HABITAT-BASED INVENTORY OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF JAMESTOWN ISLAND
AND VICINITY

### COLONIAL NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK

Joseph C. Mitchell

Department of Biology

University of Richmond

Richmond, VA 23173

May 2002

Cooperative Agreement

4560-B-0003

Supplemental Agreement 1

National Park Service

Colonial National Historical Park

P.O. Box 210

Yorktown, Virginia 23690

Table of Contents

[Executive Summary 2](#executive-summary)

[Introduction 4](#introduction)

[Methods 4](#methods)

[Study Area 4](#study-area)

[Field Methods 5](#field-methods)

[Animals and Data 8](#animals-and-data)

[Results 8](#results)

[Survey Results 8](#survey-results)

[Habitat associations 11](#habitat-associations)

[Relative abundance 16](#relative-abundance)

[Discussion 18](#discussion)

[Habitat Associations 19](#habitat-associations-1)

[Potential impacts of development alternatives
20](#potential-impacts-of-development-alternatives)

[Conclusions 22](#conclusions)

[Acknowledgments 27](#acknowledgments)

[Literature Cited 28](#literature-cited)

[Appendix 1. Dates of field trips for the amphibian and reptile survey,
Jamestown 400 Project area by inventory method.
30](#appendix-1.-dates-of-field-trips-for-the-amphibian-and-reptile-survey-jamestown-400-project-area-by-inventory-method.)

List of Figures

Figure 1. Amphibian and reptile survey location on Jamestown Island and
the adjacent mainland (Neck-of-Land), for Colonial National Historical
Park.................................................7

**List of Tables**

[Table 1. Checklist of the amphibians and reptiles on Jamestown Island
and adjacent mainland in Colonial National Historical Park, Virginia..
9](#refheading___toc13382518)

[Table 2. Species obtained by the various inventory methods used in this
survey. Refer to the text for explanations of the methods indicated.
12](#__RefHeading___Toc13382519)

[Table 3. Relative abundance of amphibians and reptiles of Jamestown
Island and adjacent mainland in Colonial National Historical Park,
Virginia, by habitat type.. 14](#__RefHeading___Toc13382520)

[Table 4. Relative abundance of amphibians and reptiles in minnow traps
on Jamestown Island, Colonial National Historical Park, Virginia..
17](#__RefHeading___Toc13382521)

[Table 5. Relative abundance of adult freshwater turtles in three
freshwater ponds on Jamestown Island, Colonial National Historical Park,
Virginia.. 17](#__RefHeading___Toc13382522)

#  {#section .unnumbered}

#   {#section-1 .unnumbered}

# Executive Summary

Plans for the Jamestown Island 400 project include alteration of some
natural habitat on the island and adjacent mainland. These alterations,
such as construction of additional parking lots, boat docks, and trails
will negatively impact native species of flora and fauna, especially
amphibians and reptiles. The objectives of this study include: (1)
obtain a full list of the species of amphibians and reptiles that occur
in this area, including any recognized rare and listed species, (2)
associate each species with recognized habitat types, (3) provide
quantitative estimates of relative abundance of selected species when
standardized protocols are used, and (4) provide management
recommendations for these two groups of vertebrates.

A variety of field techniques were used in this study: haphazard visual
encounter surveys, frog call surveys at night, dipnets, minnow traps,
turtle traps, road driving at night. The haphazard technique produced
the most encounters and information. Eleven species of frogs, 7 species
of salamanders, 7 species of turtles, 3 species of lizards, and 8
species of snakes were encountered in the study area during this study
at 155 separate study sites. A total of 801 individual amphibians and
reptiles were captured during the course of this study: 482 amphibians
(295 frogs, 187 salamanders) and 319 reptiles (191 turtles, 82 lizards,
46 snakes). No federal or state endangered or threatened species of
amphibian and reptile was encountered during this survey.

The planned Alternative that will have the least impact on amphibians
and reptiles is Alternative D. Construction of parking areas and
additional roadways on Neck-of-Land and on Jamestown Island will
negatively impact important populations of amphibians and reptiles no
matter which Alternative with planned construction is selected.

Construction of boat docks will result in loss of habitat for amphibians
and reptiles and increased boat traffic on the area\'s waterways. Boat
propeller strikes cause mortality of Red-Bellied Cooters in Powhatan
Creek and possibly Diamond-backed Terrapins, a species in decline.
Increased traffic because of the new boat docks will only exacerbate a
current management problem.

The effects of the proposed trails in the various Alternatives for the
Jamestown Island 400 project on amphibians and reptiles are varied. They
range from little impact for trails along existing roads in the existing
public areas to considerable impact in areas currently lacking trails in
the Neck-of-Land area. Any change to the hardwood forest in the
Neck-of-Land area will have consequences to the long-lived, sentinel Box
Turtle population.

Removal of downed woody debris from areas along the inner and outer loop
roads on Jamestown Island would result in reduced populations of several
species of reptiles. Such a practice may be in conflict with the
National Park Service mandate of maintaining viable populations of all
vertebrates.

The variety of habitat types on Jamestown and vicinity should be viewed
as a habitat matrix at the landscape level rather than as separate
habitat types. Long-term management of habitats in Colonial National
Historical Park would be well served if management issues and potential
construction impacts were viewed from this perspective.

Several habitats and sites on Jamestown Island and on the mainland
should be evaluated further for wildlife (all species of vertebrates and
invertebrates). Examples are the ephemeral wetland south of the Glass
House, the freshwater marshes in the forests to the east of the visitor
area on the island, and the hardwood stand near the gate to the loop
roads. These habitats support species that occur in few places in this
area.

The Eastern Box Turtle populations on the island and in the Neck-of-Land
area should be studied from a population and disease perspective. This
species is rightly viewed as a sentinel species that can reveal much
about the quality of the local environments and habitats. This species
would be the most dramatically affected by construction of parking lots
and trails in the Neck-of-Land area during the Jamestown Island 400
project.

The natural history of Jamestown Island and vicinity was a very
important backdrop to the cultural history that occurred here.
Historians and interpretive staff should not ignore the flora and fauna.
It would be most beneficial to visitors to gain an appreciation of the
natural history of the island and how it influenced the cultural
history.

# Introduction

When Captain John Smith and his fellow travelers landed on Jamestown
Island in 1607, they encountered a diversity of amphibians and reptiles
that were as new to them as the native inhabitants. They were
undoubtedly afraid of the snakes of the area, ate turtle meat, and heard
frogs calling from the wetlands. Indeed, Captain Smith mentioned several
reptiles in his published works, including green snakes and rattlesnake
rattles (Smith, 1612 \[1986\]). Few people appreciate just how much the
natural history of a new area influences newcomers. The animals and
plants were all foreign to the Europeans, and they had to learn what was
useful and what to stay away from by their interactions with the Native
Americans. Thus, understanding the natural history of a historical area
is as important as understanding the cultural events that took place at
that time in history (Mitchell, 1994). Such an endeavor provides
insights into the context within which the cultural events and human
actions took place.

Modern use of Jamestown Island and adjacent National Park Service
mainland centers around historic recreation and interpretation. The
Jamestown Island 400 project has generated plans to accommodate many
more people and vehicles than usually visit this park in most years.
These plans include alteration of some natural habitat on the island and
mainland. These alterations, such as construction of additional parking
lots, interpretation buildings, and trails may negatively impact native
species of flora and fauna. The possible presence of rare species, as
well as the National Park Service\'s plans to conduct full species\'
inventories, generated the need to conduct a survey of the amphibians
and reptiles of the area, as well as surveys for other taxa.

