## ![](media/image1.png){width="1.426388888888889in" height="1.132638888888889in"}

## June 2005 Series No 2 

**HOW MARKET GARDENS CAN ALLEVIATE SAHELIAN SMALL HOLDER FOOD
INSECURITY**

**CASE OF AFRICARE IN ABECHE -- CHAD**

[Introduction]{.underline}

Chad, a landlocked country is Africa\'s fifth-largest country. It is
among the world\'s poorest and least-developed nations. Currently the UN
Human Development Index ranks Chad 167 out of 177 countries. About 80
percent of the population survive on agriculture - subsistence farming,
fishing and herding livestock. The country is regularly subject to
climatic disturbances and natural disasters (drought, floods, and
locusts) that lead to food shortages (World Food Program 2005). The most
recent occurrence is the entry of refugees from the war-ravaged Dafur
region in Sudan.

Through its West Africa Food Regional Security Initiative project
Africare has been funded by USAID/FFP to implement two Development
Activity Programs (DAP -1997-2002 and 2003-2007) in Chad. These programs
are currently being supported through Title II food monetization.
Commodities are monetized by Africare in Chad and proceeds are used to
implement development activities in the departments of Ouaddai and
Assongha. Africare Chad's food security program activities include:
rural community capacity building, agricultural production, health and
nutrition, which are targeting the most vulnerable groups -- food
insecure households, women, and children. Market garden activities are
among Africare's agricultural development program interventions in the
Ouaddai department.

This work is a continuation of the women's vegetable gardening
activities impact assessment studies initiated by the Regional Food For
Peace office in West Africa. The purpose of these studies is to provide
a better understanding of women's gardening activities and its role in
household food security in the Sahel region. This paper responds to the
needs of three client groups: the Government as a policy maker, Non
Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and International donors who are
promoting women gardening activities as a food security strategy to
alleviate rural poverty.

[Context]{.underline}

Africare's first intervention in the study area was initiated 20 years
ago to assist with the resettlement of Chadian refugees[^1]. Since then,
Africare has supported the Ouaddai's community through food security and
related development initiatives. Africare's approach is based on
capacity building and participatory development at the community level.
From 1997 to 2002, Africare implemented its first Title II Food Security
Initiative in Chad. This project has had positive results by promoting
community capacity building, diversifying agricultural production,
increasing value added and improving nutrition.

Africare Chad's actual gardening activities are in 41 of the 90 villages
covered by the project. Of the 12,832 farmers identified in FY 2003 as
vegetable crop producers, 58% were women. Around 450 hectares of
vegetable crop land are cultivated for an average surface land per
producer of 3.5 acres. Depending on water availability, this land can be
cultivated 3 times a year.

[Objectives and Methodology]{.underline}

The general objective of this study is to provide a better understanding
of women's gardening activities in Chad in general and in particular the
Ouaddai and Assongha Departments and its impact on food security.

The methodology used here has been tested with ADRA/Guinea's Title II
food security project in Siguiri (Guinea). It can be adapted to any
Title II food security project with gardening activities.

The RFFP/Senegal office designed a three-page questionnaire based on
previous studies conducted in Guinea. It has been modified by
Africa/Chad staff to reflect the Chadian conditions. The questionnaire
was made as simple as possible to allow the NGO field staff to
administer it without any particular survey preparation. The data
collected concerns vegetable crop production, input/output market
information, and household food security. Out of the 90 villages
currently participating in the project activities, 41 of them have
access to gardening or off season crop production resources. A sample of
25 villages was randomly selected from the 41 villages that practice
gardening. Similarly, the number of women carrying out vegetable
gardening was listed for each village and a sample of five (5) women per
village was randomly selected. Thus a total of 125 women were
interviewed for the survey by Africare Chad's field agents.

![](media/image2.jpeg){width="2.8965277777777776in" height="2.3875in"}

Dam constructed by Africare for recessional irrigation in Abéché using a
backhoe frontloaded.

**[Findings]{.underline}**

### 

### Socio-economic characteristics of women participants

# 

# The average age of women participants aws 32 years. The majority (54%) of these women were young, between 20 -30 years. Ten percent of women sampled were non unmarried, while 9% were considered widows (2-3% of the general population is estimated to be widowed in the region), 3% were divorced women living with small children. About 13% of these women are household heads. Nearly all women respondents (98%) are illiterate (cannot read and write in French). 

A mean of 3 children, of whom one is under-five years old, live with
each woman. The average is 6 children per woman in Siguiri[^2]- Guinea.
In the Ouaddai area, the under-five child mortality rate computed from
the collected data is estimated at 190 per 1000. This rate was 198 per
1000 in 2000 in Chad (Earth trend 2003) and 175 per 1000 in Africa. An
analysis of this problem reveals that 31% of married women have lost at
least one child under- five years old. The mortality rate for under-five
children increases with the age of the woman. For instance, in this
study, 50% of women over the age of 45 have lost at least 2 children
under-five years.

