Session No. 1

# Course Title: Hazard Mapping and Modeling

**Session 1: INTRODUCTION TO AND EVOLUTION OF HAZARD MAPPING AND
MODELING**

**Prepared by Ute J. Dymon, Professor of Geography, Kent State
University**

**Nancy L. Winter, PhD**

## Time: 3 hrs

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**Overall Goal: This course is to contribute to the reduction of the
growing toll (deaths and injuries, property loss, environmental
degradation, etc.) of disasters in the United States by providing an
understanding of the significant role of mapping and modeling in the
management of hazards.**

**Objectives:**

1.1 Introduce instructor and students.

1.2 Review the **overall goal of the course** and the **objectives of
this session**.

1.3 Review the student **requirements, responsibilities and session
assignments.**

1.4 Review the **criteria for a student evaluation** in this session.

1.5 Clarify use of the terms **"hazard" (a description) and "risk" (a
measurement)** to establish that they are not synonymous and should not
be substituted for each other.

1.6 Clarify the definitions for and classify examples of **natural**
hazards**, technological** hazards and **intentional** hazards and
differentiate between a hazard and a **disaster.**

1.7 Introduce the concepts in "**The Universe of Hazards**" diagram.

1.8 Discuss the **Causal Model for Technological Hazards.**

1.9 Discuss the **Hazard Management Mapping Model.**

10. Consider the many **roles of mapping** in emergency management
    today.

11. Discuss the concepts central to hazard mapping and modeling and
    develop the supporting elements of the concepts considered
    including: **frequency, magnitude, vulnerability, risk, adjustment,
    preparedness, mitigation, georeferenced data files and crisis
    mapping.**

12. Review the **historic development of hazard mapping and modeling**
    from Dr. John Snow's 1855 map through the laws that increased U.S.
    hazard mapping from the 1960\'s to 2003.

1.13 Cooperatively **evaluate this session** through discussion
questions.

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**Scope:**

The instructor and students will introduce themselves to the class and
share information about their experiences with disasters and hazard
mapping and modeling. This should lead to a discussion of the overall
goal of the course, the objectives of this session and the criteria for
a student evaluation in this Session 1. By welcoming student questions
about the course syllabus, establish clear guidelines for: 1) expected
student participation and conduct in class, 2) the number of
out-of-class assignments to be submitted and 3) the number of lab
assignments to be completed. Discussion of the difference between the
definition for hazard and for risk is expected to aid students in
avoiding using them synonymously. Through class discussion help students
differentiate between the three major classes of hazards: **natural,
technological** and **intentional.** To encompass the big picture of
hazardousness in the world, encourage elicitations from students while
exploring The Universe of Hazards diagram. Compare and contrast varying
definitions for natural hazards with key terms and basic concepts such
as natural disasters, risk, vulnerability, resilience, and adjustment.
When presenting the model of Hazard Management Mapping, challenge
students to identify within the model the four stages of emergency or
disaster management - **mitigation, preparedness planning, response and
recovery**. A timeline of the effects of legislation on the historic
evolution of hazard mapping and modeling will be reviewed. Give students
an opportunity to express their opinions about this session.

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**Readings:**

*Instructor Reading:*

*Cutter*, Susan L. 1994. *Environmental Risks and Hazards.* Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Dymon, Ute J. 1994. The Critical Role of Emergency Planning Maps. *Risk:
Issues of Health and Safety*, Vol. 5 (4).

Dymon, U. J. and Nancy L. Winter. 1993. Evacuation Mapping: The Utility
of Guidelines. *Disasters,* Vol.17 (1).

Kates, Robert W., Christoph Hohenemser and Jeanne X. Kasperson. 1985.
*Perilous Progress: Managing the Hazards of Technology*. Boulder CO:
Westview Press.

International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) Secretariat. 2002.
*Living with Risk*. Geneva: United Nations.

Tobin, Graham A. and Burrell E. Montz. 1997. *Natural Hazards*. New
York: Guilford Press.

*Required Student Reading:*

U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency. 1997. *Multihazard*

> *Identification and Risk Assessment: A Cornerstone of the National
> Mitigation Strategy.* Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
> http://www.fema.gov/fhm/ft mhira.shtm

*Student Reading:*

*Cutter*, Susan L. 1994. *Environmental Risks and Hazards.* Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Dymon, U. J. and Nancy L. Winter. 1991. Emergency Mapping in Grass Roots
America: A Derailment Evacuation Case Study. *Geoforum*, Vol. 22 (4).

