES restraint use levels
updates the NASS injury profile to a profile reflecting contemporary
belt use levels. Again, sample size considerations drove the decision to
pool all available data. At the completion of the weighting process
(Figure 1), we had a hybrid CDS/NASS file with weights that summed to
the estimated annual GES incidence by police-reported injury severity
and other relevant factors.

Trucks and buses with a gross weight rating of over 10,000 pounds were
grouped into the following categories:

1\. Straight truck, no trailer;

2\. Straight truck with trailer;

3\. Straight truck, unknown if with trailer

4\. Truck tractor with no trailer (bobtail);

5\. Truck tractor with one trailer;

6\. Truck tractor with two or three trailers;

7\. Truck tractor with unknown number of trailers;

8\. Medium/heavy truck, unknown if with trailer;

9\. All large trucks; and

10\. Transit/inter-city bus

Figure 1. The merger of NASS, CDS, and GES files

In order to create reasonable sample sizes, two assumptions were made in
the categorization of trucks/buses. Trucks that were reported in the GES
and FARS data as medium/heavy trucks and had no trailing units were
assumed to be straight trucks with no trailer. Trucks that were reported
as unknown medium/heavy trucks and had more than one trailing unit were
assumed to be truck tractors with two or three trailers. Following
Zaloshnja, Miller, and Spicer (2000), straight trucks with trailer and
medium/heavy trucks with one trailer were grouped together.

***Cost Estimation***. The second step required to estimate average
crash costs is to generate estimates of crash costs by severity. This
section describes the process used to develop these estimates. In order
to estimate the average costs per crash by medium/heavy vehicle type and
crash severity, costs per injury by maximum AIS (MAIS), body part, and
whether the victim suffered a fracture/dislocation were adapted from the
costs in Zaloshnja, Miller et al. (2002) These costs were merged onto
the GES-weighted NASS/CDS file. The costs represent the present value,
computed at a 4% discount rate, of all costs over the victim's expected
life span that result from a crash. We included the following major
categories of costs:

-   Medically related costs

-   Emergency services

-   Property damage

-   Lost productivity

-   Monetized Quality-Adjusted Life Years (QALYs)

[Medically Related Costs]{.underline} include ambulance, emergency
medical, physician, hospital, rehabilitation, prescription, and related
treatment costs, as well as ancillary costs for crutches, physical
therapy, etc. To estimate medical costs, we started from nationally
representative samples that use International Classification of Diseases
‑ 9th Revision ‑ Clinical Modification (ICD9-CM) diagnosis codes to
describe the injuries of US crash victims, namely, the 1996-1997
National Hospital Discharge Survey (NHDS) for hospital-admitted victims
and 1990-1996 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) for
non-hospitalized victims. The analysis included the following steps,
some of which are explained in further detail below: (1) assign a cause
or probabilistic cause distribution for each NHDS and NHIS case; (2)
estimate the costs associated with each crash case in NHDS and NHIS; (3)
use ICDmap-85 (Johns Hopkins University & Tri-Analytics, 1997) to assign
1985 Occupant Injury Codes (OIC) or code groups to each NHDS and NHIS
case; (4) collapse the code groups to achieve adequate case counts per
cell by MAIS, body part, and whether fracture/dislocation was involved;
(5) tabulate ICD-based costs by MAIS, diagnosis code grouping, and
whether hospital admitted; (6) estimate the percentage of hospital
admitted cases by diagnosis group from 1996-99 CDS and apply it to
collapse the cost estimates to eliminate hospital admission status as a
stratifier (necessary because current admission rates are unknown for
crash victims in non-CDS strata); and (7) infer costs for diagnosis
groups that appear in CDS crash data but not in the ICD-based file.

*Cause Assignment* - NHIS explicitly identifies victims of road crashes.
NHDS has seven data fields where hospitals code injury diagnoses or
causes. When all seven fields are used, a cause code is rarely included.
Typically, diagnosis codes (which drive reimbursement) are given
priority over cause codes. More than 70% of 1996-1997 NHDS cases with
less than six diagnoses are cause-coded. We assumed causes by age group,
sex, and diagnosis for these cases were representative of all injury
admissions with less than six diagnoses. For NHDS cases with six or
seven diagnoses, we inferred causation probabilities by age group, sex,
and diagnosis using data for cases with at least six diagnoses in
cause-coded state hospital discharge censuses that we previously had
pooled from California, Maryland, Missouri, New York, and Vermont
(Lawrence et al., 2000). As a partial check, we compared the resulting
firearm injury estimate with a published national surveillance estimate
(Annest et al., 1995). The two estimates were less than 5% apart.

*Estimation of Medical Costs Associated with Each Crash Case in NHDS and
NHIS* - Except for added tailoring to differentiate the costs of child
from adult injury and estimating fatality costs, we used the methods
employed in building the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission's
(CPSC) injury cost model. These methods are summarized below and
documented in detail in Miller et al. (1998), Miller, Romano, & Spicer
(2000), Lawrence et al. (2000), and Zaloshnja, Miller, et al (2002).

Although the methods for estimating the costs and consequences
associated with each case differed for fatally injured persons,
survivors admitted to the hospital, and survivors treated elsewhere, in
each case we extracted costs of initial treatment from nationally
representative or statewide data sets. For survivors, by diagnosis, we
added aggregate medical follow-up, rehabilitation, and long-term costs
computed from national data on the percentage of medical costs
associated with initial treatment. Due to data unavailability, these
percentages were less current than the costs for initial treatment.

For hospitalized survivors, we computed medical costs in stages.
Maryland and New York were the only states that regulated and tracked
the detailed relationships between charges, payments, and actual costs
of hospital care in recent years. (Because US health care payers
negotiate widely varying, sometimes large discounts from providers,
hospital charges bear little relationship to actual hospital costs.)
Computations were by diagnosis group. Using average cost per day of
hospital stay by state as an adjuster (Bureau of the Census, 1999, Table
189), we price-adjusted diagnosis-specific hospital costs per day from
Maryland in 1994-95 and New York in 1994 (the last year of that state\'s
cost control) to national estimates. We multiplied the costs per day by
diagnosis times corresponding NHDS lengths of hospital stay. To the
hospital costs, we added physician costs estimated from Civilian Health
and Medical Program of the Uniformed Services (CHAMPUS) data for
1992-1994. Costs after hospital discharge were computed from the most
recent nationally representative sources available, the 1987 National
Medical Expenditure Survey (NMES) and National Council on Compensation
Insurance (NCCI) data for 1979-1987. Both CHAMPUS and NCCI data report
only primary diagnoses at the 3-digit ICD level or broader, so mapping
was imperfect, especially for brain injury. The NCCI data describe
occupational injury; however, following Rice et al (1989), Miller
(1993), and Miller et al. (1995), we assumed the time track of medical
care by diagnosis is independent of injury cause. Where the victim was
discharged to a nursing home, following Lawrence et al. (2000), nursing
home lengths of stay were estimated at two years for burn victims, and
ten years for other catastrophic injuries, at a cost double the cost of
an intermediate care facility (from Bureau of the Census, 1997). Costs
per visit for other nonfatal injuries came from CHAMPUS.

Past studies (e.g., Rice et al., 1989; Miller, 1993; and Miller et al.,
1995) estimated lifetime medical spending due to a child's injury from
the all-age average acute care spending shortly after the injury and the
longer term recovery pattern of adults or victims of all ages. Instead,
our hospitalization cost estimates are age-group specific. We also
accounted for differences in resiliency between children and adults;
using longitudinal 1987-1989 health care claims data from Medstat
Systems, we developed diagnosis-specific factors to adjust all-age and
adult estimates of follow-up and longer-term care to child-specific
treatment patterns. The percentage of medical costs in the first six
months that resulted from the initial medical visit or hospitalization
did not vary with age. After that, children were more resilient; the
percentage of their total treatment costs incurred in the first six
months often was higher, especially for brain injuries. These
conclusions come from analysis of a random sample of 15,526 episodes of
childhood injury and 40,624 episodes of non-occupational adult injury to
victims covered by private health insurance. For each episode, the
claims data covered a range of 13-36 months and an average of 24 months
after injury. Because we decided to maximize the diagnostic detail
preserved, sample size considerations dictated bringing costs forward
onto CDS files that represented averages across victims of all ages.

For spinal cord injuries (SCI) and burns, medical costs were not
estimated from NHDS and NHIS files because of the limited number of
these cases in the files. In addition, long-term SCI costs are not
captured in the NHDS and NHIS data. Information from a special study
(Berkowitz et al., 1998) was used to estimate first year and annual
medical costs for SCI. Costs were estimated by applying the age and
gender distribution of SCI victims in the CDS 1993-99 to a lifetime
estimating model with 1997 life expectancy tables adjusted for spinal
cord injury mortality rates from Berkowitz et al. (1998). Highway
crash-specific costs for burns were adapted from Miller, Brigham, &
Cohen et al. (1993), using its regression equations.

*Mapping ICD Codes into OIC Codes* - To make the ICD-based injury
descriptors compatible with CDS and NASS descriptors we mapped ICD to
AIS85, and to body part. AIS85 was mapped using the ICDmap-85. This map
lists AIS by each ICD code up to the 5 digit level of detail. For NHIS,
which uses almost exclusively 3-digit ICDs (85.5% of the data set), the
lowest AIS within that 3-digit group was selected.

