4.0 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

## INTRODUCTION

Agency Procedures (22 CFR 216) state that the section of the EA
addressed to the (potentially) Affected Environment "*shall succinctly
describe the environment of the area(s) to be affected or created by the
alternatives under consideration. The descriptions shall be no longer
than necessary to understand the effects of the alternatives. Data and
analysis in the Environmental Assessment shall be commensurate with the
significance of the impact with less important material summarized,
consolidated or simply referenced.*"

In order to describe the existing conditions in the areas potentially
affected, the following introductory material presents:

-   Definition of the Project Area; and

-   Identification of the relevant environmental criteria for EA
    purpose.

The remainder of the Section presents the details of the potentially
affected environment under four headings structured according to the
relevant environmental criteria as will be detailed below.

## Definition of the Project Area. The potentially Affected Environment for a given project (generally referred to as the Project Area) is defined by the nature of the Proposed Action and the sensitivity and circumstances of the environment in which it will occur. Both the nature of the project and the sensitivity of the environment must be considered. An environmentally benign project in one location might be detrimental in another. 

The potential for both direct and indirect impacts must be considered in
the definition of the Project Area. Potential [direct]{.underline}
impacts of a road project such as the proposed rehabilitation of the
Kandahar-Herat Road will be largely confined to the Project's
construction limits and immediately adjacent environs. The conceptual
limits of the Project Area must be expanded, however, to include the
potential impacts of network improvements and other [indirect and
cumulative]{.underline} impacts in accordance with the circumstances of
the particular environmental characteristic under discussion. A change
in drainage patterns, for example, could have an impact on the
conditions within the rehabilitation area and the watercourses directly
affected, but may also impact hydrological conditions downstream to a
degree that can only be determined by circumstances. The increased
runoff due to highway development and the additional development that it
attracts (referred to as an "induced impact") often warrants
investigations in a considerably larger area than the construction
limits and the immediately adjacent area. In the case of the
Kandahar-Herat Road Rehabilitation Project indirect and cumulative
impacts, particularly socio-economic impacts, are likely to occur in all
provinces through which road passes. Many of these impacts will be
beneficial. Improvements to the roadway networks generally will, for
example, present a potential for significant economic and social impacts
along all network connections.

Accordingly, the Project Area for the purpose of the EA is defined as
the area immediately adjacent to the 566-kilometer Kandahar-Herat Road.
The scope of the examination has been expanded to ensure that
environmental impacts such as the example of potential down-stream
hydrological impacts are taken into account.

**Explanation of KM Citations**. It is understood that the
Kandahar-Herat Road Rehabilitation Project will initiate at the end
point of the Kabul-Kandahar Road Rehabilitation Protect (also a part of
REFS and addressed by a separate EA). That point is taken as the
location indicated by **Exhibit 4.0**. Kilometer (KM) citations in this
report are taken from that point and must be considered as
approximations subject to the accuracy of the odometers in vehicles used
in the field investigations.

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| *Source: National Atlas of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan,*   |
|                                                                       |
| *Organization for Surveying & Cartography, circa 1985, page 33.*      |
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**Exhibit 4.0 ASSUMED KM 0 POINT IN KANDAHAR**

**Identification of the Relevant Environmental Criteria.** The scope and
significance of environmental issues for the Kandahar-Herat Road
Rehabilitation Project were addressed by a Scoping Process leading to
the preparation of a Scoping Statement submitted to and approved by
USAID in November 2002. Steps in the Scoping Process included review of
the definition of environmental issues as established by the applicable
regulations and other considerations. The review provided the framework
for the identification and presentation of the relevant environmental
criteria as follows.

Paragraph 216.1 (c) (10) of the Agency Environmental Procedures states
that the "*term environment, as used in these procedures with respect to
effects occurring outside the United States, means the natural and
physical environment".* Accordingly, the initial sections of the
description of the potentially affected environment presents:

-   **Physical Resources (Item 4.1)**. Physical resources are generally
    defined to include topographic, soil, geological and related
    attributes. Sub-headings in this section are:

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-   Topography (Item 4.1.1)

-   Soils (Item 4.1.2)

-   Seismic & Geological Conditions (Item 4.1.3)

-   Hydrology (Item 4.1.4)

-   Climate and Air Quality (Item 4.1.5)

-   Mines and Unexploded Ordnance (Item 4.1.6).

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-   **Natural/Biological Resources (Item 4.2)**. Natural/biological
    aspects of the potentially affected environment are discussed under
    the sub-headings of:

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-   Flora (Plant Species) (Item 4.2.2)

-   Fauna (Wildlife) (Item 4.2.1) and

-   Protected Areas (Item 4.2.3).

In addition to these requirements, Paragraph 216.6 of the Procedures
states that "... *Environmental Assessment(s) should include discussions
of ..... possible conflicts between the proposed action and land use
plans policies and controls for the areas concerned; energy requirements
and conservation potential of various alternatives and mitigation
measures; natural or depletable resource requirements and conservation
potential of various requirements and mitigation measures; urban
quality; historic and cultural resources; design of the built
environment; reuse and conservation potential of various alternatives
and mitigation measures; and means to mitigate adverse environmental
impacts*". Accordingly, these issues are addressed under the following
heading and subheadings:

-   **Other Environmental Concerns Noted by 22 CFR 216 (Item 4.3)**.
    These are identified and discussed under the sub-headings of:

> \- Land Use and Development Policies & Controls (4.3.1)
>
> \- Energy Considerations (4.3.2)
>
> \- Use of Natural/Depletable Resources (4.3.3)
>
> \- Urban Quality/Design of the Built Environment (4.3.4)
>
> \- Historic and Cultural Resources (4.3.5)
>
> \- Reuse & Conservation Opportunities (4.3.6)

Additional environmental issues have been identified by the Project's
TOR (e.g., gender issues) and/or are generally associated with road
projects. These are addressed as:

-   **Additional Environmental Concerns Noted for Consideration (Item
    4.4)**. These are discussed under the sub-headings of:

    -   Socio-Economic Considerations (Item 4.4.1);

    -   Public Health (Item 4.4.2),

    -   Safety (Item 4.4.3)

    -   Gender & Disabled Person Issues (Item 4.4.4)

    -   Noise (Item 4.4.5) and

    -   Other Infrastructure Networks (Item 4.4.6).