Monmonier, Mark. 1997. *Cartographies of Danger: Mapping Hazards in
America.* Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Winter, Nancy L. and U. J. Dymon. 2000. Environmental Crime in *Atlas*

*of Crime*. Phoenix: The Oryx Press.

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**General Requirements:**

Power Point slides are provided for the instructor's use.

The instructor's course syllabus should be distributed to the students
following the instructor and student introductions.

It is recommended that students with little or no knowledge of hazards
acquire a general overview of the most common of the three general types
of hazards: *natural*, *technological* and *intentional*. The websites
for materials relating to these are listed at the end of this session
plan. In addition, the FEMA publication "Multihazard Identification and
Risk Assessment Report" provides detailed explanations for many of the
hazards identified herein and the Required Student Readings cover both
hazard information and key aspects of mapping them.

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**Objective 1.1 Conduct instructor and student introductions**

Requirements:

Setting an example for the class, the instructor should introduce
him/her self and share his/her insights and relevant experience with
hazards. If deemed appropriate, the instructor may also share personal
information about his/her hobbies, outside interests, where he/she is
from, favorite sports teams, etc. Personal interchange between the
students and between the students and instructor may promote the
educational process by helping to form a friendly class environment.

Remarks:

I. Instructor introduction

A. Briefly explain to the students how you became interested in
**hazards, disasters**,

**and what to do about them, or "emergency management"**. Reveal how you

acquired the qualifications to teach this course.

B. For the benefit of students, describe any hazard, disaster or
emergency

**management experience** you have had. Or, in lieu of experience,
explain your

**relevant research interests, writings, presentation, travels,
volunteer work or**

**other community involvement that may be pertinent.**

C. Briefly poll the class for experiences by asking: How many of you
have a family

member or friends who have **experienced a disaster first-hand?**

**II. Student** introductions

A. Invite students to: 1) **introduce themselves**, 2) **explain why
they are taking the**

**course,** and 3) **reveal what their expectations are for the
course.**

B. Have students share their relevant **backgrounds and experiences,
including disaster experience.**

**Objective 1.2 Discuss the overall goal of the course and the
objectives of this session**

**Requirements:**

Supply each student with a course syllabus.

Review the overall course goal and the objectives of this session.

**Remarks:**

**I.** Point out that the objectives of this session require mastery of
the vocabulary and concepts of both hazards and mapping and that a basic
historical timeline of development of this subject matter is presented.

**II.** Discuss with students how many of the terms listed as part of
this objective are unfamiliar to them.

**Objective 1.3 Review the student requirements, responsibilities and
session assignments.**

**Requirements:**

Refer the students to the course syllabus to specify student
requirements and responsibilities.

**Remarks:**

**I.** Basic operating information a successful student needs

A. Point out to students the following information listed in the
syllabus: 1) the **instructor's office location, 2) the instructor's
office hours and 3) the policy regarding student contact with the
instructor via telephone, fax and email.**

B. With the use of the syllabus, specify for students expected class
behavior and degree of participation.

C. All reading assignments are to be **completed** **prior to the
session** indicated in the course syllabus.

D. Students are expected to **actively participate and contribute** to
group work and to **take their** **turn** reporting and presenting group
products to the entire class.

**Objective 1.4 Review the criteria for a student evaluation in this
session**

**Requirements:**

Specify the criteria for a student evaluation and make sure the students
understand them.

Because a significant percentage of a student's performance will be
judged by her/his participation in group work with in the class, the
following general recommendations concerning groups are provided for the
instructor.

-   Ideal groups are comprised of three to five students, with
    membership randomly assigned by the instructor to promote a
    diversity of opinions and ideas.

-   Groups should be given time to complete their task, present their
    work to the entire class and engage in discussion.

-   The role of group spokesperson should be rotated to provide every
    student in the group with the opportunity to present and defend the
    work of her/his group.

-   Guidelines for group behavior should be discussed and established.

-   The efforts of each group should be passively monitored with
    intervention by the instructor only necessary in the case of
    dysfunctional behavior.

    **Remarks:**

    **I.** Student evaluation criteria

    A. 50% of a student evaluation will be based on **class preparation,
    class participation and contributions as an individual and
    participation and contributions to group work.**

    B. 50% of a student evaluation will be based on the student's
    ability to **process the**

    **Information presented by making sense of it and applying it to
    examples of**

    **real life situations** in case studies and exercises presented in
    class and to past real world experiences of the student.