Body part was mapped to AIS from previously collapsed ICD groupings
(Miller et al., 1995) and fracture or dislocation was identified with
the ICD codes. The ICD/AIS mapping was developed by consensus and
contains many assumptions related to the assignment of AIS codes to ICD
rubrics (Miller et al. 1995). For multiple-injury NHDS cases, we
assigned the body part of the maximum AIS injury. In case of a tie in
AIS, we used the body part defined by the principal diagnosis in
discharge records. NHIS reports only principal diagnoses.

*Inferring Costs for Categories that Appear in CDS Data, but not in the
ICD-Based File* -- Six percent of AIS/body part/fracture diagnosis
categories that appear in CDS crash data did not appear in the ICD-based
files. Costs for these categories were assigned as follows: (1) mean
costs were estimated for each AIS: (2) based on these averages,
incremental cost ratios from one preferably lower AIS to another were
estimated. Lower AIS was preferred because it offered larger case
counts: (3) costs for empty ICD-based cells were assigned by multiplying
costs from adjacent cells by this ratio. For instance, if the mean
medical costs for AIS-2 and AIS-3 were \$500 and \$1,000, respectively,
then the incremental ratio for AIS-2 to AIS-3 was set to: 1,000/500 = 2.
Then the cost for an empty AIS-3 cell was estimated by multiplying the
body part/fracture-specific cost for AIS-2 times the ratio. For body
parts with no cost estimates available for any AIS, a general average
cost for the appropriate AIS was assigned.

[Emergency Services Costs]{.underline} include police and fire services.
Fire and police costs were computed from assumed response patterns by
crash severity and vehicle involvement, constrained by data on total
responses. For fatal, injury, and PDO crashes, time spent per police
cruiser responding came from ten jurisdictions with automated police
time-tracking systems. A single officer was assumed to have responded to
a PDO crash and one officer per injury to other crashes. Time spent per
fire truck responding came from nine large fire departments. It was
assumed that the fire personnel would respond to:

-   90 percent of fatal and severe injury crashes and 95 percent of
    critical injury crashes.

-   40 percent of heavy truck crashes involving injury.

-   25 percent of police-reported heavy truck crashes involving only
    property damage.

[Property Damage]{.underline} is the cost to repair or replace damaged
vehicles, cargo, and other property including the costs of damage
compensation. To estimate property damage in heavy vehicle crashes, we
first purchased aggregated Insurance Services Office (ISO) data
detailing coverage and claims experience with 28.9% of all motor vehicle
insurance premiums collected for commercial vehicles. We assumed the
percentage covered does not vary by vehicle type. The insurance data
included payments per insurance claim and aggregate payments for damage
to the insured vehicle and separately, for damage it inflicted on other
vehicles in at-fault crashes. We used GES data to estimate the vehicles
involved per crash, which let us estimate costs per crash. The data
distinguished buses and medium trucks, but imperfectly differentiated
tractor-trailers from other heavy trucks. Separate property damage costs
for trailers insured separately allowed us to compute cost differentials
for multi-trailer vehicles. (We assumed that 10% were triples and the
remainder doubles.) Net of the insurance deductible of an estimated
\$1,000 per crash, costs per crash-involved vehicle averaged \$2,510 in
bus crashes, \$4,341 in medium/heavy straight truck crashes, \$6,872 in
single-trailer combination truck crashes, and \$18,132 in multi-trailer
truck crashes.

Appendix A contains three tables summarizing the measures derived from
the ISO data. These tables parallel the tables for private passenger
vehicles in Miller and Lawrence (2002). They also include some parallel
summary data on private passenger vehicle coverage drawn from that
report. That report defines the column headings and explains how the
measures presented were computed. Table A-1 summarizes the ISO data by
type of coverage and vehicle type. Table A-2 summarizes coverage
comprehensiveness. It shows that commercial vehicles are slightly more
likely to be self-insured than private passenger vehicles, especially
for collision coverage. Table A-3 provides comparative performance
statistics. It shows that premiums are quite similar for commercial and
private passenger auto policies. Commercial policyholders file far fewer
claims per 1,000 policies than other policyholders, but their average
claim is much larger. Consequently, commercial policies involve much
larger losses per policy.

[Lost Productivity]{.underline} includes wages, fringe benefits, and
household work lost by the injured, as well as the costs of processing
productivity loss compensation claims. It also includes productivity
loss by those stuck in crash-related traffic jams and by co-workers and
supervisors investigating crashes, recruiting and training replacements
for disabled workers, and repairing damaged company vehicles. Excluded
are earnings lost by family and friends caring for the injured and the
value of schoolwork lost. The productivity loss resulting from traffic
delay is given separately and as part of total productivity lost.

Future work loss costs were estimated using methods that parallel the
Consumer Product Safety Council (CPSC) Injury Cost Model. These methods
are summarized below and documented in detail in Miller et al. (1998),
Lawrence et al. (2000), Miller, Romano, & Spicer (2000), Blincoe, Seay,
et al (2002), and Zaloshnja, Miller, et al. (2002). For nonfatal
injuries, the work loss cost is the sum of the lifetime loss due to
permanent disability (averaged across permanently disabling and
non-disabling cases) plus the loss due to temporary disability. We first
computed lifetime wage and household work losses due to a death or
permanent total disability and discounted them to present value with the
standard age-earnings model described in Rice et al. (1989) and in
Miller et al. (1998). The inputs to this model were for 1997-2000. They
include, by age group and sex, survival probabilities from National
Vital Statistics Reports (1999); weighted estimates of annual earnings
tabulated from the 2001 Current Population Survey, a nationally
representative sample; and the value of household work performed from
Expectancy Data (1999).

For survivors, we applied National Council on Compensation Insurance
(NCCI) probabilities that an occupational injury will result in
permanent partial or total disability and the NCCI percentage of earning
power lost to partial disability to compute both the number of
permanently disabled victims and the percentage of lifetime work lost.
These data are by diagnosis group and whether hospital-admitted. We used
the ICD maps to assign 1985 and 1990 OIC injury codes or code groups to
each category.

Diagnosis-specific probabilities of injuries to employed people causing
wage work loss came from CDS 1993-99. The days of work loss per person
losing work were estimated from the 1999 Survey of Occupational Injury
and Illness of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics; this survey contains
employer reports of work losses for more than 600,000 workplace injuries
coded in a system akin to the OIC but with less diagnostic detail.
According to a survey of 10,000 households, injured people lose
housework on 90% of the days they lose wage work (S. Marquis, The RAND
Corporation, personal communication, 1992). Thus, we were able to
compute the days of household work lost from the days of wage work lost.
Household work was valued based on the cost of hiring people to perform
household tasks (e.g., cooking, cleaning, yard work) and the hours
typically devoted to each task from Expectancy Data (1999). Lost
productivity for repairing vehicles involved in crashes was updated from
Miller et al. (1991) and included in the lost household productivity.

For temporary disability, we assumed that an adult caregiver would lose
the same number of days of wage work or housework because of a child\'s
temporarily disabling injury as an adult would lose when suffering the
same injury. Since the adult with the lowest salary often stays home as
the caregiver, we estimated caregiver wages as the mean hourly earnings
for non-supervisory employees in private non-agricultural industries.
These assumptions may overestimate slightly because the caregiver may be
able to do some work at home. Conversely we may underestimate the losses
because we ignored (1) the work loss of other individuals who visit a
hospitalized child or rush to the child\'s bedside shortly after an
injury and (2) any temporary wage work or household work loss by
adolescents.

Legal and insurance administration costs per crash victim were derived
from the medical and work loss costs, using models developed by Miller
(1997). Legal costs include the legal fees and court costs associated
with civil litigation resulting from motor vehicle crashes. In
estimating these costs, the probability of losing work, the percentage
of victims who claimed, the percentage of claimers who hired an
attorney, estimated plaintiff's attorney fees, and the ratio of legal
costs over plaintiff's attorney fees were taken into consideration.
Insurance administration costs include the administrative costs
associated with processing insurance claims resulting from motor vehicle
crashes and defense attorney fees. In estimating these costs, medical
expense claims, liability claims, disability insurance, Worker's
Compensation, welfare payments, sick leave, property damage, and life
insurance were estimated.

Following Blincoe, Seay, et al (2002) and Zaloshnja, Miller et al.
(2002), travel delay was computed similarly to Zaloshnja, Miller et al.
(2000), but with three refinements. First, using a newer and broader
survey of five police departments, the hours-of-delay ratio was updated
to 49:86:233 for the delays due to PDO, injury, and fatal crashes,
respectively. Second, to extract delay per person from delay per crash
we used data on the average number of people killed or injured in a
heavy vehicle crash. And finally, we conservatively assumed that only
police-reported crashes delay traffic. This is based on the premise that
any substantial impact on traffic would attract the attention of the
police.

[Monetized Quality-Adjusted Life Years (QALYs)]{.underline} Monetary
losses associated with medical care, other resources used, and lost work
do not fully capture the burden of injuries. Injuries also cost victims
and families by reducing their quality of life. The good health lost
when someone suffers a health problem or dies can be accounted for by
estimating quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) lost. A QALY is a health
outcome measure that assigns a value of 1 to a year of perfect health
and 0 to death (Gold et al., 1996). QALY loss is determined by the
duration and severity of the health problem. To compute it, following
Miller (1993), we used diagnosis and age-group specific estimates from
Miller et al. (1995) of the fraction of perfect health lost during each
year that a victim is recovering from a health problem or living with a
residual disability. Such an impairment fraction was estimated by body
part, AIS85, and fracture/dislocation. The resulting estimates in AIS85
were applied to NHDS and NHIS cases. The monetary value of a QALY
(\$98,527) was derived by dividing the value of statistical life (VSL)
by the number of years in the person's life span. Differently from
Zaloshnja, Miller, and Spicer (2000), in this analysis, we followed the
guidance of the Office of the Secretary of Transportation on the VSL
(OST, 2002). For comparison purposes, monetized QALYs per crash based on
the VSL found in a systematic review in Miller (1990) and used in
Zaloshnja, Miller, and Spicer (2000) are presented in the Appendix. As
with the other components of cost, QALY losses in future years were
discounted to present value at a 4% discount rate (Gold et al., 1996;
Cropper et al, 1991; Viscusi & Moore, 1989).