Potential impacts and measures incorporated in the Project to avoid or
otherwise mitigate the potential impacts are identified in **Section
5.0**. These include measures incorporated in contracting procedures and
the Project design. Section 5.0 will follow the same sequence and
enumeration pattern as Section 4.0. To further facilitate cross
referencing between the two sections, each of the four major
environmental headings will begin on a new page.

## 4.1 PHYSICAL RESOURCES 

## 4.1.1 Topography

Afghanistan's topography is dominated by Hindu Kush Mountains which run
northeast to southwest through the central portion of the country
dividing the northern provinces from the remainder of the country. The
southwest is occupied by desert plateau. The lowest point in the country
is at Amu Darya at 258 meters above mean sea level (msl). The highest
point is at Nowshak 7,485 meters above msl. The southern and western
parts of the country are covered by deserts at elevations ranging from
500 to 1,000 meters above msl.[^1] The Kandahar-Herat Road is located in
the southwest part of the country and skirts the base and outlying
foothills of Afghanistan's central mountains. Compared to roads in other
parts of the country, it raises few topographic challenges. The ROW
falls into two topographic compartments:

-   [Kandahar (KM 0) to Dilaram (KM 250)]{.underline}. Topography in the
    Kandahar-Dilaram portion of the corridor is essentially flat desert
    plateau interrupted by river valleys. Most of the road in this
    portion of the corridor lies at elevations of approximately 1,000
    meters above msl,

-   [Dilaram (KM 250) to Herat (KM 566)]{.underline}. The topography of
    the area traversed between Dilaram and Herat is more varied and the
    ROW ascends and descends a number of the foothills and river
    valleys. Ascents and descents are generally gradual. Elevations in
    this portion of the corridor are generally in the range of 1,000 to
    1,500 meters above msl.

## 4.1.2 Soils

Within the country as a whole, the soils are characterized as high
mountains serozems, desert steppe or meadow steppe. Loess is found in
the north. The river valley soils are generally alluvial or meadow
alluvial. Serozems and brown desert soils cover large portions of the
country in the north and southwest.[^2] Overgrazing, deforestation,
desertification, degradation of watersheds and erosion have been
identified as significant environmental issues contributing to soil
degradation and reduced soil productivity throughout Afghanistan. Land
degradation has also been caused by land mines, which reduce access to
agricultural land and irrigation.

Within the vicinity of the Kandahar-Herat Road, soils are generally
classified as mountain light serozems and brown desert soils. Within the
immediate Kandahar and Herat areas soils are alluvial, meadow-alluvial
soils, mostly saline.[^3] Uncontrolled urbanization and encroachment on
fertile lands around Kandahar and Herat are noted as threatening
agricultural sustenance.[^4] (See related discussions as part of Item
Land Use/Development Controls, **Item 4.3.1**.). Agricultural crops
include fruit (mainly grapes), vegetables, rice, wheat, corn, and barley
along the river valleys, particularly the Tarnak and Arğhandāb rivers in
and around Kandahar, and the Helmand, Hārūt, and Hari river valleys. The
intervening soils of the semi-desert areas provide sufficient fodder to
support nomadic and semi-nomadic herding of sheep, goats and camels.

Within the Project Road ROW, soils appear to conform to the A2 soils
group, i.e., they exhibit good strength parameters for highways, but
must be covered by pavement layers in order to protect them from the
elements and moving wheel loads. Because of the absence of clay binders,
the finer particles of the soils are prone to wind dispersal and
contamination from blowing sand and dust. The course materials are then
easily dislodged under moving wheel loads. Rutting occurs when the finer
particles containing silt or fine sand become incorporated in the
sub-grade and contaminate both the base and sub-base materials. The
existing conditions are such that the sub-grade or embankment must be
reshaped and re-graded with new base course materials.[^5] Soil erosion
due to both water and wind is evident along much of the roadway. Erosion
of the sub-base in some areas has led to collapses of the road and the
complete washout of culverts and bridges in some areas, particularly in
the portion of the corridor between KM 117 and KM 467. **Exhibits 4.1.2
A and B** illustrate typical erosion problems and collapsed road
sections. Traffic has sought and developed parallel tracks in the desert
along the road to circumvent such areas, leading to high levels of dust
and further erosion in the adjoining areas.

## 4.1.3 Seismic & Geological Characteristics 

Afghanistan's geological circumstances are complex and generally
described in terms of plate tectonics, i.e., the premise that the
earth's crust is made up of continent-sized slabs of rocks or plates
which float on a more fluid layer of material known as the mantle. The
plates move, collide, break up and reform as a result of currents and
upwellings in the mantle. The mountain chains comprised of the Hindu
Kush, Pamir, Karakoram and Himalayan Ranges are believed to have been
the result of a collision of the Indian Plate and Asia Plate which began
approximately 50 million years ago and continues to the present day.
Much of the country is known to be seismically active. There is a
history of damaging earthquakes that are most frequent in the northeast.
The cities of Kandahar and Herat are located in areas considered to have
a potential for moderate earthquake damage. Virtually all of the
remainder of the corridor, however, is classified as having a
probability for no or minor earthquake damage.[^6] The underlying
geology of most of the corridor is comprised of conglomerates, pebbles,
sand, loess, loans, and travertines, in the lowland desert areas and
sandstones, conglomerates, siltstones, limestones, gypsum and volcanic
rocks in the foothills traversed between Delaram and Herat.[^7]
Geological resources such as coal and gem stones are discussed as part
of **Item 4.3.3**, Use of Natural and Depletable Resources.

## 4.1.4 Hydrology

The sources of most of Afghanistan's rivers are in the mountains. River
water levels vary greatly with the highest levels in spring and early
summer. In the remaining seasons the rivers may change into small
streams or entirely disappear. Three watershed systems can be
differentiated in Afghanistan, two of which are traversed by the Project
Road:

-   [The Eastern Basin]{.underline}. The Eastern Basin includes the
    Kabul and Logar Rivers and their tributaries which drain the eastern
    part of the country. The rivers within the Eastern Basin flow
    generally to the east and eventually join the Indus River and the
    Arabian Sea. The Kandahar-Herat corridor lies entirely outside the
    Eastern Basin.

