**Making Sense of Consilience:**

**Reviewing the Findings and Relationship among Disciplines,**

**Disasters and Emergency Management**

David A. McEntire

and

Sarah Smith

Emergency Administration and Planning

Department of Public Administration

University of North Texas

P.O. Box 310617

Denton, Texas 76203-0617

\(940\) 565-2996

mcentire@unt.edu

**Abstract**

This concluding chapter reviews the findings pertinent to disasters and
emergency management from the standpoint of each discipline presented in
this book. It reviews the status of knowledge in each particular field
and uncovers opportunities to develop future research in those areas.
The chapter also reiterates that each discipline is heavily dependent
upon others for the purpose of theory generation and policy guidance.
Finally, the chapter points out that the concept of vulnerability is
important to each discipline interested in disasters and emergency
management.

**Introduction**

As can be seen throughout this volume, the convergence of disciplines
around disasters and emergency management is increasingly recognized
among scholars and professionals who are involved in this important
field of study and area of activity. And yet, ironically, there is not a
great deal of literature that addresses the contributions each academic
field makes to disaster research and the implications this has for
practitioners. With a few notable exceptions, work in one discipline has
remained for too long aloof from that of another. For this reason the
editor and contributing authors to this book found it imperative to
assess multi- and inter-disciplinary viewpoints about disasters,
emergency management and related concepts.

With the above in mind, this concluding chapter reviews the findings
pertinent to disasters and emergency management from the standpoint of
each discipline presented in this book. It reviews the status of
knowledge in each particular field and uncovers opportunities to develop
future research in those areas. The chapter also reiterates that each
discipline is heavily dependent upon others for the purpose of theory
generation and policy guidance. Finally, the chapter points out that the
concept of vulnerability is important to each discipline interested in
disasters and emergency management.

**Review of Findings**

The chapters in this book expand our knowledge of disasters and provide
numerous recommendations for those who study or work in emergency
management. Contributing scholars convey lucid histories of their
respective disciplines and expounded upon important concepts, issues,
trends and dilemmas. The status of understanding has been exposed and
gaps in research have been identified. The following section reviews
some of the most pertinent findings of each discipline in chronological
order of presentation.

In his chapter on the "Geographic Study of Disaster," Jim Kendra reveals
that "geographers are concerned with the distribution of various kinds
of social, biological, and geomorphological phenomena over space" (2005,
p. 2). In the broadest sense, geographers are interested in studying the
relationship of social, physical, and technological systems. It is
therefore logical that these scholars were among the first scholars to
study hazards, risks and disasters. While their focus has mainly been on
natural hazards (and to a lesser extent technological hazards), the
discipline has recently become more involved with the increased threat
of terrorism (see Cutter, Richardson and Wilbanks 2003). Although
subject matter has changed throughout the years, a constant and
increasingly important aspect of geography relates to Geographic
Information Systems (GIS). Kendra notes "GIS has provided information
for decision makers, and theoretical value, helping to validate models
of human environment interaction' (2005, p. 16). GIS is therefore
regarded to be fundamental for effective spatial analysis.

While geographers have helped to generate important theoretical
perspectives about disasters (including the human ecology school),
Kendra suggests that geographers must refocus their efforts for the
benefit of people. The implication of his assessment is that it is not
enough to study the complex physical causes of earthquakes or
landslides; geographers must ensure that their knowledge of hazards has
bearing on disaster and emergency management policy. Kendra also notes
that more needs to be learned about global warming. The main concern is
that we are having difficulty knowing the extent of human impact on this
phenomenon in comparison to naturally occurring fluctuations in
temperature over time. Another area ripe for investigation deals with
rising disaster losses. We do not have a clear understanding of the
degree to which hazardousness may be increasing or shifting across
locations. In addition, Kendra raises some interesting questions about
what a hazard really is, and he encourages more research about the
topics of ambiguity and surprise.

In the chapter "Meteorology and Emergency Management," Kent McGregor
provides a basic, but vitally important review, of fundamental
meteorological processes for those interested in emergency management.
McGregor states that there is a very close relationship between his
discipline and disasters. Meteorologists have the vital responsibility
for predicting and alerting the public of impending natural hazards.
Meteorology is also important during several types of disasters as wind
direction and relative humidity have a significant impact on response
and recovery activities as well as the safety and well being of
emergency workers and victims alike. This is especially the case for
wildfire disasters.

In the future, meteorologists need to develop new ways to alert the
public of adverse weather. This may include using the internet or cell
phones to announce a weather-related hazards. New models are needed to
understand complex weather phenomena including the formation and
behavior of tornadoes. McGregor also recommends that more studies be
conducted about global weather patterns including El Niño/La Niña. He
agrees with Kendra that additional attention on the causes and
consequences of global warming is warranted.

Ana Maria Cruz' discussion of "Engineering Contributions to the Field of
Emergency Management" underscores two important benefits for emergency
management. These include the "setting of codes and standards, and the
actual design and construction of infrastructure used to prevent damage
and losses caused by hazards" (Cruz, 2005, p. 2). Therefore, the
engineer's assistance to emergency management occurs primarily, but not
solely, in the mitigation phase of disasters. That is, engineers try to
reduce the impact of a disaster by strengthening building code
regulations or by developing levees and floodwalls to be used in areas
of high risk. Of course, the later types of structural mitigation
devices can be extremely problematic as we have recently witnessed in
New Orleans.

Engineers main thrust of study has been in regards to earthquake
mitigation. However, engineers have investigated other types of
disasters (e.g., tornadoes and hurricanes at the Texas Tech Wind
Engineering and Research Institute). Engineering efforts have also been
centered around impacts on buildings and lifeline systems (Heaney et al.
2000). Nevertheless, engineering activities have not fully taken into
consideration any secondary or indirect impacts of hazards. This
includes transportation disruption, loss of power, broken water and gas
lines, hazardous materials releases and fires, and the fact that
emergency response is hampered due to resulting isolation from
surrounding communities. For this reason, Dr. Cruz' work on conjoint
natural and technological hazards is extremely valuable.

In the future, Dr. Cruz recommends scholars begin to tackle the enigma
of defining "acceptable risk." What is the proper balance between living
in extremely hazardous areas and trying to limit loss? This is a
question that must be addressed by emergency management scholars. Dr.
Cruz also recognizes the need to improve the successful adoption and
enforcement of building codes for further disaster reduction.