Most amphibians and reptiles are secretive animals that require two
kinds of efforts to encounter and study them - being in the field when
they are active and using standardized trapping and survey techniques to
aid in their capture. These very seasonal animals respond to changes in
climate, temperature, and precipitation. Enough time in the field in the
activity seasons for target species ensures that researchers will
encounter these animals. Some species are active and breed in late
winter and are not seen or heard for another year (e.g., Spring
Peepers). Some are active and breed in the late spring and summer (e.g.,
American Bullfrogs). One species is active primarily in the fall
(Marbled Salamander). Fieldwork must take place when these animals are
active in places accessible to us.

My field crew and I conducted a habitat-based inventory of the amphibian
and reptile fauna of Jamestown Island and the adjacent portion of the
Colonial National Historical Parkway in 2001. This study had the
following objectives: (1) obtain a full list of the species of
amphibians and reptiles that occur in this area, including any
recognized rare and listed species, (2) associate each species with
recognized habitat types, (3) provide quantitative estimates of relative
abundance of selected species when standardized protocols are used, and
(4) provide management recommendations for these two groups of
vertebrates.

# 

# Methods

## Study Area

The study area consisted of Jamestown Island and the adjacent portion of
Colonial National Historical Parkway (including the Neck-of-Land area)
on the mainland side from the causeway and bridge that connect the
island to the mainland to the bridge at Mill Creek (Figure 1). The area
included in this survey was 2263 acres (914 ha) in size. The island and
adjacent mainland support a diversity of habitats occupied by amphibians
and reptiles. Upland habitats include several forest types, maintained
(mowed) grasslands, and open areas associated with historic
developments. Forest types include mixed mesic hardwood forest,
successional loblolly pine forest with varying numbers of mixed
hardwoods, and bottomland red-maple forest. Wetlands include freshwater
marshes, small freshwater ponds, ephemeral pools and marshes, and tidal
marsh.

## Field Methods

Field survey work began with initial observations on 1 March 2001 and
continued through 10 October 2001. Most of the fieldwork was done during
day-long field trips during which sites were selected for surveying and
a variety of methods were employed. Dates of our field trips, organized
by method, are listed in Appendix 1. The following standardized
techniques were used routinely in this study: haphazard visual encounter
surveys, frog call surveys at night, larval amphibian surveys with
dipnets and minnow traps, snake surveys with minnow traps, road driving
at night, and deployment of turtle traps. Visual encounter surveys are
conducted by walking haphazardly through a selected habitat and
observing active amphibians and reptiles, as well as turning over logs
and other surface objects to uncover animals underneath. Binoculars were
employed for searching water surfaces, logs, and other basking places
for turtles. Such data are presented in the database as site occurrence
records. Frogs call at night, especially during wet weather, and
advertise their presence. We spent several evenings throughout the
spring and summer months driving the study area and listening for frog
choruses. Frog calls were not taped or evaluated, as the higher priority
was to capture frogs for identification and photographs. Thus, the frog
call survey technique was used primarily for inventory purposes. Larval
amphibian surveys were accomplished in two ways, dip-netting and minnow
traps. A D-ring dipnet was used to sample aquatic habitats when water
was present, however, all of the shallow freshwater habitats dried up by
mid-summer. Minnow traps were also used in aquatic habitats. A variable
number was set on one day in a wetland (ephemeral marsh, vernal pool,
pond) and pulled up the next day to check for species captured. This
technique also allowed for quantification, as number of captures can be
expressed in terms of number of individuals per trap day. In all cases
when turtle and minnow traps were used, traps were set on one day and
pulled out the next. The use of minnow traps in shallow aquatic habitats
is also effective for semi-aquatic snakes. Several individuals were
captured with this technique. Five to 25 minnow traps were set in
trapping sessions. Driving paved roads at night occasionally revealed
amphibians and reptiles on the surface. Several amphibians and reptiles
were encountered this way. As with minnow traps, turtle traps were
employed on one day and pulled the next. However, unlike minnow traps,
turtle traps were baited with sardine cans with holes punched in the
top. This allows the smell to dissipate from the trap and prevents
turtles from eating the bait. One to 3 turtle traps were set during
trapping sessions in freshwater ponds on the island. There are no
wetlands in the Neck-of-Land area that could be trapped with turtle
traps. Data are presented as number of turtles captured per 10 trap
days. Finally, my assistant and I conducted two shoreline and marsh
surveys by canoe and small Jon boat. This technique revealed few
amphibians and reptiles, but did allow detection of several muskrat
mounds in the marshes (location data provided to Chuck Rafkind via an
interim report). The techniques commonly used for amphibians are
described fully in Heyer et al. (1994) and Mitchell (2000). The
techniques for reptiles are described in Jones (1986), Mitchell (1994),
and Blomberg and Shine (1996).

Figure 1. Amphibian and reptile survey location on Jamestown Island and
the adjacent mainland (Neck-of-Land), for Colonial National Historical
Park. The red perimeter line is the boundary of the study area, and the
numbered dots are the survey sites.

## ![](media/image1.png){width="6.797916666666667in" height="5.889583333333333in"} 

## Animals and Data 

All captured animals were handled in accordance with VA Department of
Game and Inland Fisheries guidelines (these are actually national
guidelines) and no animal was harmed in the process. Each animal was
released at the site of capture.

GPS coordinates of all sites of capture were obtained from aerial
photographs in Arc view and plotted on an aerial photo of the study area
(Figure 1). All data were entered on standardized field data sheets and
subsequently entered into computerized format (Excel spreadsheets).
Photographs (digital and photographic slides) were taken of most species
and their habitats. The spreadsheet and photographs are provided as
supplements to this report.

# Results

## Survey Results

Eleven species of frogs, seven species of salamanders, seven species of
turtles, three species of lizards, and eight species of snakes were
encountered in the study area during this study at 155 separate study
sites (Table 1, Figure 1). These totals include observations based on
adults and larvae; the distinction in numbers is provided for amphibians
in Table 1. These species were not distributed evenly between mainland
(Neck-of-Land) and island locations. Two species of frogs (American
Toad, Eastern Spadefoot) were found only on the mainland and three
species (American Bullfrog, Northern Green Frog, Spring Peeper) were
found only on the island. One species of salamander (Red-backed
Salamander) occurred only on the mainland and one (Two-toed Amphiuma)
was found only on the island. We found the Atlantic Coast Slimy
Salamander only on the island but the Virginia Division of Natural
Heritage (VaDNH) found one in the Neck-of-Land area at Site 82. One
species of freshwater turtle (Spotted Turtle) was found only on the
island; none was found exclusively on the mainland. The Diamond-backed
Terrapin occurs in tidal and estuarine marsh habitats exclusively and
single observations were made on the island and mainland side of the
marsh. One species of lizard (Ground Skink) was limited to the mainland.
One snake (Eastern Garter Snake) occurred only on the mainland but two
species (Northern Watersnake, Rough Greensnake) were found only on the
island. One lizard (Six-lined Racerunner) was not found during this
survey, although one observation record from 1991 is in

Table 1. Checklist of the amphibians and reptiles on Jamestown Island
and adjacent mainland in Colonial National Historical Park, Virginia.

[]{#refheading___toc13382518 .anchor}Total number of sites is 155 and
total number of individuals is 801. Relative abundance number codes for
island and mainland areas are 0 = no observations, 1 = 1 observation, 2
= 2-5 observations, 3 = 6-10 observations, 4 = \> 10 observations. The
single slimy salamander (a) in the Neck-of-Land area was observed by VA
Division of Natural Heritage (VaDNH) personnel in 2001 and the single
six-lined racerunner (b) was observer by VaDNH personnel in 1991; they
are not included in total counts. For frogs and salamanders with larval
life history, stages the numbers of individuals are adults and
juveniles/larvae (tadpoles for frogs). All individual reptiles are
adults and immatures.