School attendance is very low in the survey area; with only 32% of
married women having at least one child in school. Only 54 out of 236
children over the age of 6 attend school, according to the survey. More
than 70% of these school children come from three out of 9 surveyed
cantons. The ratio of school attendance is 1 girl for 3 boys.

*Women participants in vegetable crop production systems*

*Land tenure*

In the study area, women cultivate 1-3 garden plots. Among surveyed
women's garden plots, 55% are owned by women themselves, 16% are plots
belonging to their husbands or other family members, 16% are borrowed
plots and 16% rented plots. The rent paid by women varied from 1,500 to
10,000 F CFA - \$3-\$20 per plot of 3 Ares[^3] depending on land
quality.

*Production system*

Two crops -- onion and garlic - dominate the vegetable crop production
systems in the study area. They represent 95% of the total vegetable
crop surface cultivated by the women interviewed. Vegetable gardens are
manually irrigated from hand-dug wells in the Ouaddai district. The
average size of individual plots of land is 580 m^2^ per woman. This
size is 250-300 m^2^ per woman in Siguiri (Northern Guinea) area and 119
m^2^ in Zondoma[^4] (Burkina Faso). The variation of the average surface
of land grown by a woman in the Sahel region depends on the type of
irrigation system used. In Ouadai, vegetable crops are cultivated on
recessional lands using a traditional irrigation technique -
SHADOUF[^5]. While in the northern regions of Burkina Faso, NGOs are
promoting hand dug wells (10-20 meters of deep) with watering-cans for
off season vegetable crop irrigation. In Siguiri, irrigation wells are
1-2 meters deep.

*Vegetable crop seeds remain the main farm input used by women*

The use of chemical inputs (fertilizer, pesticide) in vegetable crop
production is very limited in the study area. Only 16% of the women
interviewed used fertilizers during 2003. The low use of chemical input
can be explained by many factors, but the most important is the lack of
a strong input supply/distribution system as it has been pointed out by
women interviewed previously. The vegetable crop seed system in the
study area is dominated by a traditional seed distribution system. The
majority of women interviewed bought their vegetable seeds from the
market. These seeds are produced by local seed producers with is no
guarantee in quality. However, the most important feature of this system
is that seed that is available in the local market is affordable.

Graph 1: Distribution of Interviewed women's cultivated surface
according to crop types

![](media/image3.wmf){width="2.8979166666666667in"
height="2.4090277777777778in"}

*The vegetable crop yields recorded by interviewed women are relatively
low compared to the yield level in the region.*

Although rigorous statistical measurements[^6] were not applied to
evaluate the Ouaday women's vegetable crop yields, information available
reflects the level of technologies used by these women. In general, the
vegetable yields recorded by the women surveyed are very low compared to
the average vegetable crop yields in Chad and in the Sahel region.
However, these yields are acceptable if one considers the nature of
technology used by women (no chemical fertilizers or pesticides, hand
dug well irrigation system). The yield analysis has focused on onion and
garlic, the two most important vegetable crops grown by women (95% of
cultivated surface).

The weighted (by land surface) average yield of onion is about 18 metric
tons per hectare for participant women (yield computed from 104 women
plots). The onion and garlic yields recorded are extremely variable
(standard deviation = 41 for onion and 53% for garlic) especially when
compared to those obtained in the region. The average onion yield varies
from 13 to 30 metric tons depending on Cantons in the study area. For
women using fertilizers, the average onion yield is estimated at 20
metric tons per hectare against 18 metric tons for those who are not
using fertilizers. Onion yield varies from 20 -- 35 metric tons per
hectare in the Sahel region. For the FAO, the average yield of onion was
28 metric tons in Niger in 1998[^7]. On average, the women interviewed
are producing 13 metric tons per hectare of garlic.

*Women Respondents are mainly relying on family labor for their
gardening activities.*

At the 95% significance level, there is a positive correlation (0.188\*)
between women's gardening income and the number of workers used for this
activity. In other words, the higher the number of people working on a
plot, the higher the income per plot. Although, only 7 women in the
sample hired extra labor, the majority of them used family labor. Women
respondents (27%) benefited from their husband's help for garden land
reparation. Almost 66% of participants used their children (37% for
girls, 29% for boys) for vegetable crop production in this study area.
This work by children might explain in part the low school attendance
rate, and could a major factor discouraging women from sending these
free labors to school.

#### 

#### **Profitability of the Ouaddai's women gardening activities**

The average gross revenue per woman was computed from women
beneficiaries' declaration regarding the total quantity of vegetable
products they sold during the 2003 dry season and the sales prices. For
most women, the declared gross revenue does not include the value of
vegetable crop quantity consumed by the household. It includes all
vegetable products grown and sold by women in 2003. The average computed
gross revenue is estimated at 289 000 F CFA (\$525) per woman in the
study area (CV= 61%).