Of all the disciplines discussed in this book, sociology has devoted the
most time to studying how humans respond to disasters. Thomas Drabek's
review of the literature illustrates that sociologists have studied
individuals and their social units, ranging from families to
organizations and communities. Such work helps researchers understand
the nature of disaster, the values of the community that have bearing on
such events, the impact of mass emergencies on stability and change, how
humans react to collective stress, and alternative role and structural
arrangements of disaster organizations. Other major contributions of
sociologists include their questioning of disaster mythology, their
expositions on emergent groups and behavior, and their recommendations
for disaster planning. This does not discount the role of sociology in
generating novel methodological innovations however (Drabek 2005, p.
13).

Regarding the future, Drabek reiterates the findings of a conference
which had the purpose of celebrating the 40^th^ anniversary of the
founding of the Disaster Research Center. He recommends that researchers
learn more about the effects of globalization and development on
disasters. He also encourages additional interdisciplinary work and
acknowledges that "alternative theoretical perspectives for the future
of emergency management should be elaborated on, encouraged, and
compared" (Drabek 2005, p. 22).

Scanlon's chapter, "Research about the Mass Media and Disaster," reveals
that research about the media and disasters has been performed in two
areas: by those interested in social science and others in mass
communications. Although there is still insufficient information about
the media's role in disasters, scholarship has uncovered several
important lessons. Studies suggest that the media is heavily interested
in reporting disasters, and that they do warn the public and keep them
informed as the disaster unfolds. In spite of their important role, the
media also complicates responses at times by adding to convergence,
perpetuating disaster myths, and treating victims with insensitivity.

Opportunities for improving media reporting concern their need to have
disaster plans that will enable them to operate effectively under
disaster situations with the increased demand placed on their resources.
Scanlon's research also suggests that much more needs to be learned
about the media's relation to modern terrorism. In light of 9/11,
scholars involved in journalism need investigate the type of material
they should report, recognizing that terrorists will also be available
to receive that information, and that their portrayals may have an
impact on terrorist activity (as witnessed by the recent protests and
attacks over Danish cartoons of the Prophet Mohammed).

Much like sociologists, Gibbs notes in her chapter that psychologists
have played an important role in understanding how humans react
emotionally in the aftermath of a disaster. However, while sociologists
focus more on groups as a level of analysis, psychologists give greater
attention to individuals. A particular focus of this discipline is on
the trauma resulting from disasters. In general, people are adaptive and
can cope or deal with stress and loss. However, individuals who might
suffer from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, especially when there has
been an unpredictable, long-lasting event of mass violence, horror, or
terror (Gibbs 2005, pp. 10-11).

The chapter on psychology reviews the process of critical incident
stress debriefing (CISD). Although research provides praise for the
strategy, there are also studies that are critical of the treatment.
This topic will therefore remain an important point of discussion among
scholars in the future. Furthermore, there is also a lack of information
about the benefit of professional psychologists versus paraprofessionals
and "which kinds of interventions work best for which problems" (Gibbs
2005, p. 25). Some of the newest types of treatments, Eye Movement
Desensitization and writing tasks for instance, will require additional
academic attention.

Anthropology is another discipline that is critical of CISD approaches.
Doug Henry's chapter also indicates that the understanding of culture is
extremely important for a comprehension of disasters, and he asserts
that his discipline contributes much to the research about such
occurrences in developing nations. Anthropological studies find that
cultures are generally able to cope after disasters, although
resettlement can be somewhat destabilizing. Research in this discipline
also questions the appropriateness and effectiveness of international
disaster relief operations, pointing out that dependence can be created
through well-meaning recovery efforts.

What anthropologists need to learn more about is how cultural beliefs
affect responses to disasters. This includes not only post-disaster
activities, but the very definition of acceptable risk and how that
influences mitigation and preparedness policies. Henry also encourages
additional ethnographic research that is ethically sound.

The social work chapter reiterates many of the findings presented
earlier by Drabek, Gibbs, and Henry. For instance, Zakour notes that
scholars interested in social work define disasters primarily thorough
notions of social disruption, excessive demands and collective stress
(Zakour, 2005, p. 3). His chapter also questions the value of
post-traumatic stress interventions. Zakour does acknowledge that the
goal of social work is to prevent social, physical, and mental
suffering, and to effectively serve disaster victims by coordinating
volunteer agencies. In this sense, social work is closely aligned with
non-profit activities in disasters and emergency management.

Zakour's chapter points out a number of areas that deserve additional
investigation. Researchers need to learn more about what prompts
volunteerism in the field of social work. Also, "most disaster research
in the United States has studied middle-class populations, and it has
not been clear to what extent research finding transfer to
cross-cultural or international settings" (Zakour, 2005, p. 20). This is
especially problematic in that many "effective methods of helping
disaster victims through social services are not feasible in
cross-cultural and international settings" (Zakour, 2005, p. 20). Zakour
also believes "more research is needed to assess the impact of acute and
chronic environmental disasters on rural and small communities, which
often contain high percentages of low-income residents" (2005, p. 30).

In the chapter, "Disaster Policy and Management in an Era of Homeland
Security," Sylves discusses the importance of politics and how they
relate to disasters. He notes that presidents since Eisenhower's time
have declared disasters to free up funding for affected areas. One
problem with disaster declarations is that there is not a concrete
definition of what a disaster is. Consequently, decisions on what to do
have fluctuated dramatically over time. Sylves also conveys the fact
that federal declarations influence people's perceptions about the
federal share of disaster losses. This could be one of many reasons why
local and state governments do not do enough to mitigate against them in
the first place.

Another major finding provided by the discipline of political science is
that disasters have a dramatic effect on public policy. The attacks on
9/11 are an excellent example of these types of "focusing events"
(Birkland 1997). The nation's attention has shifted away from natural
hazards toward the threat of terrorism. This has resulted in additional
plans and national strategies (e.g., NRP and NIMS). However, Sylves
notes that changes in policy may be problematic even when well
intentioned. Public policy tends to be reactive and may even be
over-reactive at times. The creation of the Department of Homeland
Security has gutted FEMA, and this and an over-reliance incident command
may hurt our ability to deal with disasters (i.e., Hurricane Katrina).

Sylves' work on presidential declarations raises a host of questions
that will need to be addressed in future studies (2005, p. 8). Another
major gap in political science research is that it is unknown if
disaster policies are adequate until a disaster strikes. His chapter
also advocates additional studies about the benefit of the Department of
Homeland Security, NIMS, and incident command. Therefore, it is "unknown
if natural hazards emergency planning has been helped or hurt by the
federal emphasis on terrorism after 9/11" (Sylves, 2005, p. 39).