  ----------------- ----------------- ------- ------------- --------- ----------
  Scientific name   Common name       No.     No.           Island    Mainland
                                      Sites   Individuals             

  Frogs                                       Ad/larvae               

  Bufo americanus   American Toad     1       1/0           0         1
  americanus                                                          

  Bufo fowleri      Fowler\'s Toad    9       10/0          3         2

  Hyla chrysoscelis Cope\'s Gray      8       31/0          2         4
                    Treefrog                                          

  Hyla cinerea      Green Treefrog    18      37/0          4         4

  Hyla squirella    Squirrel Treefrog 3       5/0           1         2

  Pseudacris        Northern Spring   3       9/3           4         0
  crucifer crucifer Peeper                                            

  Scaphiopus        Eastern Spadefoot 1       2/0           0         2
  holbrookii                                                          

  Rana catesbeiana  American Bullfrog 4       5/1           3         0

  Rana clamitans    Northern Green    9       6/114         4         0
  melanota          Frog                                              

  Rana              Southern Leopard  19      27/37         4         2
  sphenocephala     Frog                                              
  utricularia                                                         

  Gastrophryne      E. Narrow-mouthed 7       7/0           2         2
  carolinensis      Toad                                              

  Salamanders                                                         

  Ambystoma         Spotted           3       1/13          4         2
  maculatum         Salamander                                        

  Ambystoma opacum  Marbled           21      44/53         4         3
                    Salamander                                        

  Hemidactylium     Four-toed         4       4/0           2         0
  scutatum          Salamander                                        

  Plethodon         Atlantic Coast    1       8             3         1 (a)
  chlorobryonis     Slimy Salamander                                  

  Plethodon         Red-backed        7       33            0         4
  cinereus          Salamander                                        

  Amphiuma means    Two-toed Amphiuma 1       4/0           2         0

  Notophthalmus     Red-spotted Newt  11      27/0          4         2
  viridescens                                                         
  viridescens                                                         

                                                                      

  Table 1 continued                                                   

  Scientific name   Common name       No.     No.           Island    Mainland
                                      Sites   Individuals             

  Turtles                                                             

  Chelydra          Common Snapping   13      24            4         2
  serpentina        Turtle                                            
  serpentina                                                          

  Chrysemys picta   Eastern Painted   7       34            4         1
  picta             Turtle                                            

  Clemmys guttata   Spotted Turtle    5       13            4         0

                                                                      

  Malaclemys        Northern          2       2             1         1
  terrapin terrapin Diamond-backed                                    
                    Terrapin                                          

  Pseudemys         Red-bellied       3       3             2         1
  rubriventris      Cooter                                            

  Terrapene         E. Box Turtle     31      70            4         4
  carolina                                                            

  Kinosternon s.    Eastern Mud       23      45            4         2
  subrubrum         Turtle                                            

  Lizards                                                             

  Eumeces fasciatus Five-lined Skink  34      77            4         4

  Eumeces laticeps  Broad-headed      3       4             1         2
                    Skink                                             

  Scincella         Ground Skink      1       1             0         1
  lateralis                                                           

  Cnemidophorus     Six-lined         1 (b)   1             1         
  sexlineatus       Racerunner                                        

  Snakes                                                              

  Carphophis        Worm Snake        10      14            3         3
  amoenus amoenus                                                     

  Coluber           Northern Black    6       6             2         2
  constrictor       Racer                                             
  constrictor                                                         

  Diadophis         Northern          3       4             1         2
  punctatus         Ring-necked Snake                                 
  edwardsii                                                           

  Elaphe obsoleta   Black Ratsnake    7       7             3         1
  obsoleta                                                            

  Nerodia sipedon   Northern          4       10            4         0
  sipedon           Watersnake                                        

  Opheodrys         Rough Greensnake  1       1             1         0
  aestivus                                                            

  Storeria dekayi   Northern          2       2             1         1
  dekayi            Brownsnake                                        

  Thamnophis        Eastern           2       2             0         2
  sirtalis sirtalis Gartersnake                                       
  ----------------- ----------------- ------- ------------- --------- ----------

the VaDNH files for the island shoreline about at the halfway point of
the island just south of Site 152 (this record was provided by VaDNH
personnel after this study was completed). No

species of venomous snakes were encountered during this survey, and no
museum or modern observations are available for Jamestown Island. The
two VaDNH records are not included in species and individual number
totals presented here. A summary of the species of amphibians and
reptiles encountered by each survey method is in Table 2. It
demonstrates the value of the experienced field herpetologist doing the
old-style haphazard searching method; the guy with a snake hook.

A total of 801 individual amphibians and reptiles were captured at 155
sites during the course of this study (Table 1). There were 482
amphibians (295 frogs, 187 salamanders) and 319 reptiles (191 turtles,
82 lizards, 46 snakes) in this sample. Totals include all individual
adults and amphibian larvae. Pond-breeding frogs (genus *Rana*)
dominated the frog fauna on the island, but the treefrog (genus *Hyla*)
fauna dominated on the mainland. The salamander fauna on the island
consisted mostly of pond and pool-breeding species, such as the
ambystomatids (Marbled, Spotted) and newts. The freshwater turtle fauna
was most abundant on the island due to the presence of pond habitats.
The Eastern Box Turtle was abundant on both the mainland and the island
and should be viewed as an important sentinel species. The dominant
lizard species on both the mainland and the island was the Five-lined
Skink. The snake fauna was the most difficult to sample due to their
secretive habits. Thus, their relative abundance was highly variable
between mainland and island locations. The occurrence of Northern
Watersnakes only on the island may reflect the lack of pond habitats on
the mainland side.

No federal or state endangered or threatened species was found during
this survey. Sources of mortality from human activities documented in
this survey include road-killed frogs and turtles and Red-bellied
Turtles killed by boat propellers in Powhatan Creek. An indirect source
of mortality is loss of microhabitat by removal of logs and snags along
the loop road on the island (see Habitat associations).

## Habitat associations

Six habitat types derived from the list provided by the VaDNH proved
meaningful for reptiles and amphibians (Table 3). Many of the amphibians
and reptiles that use terrestrial habitats were encountered in uplands
supporting mixed mesic hardwoods and successional loblolly pine (with
some hardwood mix). Bottomland forest habitat was not extensive in the
study area and only two widespread species, one frog (Southern Leopard
Frog) and one snake

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc13382519 .anchor}Table 2. Species obtained by the
various inventory methods used in this survey. Refer to the text for
explanations of the methods indicated.