# Results

Table 1 summarizes estimated victims per highway crash, by truck/bus
type and police-reported injury severity. For example, the table
indicates that in crashes in which trucks with no trailers are involved,
an average of 2.085 people had no injury, 0.207 had possible injury, and
so on. An average of 2.531 people is involved in these types of crashes.
Some caution is warranted in interpreting these numbers because
police-reported injury severity is often inaccurate. Many victims who
the police code as not injured are actually injured; conversely, the
majority of injuries reported by police as disabling do not result in
hospital admission (Miller et al. 1991). These shortcomings are one of
the reasons why we developed our injury costs based on body part, MAIS,
and whether the victim suffered a fracture/dislocation.

Another problem with police-reported counts of people in crashes, which
is evident in Table 1, is the undercount of uninjured people involved in
transit/intercity bus crashes. Specifically, Table 1 suggests that no
more than 3 people were involved in an average transit/intercity bus
crash. This obviously incorrect number results from the widespread
police practice of not recording uninjured bus passengers involved in a
crash.

Table 2 presents estimated victims per highway crash, by crash type,
crash severity, and police-reported injury severity. As mentioned
earlier, estimates for fatal crashes came from FARS. Truck-tractors
without trailers (bobtails) involved in a fatal crash caused more deaths
than any other truck configuration -- an average of 1.527 people had
fatal injuries in a typical crash. The unweighted and weighted GES
counts of people involved in truck/bus crashes by vehicle type and
police-reported severity are presented in Tables 3 through 6. The number
of people killed in fatal truck/bus crashes is presented in Table 7. The
GES tables reveal adequate cell sizes (a minimum of 10 and preferably 30
cases per cell) except when trailer information is unknown. Given the
cell sizes, when information about trailers is unknown, it is advisable
to use the average cost per large truck crash rather than a
configuration-specific cost.

Table 8 presents the annual number of truck/bus crashes, by crash
severity. Compared to the period 1988-97 (the analyzed period in
Zaloshnja, Miller, and Spicer, 2000), there were less severe crashes in
the period 1990-99. During this period only 5.8% of crashes caused
incapacitating or fatal injuries, as compared with 6.1% during 1988-97.
On the other side, 69% of the crashes in 1990-99 did not cause any
injury, as compared with 65% in 1988-97.

Table 9 presents the average estimated costs per victim injured by
vehicle type and injury severity. Given the adequate sample size for
most of the truck configurations, these unit costs can be reliably used
in analyses of crash costs when information on the number of victims per
crash is available. The unit costs reported here represent a major
improvement compared to those found in Zaloshnja, Miller, and Spicer
(2000), because they are based on costs per injury by maximum AIS
(MAIS), body part, and whether the victim suffered a
fracture/dislocation. Previously, costs per injury were estimated only
by MAIS and body region. As a result of the changes in methodology and
the use of newer sources of cost data, there are noticeable differences
between the unit costs presented in this report and those in Zaloshnja,
Miller, and Spicer (2000).

The most evident difference can be found in monetized QALYs, which are
now based on the VSL recommended by the Office of the Secretary of
Transportation. On average, the current monetized QALYs are 20% lower
than the same monetized QALYs estimated based on Miller (1990).
Moreover, QALYs themselves are now more accurately estimated because
they are diagnosis, age, and sex specific. Previously, they were
group-diagnosis, group-age and sex specific.

Another cost category that has been dramatically revised downward is the
lost productivity from travel delays. The major contributors to this
downward shift are the change in the hours-of-delay ratio, which was
updated to 49:86:233 from 40:130:385 for the delays due to PDO, injury,
and fatal crashes, respectively, and the exclusion of crashes not
reported to the police.

Table 10 provides detailed cost per crash estimates for different
truck/bus configurations and crash severity. These estimates are
calculated based on the incidence figures presented in Table 2 and costs
per injury by truck configuration, injury severity, and crash severity.
The differences between estimates in Table 10 and their counterparts in
Zaloshnja, Miller, and Spicer (2000) are mainly due to the changes in
unit costs discussed above.

Table 11 presents the estimated costs per crash for all crashes and
Table 12 presents the estimated costs per crash for injury crashes only.
The \$88,483 average cost per crash for vehicles with two or three
trailers far exceeds the \$72,459 for a tractor-trailer crash. Bus
crashes and crashes where trailer presence was unknown have the lowest
average costs. Crashes involving bobtails have higher average costs than
straight truck crashes. The reason for this finding is unclear. These
vehicles could have stability problems. Alternatively, since their
engines are far more powerful than their trailer-less weight demands,
they may be driven aggressively. Also, since bobtail drivers are not
generating revenue and are often not paid, they may face financial
incentives to speed.

In average, the total cost per large truck crash reported here is 22%
lower than that reported in Zaloshnja, Miller, and Spicer. In addition
to the changes in unit costs discussed above, a shift towards less
severe crashes has contributed to this sharp decrease.

Table 13 shows the average annual cost of police-reported heavy vehicle
crashes captured in 1997-99 GES data. The annual costs of large truck
crashes during that period exceeded \$19.6 billion. That total included
\$6.6 billion in productivity losses, \$3.4 billion in resource costs,
and quality of life losses valued at \$9.6 billion. The largest share of
this total was the \$12.6 billion in costs of single-trailer combination
trucks. Bobtail crashes cost about one sixty-seventh this much, meaning
that bobtails would be over- (or under-) represented in crashes if they
comprise less (or more) than about 1.5% of combination truck traffic.
Similarly, combination trucks with multiple trailers accounted for about
4.2% of combination truck crash costs. Single straight trucks accounted
for about \$5 billion of the truck crash costs, about one fourth. Bus
crashes were a much smaller factor than truck crashes, costing \$0.7
billion annually in 1997-99.

Computed with 1997 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey (VIUS) data on truck
mileage (Bureau of the Census, 1999), the crash costs per 1,000 truck
miles are \$157 for single unit trucks, \$131 for single combination
trucks, and \$63 for multiple combinations.

TABLE 1. The Average Number of People Involved in a Truck/Bus Crash, by
Crash Type and Police-Reported Injury Severity (1990-1999)

  ----------------------- -------- ----------- ---------------- ---------------- -------- ---------- ----------
  Truck/bus crash type    No\      Possible\   Non-\            Incapacitating   Fatal\   Unknown\   Unknown\
                          injury   injury      incapacitating                    injury   severity   if injured

  Straight truck, no      2.085    0.207       0.103            0.057            0.007    0.005      0.066
  trailer                                                                                            

  Straight truck with     2.109    0.165       0.102            0.090            0.014    0.005      0.112
  trailer                                                                                            

  Straight truck, unknown 1.558    0.018       0.041            0.018            0.000    0.000      0.771
  if with trailer                                                                                    

  Bobtail                 2.186    0.194       0.093            0.059            0.007    0.005      0.074

  Truck-tractor, 1        1.904    0.161       0.102            0.067            0.015    0.003      0.077
  trailer                                                                                            

  Truck-tractor, 2 or 3   1.701    0.174       0.088            0.066            0.017    0.000      0.070
  trailers                                                                                           

  Truck-tractor, with     2.021    0.044       0.016            0.030            0.004    0.000      0.251
  unknown \# of trailers                                                                             

  Medium/heavy truck,     1.638    0.139       0.051            0.036            0.002    0.003      0.435
  unknown if with trailer                                                                            

  All large trucks        1.982    0.179       0.101            0.063            0.011    0.004      0.080

  Bus, transit/intercity  2.146    0.427       0.100            0.044            0.003    0.021      0.130

  *Source: GES*                                                                                      
  ----------------------- -------- ----------- ---------------- ---------------- -------- ---------- ----------

1.  TABLE 2. The Average Number of People Involved in a Truck/Bus Crash
    by Crash Type, Crash Severity, and Police-Reported Injury Severity
    (1990-1999)

  ------------------------- ----------- ----- ------------ --------------------- ---------- ------------ ------------------ ---------- ----------------- ------------------ -------------------- ----------------------- -------- ---------- ----------- -------------------- ----------- ------------ --------- ------------ ---------- ------------ ------------ ------------ -- --
  Truck/bus crash type      Maximum                                                                                         Maximum                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
                            severity in                                                                                     severity                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
                            crash:\                                                                                         in crash:\                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
                            No injury                                                                                       Possible                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
                                                                                                                            injury                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 

                                                                                                                            No injury                                                                                                        Possible\                                    Unknown                             Unknown\                                             
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             injury                                       severity                            if injured                                           

  Straight truck, no        2.408                                                                                           1.542                                                                                                            1.394                                        0.002                               0.038                                                
  trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

  Straight truck with       2.426                                                                                           1.680                                                                                                            1.296                                        0.000                               0.101                                                
  trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

  Straight truck, unknown   2.003                                                                                           1.248                                                                                                            1.000                                        0.000                               0.413                                                
  if with trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  

  Bobtail                   2.508                                                                                           1.707                                                                                                            1.333                                        0.001                               0.011                                                

  Truck-tractor, 1 trailer  2.193                                                                                           1.390                                                                                                            1.298                                        0.003                               0.046                                                