The chapter by Waugh shows that the public administration is directly
involved in emergency management, but he notes that most public
administrators and scholars in this discipline have traditionally had
little or no experience or interest in emergency management.
Nevertheless, "the discipline of public administration provides a
foundation for emergency management educational programs, and the
discipline is increasingly associated with emergency management
research" (Waugh 2005, p. 6).

Public administration generates numerous lessons about the causes of
rising disaster losses, blame placement after devastating events, and
networking among key participants in emergency management. Scholars in
this field may also help public officials use scarce budgets efficiently
and effectively. Studies in this field also improve knowledge about
"decision making, leadership, communication, interpersonal relations,
group dynamics" (Waugh 2005, p. 14).

There are several questions that deserve further investigation by those
studying public administration. Research reveals that we need to learn
more about how disaster related policies impact societal values,
government processes, and economic conditions. Waugh's work also
suggests that we need to better understand the "management" aspect of
emergency management. It is still unknown how much to invest in
emergency management and homeland security to have the optimum outcome.
The questions "what is effectiveness?" and "how much investment . . . is
enough?" will need to be answered by those from the discipline of public
administration.

As for the chapter on "International Relations and Disasters," McEntire
mentions several links between this discipline and emergency management.
The profession of emergency management is in many ways an outgrowth of
international affairs, and international relations scholars have
produced knowledge about international organizations involved in
disaster relief. This discipline has also generated a great deal of
knowledge about decision making in crisis situations which may have some
applicability to disasters. The need for a global approach to disasters,
and the impact of epistemic communities, also illustrate the importance
of this discipline for emergency management.

Scholars of international relations should help generate knowledge about
the culture of Islamic extremists as well as the similarities and
differences between national security during the Cold War and homeland
security today. Because international relations as a discipline has gone
through a period of self-reflection, it may provide some unique
epistemological insights for the emerging discipline of emergency
management. It may help us to better understand the nature of our
subject matter, the alternative methods for studying it, and the impact
of assumptions and values on our findings.

In the chapter "Comparative Politics and Disasters," McEntire and Mathis
reveal that comparative politics is the study of political systems and
processes around the world. Although comparativists have yet to fully
engage the subject of disasters, the discipline may help to develop
findings about alternative cultural views about emergency management,
the impact of class relations on disasters, ways to increase political
support for mitigation, how to improve intergovernmental relations, and
the potential drawbacks of unchecked development.

However, the greatest potential contribution of comparative politics to
disaster studies is in the area of methodology (McEntire and Mathis,
2005, p. 5). By carefully examining a small number of cases, our
knowledge about disasters and emergency management can be greatly
enhanced. Additional comparative studies on emergency management
institutions around the world are definitely needed. Comparison will
help identify universal or semi-universal principles and other best
practices to reduce disasters in the United States or abroad.

The discipline of management has the goal, as John Pine notes, of
effectively establishing organizations and implementing decisions. In
terms of disasters, the focus of this discipline on strategic planning
and systems theory may lead to better management and improved
coordination among the many units participating in emergency management.
Pine uses former FEMA Director, James Lee Witt, as a perfect example of
total quality management in action. He also notes that the rational
decision making model may not be appropriate for the uncertain and
dynamic nature of disasters. Emergency managers must therefore be
flexible in their approach to contingencies.

To improve the study and practice of emergency management, Pine stresses
the need for education and organizational learning. He also recommends
closer ties between "the Department of Homeland Security, the business
community, as well as local and state operations" (Pine 2005, p. 16).
There is no doubt that we must work to enhance the management
capabilities of future emergency managers.

Dreyer's chapter on gerontology illustrates that the elderly have unique
needs in time of disaster. This discipline underscores how older adults
react in prior disasters and indicates that unique challenges are faced
because of their health in addition to financial and other conditions.
Studies in this area reveal that evacuation, communication and the
prevention of illnesses take on special features when considering the
elderly in disasters. One of the major findings is that "nursing
facilities often are overlooked . . . and generally are not incorporated
into disaster-relief plans" (Dreyer quoting Saliba, Buchanan and Kington
2005, pp. 11-12). This is a finding that has taken on extra meaning
since the appalling loss of life among the elderly in Hurricanes Katrina
and Rita.

The chapter on gerontology also exposes the fact that much needs to be
known about the aged in disaster situations. For instance, what needs to
be researched are the emergency procedures for older adults living
independently since they are more likely to have medical issues or
physical handicaps. Researchers need to learn more about the mindset of
older people who depend on others during disasters. More studies are
needed to understand the reaction of elderly to extreme temperature
conditions, fires and nursing home evacuations, and the use of the aged
as volunteers in disaster situations.

Richard Bissell reminds in his chapter on public health that the
disasters that have killed the most people throughout history have been
epidemics. He also notes that the threat of bio-terrorism makes the
links between public health and emergency management vital today. Some
of the important contributions of public health to emergency management
center on the human-environment relationship, triage procedures, joint
planning and disaster decision making.

One thing that we need to learn more about is how to improve
collaboration between public health and emergency management officials.
For instance, communication must be addressed since the vocabulary used
in the public health sector is sometimes different than that of
emergency managers. There also needs for more research on the
"development and utilization of mechanisms for conducting rapid needs
assessments in disease outbreaks, instead of relying on the much less
illustrative damage assessment currently used by emergency management
personnel" (Bissell, 2005, p. 19). In addition, more studies need to be
conducted to promote horizontal information sharing rather than just
vertical communication. This would enable critical information to be
accessed beyond the public health sector to those who need it.
Successful intervention strategies need to be identified, and the
processes of quarantine are worthy of further examination.

Louden's chapter about the criminal justice system reiterates the fact
that the police have major roles during a disaster. They not only assist
with traffic control and life safety issues, but they are likewise
involved in criminal investigation and prosecution. "Criminal justice
may also help us better understand riots, sieges, hostage situations and
terrorist attacks" (Louden, 2005, p. 5).

Recent events have given ample reason to study the relation between
criminal justice and emergency management. Louden notes that there was a
great rift between police and fire departments prior to 9/11 and this
resulted in many operational problems when the World Trade Center was
attacked. The ongoing conflict between police and fire officials brings
up the unanswered question as to who is or should be in charge after a
disaster (although a more complete inquiry would be: who is or should be
in charge of what after a disaster, and how should the various
organizations interact to achieve optimal results?). Hurricane Katrina
has also opened up a new research agenda. Much more needs to be
understood about police planning and operations, how humans behave in
disaster situations, and what the police can do to better deal with
violence and looting activity.