  ---------------- ----------- --------- ---------- -------- ---------- --------
  Common name      VES         Dipnets   Minnow     Turtle   Road       Frog
                   haphazard             traps      traps    cruising   calls

  Frogs                                                                 

  American Toad    X                                         X          X

  Fowler\'s Toad   X                                         X          X

  Cope\'s Gray     X           X                                        X
  Treefrog                                                              

  Green Treefrog   X                                         X          X

  Squirrel         X                                                    
  Treefrog                                                              

  Northern Spring  X           X                                        X
  Peeper                                                                

  Eastern                                                    X          X
  Spadefoot                                                             

  American         X                     X          X                   X
  Bullfrog                                                              

  Northern Green   X           X         X                   X          X
  Frog                                                                  

  Southern Leopard X           X         X                   X          X
  Frog                                                                  

  E.                                                         X          X
  Narrow-mouthed                                                        
  Toad                                                                  

  Salamanders                                                           

  Spotted          X           X                                        
  Salamander                                                            

  Marbled          X           X                                        
  Salamander                                                            

  Four-toed        X                                                    
  Salamander                                                            

  Atlantic Coast   X                                                    
  Slimy Salamander                                                      

  Red-backed       X                                                    
  Salamander                                                            

  Two-toed                               X                              
  Amphiuma                                                              

  Red-spotted Newt             X         X                              

                                                                        

                                                                        

  Table 2                                                               
  continued                                                             

  Common name      VES         Dipnets   Minnow     Turtle   Road       Frog
                   haphazard             traps      traps    cruising   calls

  Turtles                                                               

  Common Snapping  X                                X        X          
  Turtle                                                                

  Eastern Painted  X                                X                   
  Turtle                                                                

  Spotted Turtle   X                                X                   

  Northern         X                                                    
  Diamond-backed                                                        
  Terrapin                                                              

  Red-bellied      X                                                    
  Cooter                                                                

  Eastern Mud      X                                X        X          
  Turtle                                                                

  E. Box Turtle    X                                         X          

  Lizards                                                               

  Five-lined Skink X                                                    

  Broad-headed     X                                                    
  Skink                                                                 

  Ground Skink     X                                                    

  Snakes                                                                

  Worm Snake       X                                                    

  Northern Black   X                                         X          
  Racer                                                                 

  Northern         X                                                    
  Ring-necked                                                           
  Snake                                                                 

  Black Ratsnake   X                                         X          

  Northern         X                     X                   X          
  Watersnake                                                            

  Rough Greensnake X                                                    

  Northern         X                                                    
  Brownsnake                                                            

  Eastern          X                                                    
  Gartersnake                                                           
  ---------------- ----------- --------- ---------- -------- ---------- --------

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc13382520 .anchor}Table 3. Relative abundance of
amphibians and reptiles of Jamestown Island and adjacent mainland in
Colonial National Historical Park, Virginia, by habitat type. Habitat
types are based on classifications provided by the VA Division of
Natural Heritage (Fleming et al., 2001). Relative abundance codes are 1
= one observation, 2 = 2-5 observations, 3 = 6-10 observations, and 4 =
11+ observations. The single six-lined racerunner (a) was on the beach
adjacent to successional loblolly pine habitat.

+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Common name  | Mixed    | Succes. | Bo       | P    | Ve   | T    |
|              | Mesic    |         | ttomland | onds | rnal | idal |
|              | H        | L       | Forest   |      | P    | M    |
|              | ardwoods | oblolly |          |      | ools | arsh |
|              |          | Pine    |          |      |      |      |
+==============+==========+=========+==========+======+======+======+
| Frogs        |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| American     |          | 1       |          |      |      |      |
| Toad         |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Fowler\'s    |          | 2       |          |      | 2    | 2    |
| Toad         |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Cope\'s Gray |          | 4       |          |      | 4    |      |
| Treefrog     |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Green        |          |         |          |      | 4    | 4    |
| Treefrog     |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Squirrel     |          |         |          |      | 2    |      |
| Treefrog     |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Northern     | 3        | 2       |          |      | 3    | 1    |
| Spring       |          |         |          |      |      |      |
| Peeper       |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Eastern      |          |         |          |      | 2    |      |
| Spadefoot    |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| American     | 1        |         |          | 3    |      |      |
| Bullfrog     |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Northern     |          | 4       |          | 4    | 4    |      |
| Green Frog   |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Southern     |          | 4       | 4        | 4    | 4    | 4    |
| Leopard Frog |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| E.           |          | 2       |          |      | 2    | 1    |
| Na           |          |         |          |      |      |      |
| rrow-mouthed |          |         |          |      |      |      |
| Toad         |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Salamanders  |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Spotted      | 4        | 1       |          |      | 4    |      |
| Salamander   |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Marbled      | 4        | 4       |          |      | 4    |      |
| Salamander   |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Four-toed    |          | 2       |          |      |      |      |
| Salamander   |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Atlantic     | 3        | 2       |          |      |      |      |
| Coast Slimy  |          |         |          |      |      |      |
| Salamand.    |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Red-backed   | 4        | 4       |          |      |      |      |
| Salamander   |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Two-toed     |          |         |          | 2    |      |      |
| Amphiuma     |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Red-spotted  |          |         |          | 2    | 4    |      |
| Newt         |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Table 3      |          |         |          |      |      |      |
| continued    |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Turtles      |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Common       |          |         |          | 4    | 2    | 1    |
| Snapping     |          |         |          |      |      |      |
| Turtle       |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Eastern      |          | 2       |          | 4    | 1    |      |
| Painted      |          |         |          |      |      |      |
| Turtle       |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Spotted      |          |         |          | 3    | 4    |      |
| Turtle       |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Northern     |          |         |          |      |      | 2    |
| Di           |          |         |          |      |      |      |
| amond-backed |          |         |          |      |      |      |
| Terrapin     |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Red-bellied  |          | 2       |          |      |      | 1    |
| Cooter       |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Eastern Mud  | 2        | 4       |          | 4    | 4    | 2    |
| Turtle       |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| E. Box       | 4        | 4       |          |      |      |      |
| Turtle       |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Lizards      |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Five-lined   | 4        | 4       |          |      |      |      |
| Skink        |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Broad-headed | 1        | 2       |          |      |      |      |
| Skink        |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Ground Skink |          | 1       |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Six-lined    |          | 1 (a)   |          |      |      |      |
| Racerunner   |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Snakes       |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Worm Snake   | 4        | 2       |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Northern     | 2        | 2       |          |      |      |      |
| Black Racer  |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Northern     | 2        | 2       |          |      |      |      |
| Ring-necked  |          |         |          |      |      |      |
| Snake        |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Black        |          |         | 3        |      |      |      |
| Ratsnake     |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Northern     |          |         |          | 4    | 2    | 1    |
| Watersnake   |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Rough        |          | 1       |          |      |      |      |
| Greensnake   |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Northern     |          | 2       |          |      |      |      |
| Brownsnake   |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+
| Eastern      | 2        |         |          |      |      |      |
| Gartersnake  |          |         |          |      |      |      |
+--------------+----------+---------+----------+------+------+------+

a - grassland habitat only

(Black Ratsnake), were encountered. Most of the uplands supported adults
and juveniles of frogs and salamanders that use aquatic sites for
reproduction. This is because these life history stages disperse widely
and use uplands during non-breeding periods. Permanent ponds supported
two species (American Bullfrog and Two-toed Amphiuma) not found in
vernal pools. Vernal pools supported many species not found in permanent
ponds or tidal marsh habitat. These include Cope\'s Gray Treefrog,
Squirrel Treefrog, Eastern Spadefoot, Spotted Salamander, and Marbled
Salamander. Ponds supported 10 species and vernal pools supported 17
species. Tidal marshes present severe limits on amphibians and some
reptiles due to the salt content of the water. However, 5 species of
frogs, 4 species of turtles, and one snake species use this habitat
type. The Northern Diamond-backed Terrapin is exclusively estuarine,
although it ventures on land to lay eggs.

Several species of amphibians and reptiles use logs and snags as
essential microhabitat. A survey of logs and snags marked for removal on
Jamestown Island showed that six species were directly associated with
them, by either hiding under or in these features. These include
juvenile Red-spotted Newts, Marbled Salamanders, Five-lined Skinks,
Northern Ring-necked Snake, Black Ratsnake, and Eastern Mud Turtle.

