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**Movement of *Moringa oleifera* Pods from Hawaii into the Continental
United States**

**A Qualitative Pathway-Initiated Risk Assessment**

**September 11, 2006**

**Rev: Original**

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http://www.foodreference.com/html/fhorseradishtree.html
http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/carr/moring.htm

**Agency Contact:**

United States Department of Agriculture

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Plant Protection and Quarantine

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Assessment Laboratory (Hawaii)

300 Ala Moana Blvd, Rm 8-109

Honolulu, HI 96850

**Executive Summary**

This document assesses the risks associated with the movement of fresh
pods of *Moringa* species (particularly *Moringa oleifera*) from Hawaii
into the continental United States. A search of print and electronic
sources identified seven (7) pests of quarantine significance that exist
in Hawaii and could be introduced into the continental United States in
shipments of fresh *Moringa* pods.

Quarantine-significant pests likely to follow the pathway:

*Aleurodicus dispersus* Russell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

*Aonidiella inornata* (McKenzie) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

*Bactrocera cucurbitae* (Coquillett) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

*Bactrocera dorsalis* (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

*Ceratitis capitata* (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

*Coccus viridis* (Green) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

*Pseudococcus cryptus* Hempel (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

The quarantine pests were analyzed based on international principles and
internal guidelines as described in the PPQ Guidelines for
Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessments, Version 5.02 (USDA, 2002). This
document examines pest biology in the context of the Consequences and
Likelihood of Introduction. The pests likely to follow the pathway pose
phytosanitary risks to U.S. agriculture. *Bactrocera cucurbitae*, *B.
dorsalis*, and *Ceratitis capitata* received a High Pest Risk Potential.
*Aleurodicus dispersus, Aonidiella inornata, Coccus viridis,* and
*Pseudococcus cryptus* received a Pest Risk Potential of Medium.
Port-of-entry inspection, as a sole mitigative measure, is insufficient
to safeguard U.S. agriculture from these pests; additional phytosanitary
measures are necessary to reduce risk.

**Table of Contents**

[**I. Introduction** 1](#__RefHeading___Toc145641744)

[**II. Risk Assessment** 1](#__RefHeading___Toc145641745)

[**2.1 Initiating Event** 1](#__RefHeading___Toc145641746)

[**2.2 Assessment of the Weediness of *Moringa oleifera***
2](#__RefHeading___Toc145641747)

[**2.3 Previous Risk Assessments, Decision History, and Pest
Interceptions** 3](#__RefHeading___Toc145641748)

[**2.4 Pest Categorization---Identification of pests associated with
*Moringa oleifera* in Hawaii** 6](#__RefHeading___Toc145641749)

[**2.5 Quarantine Pests that are Likely to Follow the Pathway**
11](#__RefHeading___Toc145641750)

[**2.6** **Consequences of Introduction---Economic/Environmental
Importance** 11](#__RefHeading___Toc145641751)

[**2.7 Likelihood of Introduction---Quantity Imported and Pest
Opportunity** 20](#__RefHeading___Toc145641752)

[**2.8 Conclusion---Pest Risk Potential, Pests Requiring Phytosanitary
Measures, and Risk Mitigation Options**
23](#__RefHeading___Toc145641753)

[**III. Author(s) and Reviewer(s)** 24](#__RefHeading___Toc145641754)

[**IV. Literature Cited** 24](#__RefHeading___Toc145641755)

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc145641744 .anchor}**I. Introduction**

The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the United
States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prepared this risk assessment to
examine plant pest risks associated with the movement of fresh *Moringa*
(malong-gay, horse-radish tree, ben tree) pods from Hawaii into the
continental United States.

This qualitative pest risk assessment estimates risk in the qualitative
terms of "High," "Medium" and "Low" rather than probabilities or
frequencies. The details of the methodology and rating criteria can be
found in the document: *Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessment:
Guidelines for Qualitative Assessments, Version 5.02* (USDA, 2002).

International plant protection organizations, such as the North American
Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO) and the International Plant
Protection Convention (IPPC) of the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), provide guidance for conducting pest risk analyses.
The methods used for initiating, conducting and reporting information in
this pest risk assessment are consistent with these guidelines.
Biological and phytosanitary terms are taken from the NAPPO Glossary of
Phytosanitary Terms (Anonymous, 1999) and the Definitions and
Abbreviations (Introduction Section) in International standards for
Phytosanitary Measures, Import Regulations: Guidelines for Pest Risk
Analysis (IPPC, 1996) and the Glossary of Phytosanitary Terms (IPPC,
2004).