    Objective 1.5 Clarify use of the terms "hazard" (a description) and
    "risk" (a measurement) to establish that they are not synonymous and
    should not be substituted for each other.

    **Requirements:**

    Facilitate class discussion to foster an understanding of the
    difference between the role of a descriptive word such as "hazard"
    and a measurement term such as "risk". Use the PowerPoint slides
    provided. Proposed questions are suggested to stimulate discussion.

    **Remarks:**

    **I.** Define "hazard" and "risk" by building on existing
    definitions students have.

    A. **Ask the Students** - Write down your definitions for the words
    "hazard" and "risk". Discuss their definitions by asking students to
    articulate what is the difference between the definition of the term
    "hazard" and the term "risk".

    B. **"Threats to humans and what they value"** is the most succinct
    definition for a hazard that has been proposed by hazard scholars.
    **(Power Point Slide 1**)[^1] The phrase "what they value" is
    defined as "life, well-being, material goods, and environment."[^2]
    **(Power Point Slide 2)**

    This neat, "nutshell" definition, provided by Robert Kates et al. in
    1985in *Perilous Progress,* covers all of the aspects of the myriad
    of other more detailed scholarly attempts to define the term
    "hazard".

    Some examples of these more wordy definitions include the key one
    from FEMA's *Multihazard Identification and Assessment:* "**events
    or physical conditions that have the *potential* to cause
    fatalities, injuries, property damage, infrastructure damage,
    agricultural loss, damage to the environment,** **interruption of
    business, or other types of harm or loss".** **(Power Point Slides
    3-4)** [^3]

    C. The word "hazard" is commonly in use far less than the word
    "risk**".** Ask students what are some of the many ways we hear
    people speak about "risk" or how "risky" something is today. The
    term is used in dealing with insurance, opportunities or ventures,
    gambling and betting and everyday human activities from driving an
    SUV to skateboarding.

    D. Return to the issue of the difference between the term "hazard"
    and the term "risk" and contrast how "hazard" **describes** a
    potentially harmful event or condition while "risk" **measures**
    that event or condition in terms of **the likelihood of the event
    happening multiplied by the consequence of that event.**

    E. Thus, "risk" is defined by most risk managers as the mathematical
    formula:

    RISK = LIKELIHOOD X CONSEQUENCE[^4] **(Power Point Slides 5-6)**

    The likelihood of a hazardous event or condition occurring can be
    calculated as a probability or as a frequency, depending upon the
    analysis under consideration.

F.  To clarify further the difference between a hazard and a risk,
    discuss the likelihood

and consequences of a blizzard in Washington, DC in July.

G. **Ask the students** - "What are the consequences of a blizzard?
Students should be able to list consequences such as power outages, road
closings, highway accidents, etc. Discuss how these consequences have
often caused the federal government to restrict its activities in
Washington DC. Residents of Washington DC consider the potential for a
blizzard as a hazard. Once the list is finished, consider the next
question.

H. **Ask the students** - "What is the likelihood of a blizzard in
Washington, DC in July?" A discussion of the low likelihood of the
Washington DC climate producing a blizzard in July should lead to the
conclusion that the likelihood and consequence of a Washington DC
blizzard in July defines the **blizzard risk** as very low.

I. After these discussions, students should be able to articulate how a
hazard and a risk are related, but are not the same. A hazard
***describes*** the *potential* for an event or condition to occur while
a risk ***measures** that hazard's likelihood and consequence**. ***

**Objective 1.6 Clarify the definitions for and classify examples of
natural hazards, technological hazards and intentional hazards and
differentiate between a hazard and a disaster.**

**Requirements:**

After students work in groups to list the hazards they remember from
their hometowns, contrast in open class discussion the definition of a
natural hazard with a **technological hazard, an intentional hazard**
and **a disaster.** Encourage students to develop a "working vocabulary"
for the many definitions needed to discuss hazard issues in emergency
management.

**Remarks:**

**I.** Comparing definitions for natural, technological and intentional
hazards with the definition for a disaster.

A. The possibility of **human interaction with an extreme physical
event** produces the concept of a natural hazard.[^5] If humans are not
involved, then the extreme geophysical event is only a phenomenon or
event.

B. In contrast, there are countless technological and intentional
hazards in society today. Any technology that humans use has the
potential to produce unintended negative consequences. **A technological
hazard arises from the potential of negative consequences resulting from
the human use of technology**.