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-   [The Southern Basin]{.underline}. The rivers of the Southern Basin
    flow generally to the southwest to the Lake of Sistan on the
    Afghanistan-Iran border and include the Hilmand, the country's
    longest river, the Farāh, and the Xāš. With the exception of the
    immediate vicinity of Herat, all of the Kandahar-Herat ROW lies
    within the Southern Basin.

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-   [The Northern Basin]{.underline}. The rivers of the Northern Basin
    eventually join the Amudarya River (and eventually the Ariel Sea) or
    disappear in the desert sands. The Hari River on which Herat is
    located is within the Northern Basin and flows generally east to
    west through Afghanistan from its point of origin in the central
    mountains.

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EXHIBIT 4.1.2 A ROAD COLLAPSE DUE TO EROSION (KM 259)

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EXHIBIT 4.1.2 B SHOULDER COLLAPSE DUE TO EROSION (KM 314)

Major hydrological features along the ROW (**Exhibit 4.1.4**) are as
follows:

> [Arğhandāb River]{.underline} -- Crossed by the ROW at approximately
> KM 14 (assuming the eastern entry to Kandahar as the zero point).
> Farms in the Arğhandāb River valley area extend to the edge of the
> roadway. The riverbed is exceptionally wide and its banks accommodate
> livestock markets in the dry season. The Arğhandāb River is dammed
> above Kandahar by the Arğhandāb Dam completed in 1952 (145-feet high,
> 1,740-feet long, storage capacity 388,000 acre-feet).[^8]

-   [Hilmand River]{.underline} -- Crossed by the ROW at approximately
    KM 127 at the entry to Girišk. The Hilmand River is dammed by the
    Kajakai Dam completed in 1953 (300-feet high, 887-feet long, storage
    capacity approximately 1.5 million acre-feet). The bridge over the
    Hilmand is in service.

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-   [Xāš River]{.underline} -- Crossed by the ROW at approximately KM
    235 shortly before the entry to Dilaram.

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-   [Xuspās River]{.underline} -- Crossed by the ROW at approximately KM
    250 just to the west of Dilaram. The bridge over the Xuspās is in
    service.

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-   [Farāh River]{.underline} - Crossed by the ROW at approximately
    KM 375. Parts of the sidewalks and safety rails are missing from the
    bridge over the Farāh, but the bridge remains in service.

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-   [Hārūt River]{.underline} -- Crossed by the ROW at approximately
    KM 490. The bridge over the Hārūt River is in service.

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-   [Hari River]{.underline} -- Crossed at the entry to Herat at
    approximately KM 560. The bridge over the Hari River is in service.

In addition to these surface hydrological features, the ROW is crossed
by a significant number of unnamed watercourses, many of which have
washed out portions of the road and culverts intended to accommodate the
flow. Major bridge and/or culvert washouts include, but are not
necessarily limited to: KM 142, 155, 283, 300, 301, 314 and 345. Many of
the bridges nominally in service are in poor condition and additional
wash-outs are evident in areas that might have once been the site of
Mexican Bridges (also known as Irish Crossings or submersible bridges).

## 4.1.5 Air Quality

Climate, particularly precipitation and wind patterns, is a major
determinant of air quality. Afghanistan's climate is continental, arid
to semi-arid, with considerable variations from place to place according
to altitude. Its lowland areas have cold winters and hot summers. The
mountains are extremely cold in winter and cool in summer. Winter lasts
from October to May. Most of the country's fresh water supply is
reported to fall as snow in the mountains.[^9] The Project Area in which
rehabilitation activities will occur is located in the lowland areas.
Climate is not as a significant impediment to traffic within
Kandahar-Herat corridor as it is within the more mountainous portions of
the country. No significant micro-climatic conditions (e.g., air
inversions) have come to light.

Within the Project Area levels of suspended particulate matter (SPM) are
particularly high in areas where the road conditions encourage the use
of desert tracks parallel to the ROW to avoid collapsed sections or
bridge and culvert wash-outs. No documentation of air quality is

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**EXHIBIT 4.1.4 SURFACE HYDROLOGY**

the Project Area is known to be available, but the climatic and soil
conditions of the Project Area are such, that it is likely to be subject
to dust storms, particularly in the summer months, leading to higher
levels of SPM. SPM levels are also exceptionally high in the vicinity of
missing bridges culverts and areas in which the road has collapsed due
to the fact that traffic currently circumvents these problems by driving
on unpaved desert tracks. Generally, however, except for the effects of
traffic, ambient air pollution levels outside of the urban areas are
considered to be relatively low due to the low level of
industrialization. The cities are generally the areas with the poorest
air quality due to automotive emissions and concentrations of
industries.

## 

## 4.1.6 Mines and Unexploded Ordnance 

Mines and unexploded ordnance (UXO) may be present in portions of the
Project Area. As noted in the Scoping Statement, however, special
provisions have been made by USAID for the clearance of mines and UXO by
the United Nations Mine Action Center (UN MAC).[^10]

## 4.2 NATURAL/BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES 

## 4.2.1 Flora 

Afghanistan's vegetation is typical of the semi-deserts and steppes.
Ephemeris vegetation grows in the sandy semi-deserts and halophilous
vegetation is found in the salt semi-deserts. The most common trees on
the more humid soils are oaks, ashes, willows, poplars and fruit trees
in orchards. Himalayan forest, including evergreen oak woods grow in the
borderland between Afghanistan and Pakistan.[^11] The country's
mountains are believed to be home to many plants that exist nowhere else
on earth. The steppes and intermediary ecosystems are also of biological
interest.[^12] Unfortunately, areas supporting natural flora habitat are
diminishing. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) reports that one of the
most critical environmental problems of Afghanistan is massive
deforestation and overgrazing which could be aggravated by the return of
the refugees. It is estimated that forest cover declined from 3.4 to 2.6
percent of total land area between 1970 and 1990. Since then, continued
timber harvesting and the use of forest resources for fuel have reduced
forest cover to less than two percent of the total area.[^13]

Most of the Kandahar-Herat Road corridor's natural landscape is
semi-deserts with wormwood, feather grass and halophilous vegetation in
the lowland areas between Kandahar and Dilaram and shrub-steppe
vegetation with wormwood and wormwood-tragacanth in the upland areas of
the foothills between Dilaram and Herat. The cities of Kandahar, Herat,
Girišk and Adraskan (south of Herat) are located in flat valley bottoms
in which willow poplar and oleander dominate the natural
vegetation.[^14] No documentation of potential lowland habitat for
threatened or endangered plant species has come to light. Areas within
or adjacent to the ROW have been heavily disturbed by human activities
and are highly unlikely to provide habitat for rare or endangered plant
species. The portion of the corridor leading into Herat (intermittently
from approximately KM 536), however, is lined by tall pine trees as
illustrated by **Exhibit 4.2.1**. Adverse impacts to the roadside
planting should be avoided.