  Truck-tractor, 2 or 3     1.923                                                                                           1.637                                                                                                            1.237                                        0.000                               0.066                                                
  trailers                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         

  Truck-tractor, with       2.372                                                                                           1.266                                                                                                            1.000                                        0.000                               0.221                                                
  unknown \# of trailers                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           

  Medium/heavy truck,       1.948                                                                                           0.937                                                                                                            1.481                                        0.000                               0.442                                                
  unknown if with trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

  All large trucks          2.287                                                                                           1.473                                                                                                            1.340                                        0.002                               0.048                                                

  Bus, transit/intercity    2.476                                                                                           1.627                                                                                                            1.867                                        0.005                               0.065                                                

                            ** **                          **Maximum severity in                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
                                                           crash:                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
                                                           Nonincapacitating**                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     

                            **No                                                            **Possible                                                                                           **Nonincapacitating**                                                                    **Unknown                                      **Unknown\                                
                            injury**                                                        injury**                                                                                                                                                                                      severity**                                     if injured**                              

  Straight truck, no        1.208                                                           0.299                                                                                                1.248                                                                                    0.005                                          0.038                                     
  trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

  Straight truck with       1.339                                                           0.208                                                                                                1.196                                                                                    0.002                                          0.053                                     
  trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

  Straight truck, unknown   1.320                                                           0.122                                                                                                1.213                                                                                    0.000                                          0.478                                     
  if with trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  

  Bobtail                   1.538                                                           0.297                                                                                                1.266                                                                                    0.001                                          0.008                                     

  Truck-tractor, 1 trailer  1.182                                                           0.210                                                                                                1.200                                                                                    0.003                                          0.042                                     

  Truck-tractor, 2 or 3     1.182                                                           0.274                                                                                                1.049                                                                                    0.002                                          0.034                                     
  trailers                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         

  Truck-tractor, with       1.356                                                           0.424                                                                                                1.197                                                                                    0.000                                          0.215                                     
  unknown \# of trailers                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           

  Medium/heavy truck,       1.056                                                           0.181                                                                                                1.082                                                                                    0.000                                          0.193                                     
  unknown if with trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

  All large trucks          1.207                                                           0.247                                                                                                1.217                                                                                    0.003                                          0.041                                     

  Bus, transit/intercity    1.304                                                           1.059                                                                                                1.315                                                                                    0.044                                          0.122                                     

                                                                                                         **Maximum severity                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                         in crash:                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
                                                                                                         Incapacitating**                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

                            **No                                                                         **Possible                                      **Non-\                                                                                         **Incapacitating**                                      **Unknown                            **Unknown\                   
                            injury**                                                                     injury**                                        incapacitating**                                                                                                                                        severity**                           if injured**                 

  Straight truck, no        1.201                                                                        0.204                                           0.220                                                                                           1.292                                                   0.008                                0.020                        
  trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

  Straight truck with       1.709                                                                        0.238                                           0.287                                                                                           1.747                                                   0.070                                0.034                        
  trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

  Straight truck, unknown   0.375                                                                        0.291                                           0.291                                                                                           1.000                                                   0.000                                0.625                        
  if with trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  

  Bobtail                   1.268                                                                        0.309                                           0.146                                                                                           1.335                                                   0.000                                0.022                        

  Truck-tractor, 1 trailer  1.055                                                                        0.146                                           0.166                                                                                           1.224                                                   0.004                                0.026                        

  Truck-tractor, 2 or 3     0.833                                                                        0.073                                           0.128                                                                                           1.214                                                   0.000                                0.009                        
  trailers                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         

  Truck-tractor, with       2.146                                                                        0.220                                           0.073                                                                                           1.010                                                   0.000                                0.000                        
  unknown \# of trailers                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           

  Medium/heavy truck,       0.388                                                                        0.096                                           0.572                                                                                           2.536                                                   0.000                                0.032                        
  unknown if with trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

  All large trucks          1.132                                                                        0.173                                           0.190                                                                                           1.275                                                   0.008                                0.024                        

  Bus, transit/intercity    1.377                                                                        1.042                                           0.274                                                                                           1.417                                                   0.000                                0.030                        

                            **Maximum                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
                            severity in                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
                            crash:                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
                            Fatal**                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                

                            **No              **Possible                                                                               **Non-incapac-\                      **Incapacitating**                                                                                **Fatal**                          **Unknown                                         **Unknown\      
                            injury**          injury**                                                                                 itating**                                                                                                                                                                 severity**                                        if injured**    

  Straight truck, no        0.844             0.340                                                                                    0.278                                0.382                                                                                             1.134                              0.002                                             0.021           
  trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

  Straight truck with       1.086             0.488                                                                                    0.194                                0.395                                                                                             1.302                              0.000                                             0.000           
  trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

  Straight truck, unknown   0.000             0.000                                                                                    0.000                                0.000                                                                                             0.000                              0.000                                             0.000           
  if with trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  

  Bobtail                   0.582             0.175                                                                                    0.050                                0.482                                                                                             1.527                              0.000                                             0.012           

  Truck-tractor, 1 trailer  0.869             0.182                                                                                    0.254                                0.474                                                                                             1.213                              0.000                                             0.012           

  Truck-tractor, 2 or 3     0.535             0.487                                                                                    0.521                                0.252                                                                                             1.200                              0.000                                             0.000           
  trailers                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         

  Truck-tractor, with       1.000             0.000                                                                                    0.000                                0.000                                                                                             1.000                              0.000                                             0.000           
  unknown \# of trailers                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           

  Medium/heavy truck,       0.486             0.079                                                                                    0.000                                0.000                                                                                             1.000                              0.000                                             0.000           
  unknown if with trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

  All large trucks          0.859             0.241                                                                                    0.260                                0.441                                                                                             1.200                              0.001                                             0.013           

  Bus, transit/intercity    6.755             0.809                                                                                    0.026                                0.274                                                                                             1.020                              0.000                                             0.013           

                            Maximum                                                                                                                                                                                               Maximum                                                                                                                                          
                            severity in                                                                                                                                                                                           severity                                                                                                                                         
                            crash:                                                                                                                                                                                                in crash:\                                                                                                                                       
                            Unknown                                                                                                                                                                                               Unknown if                                                                                                                                       
                            severity                                                                                                                                                                                              injured                                                                                                                                          

                            No injury                                            Unknown\                                                                Unknown\                                                        No\                                                                           Unknown                                                                     
                                                                                 severity                                                                if injured                                                      injury                                                                        if                                                                          
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       injured                                                                     

  Straight truck, no        1.377                                                1.246                                                                   0.111                                                           1.199                                                                         1.120                                                                       
  trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

  Straight truck with       3.390                                                1.061                                                                   0.049                                                           1.163                                                                         1.065                                                                       
  trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

  Straight truck, unknown   0.000                                                0.000                                                                   0.000                                                           0.105                                                                         3.685                                                                       
  if with trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  

  Bobtail                   1.009                                                1.047                                                                   0.000                                                           1.163                                                                         1.058                                                                       

  Truck-tractor, 1 trailer  1.085                                                1.114                                                                   0.046                                                           1.368                                                                         1.042                                                                       

  Truck-tractor, 2 or 3     1.000                                                1.000                                                                   0.000                                                           1.104                                                                         1.000                                                                       
  trailers                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         

  Truck-tractor, with       0.000                                                0.000                                                                   0.000                                                           1.171                                                                         1.000                                                                       
  unknown \# of trailers                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           

  Medium/heavy truck,       3.374                                                2.780                                                                   0.593                                                           1.464                                                                         1.160                                                                       
  unknown if with trailer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

  All large trucks          1.281                                                1.184                                                                   0.078                                                           1.298                                                                         1.074                                                                       

  Bus, transit/intercity    1.554                                                2.612                                                                   0.046                                                           1.601                                                                         1.257                                                                       

  *Source: GES and FARS*                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
  ------------------------- ----------- ----- ------------ --------------------- ---------- ------------ ------------------ ---------- ----------------- ------------------ -------------------- ----------------------- -------- ---------- ----------- -------------------- ----------- ------------ --------- ------------ ---------- ------------ ------------ ------------ -- --

TABLE 3. The Unweighted Count of Truck/Bus Occupants Involved in
Crashes,by Crash Type and Police-Reported Injury Severity (1990-1999)

  ----------------------- -------- ----------- ---------------- ---------------- -------- ---------- ----------
  Truck/bus crash type    No\      Possible\   Non-\            Incapacitating   Fatal\   Unknown\   Unknown\
                          injury   injury      incapacitating                    injury   severity   if injured

  Straight truck, no      25,559   2,607       1,492            683              45       62         660
  trailer                                                                                            

  Straight truck with     2,866    227         114              87               6        5          103
  trailer                                                                                            

  Straight truck, unknown 21       1           2                0                0        0          12
  if with trailer                                                                                    

  Bobtail                 2,407    195         138              62               9        4          78

  Truck-tractor, 1        46,833   3,106       2,022            952              134      60         1,910
  trailer                                                                                            

  Truck-tractor, 2 or 3   1,608    127         61               37               2        0          39
  trailers                                                                                           

  Truck-tractor, with     124      4           3                5                0        0          31
  unknown \# of trailers                                                                             

  Medium/heavy truck,     480      45          8                10               1        0          159
  unknown if with trailer                                                                            

  All large trucks        79,898   6,312       3,840            1,836            197      131        2,992

  Bus, transit/intercity  2,482    1,326       265              137              3        120        153