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc145641745 .anchor}**II. Risk Assessment**

Pest risk assessment is a component of the overall pest risk analysis.
The Guidelines for Pest Risk Analysis (IPPC, 1996) describe three stages
in pest risk analysis. This document satisfies the requirements of FAO
Stages 1, Initiation, and 2, Risk Assessment, by separately considering
each area of inquiry.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc145641746 .anchor}**2.1 Initiating Event**

This pest risk assessment is commodity-based or "pathway-initiated"
because the USDA was requested by the Hawaii Department of Agriculture
authorization for the movement of fresh *Moringa* pods (fruit) from
Hawaii into the continental United States. This is a potential pathway
for the introduction of plant pests on the fruit. The authority to
regulate fruit and vegetable movement is codified at 7 C.F.R. § 318.13.
At this time, Hawaii has not provided any information concerning how
Moringa is cultivated and harvested, or what types of basic post-harvest
processes are in place. Consequently, this risk assessment assumes that
processing is limited to the visual culling of damaged and diseased
fruit at the time of harvest.

Initially, the request for this risk assessment was for *Moringa
oleifera*, the most widely cultivated species in the genus; however,
this risk assessment was conducted at the genus level because the name
"Moringa" is a common name for *M. oleifera*, and the scientific name
for the entire genus. (Thus, pest literature references may be referring
to either one or both.) Secondly, *M. oleifera* is not the only species
in the genus cultivated; *M. stenopetala* is also cultivated and present
in Hawaii (Olson, 1999). One internet reference indicated that *M.
stenopetala* had some better qualities and, perhaps, should be
commercially cultivated (Price, 1985). Other species of Moringa
demonstrate potential utility as well (Palada, 1996); therefore, to
avoid nomenclature ambiguity, and to maximize the potential use of this
document, this risk assessment was conducted at the genus level. The
following compiled pest list presented includes pests and pathogens of
Moringa. Expanding this pest risk assessment to include the entire genus
added a dozen or so additional pests. *Moringa* *oleifera* is the most
widely cultivated species, as compared to other species that are only
locally cultivated in Africa (Olson, 1999).

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc145641747 .anchor}**2.2 Assessment of the
Weediness of *Moringa oleifera***

*Moringa* is the only genus in the family Moringaceae. The genus is
composed of 13 species distributed from eastern Africa to India, and
include *M. arborea*, *M. borziana*, *M. concanensis*, *M. drouhardii*,
*M. hildebrandtii*, *M. longtituba*, *M. oleifera*, *M. ovalifolia*, *M.
peregrine*, *M. pygmaea*, *M. stenopetala*, *M. rivae*, and *M.
ruspoliana* (Olson, 1999). The most widely known and cultivated species
is *M. oleifera*. This genus accommodates the following uses: its leaves
are used as a vegetable or salad green; the pods as a vegetable similar
to green beans; the roots as a condiment like horseradish; and the seeds
for cooking oils and lubricant. Fruit pods can grow up to 1.2 meters in
length, depending on the variety (Olson, 1999; Palada, 1996).

One of the first steps in a commodity risk assessment is the assessment
of the weediness potential of the commodity following the USDA's 5.02
Guidelines (USDA, 2002). Table 1 depicts the weediness potential of *M.
oleifera*. The other *Moringa* species were also assessed, but were not
presented because there was no strong indication that any of them would
become invasive in the United States. One reference did list *M.
stenopetala* and *M. peregrine* as a weed (Randall, 2006); however, a
single reference is insufficient evidence to determine invasiveness for
these two species.

  ------------------- ------------------------------------------------------- ------
  **Table 1.                                                                  
  Assessment of the                                                           
  weediness potential                                                         
  of *Moringa                                                                 
  oleifera*                                                                   
  (Moringaceae).**                                                            

                      **Common Names:** Moringa, ben-oil-tree, drumstick,     
                      horseradish-tree, benzolive-tree (USDA-ARS, 2006)       

                      **Synonyms:** *Moringa pterygosperma, M. aptera*        
                       (Olson, 1999)                                          

  **Phase 1:**        Distribution in the USA: *Moringa oleifera* is native    
                      to the foothills of the Himalayas in India, but is now  
                      widely cultivated in India, Asia, east Africa, and      
                      other areas of the world (Olson, 1999). It has been     
                      introduced to California and Florida where, perhaps, it 
                      is locally cultivated (Palada, 1996); however, in       
                      Hawaii, it is commercially cultivated.                  