In the economics chapter, Terry Clower revealed that his discipline
helps generate knowledge regarding damage assessment, disaster
declarations, insurance provision, and impacts of disasters upon the
economy. For instance, the economist's role is to "determine the
affected area's losses in terms of employment income and indirect losses
such as loss of business activity due to reduced activities at damaged
firms or loss of income in secondary and tertiary employment" (Clower,
2005, p. 9). Economists employ a variety of useful methods to determine
the direct and indirect effects of disasters too (Clower 2005, p. 18).
In spite of these contributions, economists are hardly ever called to
respond to the disaster site to estimate the physical damage of the
disaster.

Studies in this discipline have shown that areas afflicted with
disasters are fairly resilient in regaining a GDP that was similar to
economic performance prior to the event. However, Clower'research
illustrates that terrorism has a significant effect on macroeconomic
performance over the long term. Therefore, more studies will be needed
on the impact of this type of hazard. In addition, researchers should
attempt to better comprehend rising disaster losses, acceptable risk,
and policies that create tax burdens for those who live in
less-hazardous areas.

Nicholson's chapter illustrates that law has had a substantial impact on
the direction of emergency management. His research argues that law
determines how we define disasters, and the legal field has certainly
been influenced by recent policy pertaining to terrorism and homeland
security. While there is an obvious and close relationship between law
and emergency management, emergency managers and the lawyers do not seem
to mix until they meet in court. Nicholson suggests that emergency
managers need to regard statutory liability as a serious issue. He also
asserts that emergency managers must learn more about legal terminology
so they can communicate more effectively with legal counsel. He also
notes that additional research is needed on the impact of NFPA 1600 and
EMAP.

In his chapter, John Labadie asserts that emergency management and
environmental management are inherently related. The study of
environmental management is an evolving field of academia that
catapulted to the forefront with the publication of Rachel Carson's
*Silent Spring.* The major finding of such research is that
industrialization is having a negative impact upon the environment.
Therefore, there is a need to implement the "precautionary principle."
This discipline also underscores the potential for environmental
disasters that result from natural hazards (e.g., a flood that causes a
hazardous materials release).

The chapter on the environment illustrates that there are many questions
that deserve further investigation. For example, Labadie indirectly asks
about the impact of homeland security policies on environmental
protection. He also suggests the need to focus on long-term disasters
instead of acute hazards. Finally, Labadie points out a close relation
between environmental management and the phases of emergency management.
However, one might indicate that the relationship between sustainability
and disaster response deserves further investigation since the link is
not always strong or self evident. The chapter on communication studies
by Richardson and Byers reveals that scholars in this area have mainly
looked at rhetorical examination of political discourse or the impact of
persuasion and decision making. While these latter topics may have
positive impact on emergency management, there have been insufficient
studies on communication in disaster situations. The research that
exists does note that communication is often a problem in disaster, that
technology and the Internet may exacerbate such challenges, and that the
ineffective use of the media may generate public relations nightmares.

Richardson and Byers believe that we need to learn more about how
inter-organizational communications and rational decision making unfold
in disasters. Also, researchers should study the role of communication
in creating or being a source of disaster. For instance, "what do
communications contribute to issues such as mob mentality, riots, and
panicked evacuations" (Richardson, 2005, p. 18)? With the increase of
globalization, we also need to learn more about different cultures --
particularly terrorists and their way of thought and method for sharing
information. Fortunately, "qualitative techniques, such as long-term
observations, or ethnography, interviewing, focus groups, and document
and artifact analysis provide valuable means of data collection and
capture subjects' own words, perceptions, and experiences" (Richardson
and Byers 2005, p. 20).

Shaw's chapter on business continuity management reminds that every
organization has a responsibility for providing products and services,
and to care for their employees and customers. For this reason, it is
imperative that businesses also consider the impact of disasters and
identify what they will do to prevent and better deal with them. Shaw
illustrates that there has been some disagreement about what to call
such functions in the private sector. However, his research illustrates
that "the vast majority of organizations and institutions have not been
designed to anticipate crises or to manage their consequences
effectively once they have occurred" (Mitroff 2001). This lack of
planning appears to be changing, though, since disasters create
hardships for the private sector or can easily put corporations out of
business as has been witnessed by several types of events including
9/11.

Ironically, there is a dearth of knowledge about the private sector.
More needs to be learned about the impacts of a disaster on the economy.
A great opportunity lies in the area of assessing the impact of numerous
government documents and other standards on business continuity
management (e.g., NRP, NFPA 1600), and how best to improve crisis
communication, risk management, incident response, and business
continuity among other functions in the corporate world. By identifying
those factors, the private sector will be more equipped to prevent
disasters and help individuals and communities deal with their adverse
impacts.

Tisha Slagle Pipes' chapter on information management provides an
excellent review of the development of this discipline in relation to
technology and sociology. She also notes the close relation between
information and disasters, suggesting that poor information management
may lead to such disruptive events and that correct and complete
information is always valued by emergency managers. The major findings
of her discipline include the fact that there are many threats to
information and information management, and that the effective flow of
information may facilitate better decisions in emergency management.

There are a number of gaps that need to be filled regarding information
management and disasters. For instance, how does information flow among
emergent volunteer groups? How can information sharing be improved among
various levels of government and across different organizations and
jurisdictions? Also, what are the possible implications of the
restriction of information on disasters in light of the 9/11 terrorist
attacks and the U.S. Patriot Act. Her findings, and those of the other
scholars, suggest that we have made impressive strides in our knowledge
about disasters and emergency management. However, there are numerous
research opportunities that will need to be addressed in the future.

**Relations among the Disciplines**

Besides providing updated information about the findings in each field
of study and remaining gaps of knowledge, the authors of this book have
helped to develop a better understanding of the multi- and
interdisciplinary nature of academia in general and disaster studies in
particular. Their research reveals that all disciplines are
multi-disciplinary in nature, that emergency management also spans
numerous disciplines, that each discipline relies on the findings of
others to improve theoretical understanding and policy. The chapters
likewise reveal many different disciplines provide similar findings
about disasters.

*All Disciplines are Multi- or Inter-disciplinary*

One of the apparent but perhaps under-appreciated conclusions of this
book is that many, if not all, disciplines are multi- or
inter-disciplinary in nature. This fact was noted in several of the
chapters in this volume. Jim Kendra, for instance, asserts that
"geography is quintessentially interdisciplinary" and "its concerns with
the intersection of social, physical, and technological and
political/legal systems means that it shares areas of interest,
knowledge, and methods with many other fields of study" (2005, p. 22).
Louden's comments in his chapter on criminal justice are similar to
Kendra's. He states, "in our society criminal justice is perhaps the
ultimate multi-disciplinary discipline. At a minimum, aspects of the
law, political science, public health, public management, psychology,
and sociology influence the practical, tactical and legal activities of
criminal justice system agencies on a daily basis" (Louden 2005, p. 1).