  *Source: GES*                                                                                      
  ----------------------- -------- ----------- ---------------- ---------------- -------- ---------- ----------

TABLE 4. The Unweighted Count of Non-Truck/Bus Occupants Involved in
Truck/Bus Crashes, by Crash Type and Police-Reported Injury Severity
(1990-1999)

  ----------------------- -------- ----------- ---------------- ---------------- -------- ---------- ----------
  Truck/bus crash type    No\      Possible\   Non-\            Incapacitating   Fatal\   Unknown\   Unknown\
                          injury   injury      incapacitating                    injury   severity   if injured

  Straight truck, no      18,027   7,300       4,201            2,405            352      210        594
  trailer                                                                                            

  Straight truck with     2,002    784         451              301              48       8          82
  trailer                                                                                            

  Straight truck, unknown 21       4           8                3                0        0          4
  if with trailer                                                                                    

  Bobtail                 1,993    762         452              236              23       10         77

  Truck-tractor, 1        34,927   13,754      8,238            4,683            797      264        1,415
  trailer                                                                                            

  Truck-tractor, 2 or 3   1,205    473         290              158              28       2          50
  trailers                                                                                           

  Truck-tractor, with     134      34          20               6                1        0          5
  unknown \# of trailers                                                                             

  Medium/heavy truck,     479      168         105              40               4        7          24
  unknown if with trailer                                                                            

  All large trucks        58,788   23,279      13,765           7,832            1,253    501        2,251

  Bus, transit/intercity  1,870    564         444              212              19       16         100

  *Source: GES*                                                                                      
  ----------------------- -------- ----------- ---------------- ---------------- -------- ---------- ----------

TABLE 5. The Weighted Count of Truck Occupants Involved in Crashes, by
Crash Type and Police-Reported Injury Severity (1990-1999)

  ----------------------- ----------- ----------- ---------------- ---------------- -------- ---------- ----------
  Truck/bus crash type    No\         Possible\   Non-\            Incapacitating   Fatal\   Unknown\   Unknown\
                          injury      injury      incapacitating                    injury   severity   if injured

  Straight truck, no      1,460,573   66,435      38,465           17,703           1,451    1,619      56,133
  trailer                                                                                               

  Straight truck with     141,170     3,882       2,644            2,272            89       229        11,314
  trailer                                                                                               

  Straight truck, unknown 1,352       6           16               0                0        0          364
  if with trailer                                                                                       

  Bobtail                 108,613     3,574       2,219            1,279            257      53         5,317

  Truck-tractor, 1        1,770,786   59,348      46,144           26,655           3,472    1,377      97,248
  trailer                                                                                               

  Truck-tractor, 2 or 3   48,196      2,228       1,060            979              62       0          2,479
  trailers                                                                                              

  Truck-tractor, with     11,059      36          16               168              0        0          2,019
  unknown \# of trailers                                                                                

  Medium/heavy truck,     28,821      951         150              989              55       0          17,383
  unknown if with trailer                                                                               

  All large trucks        3,570,570   136,460     90,713           50,045           5,386    3,277      192,257

  Bus, transit/intercity  285,492     69,173      8,890            3,881            298      4,130      15,481

  *Source: GES*                                                                                         
  ----------------------- ----------- ----------- ---------------- ---------------- -------- ---------- ----------

TABLE 6. The Weighted Count of Non Truck Occupants Involved in Truck/Bus
Crashes by Crash Type and Police-Reported Injury Severity (1990-1999)

  ----------------------- ----------- ----------- ---------------- ---------------- -------- ---------- ----------
  Truck/bus crash type    No\         Possible\   Non-\            Incapacitating   Fatal\   Unknown\   Unknown\
                          injury      injury      incapacitating                    injury   severity   if injured

  Straight truck, no      1,209,560   199,063     93,189           55,024           7,660    5,024      28,928
  trailer                                                                                               

  Straight truck with     117,016     16,307      9,824            8,704            1,615    387        2,449
  trailer                                                                                               

  Straight truck, unknown 1,308       24          54               30               0        0          952
  if with trailer                                                                                       

  Bobtail                 103,955     15,291      6,835            4,477            441      478        1,899

  Truck-tractor, 1        1,553,143   221,104     132,079          90,888           22,103   4,082      37,354
  trailer                                                                                               

  Truck-tractor, 2 or 3   38,981      6,694       3,445            2,379            823      11         1,133
  trailers                                                                                              

  Truck-tractor, with     11,984      463         169              169              46       0          843
  unknown \# of trailers                                                                                

  Medium/heavy truck,     43,390      5,197       2,107            606              31       140        1,808
  unknown if with trailer                                                                               

  All large trucks        3,079,337   464,144     247,701          162,277          32,720   10,120     75,364

  Bus, transit/intercity  263,611     40,081      16,799           7,330            441      1,350      17,751

  *Source: GES*                                                                                         
  ----------------------- ----------- ----------- ---------------- ---------------- -------- ---------- ----------

TABLE 7. The Number of People Killed in Truck/Bus Crashes by Truck/Bus
Type (1990-1999)

  ---------------------------- ---------- ----------- ----------- ----------
  Truck/bus crash type         Number of  Truck       Non-truck   Total
                               fatal      occupants   occupants   number of
                               crashes    killed in   killed in   people
                                          crashes     crashes     killed in
                                                                  crashes

  Straight truck, no trailer   7,629      1,216       7,784       9,000

  Straight truck with trailer  1,160      193         1,184       1,377

  Straight truck, unknown if   26         5           22          27
  with trailer                                                    

  Bobtail                      1,935      342         1,927       2,269

  Truck-tractor, 1 trailer     26,980     3,996       27,839      31,835

  Truck-tractor, 2 or 3        1,600      260         1,563       1,823
  trailers                                                        

  Truck-tractor, with unknown  348        42          351         393
  \# of trailers                                                  

  Medium/heavy truck, unknown  65         4           63          67
  if with trailer                                                 

  All large trucks             39,743     6,058       40,733      46,791

  Bus, transit/intercity       1,347      118         1,416       1,534

  *Source: FARS*                                                  
  ---------------------------- ---------- ----------- ----------- ----------

TABLE 8. The Annual Number of Truck/Bus Crashes, by Crash Severity
(1990-99)

  ----------------------- ---------- ----------- ---------------- ---------------- -------- ---------- ---------- ---------
  Truck/bus crash type    Maximum                                                                                 Total
                          severity                                                                                
                          in crash                                                                                

                          No\        Possible\   Non-\            Incapacitating   Fatal\   Unknown\   Unknown\   
                          injury     injury      incapacitating                    injury   severity   if injured 

  Straight truck, no      89,388     16,046      9,418            5,392            763      435        6,586      128,028
  trailer                                                                                                         

  Straight truck with     8,253      1,258       877              599              116      17         1,110      12,229
  trailer                                                                                                         

  Straight truck, unknown 126        2           5                4                3        0          34         173
  if with trailer                                                                                                 

  Bobtail                 6,730      1,164       666              415              194      49         655        9,873

  Truck-tractor, 1        120,640    18,187      13,186           8,790            2,698    376        11,323     175,200
  trailer                                                                                                         

  Truck-tractor, 2 or 3   3,450      597         361              261              160      0          382        5,212
  trailers                                                                                                        

  Truck-tractor, with     775        39          13               33               35       0          275        1,170
  unknown \# of trailers                                                                                          

  Medium/heavy truck,     2,295      389         175              63               7        5          1,473      4,406
  unknown if with trailer                                                                                         

  All large trucks        231,656    37,683      24,702           15,556           3,974    883        21,837     336,292

  Bus, transit/intercity  16,189     4,371       1,790            777              135      171        2,218      25,652

  *Source: GES and FARS*                                                                                          
  ----------------------- ---------- ----------- ---------------- ---------------- -------- ---------- ---------- ---------

2.  TABLE 9. Costs per Victim Injured, by Crash Type and Police-Reported
    Injury Severity (in 2000 dollars)

  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Truck/bus crash     Injury\             Medical   Emergency   Property   Lost            Total lost\    Monetized   Total
  type                severity            costs     services    damage     productivity\   productivity   QALYs based 
                                                                           from\                          on VSL from 
                                                                           delays                         DOT         
  ------------------- ------------------- --------- ----------- ---------- --------------- -------------- ----------- -----------
  Straight truck, no  No injury           74        39          1,384      1,584           2,179          208         3,884
  trailer                                                                                                             

                      Possible injury     4,236     152         2,678      3,585           9,993          9,663       26,722

                      Nonincapacitating   4,477     258         4,131      4,191           10,046         6,370       25,281

                      Incapacitating      10,922    477         5,394      4,140           28,336         27,275      72,403

                      Fatal injury        22,195    833         13,154     5,176           869,877        1,742,086   2,648,145

                      Unknown severity    3,088     181         3,127      3,481           8,626          6,274       21,295

                      Unknown if injured  742       109         2,151      3,220           5,217          1,724       9,943

  Straight truck with No injury           363       40          1,946      1,654           2,256          344         4,949
  trailer                                                                                                             

                      Possible injury     6,510     198         5,235      3,782           11,820         16,990      40,754

                      Nonincapacitating   8,107     272         6,133      3,797           14,078         20,356      48,946

                      Incapacitating      17,328    439         7,474      4,017           33,348         50,388      108,977

                      Fatal injury        19,985    833         18,744     5,176           896,679        1,796,656   2,732,897

                      Unknown severity    2,749     174         5,446      2,669           13,970         10,041      32,380

                      Unknown if injured  675       77          2,805      1,750           3,352          1,972       8,881