  **Phase 2:**        Invasive / Weed Status: Listing as weed                  

  [No]{.underline}    (Holm *et al.*, 1977; Reed, 1977; Gunn and Ritchie,     
                      1982; Holm *et al.*, 1991; Holm *et al.*, 1997; Weber,  
                      2003; Skinner *et al.*, 2005; Swearingen, 2005; WSSA,   
                      2005; 7 CFR § 360, January 1, 2005).                    

  [Yes]{.underline}   A Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2006)            

  [Yes]{.underline}   Other scientific literature. (ECOPORT, 2006; IRC, 2006; 
                      Liogier & Martorell, 2000; Palada, 1996)                

  **Phase 3:**        Summary and Conclusions:                                 

                      Colonizing after cultivation, *M. oleifera* is          
                      considered a weed by several sources (see above). It    
                      has naturalized in southern Florida and Puerto Rico     
                      (IRC, 2006; Liogier & Martorell, 2000). *Moringa        
                      oleifera* quickly grows and reproduces from seeds and   
                      cuttings (Palada, 1996). Its growth rate has been       
                      described as being second to *Leucanea* (Palada, 1996), 
                      which is a highly invasive tropical and subtropical     
                      legume. Despite these references, there is no           
                      indication that it is a significant weed, capable of    
                      reducing biodiversity, and transforming ecosystems, as  
                      some invasive plants do. Furthermore, because it has    
                      already been introduced into the continental United     
                      States, where it is under cultivation (Palada, 1996),   
                      and is not being officially controlled, *M. oleifera*   
                      does not meet the definition of a quarantine pest       
                      (IPPC, 2004); as a result, it is recommended that the   
                      PRA process for the importation of fresh *Moringa*      
                      fruit continue.                                         

                      **Conclusion:** Proceed with the pest risk assessment.  * *
  ------------------- ------------------------------------------------------- ------

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc145641748 .anchor}**2.3 Previous Risk Assessments,
Decision History, and Pest Interceptions**

There is one previous risk assessment for *Moringa oleifera* from Hawaii
completed by the Hawaiian Department of Agriculture in October 1999 (on
file with CPHST-PERAL, Raleigh, NC).

In 1998, the entry of *M. oleifera* (fruit) was denied from Mexico
because of interceptions of *Anastrepha* larvae on *Moringa* pods; no
literature is available for which species of *Anastrepha* were
associated with *Moringa.*

In 1993, the entry of *M. oleifera* (fruit) was denied from India
because of lack of approved treatments for *Stictodiplosis moringae* and
*Noorda moringae.*

In 1993, the entry of *M. oleifera* (leaves, stems, and fruit) was
denied from Puerto Rico because of lack of approved treatment for
*Anastrepha* spp.

In 1992, the entry of *M. oleifera* (leaves, stems, and fruit) was
denied from Jamaica because of lack of approved treatment for
*Anastrepha* spp.

In 1992, the entry of *M. oleifera* (fruit) was denied from the
Dominican Republic because of lack of approved treatment for
*Anastrepha* spp.

In 1992, the entry of *M. oleifera* (leaves) was approved from Hawaii
with inspection.

In 1992, the entry of *M. oleifera* (leaves, stems, and fruit) was
denied from Mexico because of lack of FIFRA Section 18 exemption for
*Anastrepha* spp.

In 1990, the entry of *M. oleifera* (leaves) was approved from Cook
Island with inspection.

In 1988, the entry of *M. oleifera* (leaves and fruit) was approved from
Fiji with inspection.

In 1988, the entry of *M. oleifera* (fruit) was denied from Guatemala
because of lack of pest data and possible fruit fly host.

**Table 2. Pests intercepted on *Moringa*** at U.S. ports between 1985
and 2005 (PIN 309, 2005)

  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  **Pest**                          **Fruit**   **Leaf**   **Stem**   **Other**   **Total**
  --------------------------------- ----------- ---------- ---------- ----------- -----------
  Acari, species of                             1                                 1

  Achilidae, species of (Achilidae)                                   1           1

  *Adoretus sinicus* Burmeister                 63         8                      71
  (Scarabaeidae)                                                                  

  Agromyzidae, species of           2           506        8          1           517
  (Agromyzidae)                                                                   

  Aleurodicinae, species of                     1                                 1
  (Aleyrodidae)                                                                   

  *Aleurodicus dispersus* Russell   1           141        2          1           145
  (Aleyrodidae)                                                                   

  *Aleurodicus* sp. (Aleyrodidae)   1           3                                 4

  Aleyrodidae, species of           1           27                    1           29
  (Aleyrodidae)                                                                   

  *Amorbia* sp. (Tortricidae)                   1                                 1