Bill Waugh likewise comments that "the boundaries of the public
administration disaster literature are very broad and overlap
considerably with other disciplines, including, for example, political
science, business administration, criminal justice, psychology, history,
geography, medicine, civil engineering, and sociology" (2005, p. 7). He
further adds that "sorting out the contributions of public
administration from those of other fields is difficult largely because
public administration is an interdisciplinary field" (Waugh 2005, p.
15).

There are a plethora of other examples of how distinct disciplines have
influenced the direction and content of what have supposedly been single
or isolated fields of study:

-   Henry declares that anthropology is closely related to several
    disciplines including sociology, psychology, economics, geography,
    history, archaeology, and gender studies (2005, p. 1).

-   Public health relies on scholarship from biology, chemistry,
    physics, psychology, epidemiology, biostatistics, sociology,
    anthropology, and psychology (Bissell 2005, p. 2).

-   Zakour asserts that "social work has historically drawn on research
    in psychology and sociology" (2005, p. 25).

-   "International relations has a close relation to political science,
    history, comparative politics and other disciplines in the social
    sciences" (McEntire 2005, p. 2).

-   "Management also grew from many disciplines, especially from
    engineering (scientific management), psychology, sociology, and
    quantitative methods" (Pine 2005, p. 15).

-   Environmental management includes "environmental science,
    environmental engineering, ecology, and related disciplines"
    (Labadie 2005, p. 2).

-   Information science has been defined as a "meta-disciplinary
    science." Quoting Borko (1968), Slagle Pipes notes that this field
    is "an interdisciplinary science that investigates the properties
    and behavior of information, the forces that govern the flow and use
    of information, and the techniques, both manual and mechanical, of
    processing information for optimal storage, retrieval and
    dissemination" (2005, p. 11).

As can be readily noted, disciplines are in reality artificial
constructs for the production of scientific knowledge. Disciplines
typically combine approaches, knowledge and findings from several
different fields of academia.

*The Study of Disasters and Emergency Management is Interdisciplinary*

Another apparent lesson to be drawn from the findings of this text is
that disasters and emergency management require a multi- or
inter-disciplinary approach. Cruz asserts, for instance, that "disasters
are complex events, which result from a combination of factors including
urbanization, population growth and environmental degradation" (2005, p.
19). Along similar lines, Pine observes that "emergency Management today
is a complex function involving public safety and security, business
affairs, public and information affairs, information systems
administration, communication technologies, mapping sciences and hazard
modeling, legal affairs, and coordination with numerous other
organizations" (2005, p. 1). He declares that "emergency management
draws from many disciplines and \[this\] suggests that emergency
management is an interdisciplinary process" (Pine 2005, p. 15).

Numerous other scholars also make similar observations about the
interdisciplinary study of disasters and emergency management. For
instance, geography is closely related to sociology because of its focus
on human ecology -- the interaction of people with the natural
environment (Kendra 2005, p. 3). McGregor makes it known that
meteorology's study of disaster is directly related to geography as well
as hydrology, engineering, sociology, and journalism (2005). This is
because severe weather may impact the flooding of rivers and streams,
damage residential and commercial structures, influence people's
evacuation behavior, and lead the media to warn the population and
report on the response to the disaster.

Sylves agrees with Waugh that political science is closely related to
public administration because of the attention given to agenda setting.
He also suggests that his discipline has affinity to law and sociology
since policy is based on federal legislation and because disaster
declarations may influence human behavior. The findings of political
scientists share many similarities to those of economists. Clower's
chapter is really about the political economy of emergency management,
rather than about the economic consequences of disasters alone.

Other cases of overlap are equally evident in the study of disasters and
emergency management. Dreyer's chapter on gerontology shows a direct
relationship with psychology, public health, and economics. Elderly
persons affected by disaster are likely to have emotional, physical and
financial problems and struggles. Gibbs' chapter indicates that people's
psychological reaction to disaster is directly related to the
individual's age, race, religion, social and economic status, and
gender. Therefore, the study of psychology is related to gerontology,
sociology, and economics. The disciplines of communications, journalism
and information sciences appear to rely on each other to produce
research regarding disasters.

*Disciplines Rely on Others for Theoretical and Policy Improvement*

The research in this book indicates that a single discipline cannot
improve research and practical application alone. Instead, each
discipline that investigates emergency management requires the
assistance of other fields of study to fully understand disasters. There
are, as Alexander notes, several approaches to disasters: geographical,
sociological, anthropological, and medical or epidemiological, and
technical (Kendra 2005, p. 22). However, no single approach can fully
help our understanding of disasters and emergency management.

For instance, Cruz argues that "the need for multihazard approaches to
disaster management is increasingly called for" (Cruz 2005, p. 18). Her
assertion is worthy of consideration for two reasons. First, there are,
as was noted in the first chapter, numerous hazards that emergency
managers have to be prepared to deal with. This includes winter storms,
industrial fires and terrorist attacks among others. Second, any
specific hazard may trigger additional hazards (e.g., an earthquake may
trigger landslides, a hurricane may spawn a tornado, and a train
derailment may lead to a hazardous materials spill). Thus, geography,
meteorology, and engineering may not be able to provide all necessary
information about each particular hazard or any combination thereof by
themselves.

The focus on hazards should not overshadow other issues pertaining to
disasters though. This brings up a second reason why it is imperative to
approach emergency management from a multi- or interdisciplinary
perspective. As previously noted, Jim Kendra observes in his chapter
that geographers sometimes forget the humans they are supposed to be
serving (2005, p. 25). In other words, scientific understanding of the
physical characteristics of geological hazards is necessary, but
insufficient if not acted upon. Geographers must consequently ensure
that the knowledge they produce gets into the hands of policy makers and
that effective decisions are made by politicians for the public good.
This would suggest that geographers should align themselves with
scholars of political science and public administration. Another
example, again from geography, suggests that this discipline provides a
great deal of information pertinent to mitigation activities (see
Kendra's discussion of questions addressed by geographers 2005, p. 6).
However, geography may have less to say about managing disasters after
the hazard event occurs. For instance, what should be done if people
choose to settle in hazardous areas and an earthquake has injured
numerous individuals? This is a question that may not be totally
pertinent to geography. This critique is not meant to demean geography
as researchers in this discipline have no doubt been instrumental in
disaster research and alerting professional emergency managers of
impending hazards.