  Straight truck,     No injury           433       40          1,550      1,675           2,313          401         4,737
  unknown if with                                                                                                     
  trailer                                                                                                             

                      Possible injury     6,991     200         4,295      3,728           11,703         19,441      42,629

                      Nonincapacitating   8,671     276         5,060      3,847           14,581         22,547      51,135

                      Incapacitating      38,311    470         6,330      3,835           36,049         120,532     201,691

                      Unknown if injured  1,241     71          2,232      1,761           3,333          2,918       10,524

  Bobtail             No injury           299       39          1,875      2,058           2,875          554         5,642

                      Possible injury     3,894     138         3,623      4,248           10,831         7,773       26,260

                      Nonincapacitating   2,644     269         5,645      4,248           10,411         5,592       24,560

                      Incapacitating      3,182     434         7,397      4,248           15,054         7,166       33,233

                      Fatal injury        23,250    833         17,990     5,176           894,832        1,792,895   2,729,800

                      Unknown severity    291       152         4,209      1,813           2,537          605         7,794

                      Unknown if injured  820       70          2,964      1,800           3,395          1,979       9,228

  Truck-tractor, 1    No injury           363       40          2,146      1,652           2,254          339         5,141
  trailer                                                                                                             

                      Possible injury     6,429     199         5,779      3,737           11,545         17,248      41,199

                      Nonincapacitating   7,380     275         6,796      3,772           13,888         20,467      48,807

                      Incapacitating      14,220    443         8,212      3,994           29,944         38,304      91,123

                      Fatal injury        24,542    833         20,728     5,176           886,772        1,776,485   2,709,360

                      Unknown severity    3,310     79          4,242      2,765           5,770          2,026       15,427

                      Unknown if injured  688       78          3,132      1,737           3,196          1,812       8,905

  Truck-tractor, 2 or No injury           387       40          6,114      1,661           2,283          362         9,187
  3 trailers                                                                                                          

                      Possible injury     6,085     198         16,316     3,702           11,293         16,866      50,758

                      Nonincapacitating   6,733     275         19,145     3,750           13,330         19,226      58,709

                      Incapacitating      14,364    448         23,184     4,003           30,421         37,199      105,615

                      Fatal injury        20,198    833         58,490     5,176           845,481        1,692,415   2,617,417

                      Unknown severity    0         27          9,075      1,476           1,746          0           10,848

                      Unknown if injured  597       88          6,229      1,704           2,929          1,441       11,284

  Truck-tractor, with No injury           358       39          2,665      1,652           2,235          342         5,640
  unknown \# of                                                                                                       
  trailers                                                                                                            

                      Possible injury     6,692     196         7,181      3,857           12,192         16,965      43,226

                      Nonincapacitating   2,827     280         8,522      3,706           10,241         12,839      34,709

                      Incapacitating      14,216    410         10,054     4,133           35,036         39,268      98,984

                      Fatal injury        19,842    833         25,785     5,176           822,827        1,646,292   2,515,579

                      Unknown if injured  710       71          3,661      1,749           3,159          1,716       9,317

  Medium/heavy truck, No injury           2         37          1,959      1,481           1,755          4           3,757
  unknown if with                                                                                                     
  trailer                                                                                                             

                      Possible injury     3,419     203         5,423      3,249           8,672          8,931       26,648

                      Nonincapacitating   3,739     266         6,291      4,133           11,240         8,420       29,955

                      Incapacitating      26,187    463         7,632      4,221           20,273         76,185      130,740

                      Fatal injury        21,032    833         19,381     5,176           786,188        1,571,695   2,399,129

                      Unknown severity    4,171     229         2,877      4,248           10,861         18,879      37,016

                      Unknown if injured  809       72          2,605      1,829           3,426          1,961       8,873

  All large trucks    No injury           241       39          1,875      1,636           2,239          290         4,685

                      Possible injury     5,347     176         4,476      3,682           10,813         13,498      34,310

                      Nonincapacitating   6,116     268         5,866      3,951           12,280         14,480      39,010

                      Incapacitating      13,047    454         7,422      4,054           29,109         34,587      84,620

                      Fatal injury        22,095    833         19,658     5,176           882,060        1,766,891   2,691,537

                      Unknown severity    3,061     138         3,733      3,092           7,484          4,618       19,034

                      Unknown if injured  718       87          2,804      2,217           3,865          1,807       9,281

  Bus,                No injury           7         36          549        1,513           1,801          17          2,411
  transit/intercity                                                                                                   

                      Possible injury     2,149     144         1,797      3,241           7,025          2,697       13,812

                      Nonincapacitating   2,640     256         2,051      4,034           9,401          6,734       21,081

                      Incapacitating      35,401    315         2,248      4,248           38,906         128,795     205,665

                      Fatal injury        21,198    833         6,051      5,176           827,803        1,656,421   2,512,305

                      Unknown severity    2,705     213         1,799      3,852           8,833          11,454      25,004

                      Unknown if injured  1,068     116         977        2,985           5,525          2,778       10,465
  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-   TABLE 10. Costs per Crash, by Crash Type and Crash Severity (in 2000
    dollars)

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Truck/bus crash     Injury\             Medical\   Emergency\   Property\   Lost\           Total\         Monetized\   Total
  type                severity            costs      services     damage      productivity\   lost\          QALYs\       
                                                                              from delays     productivity   based on\    
                                                                                                             VSL from DOT 
  ------------------- ------------------- ---------- ------------ ----------- --------------- -------------- ------------ -----------
  Straight truck, no  No injury           176        91           3,282       3,759           5,156          486          9,191
  trailer                                                                                                                 

                      Possible injury     5,883      279          5,888       7,467           17,288         13,556       42,894

                      Nonincapacitating   6,816      406          7,419       7,993           17,672         10,814       43,128

                      Incapacitating      15,847     744          9,974       8,837           42,400         37,990       106,955

                      Fatal injury        31,633     1,270        19,811      10,893          987,286        1,951,498    2,991,498

                      Unknown severity    3,746      261          5,712       6,303           13,048         7,543        30,310

                      Unknown if injured  901        164          3,946       5,420           8,258          2,101        15,371

  Straight truck with No injury           883        97           4,677       3,998           5,461          835          11,953
  trailer                                                                                                                 

                      Possible injury     9,312      323          10,109      7,748           19,109         22,786       61,640

                      Nonincapacitating   10,370     429          11,126      7,567           21,670         27,085       70,680

                      Incapacitating      35,434     961          19,580      11,935          70,049         99,483       225,507

                      Fatal injury        38,642     1,479        33,667      12,981          1,197,243      2,374,243    3,645,273

                      Unknown severity    1,547      260          12,509      7,981           13,425         3,944        31,685

                      Unknown if injured  1,398      126          5,188       3,856           6,411          2,722        15,846

  Straight truck,     No injury           883        81           3,104       3,362           4,652          813          9,533
  unknown if with                                                                                                         
  trailer                                                                                                                 

                      Possible injury     8,319      295          6,868       7,097           16,330         17,967       49,779

                      Nonincapacitating   9,450      436          9,774       7,997           21,131         24,423       65,214

                      Incapacitating      37,963     586          9,746       6,680           43,357         114,811      206,464

                      Unknown if injured  4,684      265          8,389       6,662           12,539         10,991       36,867

  Bobtail             No injury           717        96           4,618       5,026           7,000          1,354        13,785

                      Possible injury     5,561      252          7,951       9,191           19,275         10,963       44,002

                      Nonincapacitating   4,986      434          10,945      9,769           20,874         10,256       47,495

                      Incapacitating      5,288      611          12,325      9,024           24,396         11,547       54,166

                      Fatal injury        35,721     1,483        33,081      12,047          1,374,180      2,741,658    4,186,122

                      Unknown severity    1,031      203          6,438       4,572           6,854          1,992        16,518

                      Unknown if injured  1,101      110          5,193       4,104           6,524          2,474        15,401

  Truck-tractor, 1    No injury           816        88           4,735       3,664           5,008          763          11,409
  trailer                                                                                                                 

                      Possible injury     9,027      319          10,693      7,290           18,450         23,285       61,775

                      Nonincapacitating   10,595     433          12,237      7,516           22,178         28,643       74,086

                      Incapacitating      19,651     672          14,561      7,922           43,228         52,533       130,645

                      Fatal injury        37,779     1,371        33,839      11,272          1,105,903      2,193,252    3,372,143

                      Unknown severity    3,957      142          7,533       5,136           9,479          2,950        24,060

                      Unknown if injured  1,479      136          6,243       4,218           6,720          2,578        17,156

  Truck-tractor, 2 or No injury           772        81           11,924      3,332           4,580          718          18,074
  3 trailers                                                                                                              

                      Possible injury     8,470      322          30,744      7,613           18,318         22,007       79,862

                      Nonincapacitating   10,495     412          32,494      7,256           21,518         28,611       93,529

                      Incapacitating      18,912     654          37,449      7,201           41,407         47,909       146,331

                      Fatal injury        36,129     1,383        97,381      11,817          1,044,962      2,067,979    3,247,834

                      Unknown severity    47         68           15,189      3,016           3,765          84           19,153

                      Unknown if injured  1,166      132          12,412      3,618           5,630          1,967        21,308

  Truck-tractor, with No injury           768        93           6,322       3,890           5,230          753          13,166
  unknown \# of                                                                                                           
  trailers                                                                                                                

                      Possible injury     8,107      293          13,075      7,304           18,181         21,033       60,688

                      Nonincapacitating   7,104      532          18,496      9,438           22,641         25,871       74,645