  *Anastrepha* sp. (Tephritidae)    2                                             2

  *Aonidiella inornata* Mckenzie    1                                             1
  (Diaspididae)                                                                   

  Aphididae, species of (Aphididae)             10                    1           11

  *Araecerus* sp. (Anthribidae)     1                                             1

  Buprestidae, species of                       1                                 1
  (Buprestidae)                                                                   

  Cerambycidae, species of                      1                                 1
  (Cerambycidae)                                                                  

  *Chrysodeixis eriosoma*                       6                                 6
  (Doubleday) (Noctuidae)                                                         

  Cicadellidae, species of                      40         2          1           43
  (Cicadellidae)                                                                  

  Coccidae, species of (Coccidae)   7           2          1                      10

  *Coccus viridis* (Green)                      4                                 4
  (Coccidae)                                                                      

  Coelomycetes, species of          1                                             1

  Crambidae, species of (Crambidae) 2                                             2

  Curculionidae, species of         1                                             1
  (Curculionidae)                                                                 

  *Dacus* sp. (Tephritidae)         1                                             1

  *Diaphania* sp. (Crambidae)       1                                             1

  Diaspididae, species of           1           1                     2           4
  (Diaspididae)                                                                   

  *Draeculacephala* sp.                         1                                 1
  (Cicadellidae)                                                                  

  *Drepanococcus* sp. (Coccidae)    1                                             1

  *Dysmicoccus* sp.                 3                                             3
  (Pseudococcidae)                                                                

  *Etiella* sp. (Pyralidae)                     1                                 1

  *Ferrisia* sp. (Pseudococcidae)   1                                             1

  Flatidae, species of (Flatidae)               3                                 3

  *Fusarium* sp.                    1                                             1

  Gelechiidae, species of           1                                             1
  (Gelechiidae)                                                                   

  Glaphyriinae, species of                                            1           1
  (Crambidae)                                                                     

  *Gyponana* sp. (Cicadellidae)                 1                                 1

  Hemiptera, species of                         2                                 2

  Heteroptera, species of                       2                                 2

  Homoptera, species of                         9                     1           10

  *Hypothenemus* sp. (Scolytidae)   1           1                                 2

  Insecta, species of               1           2                                 3

  *Lagocheirus* sp. (Cerambycidae)                                    1           1

  Lepidoptera, species of                       3                     1           4

  *Liriomyza* sp. (Agromyzidae)                 1                                 1

  *Maruca vitrata* (Fabricius)      1                                             1
  (Crambidae)                                                                     

  Membracidae, species of           1           2                                 3
  (Membracidae)                                                                   

  *Microsphaeropsis* sp.                                              1           1

  Miridae, species of (Miridae)     1           9                     2           12

  Noctuidae, species of (Noctuidae)             7                                 7

  *Odontaleyrodes* sp.              1                                             1
  (Aleyrodidae)                                                                   

  *Orchamoplatus mammaeferus*                   3                                 3
  (Aleyrodidae)                                                                   

  *Parlatoria crypta* Mckenzie      1                                             1
  (Diaspididae)                                                                   

  *Pealius misrae* Singh                        6                                 6
  (Aleyrodidae)                                                                   

  Pentatomidae, species of                      2                                 2
  (Pentatomidae)                                                                  

  *Phenacoccus parvus* Morrison     1                                             1
  (Pseudococcidae)                                                                

  *Phomopsis* sp.                                                     1           1

  *Phyllosticta* sp.                            1                                 1

  Pieridae, species of (Pieridae)               27                                27

  *Planococcus minor* (Maskell)     1                                             1
  (Pseudococcidae)                                                                

  *Platynota* sp. (Tortricidae)                 1                                 1

  *Protaetia fusca* (Herbst)                    1                                 1
  (Scarabaeidae)                                                                  

  *Pseudaonidia* sp. (Diaspididae)  1                                             1

  Pseudococcidae, species of        5           7          1                      13
  (Pseudococcidae)                                                                

  *Pseudococcus* sp.                4           1                                 5
  (Pseudococcidae)                                                                

  Psychidae, species of (Psychidae)             1                                 1

  Psyllidae, species of (Psyllidae)             1                                 1

  Pyralidae, species of (Pyralidae) 1           3                     1           5

  *Pyrausta* sp. (Pyralidae)        1                                             1

  Pyraustinae, species of           25          4          1          3           33
  (Crambidae)                                                                     

  *Spodoptera* sp. (Noctuidae)                  1                                 1

  *Stephanitis* sp. (Tingidae)                  1                                 1