**EXHIBIT 4.2.1 ENTRY TO HERAT**

## 4.2.2 Fauna (Wildlife) 

The fauna of Afghanistan is similar to that of the rest of Central Asia.
Beast of prey (e.g., snow leopards, brown bears, wolfs, stripped hyenas,
jackals and foxes) are believed to live in the mountains. Hoofed animals
are represented by Marco Polo sheep, the goitered gazelle and the ibex.
Numerous species of birds, rodents, reptiles and amphibians have been
reported.[^15] The factors that make the Project Road ROW and the
adjacent areas an unlikely venue for threatened and endangered plant
species also make it an unlikely for special status wildlife species.
Field investigations revealed no evidence of existing conditions
suggesting possibilities of habitat loss; habitat fragmentation,
interruption of wildlife migration patterns or significant patterns of
accidents involving wildlife within the vicinity of the Project Road.

Existing conditions have also been assessed vis-à-vis potential
[indirect]{.underline} wildlife impacts under the following headings:

-   [Accessibility]{.underline} i.e., the potential for sudden influxes
    of visitors as a result of increased access. No impacts due to
    increased accessibility are considered likely.

-   [Ecological Disequilibrium]{.underline}. Opening of a transport
    corridor sometimes results in the introduction of new plant and/or
    animal species along the roadway upsetting the dynamic balance that
    exists in the ecosystem and altering predator-prey relationships. In
    this instance, the fact that the corridor is devoted to transport or
    has been otherwise altered by man minimizes any potential for
    ecological disequilibrium.

## 4.2.3 Protected Areas

Three designated and three proposed protected areas have been identified
in the country:[^16]

-   [Ab-I-Estada Waterfowl Sanctuary]{.underline}. The Ab-I-Estada
    Waterfowl Sanctuary is located in conjunction with *Istadeh-ye
    Mogor*, a large lake north of the town of Nawah in eastern
    Afghanistan.

-   [Ajar Valley (Proposed) Wildlife Reserve]{.underline}. The proposed
    Ajar Valley Wildlife Reserve is a former royal hunting ground
    located in Bamian Province in the central part of the country.

-   [Bande Amir National Park]{.underline}. Bande Amir National Park is
    also located in Bamian Province near the proposed Ajar Valley
    Wildlife Reserve in the central part of the country.

-   [Dashte-Nawar Waterfowl Sanctuary]{.underline}. The Dashte-Nawar
    Waterfowl Sanctuary is located in Ghazni Province in eastern
    Afghanistan.

-   [Pamir Buzurg (Proposed) Wildlife Sanctuary]{.underline}. The
    proposed Pamir Buzurg Wildlife Sanctuary is located in the extreme
    northeastern part of the country.

-   [Kole Hashmat Khan (Proposed) Waterfowl Sanctuary]{.underline}. The
    proposed Kole Hashmat Khan Waterfowl Sanctuary is a former royal
    hunting ground located far south of Kabul and outside the Project
    Road's potentially affected area.

All of the currently designated and proposed are located well outside
the Project's potentially affected area.

## 4.3 OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS NOTED BY 22 CFR 216

As noted in the introductory remarks, issues addressed in this section
are discussed under the following headings:

-   Land Use and Development Policies & Controls (4.3.1)

> \- Use of Natural/Depletable Resources (4.3.2)
>
> \- Urban Quality/Design of the Built Environment (4.3.3)
>
> \- Historic and Cultural Resources (4.3.4)
>
> \- Energy & Conservation (4.3.5)

\- Reuse & Conservation (4.3.6)

## 4.3.1 Land Use and Development Policies & Controls

**Land Use**. The available data indicates that, as of 1988,
approximately 12 percent of Afghanistan's land was estimated to be
arable, but that none was devoted to permanent crops.[^17] Land uses
along the Kandahar-Herat Road are indicated by the accompanying
photographs and can be characterized as follows:

-   **KM 0** (i.e., at the Project's point of initiation in Kandahar):
    Land uses are predominantly commercial. There is generally little
    encroachment of these uses into the ROW. (A brief description of
    Kandahar in a broader context is provided in **Item 4.3.4**, Urban
    Quality).

-   **KM 0-15** - Assuming the eastern entry to Kandahar as initial
    (zero) point for the Project, the first ten-15 kilometers are
    through urban Kandahar and its western suburbs. Commercial uses line
    most of this portion of the roadway. The roadway is generally two
    paved lanes with dirt shoulders and either paved or dirt walkways.
    Non-motorized traffic (NMT -- animal-drawn carts, bicycles, etc.) is
    common. Slow moving vehicles, including a large number of
    auto-rickshaws are also common. Traffic police are stationed in
    portions of the urban area. Speed bumps are used in the western
    suburbs to control speeds in commercial areas. Eventually the urban
    uses give way to farms and more rural uses as the ROW approaches the
    crossing of the Arğhandāb River

-   **KM 15-40** - Farming activities in the Arğhandāb River valley
    extend to the edge of the roadway. After crossing the valley farming
    uses thin and the landscape becomes more desert-like.

-   **KM 40--127 (Girišk)** -- With the exception of Maywand (a market
    community near the confluence of an unnamed tributary and the
    Arğhandāb River, approximately KM 67), most of the ROW to Girišk is
    sparsely settled. Both Maywand and Girišk are commercial centers
    with intense activities and high levels of congestion and
    non-motorized traffic (NMT) along the ROW. Although residential
    displacements appear unlikely, road improvements in both areas are
    likely to require compensation for project-affected persons (PAPs)
    as that term is generally defined by the multi-lateral development
    banks and aid organizations.