## Relative abundance 

Some of the inventory work involved surveying freshwater wetlands
(ponds, vernal pools) for amphibians and turtles with traps. Comparisons
between species and their life history stages reveal the make-up of the
amphibian community in the wetland at the time of study and are thus
valid from a community standpoint. Estimates of relative abundance
(Tables 4 and 5) allow comparisons among species and among sites on
Jamestown Island. Results from minnow trapping four wetlands showed that
number of species and their relative abundances varied considerably
among ponds and vernal pools. Site 2 on the island is a shallow,
woodland vernal pool that dried by July. Southern Leopard Frog tadpoles
were more abundant than Marbled Salamander larvae or Red-spotted Newt
adults. Site 8 is a freshwater pond that retained water during the
entire year. Relatively few tadpoles of two species of frogs were found
there. Site 18 is a freshwater pond that contained a diverse fauna with
three species of frogs (American Bullfrog, Green Frog, Southern Leopard
Frog), one salamander (Red-spotted Newt), and one snake (Northern
Watersnake). Only Green Frog tadpoles were abundant in this pond. Site
74 is a

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc13382521 .anchor}Table 4. Relative abundance of
amphibians and reptiles in minnow traps on Jamestown Island, Colonial
National Historical Park, Virginia. Number of trap days was 20 for Site
2, 47 for Site 8, 55 for Site 18, and 20 for Site 74 with 5-25 traps set
each trap day. A trap day is a 24-hour period extending from the morning
of the first day. Trap effort was standardized to 50 traps per site for
comparison, thus, values are number per 50 trap days. Refer to Figure 1
for locations of the sites.

  --------------- --------------- ---------- ------- ------- ------- -------
  Species         Common name     Life       Site 2  Site 8  Site 18 Site 74
                                  history                            
                                  stage                              

  Frogs                                                              

  R. catesbeiana  Amer. Bullfrog  Tadpoles   \-\--   \-\--   0.050   0.125

  R. clamitans    Green Frog      Tadpoles   \-\--   0.677   1.239   \-\--

  R.              S. Leopard Frog Tadpoles   2.000   0.226   0.083   0.375
  sphenocephala                                                      

                                                                     

  Salamanders                                                        

  A. opacum       Marbled Salam.  Larvae     0.625   \-\--   \-\--   \-\--

  N. viridescens  Red-Spot. Newt  Adults     0.438   \-\--   0.050   0.125

  A. means        Amphiuma        Adults     \-\--   \-\--   \-\--   0.050

                                                                     

  Snakes                                                             

  N. sipedon      N. Watersnake   Adults     \-\--   \-\--   0.116   \-\--
  --------------- --------------- ---------- ------- ------- ------- -------

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc13382522 .anchor}Table 5. Relative abundance of
adult freshwater turtles in three freshwater ponds on Jamestown Island,
Colonial National Historical Park, Virginia. Number of trap days was 4
for Site 8, 9 for Site 18, and 3 for Site 74 using 1-3 turtle traps
during each 24 h trap day. Trapping effort was standardized for
comparisons among sites based on number of turtle captures per 10 trap
days. Thus, each number is the number of turtles captured per 10 trap
days. Refer to Figure 1 for locations of the sites.

  ------------------ ------------------ ---------- ----------- -----------
  Species            Common Name        Site 8     Site 18     Site 74

  Chelydra           Common Snapping    1.875      0.247       4.444
  serpentina         Turtle                                    
  serpentina                                                   

  Chrysemys picta    Eastern Painted    2.500      2.222       8.889
  picta              Turtle                                    

  Clemmys guttata    Spotted Turtle     \--        0.247       \--

  Kinosternon        Eastern Mud Turtle 0.625      1.235       1.111
  subrubrum                                                    
  subrubrum                                                    
  ------------------ ------------------ ---------- ----------- -----------

permanent freshwater pond located adjacent to the bus parking lot on the
island. It supported two species each of pond-breeding frogs (American
Bullfrog, Southern Leopard Frog) and salamanders (Red-spotted Newt,
Two-toed Amphiuma); it is the only location that yielded the completely
aquatic Amphiuma.

Several species of freshwater turtles are common throughout the island
and occasionally use the terrestrial habitats on the mainland. All sites
trapped with standard turtle hoop traps were permanent ponds that did
not dry during the course of this survey. Each of the sites contained
three species of relatively abundant turtles (Table 5). Common Snapping
Turtles and Eastern Painted Turtles were more abundant in Site 74 than
in either of the other two ponds studied. The Eastern Mud Turtle was
nowhere abundant but it is highly terrestrial and does not concentrate
in ponds. The Spotted Turtle was found only in Pond 18, although several
were caught by hand in two of the vernal pool complexes on the island.
It should not be considered an abundant turtle.

# Discussion

Identification of the extant species of amphibians and reptiles and the
habitats they occupy derived from a modern survey can provide insights
into the natural and cultural history that occurred here nearly 400
years ago. The habitats present on Jamestown Island today are probably
not dramatically different from four centuries ago. Although most of the
upland portion of the island was cultivated until 1925, some habitat
remained (Cotter, 1958). Pine stands were in abundance, as were some
hardwoods, and freshwater wetlands were present then as now. The tidal
marsh in and around the island is likely to be similar to the one
present in the 1600s. Thus, most of the species of amphibians and
reptiles that occupy such habitats today are likely the same species
that were present in 1607. The exceptions are Timber Rattlesnakes
(*Crotalus horridus*) and Copperheads (*Agkistrodon contortrix*). The
former species was extirpated from large areas east of the Blue Ridge
Mountains following colonization and farming (Mitchell, 1994). The
latter snake is still widespread in Virginia and occupies a variety of
habitats (Mitchell, 1994; Mitchell and Reay, 1999). The lack of modern
records for Jamestown Island suggests that the colonists and perhaps
others that followed killed all the Copperheads and possibly the Timber
Rattlesnake on the island. It is possible that Copperheads do occur on
the island but in low numbers and simply not encountered. These snakes,
as well as others, probably instilled a great fear in the Colonists, as
England has only three species of small snakes (Arnold and Burton,
1978). Encounters with large snakes, especially large-bodied Black
Ratsnakes and Copperheads, certainly instilled fear in these people and
likely affected their behavior when they ventured away from the fort.
The Colonists would have also heard the same species of frogs calling as
those found in this modern survey. They probably did not venture out at
night much and were unaware of what was making those night sounds.
Unfortunately, little was written on the amphibians and reptiles on
Jamestown Island during the Colonial Era; indeed, little has been
written about these animals in the early American literature. The
writings of Captain John Smith (Smith, 1612) mention a few snakes and
turtles but mostly as food items and ornaments used by the Native
Americans. Other writings from that era add little to no information on
this topic. Thus, it is difficult to make more than a few suggestive
inferences about the effect the native amphibian and reptile fauna had
on the early Colonists. A species-by-species evaluation of their
behavior and habitat use versus human activities known for that early
period could be instructive and could lead to insights into how the
Colonists reacted to the native fauna.

The species encountered during this survey represent a robust list for
the study area, at least for all groups except snakes. This was the
result of fieldwork that was conducted over three seasons (all but
Winter) using a variety of search and capture techniques, searches
conducted during day and night activity periods, and geographic coverage
throughout the Jamestown Island and adjacent mainland area. Except for
snakes, I am confident that the species lists are 90% or more complete.
Snakes are especially hard to survey because they are so secretive. They
are active for only short periods of time and often only during
favorable weather, usually warm and wet periods.