  Sybra alternans (Wiedemann)                   2                                 2
  (Cerambycidae)                                                                  

  Tephritidae, species of           1                                             1
  (Tephritidae)                                                                   

  *Tetraleurodes* sp. (Aleyrodidae)             1                                 1

  *Tetranychus* sp. (Tetranychidae)             1                                 1

  Tettigoniidae, species of                                           1           1
  (Tettigoniidae)                                                                 

  Thripidae, species of (Thripidae) 5           6          1                      12

  *Thrips sumatrensis* Priesner     2                                             2
  (Thripidae)                                                                     

  Tineidae, species of (Tineidae)   2                                 1           3

  Tortricidae, species of                       1                                 1
  (Tortricidae)                                                                   

  *Trachylepidia* sp. (Pyralidae)   1                                             1

  *Veronicella* sp.                 1                                             1
  (Veronicellidae)                                                                

  *Xestocephalus* sp.                           1                                 1
  (Cicadellidae)                                                                  

  *Xiphidiopsis lita* Hebard                    1                                 1
  (Tettigoniidae)                                                                 

  ** Total**                        **88**      **925**    **24**     **22**      **1059**
  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc145641749 .anchor}**2.4 Pest
Categorization---Identification of pests associated with *Moringa
oleifera* in Hawaii**

In this risk assessment, Table 3 reports the pests associated with
*Moringa* if, and only if, populations of that pest are also reported in
Hawaii. Interception records are included, with the identification
mostly at the genus level. This table should not be interpreted to infer
that all pests known to affect *Moringa* species are listed. The
following table only presents information about a pest's presence, U.S.
quarantine status, and its likelihood to follow the pathway into the
United States. From this table, quarantine pests likely to follow the
pathway are selected for further analysis.