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-   **KM 127-467** -- Most of the area between Girišk and KM 467 is
    sparsely settled with the exception of Dilaram (approximately
    KM 250) and other smaller settlements. Significant portions of the
    road in this section have experienced collapses of one kind or
    another. Several instances of bridge, culvert or road collapse (due
    to erosion) were noted. Land uses include some nomadic herding and
    occasional small settlements (e.g., in the vicinity of KM 300) and
    the gathering of scrub growth for use as fuel.

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-   **KM 467-566 (Herat)** -- The 100-kilometer portion of the ROW south
    of Herat has been repaired and maintained. The landscape in this
    area generally changes to more rolling upland areas with farming
    activities increasingly frequent. Some villages potentially raising
    PAPs issues occur in this section (e.g., KM 489 where settlements
    are at the edge of the ROW). At or near KM 536 large roadside pine
    trees occur and continue intermittently into Herat. A dual
    carraigeway begins at KM 560, although only one side (the east side)
    is in use. Land uses become increasingly urban entering Herat.

The assessment indicates that there is likely to be little if any impact
to residences along the ROW as a result of the Proposed Action. As noted
above, however, there are several areas in which the Project Road passes
through village bazaars and commercial activities oriented to the road
and farming areas in which productive agricultural land may be affected.
Those who occupy the stalls and commercial areas along the verges of the
road and/or infringe on the ROW and those engaged in farming and other
roadside economic activities will be impacted and qualify as
"project-affected persons" (PAPs) as that term is generally defined by
the international assistance community, i.e., persons whose livelihood
is directly or indirectly affected by a project. The potential for
impact is most evident at, but not necessarily limited to, the roadside
bazaars and commercial areas.

**Urban Development Controls**. The Ministry of the Interior (MOI) is
reported to be responsible for municipal governance and oversight. The
Ministry of Housing, Building and Town Planning (MHBTP), formerly the
Ministry of Urban Development, however, is responsible for the
preparation of master plans and oversight of construction norms and
standards. It is reported that MHBTP was at one time subsumed under the
Ministry of Public Works (MPW). It has, however, reportedly been
re-established as a separate entity, albeit lacking in staff and assets.

MHBTP will be responsible for the allocation of resources made available
by urban sector programs such as the World Bank's Emergency
Infrastructure Reconstruction Project (EIRP). EIRP has been devised to
use existing public participation mechanisms such as the existing system
of district *shura* to prioritize development activities. Within the
established system, proposals are to be forwarded to MHBTP in July 2002
for determinations of "no objection". Given the recognition of the need
for planning and the threat of urban encroachment on scarce farmland,
control of such encroachments in the Project Area, Kandahar and Herat
would appear to be a logical part of the MHBTP review process with the
technical assistance of the World Bank.

Although Kabul is not within the Project's PIE and it enjoys a special
status, its functions are reported to be typical of urban local
authorities and indicative of the situation in Kandahar, Herat and other
communities. Prior to 1992, the Municipality was nominally responsible
for the implementation of the city's 1978 master plan -- a goal not
fully realized due to insufficient funds, lack of management and
planning capacity, and the fact that unplanned shelter expansion
occurred and other government agencies often undertook construction of
facilities without reference to the master plan. The Municipality was
also responsible for the construction of canals, ditches, flood
protection measures, solid waste management, supervision of public
parks, construction and paving of urban roads, control of food prices,
distribution of land plots for commercial and residential purposes,
cultural services and expansions of food markets. In cooperation with
the concerned ministries, it was also indirectly involved in the
construction of the city sewerage system, water supply, construction of
prefabricated apartments, city power, communications, public health,
education, public transport (in consultation with the Ministry of
Transport, MOT) and traffic management (in consultation with the
Ministry of the Interior, MOI).

Reports indicate that residential areas are currently organized
administratively by the municipalities in all cities into *gozars*
(neighborhoods) with distinct physical boundaries. Each of which has a
*wakil-e-gozar* (neighborhood level representative). Typically, 15-20
*gozars* form a single district. Prior to the Mujahideen takeover
elections were held for the community representatives at the district
level. In connection with current rehabilitation efforts, districts
(*shuras*) have been formed and representatives from the *shuras*
combine to form an informal council which meets regularly at the
municipal level. In the event that the project includes urban Kandahar,
coordination and detailed design tailored to the roadside activities
will be required.

## 4.3.2 Energy Considerations

The World Bank reports that the vast majority of the Afghan population
relies on traditional household fuels (wood, bushes, crop residues and
animal waste) for its energy needs. There are reports of
over-exploitation of forestry resources and non-sustainable production
and use of fuel wood leading to deforestation and severe environmental
degradation in many areas.[^18]

Afghanistan's energy situation is reported as follows:

-   [Electrical Supply & Demand.]{.underline} The year 2000 electrical
    capacity was estimated as 375 million kWh, most of which (64
    percent) was supplied by hydro facilities and the remainder (36
    percent) by fossil fuel plants. Demand exceeded supply and the
    country imported 105 million kWh.[^19] Only about four percent of
    the population is reported to have access to electricity - mainly in
    the urban areas.[^20] The Kajakai Dam on the Hilmand River is the
    primary source of electrical poser for the Kandahar area.

-   [Energy Resources.]{.underline} The Soviets estimated Afghanistan\'s
    proven and probable natural gas reserves at up to five trillion
    cubic feet (Tcf) in the 1970s. At its peak in the late 1970s,
    Afghanistan supplied 70-90 percent of its natural gas output to the
    Soviet Union\'s natural gas grid via a link through Uzbekistan.
    Besides oil and natural gas, Afghanistan is estimated to have 73
    million tons of coal reserves, most of which is located in the
    region between Herat and Badashkan in the northern part of the
    country. Although Afghanistan produced over 100,000 short tons of
    coal annually as late as the early 1990s, as of 1999, the country
    was producing only around 1,000 short tons.[^21] The World Bank
    reports that two producing gas fields are continuing to produce in
    the north. The current gas production is about 550,000 cubic meters
    per day, which is one-fourth of the production in the 1980s. Seventy
    percent of current production is reported to be used in a fertilizer
    factory and power plane. Transmission and distribution pipelines
    have corroded and about 30 percent of the gas is lost due to
    leakage. The existing coalmines are hardly operable.[^22] No gas
    pipelines are known to exist in the Project Area.