C. Human will and intentions define an intentional hazard. **Human
actions with intent to cause harm to other humans and what they value
are termed intentional hazards.** Today, terrorism is the source of most
of the intentional hazards.

D. To compare these hazard definitions with the definition for a
disaster, emphasis should be put upon the differing time elements with
the idea that the concept of a hazard is based upon **the** **future**
potential for harm while in a disaster, the potential of a hazard has
come to pass in **the present** as an actual event.

E. Class Activity.

a\. Assign students into groups and encourage them to recall the hazards
that existed or exist today in their hometowns (where they grew up).
Each group should organize their list of hazards under the three
headings: **natural hazard, technological hazard** and **intentional
hazard.** Any disagreements that arise should be shared with the entire
class for discussion.

b\. Each group should then write a definition for the term "disaster".
The class should discuss these definitions and compare the difference
between a hazard and a disaster. Consider the definition for a disaster
in **Power Point Slide \# 7.**

**Objective 1.7 Introduce the concepts in "The Universe of Hazards"
diagram.**

**Requirements:**

The Universe of Hazards diagram outlines the hazardous physical and
cultural elements affecting the environment that human society lives in
today. It should be pointed out that natural hazards are organized on
the chart by the length of time the extreme physical event exists and
the names of **19 natural hazards** are included on the list. In
contrast to natural disasters, the number of technological hazards can
be **infinite** since they can arise from any of the millions of kinds
of technology human use. In this diagram, technological hazards are
organized into a causal taxonomy with three major levels based on the
dimensions of their dire consequences: **hazards, extreme hazards** and
**multiple extreme hazards,** and there are delineations within the
three major levels that expand the taxonomy into seven categories in
all. Samples of thirty-six **energy hazards** (from household appliance
fires to trampoline falls) and fifty-seven hazards caused by **release
of a material** (from alcohol accidents to the toxic effects of water
fluoridation) were analyzed according to five factors. Extreme hazards
are extreme in one factor and multiple extreme hazards are extreme in
more than one factor. For full understanding of this taxonomy of
technological hazards, mastery of unfamiliar vocabulary is necessary
including terms such as biocides. teratogens, recombinant DNA, diffuse,
etc. For full background of this analysis of 93 technological hazards
see Chapter 4 in *Perilous Progress* cited in Footnote 1. Narrowing this
scholarly research approach to technological hazards to the mitigation
and emergency management goals of FEMA, the list of technological
hazards that warrant the most attention are these seven: 1) **dam
failures,** 2) **fires,** 3) **hazardous materials events,** 4)
**nuclear accidents,** 5) **national security hazards,** 6) **power
failures,** and 7) **telecommunications failures.**

**Remarks:**

**I.** Display and discuss The Universe of Hazards diagram **(Power
Point Slide \# 8)**.

A.  **Ask students:** Why might objections be made to the conception of
    the environment in this diagram? **(It is not a complete portrayal
    of the human environment; it only encompasses the hazardous elements
    in human life.)**

B.  Explain the definition of "geophysical" events. *Random House's
    Webster's Dictionary* defines geophysics as "**the branch of geology
    that deals with [the physics of the earth and its
    atmosphere,]{.underline} including oceanography, seismology,
    volcanology and** **geomagnetism".** *The Webster's New Collegiate
    Dictionary* offers this definition for geophysics: "the physics of
    the earth including the fields of meteorology, hydrology,
    oceanography, seismology, volcanology, magnetism, radioactivity, and
    geodesy".

C. **Ask students:** What is the basis for the natural hazards
categories: **intensive, pervasive** and **combined**? (To categorize
natural hazards by their duration or the amount of time they exist.)

D. Encourage any questions about the technological hazards listed and
for clarity make certain students understand the definition of terms
such as biocides, teratogens, etc. **(Power Point Slide \# 9).**

E. **Ask the students:** How do these technological hazard categories
differ from the way tech hazards are depicted in FEMA's *Multihazard
Identification and Risk Assessment*? *(*Use **Power Point Slides #10 and
#11** to compare the **research** **categories** in the Universe of
Hazards diagram with the **applied emergency management foci** of FEMA's
list.) **Establish the overriding idea that despite the separation of
natural hazards from technological hazards on this diagram, natural
hazard events trigger technological problems and that the seven major
technological hazards FEMA must pay attention to are the results of
these interactions**.