**Table 3: Summary of pests associated with *Moringa* species in
Hawaii.**

+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **Organism** | **Dis   | *   | *    | **Fo | **     | **R         |
|              | tributi | *Pl | *Qua | llow | Host** | eferences** |
|              | on^1^** | ant | ran- | P    |        |             |
|              |         | Par | tine | athw |        |             |
|              |         | t(s | Pe   | ay** |        |             |
|              |         | )** | st** |      |        |             |
+==============+=========+=====+======+======+========+=============+
| **           |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| ARTHROPODA** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **ACARI**    |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **Tet        |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| ranychidae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Tetranychus | HI, US  | L   | No   | Yes  | *M.    | Bolland,    |
| neo          |         | eav |      |      | ole    | *et al.,*   |
| caledonicus* |         | es, |      |      | ifera* | 1998; Singh |
| André        |         | Fr  |      |      |        | *et al*.,   |
|              |         | uit |      |      |        | 1983        |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **           |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| COLEOPTERA** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **Ce         |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| rambycidae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Coptops     | HI      | St  | Yes  | No   | *M.    | Butani &    |
| aedifactor*  |         | ems |      |      | ole    | Verma,      |
| Fabricius    |         |     |      |      | ifera* | 1981; HTAC, |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | 2005; Nair, |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | 1975        |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *            | HI, US  | St  | Yes  | No   | *M.    | Arnett,     |
| Lagocheirus* |         | ems |      |      | ole    | 2000; HTAC, |
| sp.^2^       |         |     |      |      | ifera* | 2005; PIN   |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | 309, 2005   |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Sybra       | HI      | Ste | Yes  | N    | *M.    | Chen, *et   |
| alternans*   |         | ms, |      | o^3^ | olei   | al.,* 2000; |
| (Wiedemann)  |         | Lea |      |      | fera*, | HTAC, 2005; |
|              |         | ves |      |      |        | Knowledge   |
|              |         |     |      |      | *Mo    | Master,     |
|              |         |     |      |      | ringa* | 2005; PIN   |
|              |         |     |      |      | sp.    | 309, 2005   |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **Sc         |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| arabaeidae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Adoretus    | HI      | L   | Yes  | N    | *M.    | CABI, 2004; |
| sinicus*     |         | eav |      | o^4^ | olei   | Gressitt,   |
| Burmeister   |         | es, |      |      | fera*, | 1954; HTAC, |
|              |         | Roo |      |      |        | 2005; PIN   |
|              |         | ts, |      |      | *Mo    | 309, 2005;  |
|              |         | St  |      |      | ringa* | Stanaway,   |
|              |         | ems |      |      | sp.    | *et al.,*   |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | 2001; USDA, |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | 1992        |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Protaetia   | HI      | Flo | Yes  | No   | *M.    | CABI, 2004; |
| fusca*       |         | wer |      |      | ole    | Gressitt,   |
| (Herbst)     |         |     |      |      | ifera* | 1954; HTAC, |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | 2005; PIN   |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | 309, 2005;  |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | USDA, 1992  |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **           |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| Scolytidae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *            | HI, US  | Roo | No   | Yes  | *M.    | Wood, 1982  |
| Hypothenemus |         | ts, |      |      | ole    |             |
| eruditus*    |         | Ste |      |      | ifera* |             |
|              |         | ms, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | L   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | eav |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | es, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | Fru |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | it, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | &   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | Se  |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | eds |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *H           | HI, US  | Fl  | Yes  | Yes  | *M.    | Arnett Jr., |
| ypothenemus* |         | owe |      |      | ole    | *et al*.,   |
| sp.^2^       |         | rs, |      |      | ifera* | 2002; HTAC, |
|              |         | L   |      |      |        | 2005; PIN   |
|              |         | eav |      |      |        | 309, 2005   |
|              |         | es, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | P   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | ods |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **DIPTERA**  |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **A          |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| gromyzidae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Liriomyza   | HI, US  | Lea | No   | No   | *Mo    | CABI, 2005; |
| sativa*      |         | ves |      |      | ringa* | Spencer,    |
| Blanchard    |         |     |      |      | sp.    | 1973        |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Liriomyza*  | HI, US  | Lea | Yes  | NO   | *M.    | CABI, 2005; |
| sp.^2^       |         | ves |      |      | ole    | HTAC, 2005; |
|              |         |     |      |      | ifera* | PIN 309,    |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | 2005        |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **T          |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| ephritidae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| Tephritidae  | HI      | P   | Yes  | Ye   |        | PIN 309,    |
| species      |         | ods |      | s^5^ |        | 2005        |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *            |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| *HEMIPTERA** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **A          |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| leyrodidae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Aleurodicus | HI, US  | L   | Yes  | Yes  | *M.    | CABI, 2004; |
| dispersus*   | (FL)    | eav |      |      | olei   | HTAC, 2005; |
| Russell      |         | es, |      |      | fera*, | Lambkin,    |
|              |         | P   |      |      | *Mo    | 1999;       |
|              |         | ods |      |      | ringa* | Perdew,     |
|              |         |     |      |      | sp.    | 2005; PIN   |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | 309, 2005   |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *            | HI, US  | L   | Yes  | Yes  | *M.    | CABI, 2005; |
| Aleurodicus* | (FL)    | eav |      |      | olei   | PIN 309,    |
| sp. ^2^      |         | es, |      |      | fera*, | 2005        |
|              |         | P   |      |      | *Mo    |             |
|              |         | ods |      |      | ringa* |             |