                      Incapacitating      20,147     658          20,007      9,837           51,880         54,247       146,939

                      Fatal injury        22,122     861          28,450      6,662           824,626        1,646,346    2,522,405

                      Unknown if injured  1,413      118          6,781       3,789           6,046          2,331        16,688

  Medium/heavy truck, No injury           12         77           3,990       3,047           3,627          22           7,728
  unknown if with                                                                                                         
  trailer                                                                                                                 

                      Possible injury     5,523      371          11,116      7,061           15,813         14,160       46,984

                      Nonincapacitating   5,482      373          10,386      7,032           17,817         12,646       46,704

                      Incapacitating      67,664     1,383        24,447      14,100          57,867         196,346      347,707

                      Fatal injury        22,543     865          20,760      6,230           788,368        1,572,577    2,405,112

                      Unknown severity    12,071     811          16,153      17,850          38,074         53,636       120,745

                      Unknown if injured  945        141          5,969       4,375           6,675          2,298        16,028

  All large trucks    No injury           524        90           4,086       3,746           5,083          627          10,411

                      Possible injury     7,162      303          8,402       7,560           17,749         17,238       50,853

                      Nonincapacitating   8,806      434          10,284      8,041           20,712         20,671       60,906

                      Incapacitating      20,460     711          13,212      8,663           44,786         55,520       134,689

                      Fatal injury        35,916     1,349        31,278      11,446          1,076,607      2,133,038    3,278,188

                      Unknown severity    4,298      278          6,548       6,919           13,750         9,387        34,261

                      Unknown if injured  1,260      148          5,249       4,694           7,369          2,516        16,542

  Bus,                No injury           21         93           1,417       3,813           4,554          52           6,137
  transit/intercity                                                                                                       

                      Possible injury     3,860      319          4,391       8,580           15,816         5,258        29,644

                      Nonincapacitating   6,741      595          5,756       12,000          25,485         13,669       52,245

                      Incapacitating      54,804     756          6,649       13,148          70,171         191,499      323,880

                      Fatal injury        26,674     1,318        12,664      20,033          892,003        1,739,182    2,671,841

                      Unknown severity    7,443      626          5,658       12,653          26,226         29,568       69,520

                      Unknown if injured  1,347      196          2,139       6,044           9,611          3,467        16,760
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

TABLE 11. Costs per Crash, by Crash Type (in 2000 dollars)

  ----------------------- --------- ----------- ---------- -------------- -------------- ----------- --------
  Truck/bus crash type    Medical   Emergency   Property   Lost           Total lost     Monetized   Total
                          costs     services    damage     productivity   productivity   QALYs based 
                                                           from delays                   on VSL from 
                                                                                         DOT         

  Straight truck, no      2,286     177         4,341      4,887          15,514         18,690      41,008
  trailer                                                                                            

  Straight truck with     4,569     204         6,793      5,116          24,018         39,220      74,804
  trailer                                                                                            

  Straight truck, unknown 2,775     142         4,548      4,279          7,685          6,047       21,196
  if with trailer                                                                                    

  Bobtail                 1,976     168         5,961      5,988          16,554         18,508      43,167

  Truck-tractor, 1        3,854     186         6,872      4,677          23,039         38,509      72,459
  trailer                                                                                            

  Truck-tractor, 2 or 3   3,816     184         18,132     4,447          24,302         42,048      88,483
  trailers                                                                                           

  Truck-tractor, with     1,901     130         7,296      4,232          10,778         11,399      31,505
  unknown \# of trailers                                                                             

  Medium/heavy truck,     2,051     157         5,873      4,184          8,624          8,835       25,540
  unknown if with trailer                                                                            

  All large trucks        3,195     182         6,035      4,800          19,794         29,945      59,153

  Bus, transit/intercity  3,050     203         2,510      5,782          13,031         13,754      32,548

                                                                                                     
  ----------------------- --------- ----------- ---------- -------------- -------------- ----------- --------

TABLE 12. Costs per Injury Crash, by Crash Type (in 2000 dollars)

  ----------------------- --------- ----------- ---------- -------------- -------------- ----------- ---------
  Truck/bus crash type    Medical   Emergency   Property   Lost           Total lost     Monetized   Total
                          costs     services    damage     productivity   productivity   QALYs based 
                                                           from delays                   on VSL from 
                                                                                         DOT         

  Straight truck, no      7,162     376         6,787      7,495          39,450         59,169      112,943
  trailer                                                                                            

  Straight truck with     12,191    425         11,167     7,426          62,384         115,469     201,635
  trailer                                                                                            

  Straight truck, unknown 8,045     310         8,566      6,832          16,129         20,117      53,166
  if with trailer                                                                                    

  Bobtail                 4,806     329         8,978      8,151          38,026         55,603      107,741

  Truck-tractor, 1        10,645    406         11,648     6,944          63,343         119,657     205,699
  trailer                                                                                            

  Truck-tractor, 2 or 3   10,086    397         30,920     6,745          64,921         123,824     230,147
  trailers                                                                                           

  Truck-tractor, with     4,309     210         9,365      4,959          22,564         33,146      69,594
  unknown \# of trailers                                                                             

  Medium/heavy truck,     4,264     244         7,917      5,419          14,049         17,916      44,390
  unknown if with trailer                                                                            

  All large trucks        9,076     389         9,968      7,162          52,534         92,764      164,730

  Bus, transit/intercity  8,268     392         4,393      9,173          27,629         36,361      77,043

                                                                                                     
  ----------------------- --------- ----------- ---------- -------------- -------------- ----------- ---------

TABLE 13. Average Annual Crash Costs, by Crash Type: 1997-99 (in
millions of 2000 dollars)

  ----------------------- --------- ----------- ---------- -------------- -------------- ----------- --------
  Truck/bus crash type    Medical   Emergency   Property   Lost           Total lost     Monetized   Total
                          costs     services    damage     productivity   productivity   QALYs based 
                                                           from delays                   on VSL from 
                                                                                         DOT         

  Straight truck, no      300       24          608        692            1,946          2,089       4,966
  trailer                                                                                            

  Straight truck with     92        3           107        78             397            659         1,259
  trailer                                                                                            

  Straight truck, unknown 0         0           0          0              0              0           0
  if with trailer                                                                                    

  Bobtail                 13        1           49         51             91             47          201

  Truck-tractor, 1        697       35          1,289      884            4,015          6,529       12,564
  trailer                                                                                            

  Truck-tractor, 2 or 3   24        1           109        26             155            268         557
  trailers                                                                                           

  Truck-tractor, with     2         0           6          3              6              3           16
  unknown \# of trailers                                                                             

  Medium/heavy truck,     5         1           23         17             26             12          66
  unknown if with trailer                                                                            

  All large trucks        1,133     65          2,190      1,752          6,636          9,606       19,630

  Bus, transit/intercity  76        5           63         143            291            283         719

                                                                                                     
  ----------------------- --------- ----------- ---------- -------------- -------------- ----------- --------

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# Appendix 

Table A1. Commercial Auto Insurance Statistics by Vehicle Type, Selected
Companies, 1999

  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                         **Claims\   **Claim\     **Average\   **% of\    **Loss\   **Premiums\
                                         Per 1000\   Severity**   Loss\        Total\     Ratio**   per\
                                         Covers**                 Cost**       Losses**             Cover**
  -------------------- ----------------- ----------- ------------ ------------ ---------- --------- -------------
  **Bodily Injury      Bus               14.0        \$25,608     \$349        58.4%      86.7%     \$532
  Liability**                                                                                       

                       Light Truck       13.0        \$25,323     \$324        52.3%      85.1%     \$539

                       Medium Truck      11.0        \$31,120     \$355        56.4%      86.0%     \$590

                       Heavy Truck       12.0        \$34,037     \$407        54.1%      79.9%     \$756

                       Extra Heavy Truck 16.0        \$41,994     \$678        54.4%      78.8%     \$1,240

                       Heavy             15.0        \$49,369     \$748        61.5%      106.3%    \$941
                       Truck-Tractor                                                                

                       Extra Heavy       24.0        \$54,002     \$1,283      63.2%      103.2%    \$1,635
                       Truck-Tractor                                                                

                       Trailer           1.0         \$36,439     \$41         36.6%      61.4%     \$99

                       Pvt Passenger     11.0        \$26,074     \$291        43.6%      75.1%     \$529
                       Vehicle                                                                      

                       Other Public      82.0        \$16,117     \$1,317      52.8%      80.3%     \$2,141
                       Livery                                                                       

                       Total             12.0        \$28,573     \$335        52.0%      84.0%     \$557

  **Property Damage    Bus               53.0        \$2,122      \$112        18.7%      Folded    Folded
  Liability**                                                                                       

                       Light Truck       52.0        \$2,597      \$135        21.7%      into      into

                       Medium Truck      58.0        \$2,644      \$153        24.3%      Bodily    Bodily

                       Heavy Truck       68.0        \$2,911      \$197        26.1%      Injury    Injury

                       Extra Heavy Truck 106.0       \$2,812      \$299        24.0%                

                       Heavy             72.0        \$3,496      \$253        20.8%                
                       Truck-Tractor                                                                

                       Extra Heavy       95.0        \$4,262      \$405        20.0%                
                       Truck-Tractor                                                                

                       Trailer           6.0         \$3,136      \$20         18.3%                

                       Pvt Passenger     41.0        \$2,576      \$106        16.0%                
                       Vehicle                                                                      

                       Other Public      148.0       \$2,724      \$403        16.1%                
                       Livery                                                                       