**Objective 1.8 Discuss the Causal Model of Technological Hazards**

**Requirements:**

The Causal Model of Technological Hazards **(Power Point Slide #12)**
traces a seven step sequence of connected events and conditions that
lead to the harmful consequences of a technological hazard and thus help
define its risk. All technological hazards derive from **human needs and
wants** which results in humans choosing to **use a technology**, which
causes an **initiating event** with its resulting release of **materials
or energy**. The causal sequence continues as **humans are exposed** to
those materials or energy with **detrimental human and biological
consequences**. A full explanation of how 12 descriptors based on these
causal stages were applied to classify technological hazards into the
taxonomy shown in The Universe of Hazards diagram may be found in
Chapter 4 of *Perilous Progress*[^6]. A range of key decisions for
intervention to prevent or modify a given causal stage should be
discussed using the example of the danger of human clothes catching fire
from use of a fireplace in the home **(Power Point slides #13 and
#14)**. Power Point slides are provided to show societies attempts to
intervene to control the dangers of automobile use from 1920 to 1980
**(Power Point slide #15)** and to intervene to control minamata disease
from 1956 to 1980 **(Power Point Slide #16)**.

**Remarks:**

**I.** Display and discuss the Causal Model of Technological Hazards
**(Power Point Slide #12).**

A. **Ask students:** At what point in this sequence does the potential
of the technological hazard become a reality? (When the initiating event
or condition takes place leading to a release of material or energy.)

B. **Ask students:** Which stages in this model aid in deriving the risk
from the

technological hazard being modeled? (The list of **harmful
consequences** to all living things, humans, animals, plants, etc. the
complete biota.)

C. **Student Activity:** Provide each student with a copy of **Power
Point Slide #12**, the basic Causal Model and challenge them to think
about the danger of human clothes catching fire from a rather
old-fashioned technology, a fireplace. Students should try to fill in
the information that fits an accident where human clothes catch fire.
Work through the seven steps of the model with students contributing
answers. Compare their analysis with **Power Point Slide #13**. Next,
have them fill out on their models what interventions humans could bring
about to lessen or remove the hazard depicted in this causal chain.
Compare their answers with Power Point Slide 14. Explain that these
interventions are akin to the mitigation efforts society performs on a
larger scale through government agencies **(use**

**Power Point Slide \# 15.)**

D. Explain that the further "upstream" (to the left) in the causal
sequence that a control action takes place compared to interventions
farther "downstream" (to the right) in the sequence the more effective
it will be. Point out that the ultimate control or intervention is to
stop using or to ban the technology at the "choice of technology stage".

E. Discuss the actions U.S. society took from 1920 to 1980 to lessen the
hazards from the use of automobile technology **(use Power Point Slide
#16).** Compare the interventions or mitigation the Japanese village of
Minamata used from 1956 to 1980 to try to control Minamata disease, or
the neurological problems from ingestion of methyl mercury-contaminated
drinking water **(use Power Point Slide #17).** Note that the control
strategies began downstream and over time moved upstream until the
technology, use of mercury compounds as catalysts in a chemical plant,
was eliminated from Japan by transfer of the offending factory to
Thailand. (See Chapter 9 in *Perilous Progress.)*

**Objective 1-9: Discuss the Hazard Management Mapping Model**

**Requirements:**

The **Hazard Management Mapping Model**[^7] by Nancy L. Winter has two
major parts. The top of the diagram shows the three major hazard
assessment and management efforts: **hazard identification**, **risk**
**assessment** and **resource allocation and evaluation** and the types
of mapping needed for these. The lower portion of the diagram presents
in detail Emergency Management mapping which in the United States is the
prime responsibility of local authorities such as a town or county.
Jurisdiction over disastrous events shifts to federal control only when
conditions reach overwhelming or mega-disaster magnitude.

**Remarks:**

**I.** Display the Hazard Management Mapping Model **(Power Point Slide
#18)** to illustrate and discuss all the elements and processes it
contains.

A. The top portion of this model diagrams hazard assessment as conceived
by R.W. Kates *et al.*[^8]. The bottom portion depicts the categories of
maps needed for emergency management. Ask students to name and describe
what these two major parts of this diagram portray.

**II.** Shift to **Power Point slide #19** showing only the top portion
of the Model. Explain that

society becomes alerted to modern hazards through the processes of
**hazard identification** and **risk estimation**, both highly dependent
on sufficient amounts of mapping.

A.  The four methods of **hazard identification** are based on hazard
    maps, which locate threats. These are intrinsic to hazard
    **research.** By putting data in a spatial context, valuable
    patterns can be identified. An example is the mapping in hurricane
    research which pinpointed the west coast of Africa as the source of
    the tropical cyclones that later develop into hurricanes menacing
    the east coast of the United States.