Based on distribution patterns of amphibian and reptile species in
Virginia (Mitchell, 1994; Mitchell and Reay, 1999), most of the species
encountered during this survey were expected. The species we did not
encounter but were expected to be in the study area include the
Southeastern Chorus Frog (*Pseudacris feriarum*), Stinkpot
(*Sternotherus odoratus*), Southeastern Five-lined Skink (*Eumeces
inexpectatus*), Northern Fence Lizard (*Sceloporus undulatus*),
Copperhead (*Agkistrodon contortrix*), Rainbow Snake (*Farancia
erytrogramma*), Eastern Hog-nosed Snake (*Heterodon platirhinos*),
Eastern Kingsnake (*Lampropeltis getula*), Northern Red-bellied Snake
(*Storeria occipitomaculata*), Eastern Ribbonsnake (*Thamnophis
sauritus*), Rough Earthsnake (*Virginia striatula*) and Smooth
Earthsnake (*Virginia valeriae*). Neither Chorus Frogs nor Stinkpots
tolerate salt water and were not expected on Jamestown Island. Their
lack of occurrence in the Neck-of-Land area is a reflection of the lack
of appropriate microhabitat. The lizards and snakes listed above should
occur either on the island or Neck-of-Land or both. We did not encounter
them for several possible reasons, including the historical use of the
land resulting in a disturbed environment that eliminated these species
sometime in history and luck-of-the-draw during our survey. There is
abundant habitat for Copperheads on both Jamestown Island and on the
Neck-of-Land area. Their absence was surprising. The Two-toed Amphiuma
(*Amphiuma means*) was the only species not expected in this survey. Its
occurrence on Jamestown Island was a surprise, as it must have in some
time in history crossed through brackish water to gain access to the
island pond in which it was found.

The most abundant amphibian on the island was the Southern Leopard Frog.
This species occurs in a wide variety of habitats and is widespread in
the mid-Atlantic region. It is able to breed in both fresh and slightly
brackish water. The most abundant species of reptile were the Five-lined
Skink and the Eastern Box Turtle. We found many of these lizards and
turtles in the hardwood and hardwood/pine habitats. The downed woody
debris (logs) and standing snags are preferred habitat for the skink;
and this habitat type occurs in abundance on the island. The Eastern Box
Turtle thrives in hardwood forests with abundant ground herbaceous
cover. Such habitat is abundant on both Jamestown Island and in the
Neck-of-Land area. Indeed, the species most likely to be negatively
impacted by construction activities during the Jamestown Island 400
project is the long-lived Eastern Box Turtle. Both of these reptiles
should receive some management attention, as their habitat requirements
reflect the quality of the landscape on Jamestown Island and on the
Neck-of-Land area for the amphibians and reptiles of the region. As
noted below, species that require two or more habitat types for
reproduction and survival depend on intact and functional habitats of
different types.

## Habitat Associations

Amphibians and reptiles of Jamestown Island and the adjacent
Neck-of-Land occupy a wide variety of habitats. All of the frogs and
most of the salamanders known to occur here depend on freshwater
wetlands for reproductive success and population survival. They also use
the upland terrestrial habitats extensively outside the breeding season.
The terrestrial reptiles that include most of the snakes, all of the
lizards, and one turtle (Eastern Box Turtle) depend on intact forested
habitats for survival. The existing forests on Jamestown Island and in
the Neck-of-Land area provide excellent habitat for most of these
species. Finally, the tidal marsh is used extensively by several
turtles, one exclusively (Diamond-backed Terrapin), and at least one
snake (Northern Watersnake) and one frog (Southern Leopard Frog).
Amphibians and reptiles, as do other animals, function in landscape
context. The mix of habitat types on Jamestown and vicinity are
essential to the existence of these vertebrates in the park. They should
be viewed as a habitat matrix at the landscape level rather than as
separate habitat types. Long-term management of habitats in Colonial
National Historical Park would be well served if management issues and
potential construction impacts were viewed from this perspective.

An example of the landscape concept from the amphibian perspective is
the matrix of freshwater vernal pools used for breeding by two species
of salamanders and the surrounding forest. Spotted Salamanders and
Marbled Salamanders (in the genus *Ambystoma*) were found predominately
in the intact hardwood forest east of the gate to the loop roads on
Jamestown Island. This habitat also contains several vernal pools. These
predominately subterranean salamanders breed in the vernal pools over a
short period of time but otherwise spend most of their lives in the
surrounding forest. The hardwood forest creates the underground tunnel
matrix needed by these salamanders; they seldom create their own
burrows. The combination of these two habitat types meets the life
history requirements of these two salamanders. Lack of one of the
habitat types results in the absence of these two species. Corridors of
appropriate hardwood habitat connecting two patches of hardwood forests
or two areas with vernal pools are essential features of the landscape
that greatly influence the viability of ambystomatid salamander
populations. Thus, viewing habitats in a landscape context is essential
to population survival and effective species management.

Microhabitats used in the forested habitats in the park include downed
and decaying logs and snags. I found six species directly associated
with such features. Unfortunately, many within sight of the loop roads
on the island were marked for removal. Taking away such microhabitat
features will directly kill individual animals, remove the valuable
shelter sites, and possibly contribute to the population decline of
these species. Such removal for non-biological reasons may conflict with
National Park Service directives to maintain all native species in each
park as viable populations. This is a management issue that deserves
evaluation.

## Potential impacts of development alternatives

The potential impact of construction activities during the Jamestown
Island 400 project on amphibians and reptiles is variable. All of the
alternatives, except the no action one, proposed for the preparation of
the area for the Jamestown Island 400 project will impact these
vertebrates in some way. Aside from the fact that there are no federal
or state-listed species in the area, there will be loss of habitat used
by amphibians and reptiles. Most of the habitats targeted for impact
containing these species are in the Neck-of-Land area. The modifications
proposed for the public areas on Jamestown Island are in areas already
severely impacted. Most of the amphibian and reptile use of the latter
is by individuals that traverse these spaces during movements from place
to place. Loss or decline of populations will occur in the Neck-of-Land
area if the parking lots are constructed. Although this area is
reclaimed farmland in a state of ecological succession, it does harbor
several species, some of which may be abundant. This is especially true
of the long-lived Eastern Box Turtle. The Box Turtle population in
Neck-of-Land is large, as evidenced by the large number of animals
captured. These animals have life histories very much like humans, with
maturity in the teens, survival well past age 50 (some documented to
live over 100 years), and repeated reproduction. The differences between
humans and the turtles include poor juvenile survival in the latter and
the fact that these turtles do not become senile or non-reproductive
with age. Thus, the older individuals in the population are the most
valuable members. Loss of habitat will directly impact these turtles and
likely cause the death of some to many of these older individuals.

Except for Alternatives A and D, the primary conclusions about the
impact of construction activities on amphibians and reptiles are
essentially the same among the remaining proposed alternatives. The
variation depends on the location of parking lots, trail placement, and
the boat docks.

Alternative A (No action) - Maintaining the landscape at the current
level of development and allowing ecological succession to take its
course will do the least harm to the amphibian and reptile fauna on
Jamestown Island and the Neck-of-Land area. These species will continue
to maintain viable populations for the foreseeable future.

Alternative B - All of the proposed construction sites in the
Neck-of-Land area (numbers 1-8) will cause loss of habitat used by
amphibians and reptiles. The Gateway/Orientation facility and associated
parking lots and the boat docks will require elimination of natural
habitat. The trails will open the forest to the kind of pedestrian and
bike traffic that will result in the direct loss of individuals. Box
turtles will be picked up and kept or at least moved out of their home
ranges, and bikes will run over small amphibians and reptiles on the
trail or road bed. The Box Turtle population will decline. Construction
of the proposed additional 3 boat docks will cause in increase in boat
traffic in Powhatan Creek and Back River. Evidence already gained in
this study of mortality caused by boat traffic on turtles (see Results
and the PowerPoint file) shows that boat propellers kill these
long-lived animals. Additional traffic will result in further population
decline.

Most of the proposed construction on Jamestown Island appears to be in
areas already developed and should add little additional impact to that
already in place with existing features. The hiking and biking trails
proposed along the existing roadway will have little to no impact on
amphibians and reptiles. The wetland between the NPS building and Dr.
William Kelso\'s house should be avoided, as it supports a variety of
amphibian and reptile species. There should be no encroachment into the
Pitch and Tar Swamp as these animals use it extensively.