-   [Petroleum Products]{.underline}. Afghanistan has significant oil
    and gas resources. Petroleum products such as diesel, gasoline, and
    jet fuel are imported, mainly from Pakistan and Turkmenistan. A
    small storage and distribution facility are reported to exist in
    Jalalabad on the highway between Kabul and Peshawar, Pakistan.
    Turkmenistan is also reported to have a petroleum product storage
    and distribution facility at Tagtabazar near the Afghan border,
    which supplies northwestern Afghanistan.[^23] World Bank reports
    indicate that local officials envision the development of the
    country's considerable hydrocarbon potential to supply the needs of
    the domestic market, to export and to generate revenue.[^24]

## 4.3.3 Use of Natural/Depletable Resources

Rehabilitation of the Kandahar-Herat Road will require the use of
certain natural resources and will facilitate the transport of others
for use elsewhere. The most economically significant of the available
resources in Afghanistan are identified as natural gas, petroleum, coal,
copper, chromite, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, zinc, iron ore, salt,
precious and semiprecious stones.[^25] The country is also well supplied
with rock, sand and other quarried construction materials as required
for the proposed road rehabilitation. (Natural gas, coal and other
energy-related resources are discussed under the heading of Energy &
Conservation as part of **Item 4.3.2** above.) The World Bank notes that
ineffective legislation and weak public sector institutions limit the
ability of the central government to exert control over mineral
resources and to mobilize investments for their development.
Semi-precious gem stones and industrial minerals are being inefficiently
mined, but detailed information is not available.[^26]

Within the Project Area, published sources indicate areas of mineral
resources established by drilling along most of the Project Area
including iron ore, chromium, gold, limestone, marbles, sand and
gravel.[^27]

## 4.3.4 Urban Quality/Design of the Built Environment

For virtually all urban areas of Afghanistan, urban infrastructure
investments in recent years failed to match the increasing demands and
deteriorated due to a lack of maintenance and war-related destruction.
Public buildings are reported to have been looted of tools and
equipment. Approximately 25 percent of urban housing was reported as
seriously damaged or destroyed as of May 2002 and approximately 40
percent of housing units are reported to be located in unplanned
areas.[^28] Urban management capacity has been severely undermined.
Urban water supply and sanitation, solid waste management and storm
water drainage facilities are in need of urgent repair. Access to
adequate and safe water and sanitation facilities is limited, although
in some areas NGOs and communities have improved conditions. Currently
an estimated 23 percent of the population has access to safe water,
although this masks the wide differences among the provinces and
districts. Coverage is poor. Most of the country's urban population
lacks access to piped water and many provincial and secondary towns have
no networked services. Many urban families lack access to safe
sanitation. Water borne diseases are a major cause of the prevailing
high infant mortality rates. The World Bank reports that in 1997,
sanitation coverage was estimated to be 23 percent the urban population
(versus eight percent of the rural population).[^29]

It is anticipated that the municipalities will assume major
responsibility for reconstruction of the urban environment in close
collaboration with residents. Investments in private facilities such as
houses are likely to be the responsibility of families and NGOs rather
than government programs. Public infrastructure (urban roads,
sanitation, public parks, etc.) will be the responsibility of
municipalities and carried out through local contractors or labor-based
contracts. Flexible urban planning to facilitate appropriate development
of housing and municipal services is noted as a priority need.[^30]

Available data and observed conditions within the urbanized areas
traversed by the ROW can be summarized as follows:

-   **Kandahar**. Kandahar had an estimated 1990 population of 237,500
    persons. It is considered the birthplace and first capital of modern
    Afghanistan, founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1747, and is today the
    second largest city of Afghanistan. The city is located on a broad,
    irrigated plain and is a commercial center for a fruit-growing and
    sheep-raising region. Industries housed in and around the city
    include fruit-processing plants and textile mills. Trade in hides,
    tobacco, textiles, and carpets are also important are also important
    to the economic life of the city. No data is currently in hand
    indicating the city's growth trends, but the diminishing arable land
    for urban use has been noted as an issue. In the event that the
    Project undertakes improvement of the roadway through urban
    Kandahar, the city's main commercial centers will be included in the
    potentially affected area.

-   **Maywand**. Maywand is a relatively small settlement, but with
    relatively intense roadside commercial activities and high levels of
    congestion along the ROW. Although residential displacement appears
    unlikely, road improvements in the area are likely to require
    compensation for project-affected persons (PAPs) as that term is
    generally defined by the multi-lateral development banks and aid
    organizations.

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-   **Girišk**. Although not a large city, Girišk is a commercial center
    and raises issues similar to in Maywand as discussed above.

-   **Dilaram**. Dilaram is located between the on the Xāš and Xuspās
    rivers and is currently the center for de-mining activities and the
    site of refugee camps. Most settlements and commercial activities
    appear to be setback sufficiently to avoid impact due to road
    improvement activities.

-   **Adraskan**. Adraskan is located in the Hārūt River valley. Most
    settlements and commercial activities in the area are sufficiently
    distant from the road to avoid impact due to road improvement
    activities.

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-   **Herat**. Herat is considered to be one of Afghanistan's most
    beautiful ancient cities and the site is reported to have housed a
    settlement for periods that range from 2,500 to 5,000 years.
    Alexander the Great came to Herat in the 3^rd^ century B.C. It later
    became one of the greatest cities of the ancient Persian kingdom of
    Khorasan. Its golden age is considered to be the time of the
    Timurids in the 14^th^ and 15^th^ centuries when the city was known
    as the Florence of Asia. The city is a trading center for grain,
    fruit, vegetables and sheep from the surrounding area. Its 1988
    population was reported as 177,300 persons.[^31] The Project Road
    enters the city from the south directly on axis with one of the
    city's major parks as illustrated by **Exhibit 4.3.4**. Much of the
    roadway is lined with tall pine trees for as one enters the urban
    area. Although the road is lined with commercial activities, there
    appears to be little encroachment on the roadway. These uses are,
    however, within the potentially impacted and warrant consideration
    in the preparation of detailed plans.