B. The second approach to hazard identification, **screening**, is a
kind of "fishing expedition" in which maps showing the spatial
distribution of products, processes, natural hazard phenomena or persons
with hazardous potential reveal threats.

C. **Monitoring** of repetitious hazardous events or their consequences
requires large numbers of time series maps.

D. A **diagnosis** of the existence of a hazardous situation can come
from analysis of the locations of an odd set of events or consequences.

E. Contrast the simple task of mapping locations for hazard maps with
the generally more sophisticated products called **risk** maps necessary
for **risk estimation**.

a\. **Ask students**: Why does the use of a hazard map for risk
estimation require more mental energy on the part of the map user than
use of a risk map? (Using a hazard map to reduce risk, the map reader
must make mental judgments about how risky the hazardous situation
revealed on the map appears to be. Technically, risk maps show the
results of some sort of numerical calculation to determine the
probability of occurrence and

degree of risk, or at least some gross ranking of risk from low to high.
Often this is established by extrapolation of data by enhancing the
databases the map was built from with information from the past.
Well-designed risk maps usually present quantities given in their
legends in ranges rather than single numbers, or in probability
percentages because uncertainty is inherent in risk estimation.)

b.  **Ask students**: Who in a given community will often discourage the
    use of risk maps that **aggregate the risk estimates from more than
    one hazard?** (Business and real estate interests reject such maps
    because of potential limits to land use and the negative publicity
    engendered for the community.)

F. Point out that the actions society decides to take based on these
processes of **hazard identification** and **risk estimation** guide
**resource allocation**. Decisions must be made about how much will be
spent on given hazards and the later **evaluation** needed to judge the
degree of success of these attempts to manage them or their after
effects.

**III. Power Point Slide #20** allows students to concentrate on the
**Emergency Management t Mapping** presented in this Model.

**Mapping presented in this Model.**

A. **Ask Students:** What are **georeferenced data files** and why are
they so important? (Georeferenced data files or digital files are files
of data tied to latitude and longitude readings which allow exact
locations to be found. Emphasize the advantage AFTER a disaster of being
able to locate precisely where certain features were located before the
disastrous event. An example was the need after Hurricane Andrew to
locate where street signs, telephone poles and liquid gas outlets had
been located before the storm.) Often it is difficult to convince local
authorities to fund the cost of gathering of these georeferenced files
or digital files.

B. Be sure students understand that this model for emergency mapping is
organized by the chronology of how maps are applied to handle a
disastrous event from **preparedness** through production of **planning
maps**, to **crisis mapping** during and immediately after the event, to
meeting **response** needs to **recovery** operations and
**mitigation.**

C. As the media operates today, any emergency maps may be used in
attempts to communicate risk. Session 8 will cover the tenets of risk
communication in detail.

**Objective 1.10: Consider the many roles of mapping in emergency
management today.**

**Requirements:**

Query students for reasons: 1) why we need maps for emergency planning,
2) what the problems are with providing emergency maps to the public and
3) how we can improve communication between the public and government
agencies tasked with managing emergencies.

**Remarks:**

**I**. Elicit from students the roles maps play in managing emergency
situations.

A. **Ask students:** what are the basic reasons we need to make maps for
emergency planning?

Emergencies, whether natural or technological, require **movement over
space of people, goods and services**, and maps are the most efficient
models for planning such future actions, which will take place over a
spatial area. Maps require the planner to generalize data and put down
the essentials. A well-designed map allows us to **put information in a
hierarchical** **form so the most important things stand out more** and
can be identified at a glance. In emergency planning, maps are one of
the most appropriate and efficient models for future actions available
to the planner. Thus, mapping is a process carried out in all stages of
emergency management and in all levels of human involvement. In all four
key aspects of emergency management - mitigation, preparedness, response
and recovery - maps are needed to:

1)  facilitate the flow of resources/services both before and during an
    emergency

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2)  coordinate the efforts of emergency groups and services by use of a
    concrete, agreed upon model

3)  be a concrete model or guide for possible action by the public, and

4)  be the quickest method for tracking at a glance all of the elements
    at work in a specific geographic area without having to read reams
    of paragraphs. **(Power Point Slide #21)**