Alternative C - All of the proposed construction sites in the
Neck-of-Land area (numbers 1-7) will cause loss of habitat used by
amphibians and reptiles. The Gateway/Orientation facility and associated
parking lots and the boat docks will require elimination of natural
habitat. The trail between the proposed parking lot (2) and the new
northern edge of the forest will have less impact than that proposed
under Alternative B. However, Eastern Box Turtles will still encountered
and be picked up and kept or at least moved out of their home ranges.
The Box Turtle population will decline. Construction of the proposed
additional 3 boat docks will cause in increase in boat traffic in
Powhatan Creek and Back River. Evidence already gained in this study of
mortality caused by boat traffic on turtles (see Results) shows that
boat propellers kill the long-lived animals. Additional traffic will
result in further population decline.

Most of the proposed construction on Jamestown Island appears to be in
already developed areas and should add little additional impact to that
already in place with existing features. The hiking and biking trails
proposed along the existing roadway will have little to no impact on
amphibians and reptiles. The wetland between the NPS building and Dr.
William Kelso\'s house should be avoided, as it supports a variety of
amphibian and reptile species. There should be no encroachment into the
Pitch and Tar Swamp.

Alternative D - Of all the alternatives with some construction proposed,
this one has the least impact on amphibians and reptiles. This
alternative will result in no loss of habitat in the Neck-of-Land area.
The result will be that the large Eastern Box Turtle population, along
with other species in this area, will continue to remain viable. The
lack of new boat docks will allow the aquatic species of turtles to
exist at current population levels; mortality should remain at
present-day levels.

Most of the proposed construction on Jamestown Island appears to be in
already developed areas and should add little additional impact to that
already in place with existing features. The hiking and biking trails
proposed along the existing roadway will have little to no impact on
amphibians and reptiles. The wetland between the NPS building and Dr.
William Kelso\'s house should be avoided, as it supports a variety of
amphibian and reptile species. There should be no encroachment into the
Pitch and Tar Swamp.

Alternative E - All of the proposed construction sites in the
Neck-of-Land area (numbers 1-9) will cause loss of habitat used by
amphibians and reptiles. The Gateway/Orientation facility and associated
parking lots and the boat docks will require elimination of natural
habitat. The trails will open the forest to the kind of pedestrian and
bike traffic that will result in the direct loss of individuals. Box
turtles will be picked up and kept or at least moved out of their home
ranges, and bikes will run over small amphibians and reptiles on the
trail or road bed. Construction of the proposed additional 3 boat docks
will cause in increase in boat traffic in Powhatan Creek and Back River.
Evidence already gained in this study on mortality caused by boat
traffic on turtles (see Results) shows that boat propellers kill the
long-lived animals. Additional traffic will result in further population
decline.

Most of the proposed construction on Jamestown Island appears to be in
already developed areas and should add little additional impact to that
already in place with existing features. The hiking and biking trails
proposed along the existing roadway will have little to no impact on
amphibians and reptiles. The wetland between the NPS building and Dr.
William Kelso\'s house should be avoided, as it supports a variety of
amphibian and reptile species. There should be no encroachment into the
Pitch and Tar Swamp.

# Conclusions

1\. No federal or state endangered or threatened species of amphibian
and reptile was encountered during this survey.

2\. Most of the species of amphibians and reptiles in the study area are
those that occur throughout the Lower York-James Peninsula in Virginia
and are generalists in their habits. The exceptions are the Two-toed
Amphiuma, a fully aquatic salamander found in freshwater swamps and
ponds, and the Northern Diamond-backed Terrapin, an estuarine
specialist.

3\. Hardwood forests and all aquatic habitats are critical areas to
maintain for amphibians and reptiles. Downed woody debris from hardwood
forests provides important microhabitat for numerous species. Aquatic
habitats are important because they are the only places on the island
and adjacent mainland where amphibians can reproduce. These habitats
include vernal pools, freshwater marshes, and permanent bodies of water.

4\. Removal of downed woody debris from areas along the inner and outer
loop roads on Jamestown Island causes the immediate loss of critical
microhabitat for many animal species. Their removal could result in
reduced population sizes of several species of reptiles on the island.
The National Park Service is charged with maintaining viable populations
of all vertebrates and the removal of logs and snags may be in conflict
with this mandate.

5\. Construction of parking areas and additional roadways on
Neck-of-Land and on Jamestown Island will negatively impact important
populations of amphibians and reptiles no matter which Alternative with
planned construction is selected. The Alternative that will have the
least impact on amphibians and reptiles is Alternative D.

6\. Construction of the boat docks will result in loss of habitat for
amphibians and reptiles and increased boat traffic on the areas
waterways. Boat propeller strikes are well known cause of mortality of
turtles. The discovery of a dead adult female Red-Bellied Cooter in
Powhatan Creek with three large propeller gashes in the shell (see the
PowerPoint file) attests to this recreational activity being a cause of
mortality for these turtles. Current levels of boat traffic and their
effects on the native vertebrates should be evaluated. The increased
traffic derived from additional opportunities provided by the new boat
docks will only exacerbate a current management problem.

7\. The effects of the proposed trails in the various Alternatives for
the Jamestown Island 400 project on amphibians and reptiles are varied.
They range from little impact for trails along existing roads in the
existing public areas to considerable impact in areas currently lacking
trails in the Neck-of-Land area. Any change to the hardwood forest in
the Neck-of-Land area will have consequences to the Box Turtle
population. Garber and Burger (1995) found that opening an area to
recreation resulted in the complete loss of a Wood Turtle population.
The primary cause was removal of turtles by humans and dogs. Humans pick
up Box Turtles and will remove them or at least carry them to other
locations in the park (perhaps the island). The effect is the same as
the individuals being killed by a predator or on the road by a vehicle -
loss of the important individual to the population. Bike traffic may
kill small amphibians and reptiles but this is of less concern than the
direct human impact to turtles. Thus, trail construction of any kind in
hardwood forests will negatively affect the sentinel Box Turtle species.

8\. The mixed hardwood forest in the Neck-of-Land area (and on the
island) harbors a large population of Eastern Box Turtles, many of which
are 30-100 years old. Removal of portions of this hardwood area and the
construction process itself will likely kill an unknown number of these
turtles. Box Turtles are sentinel species for a variety of reasons as
noted above. Because they are so long-lived, they accumulate chemicals
from the environment. A good example is the production of aural (ear)
abscesses in these turtles as a result of vitamin A deficiency caused by
organochlorine pesticide contamination (Holliday et al., 2001). Nearly
all turtles found in the Blacksburg, Virginia area had levels of these
chemical in their systems. A healthy Box Turtle population reflects a
healthy environment. We did not find aural abscesses in turtles during
this study, suggesting that this may not be a problem in this area.
Increased contamination of environmental pollutants from increased human
use of the area during the Jamestown Island 400 event may be an indirect
cause of problems for this species, in addition to the habitat loss and
population decline from the construction process. Thus, it is
appropriate to view the Eastern Box Turtle population from conservation
and management perspectives.

9\. The island is small enough for individuals of most species to move
from one end to the next in one season, as amphibians and reptiles are
well known to disperse hundreds of meters and up to several kilometers.
Thus, with the exception of the two species noted in Number 2, specific
habitats do not harbor specific species. Most of the habitats on the
island and adjacent mainland are likely to harbor all of the species
known from the study area at some time during their history.