## 4.3.5 Historic and Cultural Resources

Historic and cultural resources include monuments, structures, works of
art, the sites of outstanding universal value from historical,
aesthetic, scientific ethnological and/or anthropological points of
view, including unrecorded graveyards and burial sites. Afghanistan is
rich in historic and cultural resources. The responsibility for
preservation, maintenance and assessment of historical and cultural
monuments in Afghanistan rests with the Archaeological Committee under
the Ministry of Information and Culture (MOIC).

Within the Project Area, the most significant aboveground cultural
resources are located within the urban areas. None are known to be
susceptible to impacts as a result of the Proposed Action, but there is
not known to be an available inventory of such resources and the
situation is not well documented.

## 4.3.6 Reuse and Conservation Opportunities

It is anticipated that the existing concrete roadway will be repaired
and resurfaced. A significant number of space-frame-type electrical
pylons were noted lying at regular intervals along large stretches of
the roadway and were reportedly part of a scheme to provide additional
service. It will be recommended that the Project note their existence
and recommend a course of action (e.g., to be salvaged by the
Contractors as they see fit; incorporate in the REFS energy component or
other course of action).

## 4.4 ADDITIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

## NOTED FOR CONSIDERATION

## 4.4.1 Socio-Economic Considerations

Economic considerations in Afghanistan have been overshadowed by
political and military upheavals during two decades of war. Gross
domestic product fell substantially because of the loss of labor and
capital and the disruption of trade and transport. Severe drought added
to the nation\'s difficulties in 1998-2001. The majority of the
population continues to suffer from insufficient food, clothing,
housing, and medical care, problems exacerbated by military operations
and political uncertainties. Inflation remains a serious problem.
Following the US-led coalition war that led to the defeat of the Taliban
in November 2001 and the formulation of the Afghan Interim Authority
(AIA) resulting from the December 2001 Bonn Agreement, international
efforts to rebuild Afghanistan were addressed at the Tokyo Donors
Conference for Afghan Reconstruction in January 2002 resulting in the
creation of a trust fund to be administered by the World Bank. Priority
areas for reconstruction include the construction of education, health,
and sanitation facilities, enhancement of administrative capacity, the
development of the agricultural sector, and the rebuilding of road,
energy, and telecommunication links.

As of 1990, approximately 80 percent of Afghanistan's 10 million-person
labor force was employed in agriculture, ten percent in the service
sector and ten percent in industry. Industries are generally small-scale
production of textiles, soap, furniture, shoes, fertilizer, and cement;
hand-woven carpets; natural gas, coal, and copper.[^32] No economic data
is known to be available for the provinces through which Kandahar-Herat
road passes. It is notable, however, that it passes through two of the
country's larger urban centers. Road conditions are assessed as having a
significant impact on the area's economic recovery efforts.

## 4.4.2 Public Health

Access to adequate and safe water and sanitation facilities is limited.
It is estimated that 23 percent of the population has access to safe
water. Many provincial and secondary towns have no networked services.
Water borne diseases are a major cause of the prevailing high infant and
mortality rates. Approximately 85,000 children under the age of five die
annually from diarrheal diseases. Few residential or public buildings in
Afghan cities have sewerage facilities and those that do discharge their
wastewater directly into rivers without treatment. The World Bank
reports that in 1997, sanitation coverage was estimated to be 23 percent
of the urban population (versus eight percent of the rural
population).[^33]

Although public health facilities and services in Afghanistan suffered
due to civil unrest and severe economic problems, the Kandahar-Herat
Road provides one of the main access routes to such health care
facilities as are available for the population within the potentially
affected area. In addition to the lack of access to safe water and the
lack of sanitary waste disposal practices in the Project Area, poor air
quality due to factors directly attributable to the condition of the
Project Road constitute a significant public health issue.

## 4.4.3 Safety

Safety issues related to civil unrest and crime are major concerns in
the Project Area as they are in the rest of the country. In terms of
traffic safety, traffic volumes are light and current road conditions
largely preclude excessive speeds. Non-motorized traffic (NMT) is
encountered in some areas, most frequently in the agricultural areas,
but is also relatively light at present.

## 4.4.4 Gender & Disabled Persons Issues

The terms of reference for REFS specifically note that "*all projects
will take into consideration gender issues and accessibility for
disabled persons*".[^34]

It has been noted that the last twenty years of social upheaval have
greatly affected the overall gender situation in Afghanistan, resulting
in very restrictive policies vis-à-vis women's participation in public
life, access to education, other services and employment opportunities.
Women and girls were effectively excluded from any participation in
public life during the Taliban regime. With the replacement of the
Taliban regime, women have regained the right to education, employment
opportunities and services, but the prevailing social norms are still
very conservative and restrictive regarding women's participation in the
national development effort. There are huge differences between the
urban areas and the much smaller secondary cities and the rural areas.
There are also considerable regional differences with the more
restrictive and conservative south and southeastern parts of the
country, and the western and northern areas. There are also reported to
be great differences between returning refugees and those who remained
in the country.[^35] No legislation in regard to discrimination against,
or incentives for, the employment of the disabled is known to be in
place in Afghanistan.

## 4.4.5 Noise

Ambient noise levels in the Project Area are relatively low, even in the
more urbanized areas. Field investigations did not reveal the presence
of "sensitive receptors", i.e., recipients of sound for whom exposures
to excessive sound levels are detrimental - hospitals, for example -- in
proximity to the Project Road.

## 4.4.6 Other Infrastructure Systems

The formal infrastructure sector in Afghanistan is largely owned and
operated through centralized ministries with some operational and
production functions delegated to government enterprises. The reach of
formal services, however, is very limited. In the urban water supply and
sanitation sectors there is reported to be substantial private
participation in service deliveries mainly through communities, NGOs and
UN agencies. In rural areas NGOs and communities have been and are
likely to remain the core providers of infrastructure services. The
available data indicated the following:

-   [Water Supply Systems]{.underline}. Piped water supply systems exist
    only in urban areas and are in need of urgent repair. Coverage is
    poor and many provincial and secondary towns have no networked
    services.[^36] Localized piped water supply systems are likely to
    exist in or near the ROW in the portion of the roadway through urban
    Kandahar and Herat and possibly other communities traversed by the
    ROW.