### The role maps can play in the emergency planning process in a larger sense shows emergency maps to be extensions of environmental mapping for resource allocation. Traditionally, maps are thought of as elements in the preparedness and response stages of an emergency, but the emergency map's contents are formed from the established geographic information system built from the available environmental information available for the region in question.  {#the-role-maps-can-play-in-the-emergency-planning-process-in-a-larger-sense-shows-emergency-maps-to-be-extensions-of-environmental-mapping-for-resource-allocation.-traditionally-maps-are-thought-of-as-elements-in-the-preparedness-and-response-stages-of-an-emergency-but-the-emergency-maps-contents-are-formed-from-the-established-geographic-information-system-built-from-the-available-environmental-information-available-for-the-region-in-question. .unnumbered}

###  {#section .unnumbered}

### In addition, in the more long-range mitigation and recovery phases of emergency planning, resource maps, environmental maps and hazard maps are employed. It is from this same geographic information that emergency maps emerge. Therefore, in the largest macro-scale, covering all four phases of emergency management, **maps can serve as a model for both present and future actions.**  {#in-addition-in-the-more-long-range-mitigation-and-recovery-phases-of-emergency-planning-resource-maps-environmental-maps-and-hazard-maps-are-employed.-it-is-from-this-same-geographic-information-that-emergency-maps-emerge.-therefore-in-the-largest-macro-scale-covering-all-four-phases-of-emergency-management-maps-can-serve-as-a-model-for-both-present-and-future-actions. .unnumbered}

B. **Ask students**: What are the problems in attempting to provide
emergency maps to the public?

1\. how to distribute so there's availability

2\. how to keep maps up-to-date. and available after updating

3\. what information to include

\- This requires assumptions to be made about

a.) what level of education the user (the public) will have, especially
about technical issues,

b.) reading ability levels and map reading skills

4\. how technically trained is the public in map reading and use

5\. how to incorporate local knowledge - often this can't be put on the
map but needs to considered when doing the planning for the emergency
(this is one of the most problematic areas of emergency map design)

**(Power Point Slide \# 22)**

C. **Ask students**: How can we improve communication between the public
and government agencies in case of an emergency and what role can maps
play?

Communication between the public and Homeland Security means the use of
all available technical channels of communication, but the problem of
improving communication with the public is a problem with mapping in
general. Closeness and communication will grow if the public is involved
in designing the maps and if their needs are considered and
incorporated. Not just consultant firms should be involved in making the
maps; public input should be sought early in the process. Realistically
speaking, few people even know where their local emergency management
agency is located. There are myriad reasons for this. It can be seen as
one more aspect of the complexities of two-way communication with the
public about risks.

**Objective 1.11: Review the concepts central to hazard mapping and
modeling and develop**

**the supporting elements of the concepts considered including:
frequency,**

**magnitude, vulnerability, adjustment, and crisis mapping.**

**Requirements:**

**Power Point slides #23 - #28** should be clarified for students as
part of their developing further a "working vocabulary".

**Remarks:**

**I.** Encourage each student to enlarge her/his "working vocabulary" by
mastering the following definitions:

A. Define and discuss **frequency** Power Point Slide #23

B. Define and discuss **magnitude** Power Point Slide #24

C. Define and discuss **vulnerability** Power Point Slide #25

D. Define and discuss **adjustment** Power Point Slide #26

E. Define and discuss **crisis mapping** Power Point slide #27

Objective 1.12: Review the historic development of hazard mapping and
modeling from Dr.

John Snow's 1855 map through the laws that increased U.S. hazard mapping
from the 1960\'s to 2003.

**Requirements:**

One of the first hazard maps was compiled by Dr. John Snow[^9] and
released in 1855 to reveal his theory that contaminated drinking water
was the source of the spread of cholera. When 500 deaths from Cholera
occurred within 10 days in the London neighborhood at the intersection
of Broad and Cambridge Streets, he plotted the location of the deaths
**(See Power Point Slide #28)** to reveal the pump as the source of the
neighborhood epidemic. Corroborating evidence was established when a
bottle of water from the pump was carried to a widow in a neighborhood
that had no cholera, and it infected both her and her daughter.
Officials alarmed by Snow's findings, removed the handle on the Broad
Street water pump, and the epidemic was stemmed. As a pioneer
epidemiologist **(see Power Point Slide \# 29),** Snow used spatial
analysis to identify the cause of cholera spread a full forty years
before medical science proved it to be a bacterial infection. In the
United States, key environmental legislation in the 1960\'s caused an
increased need for hazard mapping which has continued through to today.
A general timeline of this legislation is presented in **Power Point
Slide #30**.