10\. The variety of habitat types on Jamestown and vicinity should be
viewed as a habitat matrix at the landscape level rather than as
separate habitat types. Long-term management of habitats in Colonial
National Historical Park would be well served if management issues and
potential construction impacts were viewed from this perspective.

11\. The natural history of Jamestown Island and vicinity was a very
important backdrop to the cultural history that occurred here.
Historians and interpretive staff should not ignore the flora and fauna.
It would be most beneficial to visitors to gain an appreciation of the
natural history of the island and how it influenced the cultural
history.

Management Recommendations

1\. Maintain all habitats used by amphibians and reptiles, especially
hardwood forests and ephemeral freshwater wetlands. Make sure that there
is at least a large (\>165 meter) buffer around each of the freshwater
wetlands to the extent possible (see Semlitsch and Jensen, 2001 for
reasons supporting the distance). Such habitats are not abundant on
Jamestown Island and support several species that would not occur there
if these habitats were missing or altered. The pure hardwood stand to
the east of the gate to the loop road with its vernal pools is a prime
example of an area in need of management attention. In short, keep
Jamestown Island in as a natural state as possible.

2\. Other habitats used extensively by amphibians and reptiles include
the freshwater wetland on the eastern end of the island, Pitch and Tar
Swamp, the ephemeral marsh area to the east of the eastern end of the
public area (field), the shallow moats around the Civil War forts on the
island and in the Neck-of-Land area, and the mixed pine and hardwoods
with the snags and downed logs. A very important wetland for frogs is
the ephemeral cypress tree marsh immediately south of the Glass House
public area. Several species of frogs occur here and nowhere else in
this area. These habitats should be surveyed, mapped, and evaluated for
their value to the wildlife (in the broad sense) in the park. Resource
management of all of these habitats would benefit from additional and
more intensive survey and population research in these habitats.

3\. Allow downed woody debris (logs and snags) to accumulate in all
forest habitats. This will help maintain many amphibian and reptile
populations. Removal of downed woody debris (logs, snags) along the
viewing areas of the loop roads on the island and other locations will
cause animal population decline. Such policies should be reviewed in
light of NPS mandates to protect native species.

4\. If the Alternative selected for implementation for the Jamestown
Island 400 project is one that causes loss of portions of the hardwood
forest in the Neck-of-Land area and construction of parking lots, boat
docks, and trails, then consultation with qualified ecologists and
conservation biologists should be undertaken to help find ways to
minimize the negative impacts. Loss of habitat and, subsequently,
individual animals from human actions will cause the long-lived,
sentinel Box Turtle population to decline. Decline and loss of
individuals cannot be prevented but could be reduced somewhat through a
variety of actions that minimize the amount of habitat lost and the
number taken. Work with people who know these animals, their habitats,
and human behavior.

5\. The effects of boat traffic and propeller damage to turtles in
Powhatan Creek and Back River should be evaluated. What is the rate of
mortality to these animals? Are Diamond-backed Terrapins (a species in
decline) affected?

6\. The Eastern Box Turtle population in the Neck-of-Land area should be
studied quantitatively. What is the population size of this long-lived
vertebrate and its demographic makeup? Are there any turtles with
organochlorine pesticides in their tissues? What is the rate of aural
infections? Are they diseased in any other way? This sentinel species is
abundant now on the island and in the Neck-of-Land area. A comparison of
these two populations with an emphasis on incidence of disease would
allow a much better understanding of these two environments and whether
any management problems occur and should be corrected.

# Acknowledgments

Will Brown, Kurt Buhlmann, Todd Georgel, Steve Johnson, Wendy Mitchell,
Steve Spear, Tracey Tuberville, and Kyle Walters assisted in the field.
I thank Chuck Rafkind for providing the collection permit, pertinent
maps, and technical support for production of the final report. I also
appreciate the support of and information provided by Dr. Bill Kelso and
Catherine C. Walls at APVA. John Karish and staff provided constructive
comments on a draft of this report. Finally, I thank John Karish and the
National Park Service for providing the funding for this project.

# Literature Cited

Arnold, E.N., and J.A. Burton. 1978. A Field Guide to the Reptiles and
Amphibians of Britain and Europe. W. Collins & Sons, St. James Place,
London. 272 pp.

Blomberg, S., and R. Shine. 1996. Reptiles. Pages 218-226 in W.J.
Sutherland (ed.), Ecological Census Techniques, a Handbook. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Cotter, J.L. 1958. Archeological excavations at Jamestown Colonial
National Historical Park and Jamestown National Historic Park, Virginia.
Archeological Research Series No. 4, National Park Service, Washington,
DC. 299 pp.

Fleming, G.P., P.P. Coulling, D.P. Walton, K.M. McCoy, and M.R. Parrish.
2001. The natural communities of Virginia: classification of ecological
community types. First approximation. Natural Heritage Technical Report
01-1. Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, Division of
Natural Heritage, Richmond, VA. Unpublished report. 76 pp.

Garber, S.D., and J. Burger. 1995. A 20-year study documenting the
relationship between turtle decline and human recreation. Ecological
Applications 5:1151-1162.

Heyer, W.R., M.A. Donnelly, R.W. McDiarmid, L.C. Hayek, and M.S. Foster.
1994. Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity, Standard Methods
for Amphibians. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. 364 pp.

Holladay, S.D., J.C. Wolf, S.A. Smith, D.E. Jones, and J.L. Robertson.
2001. Aural abscesses in wild-caught box turtles (Terapene carolina):
possible role of organochlorine-induced hypervitaminosis A.
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 48:99-106.

Jones, K.B. 1986. Amphibians and reptiles. Pages 267-290 in A.Y.
Cooperrider, R.J. Boyd, and H.R. Stuart (eds.), Inventory and Monitoring
of Wildlife Habitat. US Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Land Management
Service Center, Denver, CO.

Mitchell, J.C. 1994. The Reptiles of Virginia. Smithsonian Institution
Press, Washington, DC. 352 pp.

Mitchell, J.C. 2000. Amphibian Monitoring Methods & Field Guide.
Smithsonian National Zoological Park, Conservation Research Center,
Front Royal, VA. 56 pp.

Mitchell, J.C. and K.K. Reay. 1999. Atlas of Amphibians and Reptiles in
Virginia. Special Publication Number 1, Department of Game and Inland
Fisheries, Richmond, VA. 122 pp.

Semlitsch, R.D., and J.B. Jensen. 2001. Core habitat, not buffer zone.
National Wetlands Newsletter 23(4): 5-6, 11.

Smith, J. 1612 (1986). A Map of Virginia. With a description of the
Country, the Commodities, People, Government, and Religion. In P.L.
Barbour (ed.), The Complete Works of Captain John Smith (1580-1633).
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC. 3 volumes.

# Appendix 1. Dates of field trips for the amphibian and reptile survey, Jamestown 400 Project area by inventory method.

  ---------------- ------------------------------------------------------
  Haphazard VES    Mar 1, 13, 28; Apr 6, 14, 26, 27; May 1, 16, 21, 26;
                   Jun 1, 6, 7, 15, 25, 29; Jul 5, 11, 19, 27; Aug 26;
                   Sep 5, 6, 21, 25, 26; Oct 2, 4, 10

  Dipnets          Mar 13; Apr 14, 27; May 1, 2; Jun 1, 15; Sep 5, 6

  Minnow traps     Mar 28-29, May 1-2, May 31-Jun 1, 14-15; Sep 5-6

  Turtle traps     Apr 26-27; May 1-2; Jun 14-15; Sep 5-6

  Road cruising    Mar 13, 28; May 16, 21; Jun 1, 6, 15; Sep 21

  Frog calls       Mar 13; May 2, 16, 21; Jun 1, 6, 7,15
  ---------------- ------------------------------------------------------

##