|              |         | ^8^ |      |      | sp.    |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Bemisia     | HI, US  | Fl  | No   | No   | *M.    | CABI, 2005; |
| tabaci*      |         | owe |      |      | ole    | Mau &       |
| Gennadius    |         | rs, |      |      | ifera* | Kessing,    |
|              |         | Lea |      |      |        | 1992; Mound |
|              |         | ves |      |      |        | & Halsey    |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | 1978        |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *O           | HI      | Lea | Yes  | No   | *Mo    | HTAC, 2005; |
| rchamoplatus |         | ves |      |      | ringa* | PIN 309,    |
| mammaeferus* |         |     |      |      | sp.    | 2005        |
| (Quaintance  |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| & Baker)     |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *            |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| *Aphididae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Aphis       | HI, US  | L   | No   | No   | *M.    | CABI, 2004; |
| craccivora*  |         | eav |      |      | olei   | Murthy &    |
| Koch         |         | es, |      |      | fera*, | Regupathy,  |
|              |         | Flo |      |      | *Mo    | 1992;       |
|              |         | wer |      |      | ringa* | Perdew,     |
|              |         | b   |      |      | sp.    | 2005;       |
|              |         | uds |      |      |        | Ra          |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | machandran, |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | et al.,     |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | 1980        |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **Ci         |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| cadellidae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Gyponana*   | HI      | Lea | Yes  | No   | *Mo    | PIN 309,    |
| sp.^2^       |         | ves |      |      | ringa* | 2005        |
|              |         |     |      |      | sp.    |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **Coccidae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Coccus      | HI, US  | L   | No   | Yes  | *M.    | Murray,     |
| hesperidum*  |         | eav |      |      | ole    | 1976;       |
| L.           |         | es, |      |      | ifera* | ScaleNet,   |
|              |         | St  |      |      |        | 2005        |
|              |         | ems |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Coccus      | HI, US  | Ste | \[   | Yes  | *Mo    | CABI, 2005; |
| viridis*     | (FL)    | ms, | Yes\ |      | ringa* | PIN 309,    |
| (Green)      |         | L   | ]^9^ |      | sp.    | 2005        |
|              |         | eav |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | es, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | &   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | P   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | ods |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **D          |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| iaspididae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Aonidiella  | HI, US  | L   | Yes  | Yes  | *M.    | Ben-Dov and |
| inornata*    | (TX)    | eav |      |      | ole    | German,     |
| McKenzie     |         | es, |      |      | ifera* | 2003;       |
|              |         | Ste |      |      |        | Gressitt,   |
|              |         | ms, |      |      |        | 1954; PIN   |
|              |         | P   |      |      |        | 309, 2005   |
|              |         | ods |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *            | HI, US  | L   | No   | Yes  | *M.    | CABI, 2004; |
| Hemiberlesia |         | eav |      |      | ole    | ScaleNet,   |
| lataniae*    |         | es, |      |      | ifera* | 2005        |
| (Signoret)   |         | Ste |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | ms, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | P   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | ods |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Howardia    | HI, US  | B   | No   | No   | *M.    | ScaleNet,   |
| biclavis*    |         | ark |      |      | ole    | 2005        |
| (Comstock)   |         | &   |      |      | ifera* |             |
|              |         | St  |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | ems |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Pinnaspis   | HI, US  | L   | No   | Yes  | *M.    | CABI, 2004; |
| strachani*   | (CA,    | eav |      |      | ole    | ScaleNet,   |
| (Cooley)     | FL)     | es, |      |      | ifera* | 2005        |
|              |         | Ste |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | ms, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | P   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | ods |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **Pseu       |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| dococcidae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *            | HI, US  | L   | Yes  | Yes  | *M.    | PIN 309,    |
| Dysmicoccus* |         | eav |      |      | ole    | 2005;       |
| sp.^2^       |         | es, |      |      | ifera* |             |
|              |         | Po  |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | ds, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | St  |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | ems |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Phenacoccus | HI, US  | Fr  | Yes  | No   | *Mo    | HTAC, 2005; |
| parvus*      | (FL)    | uit |      | ^11^ | ringa* | PIN 309,    |
| Morrison     |         |     |      |      | sp.    | 2005;       |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | ScaleNet,   |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | 2005        |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *            | HI      | Roo | Yes  | Yes  | *M.    | Avidov &    |
| Pseudococcus |         | ts, |      |      | ole    | Harpaz      |
| cryptus*     |         | S   |      |      | ifera* | 1969;       |
| Hempel       |         | hoo |      |      |        | ScaleNet,   |
|              |         | ts, |      |      |        | 2005;       |
|              |         | L   |      |      |        | Williams &  |
|              |         | eav |      |      |        | Watson,     |
|              |         | es, |      |      |        | 1988        |
|              |         | &   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | Fr  |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | uit |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *            | HI, US  | L   | No   | Yes  | *M.    | CABI, 2004; |
| Pseudococcus | (FL,    | eav |      |      | ole    | ScaleNet,   |
| jac          | TX)     | es, |      |      | ifera* | 2005        |
| kbeardsleyi* |         | P   |      |      |        |             |
| Gimpel &     |         | ods |      |      |        |             |
| Miller       |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *P           | HI, US  | Lea | Yes  | Yes  | *Mo    | PIN 309,    |
| seudococcus* |         | ves |      |      | ringa* | 2005;       |
| sp.^2^       |         | &   |      |      | sp.    | ScaleNet,   |
| Westwood     |         | P   |      |      |        | 2005        |
|              |         | ods |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **L          |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| EPIDOPTERA** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *            |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| *Noctuidae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *            | HI      | L   | Yes  | N    | *M.    | CABI, 2005; |