**Remarks:**

**I.** With the classical, historical case of Dr. John Snow's cholera
map, help students to understand the power of spatial analysis for
locating "threats to humans and what they value"

A. Inquire whether any students were familiar with the name Dr. John
Snow.

B. With the aid of Power Point Slide #28 tell students about Dr. John
Snow's map and its effects. Be sure students understand that all hazard
maps are the same basic type of locational map. Use **Power Point Slide
#29** to define "epidemiology" and to help explain Dr. Snow's reputation
as a "pioneer epidemiologist".

**II.** With the aid of **Power Point Slide \# 30**, have students
consider the impetus to a vast amount of increased mapping that occurred
at all levels of government, local, state and federal, from passage of
the following selective list of laws. Emphasize that many of these laws
are continually being amended in an ongoing effort to improve the
programs that resulted.

1966 Disaster Relief Act enacted

1969 National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) established

1970 National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA) enacted

1970 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) created

1972 Clean Water Act amended

1977 National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (NEHRP) enacted

1977 Executive Order #11988 Floodplain Management

1977 Executive Order #11990 Protection of Wetlands

1979 Executive Order #12148 Federal Emergency Management: FEMA created

1981 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability
Act

(CERCLA- Superfund) enacted

1986 Emergency Planning and Community Right to Know Act of 1986, also
known as SARA Title III

1991 Amendments to the 1955 Air Pollution Control Act,

1996 Weapons of Mass Destruction (Nunn-Lugar-Domenici Act) enacted

2003 Homeland Security Act

**III.** Discuss the kinds of mapping activities which are needed under
the Homeland Security Act, and consider how this data is being gathered
compared with the way John Snow gathered his information. Modern maps
would be made from data assembled with remote sensing, GPS, GIS,
metadata, etc. approaches. Encourage students to visit the Homeland
Security website to check out the references to maps and mapping there.
<http://www.fgdc.gov/HSWG/>

**Objective 1.13: Cooperatively evaluate this session through discussion
questions.**

**Requirements:**

Promote a free-wheeling discussion to evaluate this session.

**Remarks:**

**I.** Set the classroom atmosphere for a free exchange of opinions
about this Session 1.

**II**. Evaluative questions to pose to the class:

A. What subjects covered in this Session 1 would you liked to have spent
more time on?

B. What other improvements can you suggest in the design of this Session
1?

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

Suggested Websites for Information:

<http://www.sarpy.com/ema/2001conf.htm>

\"Where to Get Information and Software on the Internet\" - Lists
websites for the CDC, EPA, FEMA and NOAA on these four topics 1)
Chemicals 2) Hazardous Waste 3) Miscellaneous and 4) Terrorism

<http://www.epa.gov/>

US Environmental Protection Agency Home Page

<http://www.fema.gov/>

US Federal Emergency Management Agency Home Page

[^1]: ^1^ Kates, Robert, Christoph Hohenemser and Jeanne X. Kasperson.
    1985. *Perilous Progress.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

[^2]: ^2^ Kates, Robert, Christoph Hohenemser, and Jeanne X. Kasperson.
    1985. *Perilous Progress.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

[^3]: ^3^ FEMA. 1997. *Multi-Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment:
    A Cornerstone of the National Mitigation Strategy.* Washington, DC.
    http://www.fema.gov/fhm/ft_mhira.shtm

[^4]: ^4^ Ansell.J. and F. Wharton. 1992. *Risk: Analysis, Assessment,
    and Management*. John Wiley & Sons. Chichester. 100.

[^5]: ^5^ Tobin Graham and Burrell Montz, 1997. *Natural Hazards*, The
    Guilford Press, New York/London.

[^6]: ^6^ Kates, Robert W., Christoph Hohenemser and Jeanne X.
    Kasperson. 1985. *Perilous Progress: Managing the Hazards of
    Technology.* Boulder CO: Westview Press.

[^7]: ^7^ Winter, Nancy L. 1997. *Managing a Mega-Disaster: GIS
    Applications, Decision Making and Spatial Data Flow Between Local,
    State and Federal Levels in Hurricane Andrew Disaster Management.
    (unpublished dissertation)* Worcester MA: Clark

[^8]: ^8^ Kates, Robert W. 1985. *Perilous Progress: Managing the
    Hazards of Technology.* Boulder CO: Westview Press. 252.

[^9]: ^9^ <http://www.csiss.org/classics/content/8>,
    http://www/sph.umich.edu/epid/GSS/pub.html