-   [Wastewater Collection Systems.]{.underline} Virtually no rural
    areas and few residential or public buildings in Afghan cities have
    networked wastewater collection sewerage facilities and those that
    do discharge their wastewater directly into rivers without
    treatment. The World Bank reports that in 1997, sanitation coverage
    was estimated to be 23 percent of the urban population (versus eight
    percent of the rural population).[^37] No piped wastewater
    collection systems are known to be within the potential direct
    impact area.

[Electrical Systems]{.underline}. Above ground electrical connections
are evident within settlement areas. No underground systems are known to
exist within the potential impact area. A system of large electrical
pylons connects the hydroelectric facility at Kajaki (on the Hilmand
River north of the Project Road) to both Kandahar and Laskargah (also on
the Hilmand River south of the Project Road). As noted in Section 4.3.6,
smaller pylons were noted lying at regular intervals along large
stretches of the roadway and were reportedly part of a scheme to provide
additional service. It is recommended that the Project note their
existence and recommend a course of action (e.g., to be salvaged by the
Contractors as they see fit; incorporate in the REFS energy component or
other course of action).

[Irrigation Systems]{.underline}. Portions of the Project Area are
irrigated. Such systems appear to be highly localized and accommodated
by the Project Road's existing (albeit ill maintained) drainage
structures.

**END NOTES -- SECTION 4.0**

[^1]: National Atlas of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan,
    Organization for Surveying and Cartography and GEOKART Poland, 1995.

[^2]: National Atlas of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan,
    Organization for Surveying and Cartography and GEOKART Poland, 1995,
    page VII.

[^3]: National Atlas of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan,
    Organization for Surveying and Cartography and GEOKART Poland, 1995,
    page 20.

[^4]: Asian Development Bank, Afghanistan Country Strategy Paper.

[^5]: Afghanistan Civil Infrastructure Assessment, Final Report to
    USAID/Afghanistan, 20 August 2002, page 274.

[^6]: National Atlas of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan,
    Organization for Surveying and Cartography and GEOKART Poland, 1995,
    pages 9-11.

[^7]: National Atlas of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan,
    Organization for Surveying and Cartography and GEOKART Poland, 1995,
    pages 9-11.

[^8]: Afghanistan: A Country Study, U.S. Department of State and Central
    Intelligence Agency World Factbook 2001, page 92.

[^9]: Lonely Planet

[^10]: REFS Contract, page C-8.

[^11]: National Atlas of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan,
    Organization for Surveying and Cartography and GEOKART Poland, 1995,
    page VII.

[^12]: Lonely Planet

[^13]: Asian Development Bank, Afghanistan Country Strategy Paper.

[^14]: National Atlas of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan,
    Organization for Surveying and Cartography and GEOKART Poland, 1995,
    page 12.

[^15]: National Atlas of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan,
    Organization for Surveying and Cartography and GEOKART Poland, 1995,
    page VII.

[^16]: World Bank, Technical Annex for a Proposed Grant... to
    Afghanistan for an Emergency Infrastructure Reconstruction Project,
    May 2002, Annex V, Attachment 1, page 46 with additional information
    supplied by Koen Tooner, UN Environmental Project (Telephone: 070n
    276-431), Kabul, interviewed 18 November 2002.

[^17]: CIA Profile

[^18]: World Bank, Technical Annex for a Proposed Grant... to
    Afghanistan for an Emergency Infrastructure Reconstruction Project,
    May 2002, paragraph 8, page 2.

[^19]: CIA Profile

[^20]: World Bank, Technical Annex for a Proposed Grant... to
    Afghanistan for an Emergency Infrastructure Reconstruction Project,
    May 2002, paragraph 8, page 2.

[^21]: EIA.DOE.Gov Web Site

[^22]: World Bank, Technical Annex for a Proposed Grant... to
    Afghanistan for an Emergency Infrastructure Reconstruction Project,
    May 2002, paragraph 9, page 2.

[^23]: EIA.DOE.Gov Web Site

[^24]: World Bank, Technical Annex for a Proposed Grant... to
    Afghanistan for an Emergency Infrastructure Reconstruction Project,
    May 2002, paragraph 19, page 4.

[^25]: CIA Profile

[^26]: World Bank, Technical Annex for a Proposed Grant... to
    Afghanistan for an Emergency Infrastructure Reconstruction Project,
    May 2002, paragraph 9, page 2.

[^27]: National Atlas of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan,
    Organization for Surveying and Cartography and GEOKART Poland, 1995,
    page 15.

[^28]: World Bank, Technical Annex for a Proposed Grant... to
    Afghanistan for an Emergency Infrastructure Reconstruction Project,
    May 2002, paragraph 7, page 2.

[^29]: World Bank, Technical Annex for a Proposed Grant... to
    Afghanistan for an Emergency Infrastructure Reconstruction Project,
    May 2002, paragraph 7, page 2.

[^30]: World Bank, Technical Annex for a Proposed Grant... to
    Afghanistan for an Emergency Infrastructure Reconstruction Project,
    May 2002, paragraph 16, page 4.

[^31]: Adapted from afghan-network.net and BBC News 12 November 2001.

[^32]: CIA Profile

[^33]: World Bank, Technical Annex for a Proposed Grant... to
    Afghanistan for an Emergency Infrastructure Reconstruction Project,
    May 2002, paragraph 7, page 2.

[^34]: REFS Contract, Section C, Item B, page C-2.

[^35]: World Bank, Technical Annex for a Proposed Grant... to
    Afghanistan for an Emergency Infrastructure Reconstruction Project,
    May 2002, paragraph 79, page 15.

[^36]: World Bank, Technical Annex for a Proposed Grant... to
    Afghanistan for an Emergency Infrastructure Reconstruction Project,
    May 2002, paragraph 7, page 2.

[^37]: World Bank, Technical Annex for a Proposed Grant... to
    Afghanistan for an Emergency Infrastructure Reconstruction Project,
    May 2002, paragraph 7, page 2.