Cruz has made a similar assertion about the need for a broader approach
in her chapter on engineering. In order to increase the usefulness of
research in her discipline, engineers need to work closely with scholars
in the fields of geology, geography, meteorology, environmental science,
sociology, psychology, and public administration. She suggests that a
unified effort on the part of several disciplines will go a long way to
establish more effective building codes and enforce these standards in
such as way as to reduce the destruction of life, property and the
environment.

There are additional examples from this book of how and why disciplines
augment, clarify, or enhance emergency management scholarship when the
findings of others are taken into account:

-   "Sociologists studying disasters frequently have integrated both
    theory and methodological tools reflective of other disciplines into
    their work" (Drabek 2005, p. 17).

-   "Clearly, sociologists, engineers, psychologists, geographers, and
    others involved in emergency management and disaster policy research
    are recognizing the need to provide policy- and program-relevant
    information as well" (Waugh 2005, p. 16).

-   "If we ever thought it was 'acceptable' that an emergency manager
    did not know much about the health sector and how it responds to
    threats and real events, that time abruptly and permanently
    disappeared with the recognition of bioterrorism as a serious
    hazard" (Bissell 2005, p. 1).

-   "The sociology of disasters has been a major foundation on which
    social work research in disasters is based" (Zakour 2005, p. 25).

-   "The relationship between law and emergency management may be
    characterized as one of mutual need" (Nicholson 2005, p. 12).

*The Findings of Certain Disciplines are Similar to Those of Others*

Another related point generated by the scholars of this book is that
diverse disciplines have, on several occasions, come up with similar
findings. Although there are obvious cases where research or practice
diverges and lacks integration (e.g., see excellent chapters by Scanlon
on the lack of integration among journalism and disasters; Bissell on
the lack of collaboration among public health and emergency management
officials; and Louden on the cultural gap between law enforcement and
fire fighting), there are other cases where findings converge.

For instance, Kendra, McGregor and Labadie each note the need to improve
our understanding about global warming. Several scholars, including
Drabek, Gibbs, Henry, Zakour, and Dreyer, discuss how emergency managers
must better care for special populations. Kendra, Richardson and Byers,
and Slagle Pipe also suggest the importance of improving decision making
among public officials involved in disasters. The political impediments
and difficulty of enforcing policy has been noted by Kendra and Cruz.

There are many other topics where there seems to be agreement for
improved theory or practice:

-   Drabek, McEntire, McEntire and Mathis, and Henry agree that a global
    focus is required.

-   Complexity, chaos, ambiguity and surprise are subjects that Kendra
    and Pine believe merit additional attention.

-   Kendra, Cruz, Drabek, McEntire and Mathis, and Clower each recommend
    further attention be given to development and the concept of
    sustainability.

-   Drabek, Scanlon, Richarson and Byers reiterate the crucial role of
    the media in disasters.

-   Kendra and McEntire imply that post-modern theory and epistemology
    deserve further consideration.

-   The nature of terrorism and the impact of the Department of Homeland
    Security are recognized as important subjects according to Drabek,
    Scanlon, Waugh, McEntire, Sylves, Labadie and Nicholson.

-   Concerns about the freedom of information have been expressed by
    Kendra, Waugh, and Slagle Pipes.

-   Natech disasters were identified as important subjects by Kendra,
    Cruz and Labadie.

-   Myths about human behavior have been identified by Drabek, Louden
    and others.

-   Ways to improve compliance were offered by Cruz, Waugh, Richardson
    and Byers.

-   The relation among information, communication and decision making
    was discussed by Bissell, Richardson and Byers, and Slagle Pipes.

-   The need for more proactive and preventive activities was identified
    by Gibbs, Cruz, McEntire, and many other scholars.

-   Economic issues in disasters were discussed by Shaw and Clower.

-   Nicholson and Shaw recommend studies on the advantages and results
    of NFPA 1600.

-   Use of methods or improvement in research techniques were discussed
    by Drabek, McEntire and Mathis, Clower, and Richardson and Byers.

-   The benefit of PTSD was called into question by Zakour, Henry, and
    Gibbs.

-   Cross cultural issues was seen as an area ripe for further research
    by McEntire, McEntire and Mathis, Zakour, Henry, and Richardson and
    Byers.

-   Studies into slow onset and long running disasters were recommended
    by McGregor, Henry, Labadie.

-   Kendra, Pine, Cruz and Slagle Pipes recognized the value of
    enhancing our understanding about the impact of technology on
    disasters.

-   Risk and methods to determine acceptable risk were discussed by
    Henry, Clower and Shaw.

Thus, all disciplines are related to each other to varying degrees.
Scholars need to integrate their research efforts and share their
findings with other disciplines to better understand emergency
management. There are also numerous areas where disaster scholarship
seems to be converging.

**Multi- and Interdisciplinary Interest in Vulnerability**

As can be seen in the foregoing discussion, research on disasters and
emergency management agrees on many important topics, subjects and
issues. One particular areas where there seems to be a great deal of
interest in the concept of vulnerability. Many disciplines appear to
view vulnerability in terms of the characteristics that make individuals
and groups prone to disasters or less able to deal with their
consequences. Others see the concept in broader terms, acknowledging the
wide range of variables that have a bearing on community vulnerability.
Some of the contributing authors do not fully or directly discuss this
concept, although others in their disciplines have done or could do so.

*Those That View Vulnerability in Terms of Socioeconomic Status*

There are numerous disciplines that explore the vulnerability of people,
and these studies are highly critical of social, political and economic
structures. The chapter on geography cites Hewitt's well-known book,
*Interpretations of Calamity* (1983). The major point of this book
(which was developed from the social geographer's standpoint) is that
"being exposed to hazard . . . could not entirely be ascribed to the
consequence of bad decisions, but of choice that were constrained by the
social and economic conditions" (Kendra 2005, p. 11).

Drabek's chapter on sociology reveals that scholars in this discipline
have challenged the dominant view of disasters, thereby exposing their
"root causes" (2005, p. 10). He continues, "rather than accept
differential exposures and losses by the politically weak, be they
female, aged, or ethnic minorities, those adopting this paradigm
question the status quo. They ask, 'Why must the patterns of greed and
financial corruption continue to perpetuate so-called disasters wherein
those most vulnerable are disproportionately hurt?'" (Drabek 2005, p.
10).