The costs associated with these activities are input charges (seeds,
organic manure), hired labors and product transportation costs. These
expenses do not include family labor remuneration. On average, each
woman participant spent 22,608 F CFA (\$41) as total variable costs for
gardening activities in 2003. Seeds represent 78% of variable costs, and
13% of these costs is for production transportation (from villages to
markets) cost. Hired labor costs represent 5% of total costs.

The average net income computed (weighted by the surface of land) is
about 259,000 FCFA (\$472) per woman participant in a 3 to 6 month
period. This net income is highly variable (standard deviation 165,142 F
CFA). It is twice higher than the Chad GDP per capita (\$216 in 2002)
and 6 times higher than women's net revenue for gardening in Siguiri
(Guinea) and Zondoma (Burkina Faso). In Siguiri, the ADRA's beneficiary
women's vegetable net revenue was about 44,996 FCFA (\$82) per woman in
2003. In Zondoma (Burkina Faso) with Africare's food security project,
the women's off season gardening net revenue was 40,606 FCFA (\$74) per
woman in FY 2003.

This average net income which is a central tendency measure should not
hide the income disparity among the interviewed women in the Ouaddai
district. For the first lowest income group (1^st^ quartile), the
average net income is about 62,650 F CFA (\$114) while for the highest
income group (4^th^ quartile), the average net income per woman is
402,870 F CFA (\$732). The two middle class income groups (2^nd^
quartile, 3^rd^ quartile) present respectively an average net income per
woman of 134,667 F CFA (\$245), and 184,350 (\$335). Furthermore, in 5
Cantons out of 9 selected for the study, 40-50% of interviewed women are
in the lowest income group (average income equal to \$116).

This income dispersion might be explained by vegetable production
constraints that the Ouadaai women face. These constraints include
non-availability of farm input, lack of financial services, vegetable
product storage and/or conservation etc.

![](media/image4.jpeg){width="2.8979166666666667in"
height="1.9958333333333333in"}

**[Women's vegetable gardening activity and household food
security]{.underline}**

In a vulnerable and fragile environment like the Sahel region
exacerbated by the consequences of structural adjustment programs, the
Sahelian men's contribution to household food security is clearly
insufficient to cover basic needs. This is compounded by a large family
structure with several wives and a large number of children. The women
must make up for this income insufficiency by devoting a greater number
of hours to working in the field or undertaking new income generating
activities. In a Sahelian polygamous household, in case of a lack of
resources of man, each woman is responsible for feeding her children,
and paying their schooling costs. This is true in rural areas as well as
in towns.

The Ouaddai women work in their gardens 10 hours per day during 3-4
months. Their vegetable income is used to cover the basic needs of the
household. However, their self identified priorities vary according to
these basic needs level. Almost all women respondents (94%) said their
gardening income was used to provide condiments (fish, meat, salt etc.)
for the family. Eighty two percent (82%) of women used gardening income
to cover the costs of children's clothing. Eighty five percent (85%) of
women surveyed said they spent part of their income to buy cereal for
their household during the hungry season. However, the collected data
did not permit an analysis of the factors that determine women's
decision to contribute to the household's cereal needs and health care
cost.

Fifty-seven percent (57%) of women respondents saved part of their 2003
vegetable income. These savings consisted of buying small animals (33%)
for breeding, or jewelry (24%) \-- gold in some cases. These savings
protect women against income and environmental shocks. They might reduce
women's vulnerability by providing means to cope with emergencies
(droughts, deaths) needs and other events that require resources from
women.

Graph 2: Distribution of Interviewed Women according their net income
(in CFA)

![](media/image5.wmf){width="3.154166666666667in"
height="3.3048611111111112in"}

*More than two thirds of women respondents contributed to their
household's cereal consumption from their gardening income in 2003.*

On average, women bought 152 kg of cereal (millet, sorghum, rice, wheat
flour) valued at 18,500 F CFA (\$37) per woman with money earned through
gardening activities. Depending on their household's food security
conditions, and their income level, women spent between 2,000 and 56,000
F CFA (\$4 -- \$102) for cereal. The quantity of cereal bought covered
around 2 months (58 days on average) of household food needs. Globally,
12,832 vegetable crop producers have been identified in the Ouadadi
department of which 7,444 are women. Based on the information above on
expenses on cereal, these women have bought 962 metric tons of cereal
for a total value of 117 million of F CFA (or \$212,789) with money
earned through gardening.