                       Total             49.0        \$2,735      \$133        20.6%                

  **Personal Injury    Bus               12.0        \$3,413      \$40         2.0%       87.6%     \$46
  Protection**                                                                                      

                       Light Truck       4.0         \$6,251      \$26         1.5%       94.2%     \$28

                       Medium Truck      2.0         \$6,805      \$17         1.0%       58.5%     \$29

                       Heavy Truck       1.0         \$6,458      \$9          0.4%       31.7%     \$28

                       Extra Heavy Truck 2.0         \$4,129      \$7          0.2%       28.3%     \$26

                       Heavy             1.0         \$14,863     \$15         0.4%       49.1%     \$31
                       Truck-Tractor                                                                

                       Extra Heavy       2.0         \$8,418      \$16         0.2%       40.8%     \$39
                       Truck-Tractor                                                                

                       Trailer           0.0         \$5,693      \$1          0.2%       10.4%     \$9

                       Pvt Passenger     7.0         \$5,543      \$38         2.2%       74.5%     \$51
                       Vehicle                                                                      

                       Other Public      185.0       \$3,156      \$584        13.8%      162.8%    \$359
                       Livery                                                                       

                       Total             6.0         \$5,091      \$29         1.6%       84.0%     \$35

  **Collision**        Bus               14.0        \$2,823      \$40         14.2%      106.4%    \$38

                       Light Truck       43.0        \$3,331      \$143        16.5%      87.9%     \$162

                       Medium Truck      27.0        \$4,745      \$130        12.5%      75.0%     \$173

                       Heavy Truck       25.0        \$6,675      \$167        14.4%      78.0%     \$214

                       Extra Heavy Truck 29.0        \$11,036     \$323        17.1%      78.0%     \$414

                       Heavy             29.0        \$8,601      \$252        13.8%      63.7%     \$395
                       Truck-Tractor                                                                

                       Extra Heavy       38.0        \$12,207     \$466        13.7%      74.3%     \$627
                       Truck-Tractor                                                                

                       Trailer           8.0         \$7,057      \$58         31.4%      85.3%     \$68

                       Pvt Passenger     62.0        \$3,442      \$214        28.1%      81.2%     \$264
                       Vehicle                                                                      

                       Other Public      13.0        \$3,470      \$44         12.6%      102.0%    \$44
                       Livery                                                                       

                       Total             38.0        \$3,898      \$150        18.4%      83.0%     \$180

  **Compre-hensive**   Bus               20.0        \$879        \$18         6.7%       88.2%     \$20

                       Light Truck       55.0        \$1,133      \$63         7.9%       76.5%     \$82

                       Medium Truck      31.0        \$1,714      \$53         5.7%       68.4%     \$77

                       Heavy Truck       21.0        \$2,413      \$52         5.0%       61.3%     \$84

                       Extra Heavy Truck 17.0        \$4,081      \$70         4.3%       51.8%     \$135

                       Heavy             19.0        \$2,944      \$57         3.6%       49.7%     \$115
                       Truck-Tractor                                                                

                       Extra Heavy       17.0        \$5,161      \$87         0.0%       47.2%     \$185
                       Truck-Tractor                                                                

                       Trailer           6.0         \$3,829      \$21         13.5%      75.4%     \$28

                       Pvt Passenger     55.0        \$1,436      \$78         10.1%      56.5%     \$139
                       Vehicle                                                                      

                       Other Public      9.0         \$1,875      \$17         4.7%       72.9%     \$23
                       Livery                                                                       

                       Total             41.0        \$1,374      \$56         7.4%       66.3%     \$84

  **Total**            Bus               26.0        \$4,108      \$105        100.0%     89.2%     \$118

                       Light Truck       36.0        \$4,421      \$160        100.0%     85.0%     \$189

                       Medium Truck      29.0        \$5,833      \$172        100.0%     82.8%     \$208

                       Heavy Truck       30.0        \$6,731      \$201        100.0%     77.9%     \$258

                       Extra Heavy Truck 41.0        \$8,007      \$327        100.0%     76.7%     \$427

                       Heavy             33.0        \$9,976      \$325        100.0%     93.5%     \$348
                       Truck-Tractor                                                                

                       Extra Heavy       43.0        \$13,205     \$569        0.0%       94.6%     \$601
                       Truck-Tractor                                                                

                       Trailer           5.0         \$6,735      \$31         100.0%     68.3%     \$45

                       Pvt Passenger     38.0        \$4,258      \$162        100.0%     74.2%     \$218
                       Vehicle                                                                      

                       Other Public      29.0        \$5,072      \$149        100.0%     88.4%     \$169
                       Livery                                                                       

                       Total             32.0        \$5,057      \$162        100.0%     82.2%     \$197
  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Table A-2. Percentage of Policyholders with Different Coverage, by
Policy Type, Selected Companies, 1999

  ---------------------------- ---------------- ---------------- --------------
  **Coverage**                 **Commercial**   **Motorcycle**   **Other
                                                                 Private
                                                                 Passenger**

  Bodily Injury Liability      93.9%            87.1%            99.6%

  Property Damage Liability    93.9%            85.4%            96.0%

  Personal Injury Protection   33.6%            3.8%             37.9%

  Collision                    74.5%            52.3%            86.1%

  Comprehensive                80.0%            56.8%            90.8%
  ---------------------------- ---------------- ---------------- --------------

Table A3. Statistics About Auto Insurance Policies by Vehicle Type,
Commercial versus Private Passenger, Selected Companies, 1999

+---------------------+----------+------+------+------+------+-----+
|                     | **       | **Co | *    | *    | **Cl | **  |
|                     | Policies | vers | *Pre | *Pre | aims | Los |
|                     | @**      | per  | mium | mium | per  | ses |
|                     |          | Poli | per  | per  | 1000 | per |
|                     |          | cy** | Ac   | All- | Po   | Po  |
|                     |          |      | tual | C    | lici | lic |
|                     |          |      | Poli | over | es** | y** |
|                     |          |      | cy** | Poli |      |     |
|                     |          |      |      | cy** |      |     |
+---------------------+----------+------+------+------+------+-----+
| Buses               | 433,443  | 2.5  | \    | \    | 64.7 | \$  |
|                     |          |      | $298 | $636 |      | 266 |
+---------------------+----------+------+------+------+------+-----+
| Light Trucks        | 3        | 3.9  | \    | \    | 1    | \$  |
|                     | ,057,914 |      | $730 | $811 | 40.2 | 620 |
+---------------------+----------+------+------+------+------+-----+
| Medium Trucks       | 454,860  | 3.7  | \    | \    | 1    | \$  |
|                     |          |      | $758 | $869 | 07.7 | 628 |
+---------------------+----------+------+------+------+------+-----+
| Heavy Trucks        | 392,134  | 3.8  | \    | \$1  | 1    | \$  |
|                     |          |      | $966 | ,082 | 11.9 | 753 |
+---------------------+----------+------+------+------+------+-----+
| Extra Heavy Trucks  | 108,135  | 3.8  | \$1  | \$1  | 1    | \   |
|                     |          |      | ,628 | ,815 | 55.9 | $1, |
|                     |          |      |      |      |      | 248 |
+---------------------+----------+------+------+------+------+-----+
| Heavy               | 73,273   | 3.7  | \$1  | \$1  | 1    | \   |
| Truck-Tractors      |          |      | ,301 | ,482 | 21.9 | $1, |
|                     |          |      |      |      |      | 216 |
+---------------------+----------+------+------+------+------+-----+
| Extra Heavy         | 191,919  | 3.6  | \$2  | \$2  | 1    | \   |
| Truck-Tractors      |          |      | ,148 | ,486 | 53.8 | $2, |
|                     |          |      |      |      |      | 031 |
+---------------------+----------+------+------+------+------+-----+
| Trailers            | 785,533  | 3.6  | \    | \    | 16.4 | \$  |
|                     |          |      | $162 | $204 |      | 111 |
+---------------------+----------+------+------+------+------+-----+
| Private Passenger   | 1        | 4.1  | \    | \    | 1    | \$  |
|                     | ,346,992 |      | $899 | $983 | 56.6 | 667 |
+---------------------+----------+------+------+------+------+-----+
| Other Public        | 247,732  | 2.4  | \    | \$2  | 69.5 | \$  |
| Liveries            |          |      | $399 | ,567 |      | 353 |
+---------------------+----------+------+------+------+------+-----+
| Total               | 7        | 3.7  | \    | \    | 1    | \$  |
|                     | ,091,935 |      | $734 | $856 | 19.3 | 603 |
+---------------------+----------+------+------+------+------+-----+
|                     |          |      |      |      |      |     |
+---------------------+----------+------+------+------+------+-----+
| Private Passenger   | 43       | 5.7  | \    | \    | 2    | \$  |
| Auto \*             | ,732,804 | \*\* | $718 | $808 | 52.5 | 481 |
+---------------------+----------+------+------+------+------+-----+
| \* = excludes       |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| motorcycle          |          |      |      |      |      |     |
|                     |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| \*\* = includes     |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| uninsured motorist  |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| and own medical     |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| coverage not        |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| collected for       |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| commercial.         |          |      |      |      |      |     |
|                     |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| @ = represents      |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| 28.9% of all        |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| commercial premiums |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| and presumably of   |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| all commercial      |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| policies.           |          |      |      |      |      |     |
|                     |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| ![](media/i         |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| mage2.wmf){width="4 |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| .778472222222222in" |          |      |      |      |      |     |
| height="2.61875in"} |          |      |      |      |      |     |
+---------------------+----------+------+------+------+------+-----+

![](media/image3.wmf){width="5.079861111111111in"
height="2.7256944444444446in"}