Gibbs' chapter on psychology takes up many of the issues discussed by
other scholars. She shows that "vulnerability factors include, but are
not limited to, socioeconomic status (SES), available resources,
previous level of psychopathology, age, social/family factors, gender
and ethnicity" (Gibbs 2005, p. 12). However, she also notes that first
responders and disaster workers may be adversely impacted by PTSD
because of extreme physical and emotional toll of their work (Gibbs
2005, p. 11).

The discipline of anthropology, according to Henry, has produced similar
findings regarding the concept of vulnerability. He states that cultural
institutions determine who is most vulnerable in the social system
(Henry 2005, pp. 3 and 19). His research indicates that "ethnic
minorities, disempowered castes or classes, religious groups, or
occupations" may be more vulnerable than others (Henry 2005, p. 3).

Zakour's findings are almost identical to those of the others listed
above. He says that "vulnerability at the individual level refers to
social structural factors which increase individuals' probability of
suffering long-term and serious social, psychological, and health
problems after a disaster" (Zakour 2005, p. 5). He agrees that poverty
and social isolation are two important factors that lead to
vulnerability (Zakour 2005, p. 5). He also notes that "older
individuals, people of color, recent immigrants, and children" as well
as the isolated who lack social capital are especially vulnerable
(Zakour 2005, p. 5).

Dreyer's chapter on gerontology resembles the others that discuss social
vulnerability. Nevertheless, she focuses specifically on age as a
determinant of vulnerability and asserts that "physical condition . . .
can affect an older person's ability to escape a disaster safely, thus
making them more susceptible to the effects of a natural disaster"
(Dreyer 2005, p. 3). She also mentions that vulnerability is complicated
when age interacts with race, income levels and psychological response.

*Those That View Vulnerability as a Product of Many Additional Factors*

There are other disciplines that examine vulnerability more broadly --
vulnerability in terms of property, places or processes. Cruz's chapter
on engineering suggests that several government programs seek to improve
"techniques to reduce seismic vulnerability of facilities and systems
(e.g., through the adoption of updated seismic building codes and better
construction practices)" (2005, p. 5). She also notes that engineers
"assess \[the\] vulnerability of lifelines to earthquakes" (Cruz 2005,
p. 6).

McEntire's research on international relations and comparative politics
illustrates a close relation to vulnerability. Regarding the former
discipline, he concludes that terrorists' ability and willingness to use
weapons of mass destruction would make the United States vulnerable to
this type of activity as well as would an inability to defend itself or
deal effectively with adverse consequences (McEntire 2005, p. 12). In
his chapter with Mathis, he notes that some nations are more vulnerable
than others. They also state that development activities may positively
or negatively affect vulnerability (McEntire and Mathis 2005, p. 12).
Furthermore, their research illustrates that education, funding,
technology, culture and other variables influence a country's
vulnerability.

The discussion of public health by Bissell shows relation to the concept
of vulnerability. He views vulnerabilities as a weakness they may
determine if someone becomes ill or dies from exposure to an infectious
disease (Bissell 2005, p. 5). He also affirms that "vulnerability is a
combination of external factors, the hazards to which we are exposed,
and internal factors, such as the status of our immune response systems
or, at a community level, the design of our structures of status of our
public safety services" (Bissell 2005, p. 15).

Labadie's chapter on environmental science illustrates that people's
choices -- "farming practices, use and procurement of fuels, selection
of building materials and sites, etc. -- significantly affect their
vulnerability to environmental disasters" (2005, p. 10). He also notes
that structural devices (for flooding) may increase vulnerability
because "hazards can surpass the margin of safety provided by
technological solutions" (Labadie 2005, 12). Vulnerability is a product
of this as well as environmental degradation such as deforestation,
resource depletion, etc.

Law is regarded in Nicholson's perspective as a determinant of
vulnerability. Nicholson cites Handmer and Monson who define
vulnerability as a "multi-faceted concept incorporating issues of
livelihood, housing, security, and gender, among many others" (2005, p.
5). Nicholson observes that "the link between vulnerability and law
exists when law sets out rights to adequate housing and livelihood" and
he believes that "constraints of public and private law, social norms,
custom, and international law are posited as having the potential to
regulate vulnerability" (2005, p. 5). The attempt to limit legal
liability through "litigation mitigation" is also a way to address
vulnerability in Nicholson's view (2005, p. 6).

Slagle Pipes coverage of information science suggests that information
is vulnerable to disasters (2005, p. 4). She quotes Stephenson and
Anderson who assert that "the vulnerability of complex networked
systems, together with potential ways of using data resources to speed
up recovery almost certainly will increasingly preoccupy emergency
planning staff in some areas" (Slagle Pipes 2005, p. 29). In addition,
decision making, because it is based on information flow, may increase
or decrease a community's vulnerability to disaster.

*Those that do not Focus on Vulnerability Explicitly but Could*

There are a few chapters in this book that do not discuss vulnerability
directly. McGregor's discussion of meteorology illustrates that warning,
evacuation and sheltering functions have a great impact upon the safety
and well-being of citizens (2005). However, there are other discussions
of meteorology that give a great deal of attention to the positive
impact of warnings on the protection of life and property (see Golden
and Adams 2005; Sorensen 2000). Therefore, meteorologists agree that
"improved warning reduces vulnerability" (Salter et. al. 1993, p. 119).

Scanlon's chapter on journalism illustrates that the media may also have
a bearing on vulnerability, although he does not address this point
specifically. However, he does assert that "high speed mass
communications may be critical to public safety" (Scanlon 2005, p. 20).
In addition, the literature on terrorism indicates that the media may
have an unrecognized impact on the potential for politically motivated
acts of violence (Combs 2000). Britton's discussion about disaster
explicitly underscores how warning systems (and by association the
media) have impact on disaster vulnerability (1986, p. 256).

Sylves does not mention vulnerability directly in his piece on political
science. However, his work suggests that the policy decisions made after
9/11 have had a major impact upon emergency management in the United
States. Specifically, he implies that the Department of Homeland
Security may help to limit the possibility of terrorist attacks, but he
raises disturbing questions about the impact this has or will have on
natural disaster reduction. Others have more directly noted the
influence of political decisions on disaster vulnerability (Wisner et.
al. 2004). Olson, Olson and Gawronski, in their study of mitigation
policy after the Loma Prieta earthquake, draw similar conclusions:

> When all is said and done, when all the scientific and engineering
> studies have been completed, when all the technological options have
> been specified, when all the affected populations have been
> considered, and when the costs and benefits of the various policy
> options have been detailed to the extent possible, it is a community's
> political system that decides authoritatively who will get how much
> life safety and who will pay for it (Olson, Olson and Gawronski 1998,
> p. 175).