*Ten to fifty percent of women's vegetable production is for household
consumption*

In Ouaddai, women grow vegetable crops mainly for household consumption.
However, more and more of this activity has become market oriented.
Thirty to fifty percent (35%-50%) of traditional vegetables produced are
consumed by the household. For marketed vegetable crops only 10 -- 20%
of production is used for household consumption. For example out of an
average onion production of 876 kg per woman, the household consumes 97
kg. For garlic, women respondents consumed on average 57 kg from a total
production of 298 kg per woman.

**[Conclusion]{.underline}**

This study found that women's gardening activities are a profitable
enterprise in the Ouaddai department in Chad. This activity has in
general a positive impact on the welfare indicators of the target
population, such as women's income levels, asset accumulation, and
consumption. It also contributes to empowering women to be more
independent. In the Ouaddai district, on average, women's gardening
income (three to four months income) is twice as high as the Chad
National GDP per capita and six times higher than the Zondoma (Burkina
Faso) and Siguiri (Guinea) women's gardening income. As previously
stated, this high average net income should not hide the income
disparity among the women respondents. At least 25% of women interviewed
earned less than 100 000 F CFA (\$180). Other than social expenses, a
majority of women (85%) used their gardening income for household cereal
purchases during the hungry season. More than 75% of women respondents
were involved in some type of income savings (buying animals or jewelry)
that could protect them against income and environmental shocks. The
system seems to rely mainly relying on children's unpaid labor, which
can prevent them, especially young girls form going to school (this
finding has to be verified in another study). The study indicates a
possible negative relationship between women's gardening activity and
the number of under-five children and the number of school children that
women have. These relationships will be further analyzed to determine
the impact of women's gardening activities on the nutritional status of
children under-five years and on school attendance. Despite the
existence of a favorable natural environment (highly fertile recessional
lands, existence of a regional market) for vegetable crop production,
the Ouaddai women vegetable producers face some constraints which are:
weakness of farm input distribution system, lack of structured financial
services, problems of conservation of vegetable products and a lack of
research for activities such as integrated pest management activities,
use of micro doses of fertilizers, testing of improved seeds, and market
research. Access to fertile land seems to be the main factor of
categorizing women respondents. Only 56% of women own the lands they
cultivate.

**[Policy recommendations]{.underline}**

Given the extensive character of the Ouaddai vegetable garden production
system, which is mainly relying on land and family labor, the project
should:

-   Intensify women's vegetable crop production system by increasing the
    productivity of the two main production factors (land and labor);

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-   Prioritize women's access to irrigated (water harvesting system)
    land in any land distribution program;

-   Implement a sustainable input (improved seeds, fertilizer, and
    pesticide) distribution system. Special emphasis must be put on
    vegetable seed quality control;

-   Encourage the creation of a sustainable rural credit system (credit
    for input distributors and for vegetable crop producers, especially,
    women). A microfinance program could be a good possibility that
    would take savings from higher income producers to support the
    lowest income class. In the future, this program should support poor
    people outside the project area;

-   Put in place a marketing program that will support vegetable crop
    intensification activities.

Based on preliminary findings on the possible impact of women's
vegetable gardening on school attendance, and the nutritional status of
children under five, Africare should consider the following activities:

-   Implementation of a special child nutritional program directed to
    women involved in vegetable crop production;

-   Encourage and strengthen the capacity of local women's organizations
    for the creation of community based services such as schools,
    pre-schools for their children under-five, and adult literacy
    program for women producers. Africare has had experience with
    community school activities in Mali funded by USAID that can be
    replicated the project.

For more information or the full study, contact Dramane Mariko
<dmariko@usaid.gov> or Carolyn Hughes <chughes@usaid.gov>

[References]{.underline}

\- *Evaluation of the ADRA/Guinea Title II Funded Women's Gardening
Project in Siguiri (Guinea) -- RFFP/Senegal, Professional paper series
No 1 -- July 2004*.

\- *Title II Development Program - The Ouaddai Food Security Initiative
AFRICARE/CHAD Fiscal Year 2002, 2003 Results Report (CSR4).*

[^1]: In 1984, thousands of Chadian refugees crossed into Darfur,
    escaping a severe drought and potential famine as well as border
    clashes between Chadian and Libyan forces.

[^2]: It is one of Guinea's food insecure areas where the under-five
    children's mortality rate is very high (249 per 1000). In Siguiri
    ADRA/Guinea is implementing a Title II Food security project. It was
    the first area of the case studies.

[^3]: One Acre is 1/100 of a hectare

[^4]: Africare is running a Title II food security project in the
    northern region of Burkina Faso. Women are using hand dug wells (10
    -- 20m deep) to irrigate gardens.

[^5]: A method of supplying land with water by means of channels leading
    to a central water source (hand dug well)

[^6]: Cultivated area and total production have been estimated by women,
    not measured by the surveyor

[^7]: ÉTUDE SUR LA FACILITATION DU COMMERCE COUVRANT LES FILIÈRES
    AGRICOLES- Niger