Waugh's work parallel's that of Sylves, which is to be expected since
there is such a close relation between public administration and
political science. His research does not address vulnerability
explicitly either. However, there can be little doubt that public
administrators have a dramatic impact upon the vulnerability of a
community. For instance, Olson, Olson and Gawronski's work underscores
the fact that the ordinance created by city council in Oakland after the
Loma Prieta earthquake had a direct bearing on building vulnerability
(1998, p. 156). Disaster vulnerability is thus determined, in part, by
the effectiveness and efficiency of policies and programs made in each
jurisdiction.

Pine does not mention vulnerability in any depth, although he does
define it as "susceptibility to hazard, disaster or risk" and equates it
to a "measure of resilience" (2005, p. 14). However, there can be no
doubt that management activities -- whether they be in the public,
private or non-profit setting -- influence the degree of vulnerability,
particularly when there is uncertainty and ambiguity. His research
suggests that systems theory may help to identify the plethora of
factors that create disaster vulnerability.

In contrast to Pine, Louden's chapter on Criminal justice is more
directly related to vulnerability. He believes that "correctional
institutions present special problems and concerns when exposed to
disasters" (Louden 2005, p. 8). He admits that, in light of the "number
of individuals incarcerated in jails and prisons throughout the country,
the potential for disasters impacting on the correctional population is
highly probable" (Louden 2005, p. 8). His findings recommend additional
planning measures for prison populations -- a finding that seems closely
related to those of the social vulnerability school.

Clower's chapter on economics only mentions the concept of vulnerability
in passing (2005, p. 34). It is clear that poverty has an impact upon
vulnerability, as has already been discussed above. For instance, it is
well-known that limited income reduces choices for safe housing and the
purchase of insurance. Economic development and the fact that some
people win and others lose in disasters (Scanlon 1988) would logically
have a bearing on vulnerability as well. Studies of insurance also
indicate that "governments can help immensely by sponsoring research
into patterns of event severity and frequency, and how to avoid or
alleviate damage to particularly vulnerable structures or components"
(Dlugolecki 1993, p. 431).

Communication is not linked directly to vulnerability in Richardson and
Byers chapter. Nonetheless, there are logical -- if not apparent -- ties
between communication studies and vulnerability. For instance, poor or
inaccurate communication among intelligence agencies made us vulnerable
to the 9/11 attacks. In addition, poor communication put emergency
workers in jeopardy as in New York after the attacks on the World Trade
Center. This point was emphasized as a vulnerability in the 9/11
Commission Report (2002, p. 280) and in numerous other after-action
reports.

Shaw's coverage of business continuity does not identify a visible
relation to vulnerability. However, if individuals and communities can
be vulnerable to disasters it is follows that businesses can be
vulnerable as well. Interestingly, Webb, Tierney, and Dahlhamer's
research on businesses discusses factors that lead to their
vulnerability (2000, p. 86). Steps taken to prevent a disaster or
prepare for their consequences, as well as the influence of NFPA 1600,
would logically have a bearing on their vulnerability. Thus, the
researchers in this book and other scholars tend to view vulnerability
as an important concept in the study of disasters and practice of
emergency management.

**Conclusion**

Considering the number of disciplines represented in this book and the
diversity of subjects addressed, it is difficult to make sense of
Wilson's notion of "consilience" (see chapter 1). Consequently, this
text should be viewed as a continuation of our understanding of
disasters and emergency management, rather than a definitive conclusion
on these matters. Nevertheless, there are several inescapable lessons
that can be drawn from the knowledgeable authors of this text.

First, and foremost among them, it is readily apparent that the study of
disasters and emergency management involves multiple disciplinary
perspectives. It is obvious that each discipline contributes to our
understanding of these deadly, destructive and disruptive events as well
as the emerging profession which has the responsibility of reducing and
reacting to them. Nevertheless, there are many gaps within each
discipline that must be addressed in future studies, and the authors of
this text have identified the research agenda in each area that must be
pursued.

A second major lesson is that disasters are complex phenomena that
require a comprehensive approach by those working in emergency
management. Disasters occur at the intersection of the physical and
social environments, and are they a product of technological,
engineering, political, economic, psychological, cultural, physiological
and other variables. Therefore, it will be imperative to accept broader
perspectives in the future. In Henry's view, "a holistic approach
examines the complex interrelationships between humans, culture, and
their environment, from the human actions that may cause of influence
the severity of disaster, to the position of social vulnerability that
defines disaster impact, to the range of socio-cultural adaptations and
responses, including the impact of aid and the infusion of donor money"
(2005, p. 2). Thus, the value and sole use of simple, linear thinking
must be seriously questioned by those interested in the disaster and
emergency management field if progress is to be made.

A third and related point is that disaster and emergency management
scholars should aspire to "develop new theory or adapt old theory to
produce manageable policy" (Sylves as cited by Drabek 2005, p. 20).
According to Cutter, Richardson and Wilbanks, the "greatest challenge .
. . is to stretch our minds beyond familiar research questions and
specializations so as to be innovative, even ingenious, in producing new
understandings" (2003, p. 4). This implies that interdisciplinary
approaches will be more vital for our comprehension of disasters and
emergency management than individual or even multi-disciplinary
approaches of the past.

Finally, it should be noted that there are concepts that may help us to
integrate our individual assessment of disaster studies and emergency
management. This book makes it is clear that there is a great deal of
interest in vulnerability. While significant disagreement still exists
among disciplines regarding future research priorities, the vast
majority of disciplines discussed in this book show a direct relation to
this concept. Even in cases where the relationship was less visible, the
work of others helps to illustrate the salience of this concept for all
academic disciplines. The concept of vulnerability may therefore capture
more disciplines and variables than the hazards perspective that has
dominated the study of disasters since its inception. Consequently,
students of emergency management may wish to converge on the concept of
vulnerability as a way to effectively promote interdisciplinary
scholarship (e.g., geographers discuss both hazards and vulnerability,
but psychologists discuss vulnerability and give little -- if any --
attention to hazards). More importantly, focusing on vulnerability
reduction may be the only way to reducing the occurrence and severity of
disasters since it puts responsibility directly on humans and not the
physical environment alone.

In summary, the vessel of scholarship and harbor of reduced disasters
truly do require "all hands on deck" as mentioned in the first chapter.
Understanding vulnerability and working towards its diminution will be
imperative if disasters are to be minimized in both frequency and
severity. It is hoped that this book will move all disciplines and the
practice of emergency management in this direction.

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