| Chrysodeixis |         | eav |      | o^6^ | olei   | HTAC, 2005; |
| eriosoma*    |         | es, |      |      | fera*, | PIN 309,    |
| (Doubleday)  |         | P   |      |      |        | 2005        |
|              |         | ods |      |      | *Mo    |             |
|              |         |     |      |      | ringa* |             |
|              |         |     |      |      | sp.    |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Spodoptera  | HI      | Roo | Yes  | No   | *M.    | CABI, 2005; |
| litura*      |         | ts, |      |      | ole    | HTAC, 2005; |
| (Fabricius)  |         | T   |      |      | ifera* | NHM, 2005   |
|              |         | ube |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | rs, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | &   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | Lea |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | ves |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Spodoptera* | HI, US  | L   | Yes  | N    | *M.    | HTAC, 2005; |
| sp.^2^       |         | eav |      | o^6^ | ole    | PIN 309,    |
|              |         | es, |      |      | ifera* | 2005;       |
|              |         | P   |      |      |        | Zhang, 1994 |
|              |         | ods |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *            |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| *Pyralidae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Ephestia    | HI, US  | Roo | No   | Yes  | *M.    | CABI, 2005; |
| kuehniella*  |         | ts, |      |      | ole    | HTAC, 2005; |
| Zeller       |         | L   |      |      | ifera* | NHM, 2005   |
|              |         | eav |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | es, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | F   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | low |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | er, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | Fru |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | it, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | &   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | S   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | eed |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Maruca      | HI      | Fr  | Yes  | No   | *M.    | CABI, 2005; |
| vitrata*     |         | uit |      | ^12^ | ole    | Machuka,    |
| Fabricius    |         | &   |      |      | ifera* | *et al*.,   |
|              |         | Se  |      |      |        | 1999; PIN   |
|              |         | eds |      |      |        | 309, 2005   |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **T          |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| ortricidae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Amorbia*    | HI, US  | P   | Yes  | Yes  | *M.    | Arnett,     |
| sp.^2^       |         | od, |      |      | ole    | Jr., 2000;  |
|              |         | S   |      |      | ifera* | HTAC, 2005; |
|              |         | tem |      |      |        | Mau &       |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | Kessing,    |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | 1992a; PIN  |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | 309, 2005   |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Platynota*  | HI, US  | Lea | Yes  | No   | *Mo    | Baker, *et  |
| sp.^2^       |         | ves |      | ^10^ | ringa* | al*., 2005; |
|              |         | &   |      |      | sp.    | PIN 309,    |
|              |         | Fr  |      |      |        | 2005;       |
|              |         | uit |      |      |        | Pfeiffer,   |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | 2005        |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **           |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| ORTHOPTERA** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **Ci         |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| cadellidae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Drae        | HI, US  | Lea | Yes  | No   | *M.    | Arnett,     |
| culacephala* |         | ves |      |      | ole    | Jr., 2000;  |
| sp.^2^       |         |     |      |      | ifera* | PIN 309,    |
|              |         |     |      |      |        | 2005        |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **Tet        |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| tigoniidae** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *            | HI      | Lea | Yes  | N    | *M.    | HTAC, 2005; |
| Xiphidiopsis |         | ves |      | o^6^ | ole    | PIN 309,    |
| lita* Hebard |         |     |      |      | ifera* | 2005        |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **MOLLUSCA** |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Achatina    | HI      | L   | Yes  | N    | *Mo    | CABI, 2004; |
| fulica*      |         | eav |      | o^6^ | ringa* | Jav, 2004   |
| Bowdich      |         | es, |      |      | sp.    |             |
|              |         | Po  |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | ds, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | Roo |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | ts, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | St  |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | ems |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| **FUNGI**^7^ |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Bo          | HI, US  | Ste | No   | Yes  | *M.    | Farr, *et   |
| tryodiplodia |         | ms, |      |      | ole    | al*., n.d.  |
| theobromae*  |         | L   |      |      | ifera* |             |
| Pat.         |         | eav |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | es, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | Fr  |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | uit |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *            | HI, US  | Wo  | No   | Yes  | *M.    | Farr, *et   |
| Cladosporium |         | od, |      |      | ole    | al*., n.d.  |
| herbarum*    |         | Ste |      |      | ifera* |             |
| (Pers.) Link |         | ms, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | L   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | eav |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | es, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | &   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | Fr  |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | uit |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Drechslera  | HI, US  | Lea | No   | Yes  | *M.    | Farr, *et   |
| hawaiiensis* | (FL)    | ves |      |      | ole    | al*., n.d.; |
| M.B. Ellis   |         | &   |      |      | ifera* | Kshirsagar  |
| Syn:         |         | Fr  |      |      |        | & Souza     |
| *Bipolaris   |         | uit |      |      |        | 1989;       |
| hawaiiensis* |         |     |      |      |        |             |
|              |         |     |      |      |        |             |
| []{.mark}    |         |     |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Lecanidion  | HI, US  | Ba  | No   | No   | *M.    | Farr, *et   |
| atratum*     |         | rk, |      |      | ole    | al*., n.d.  |
| (Hedw.)      |         | St  |      |      | ifera* |             |
|              |         | em, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | &   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | W   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | ood |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Leveillula  | HI, US  | Ste | No   | Yes  | *M.    | CABI, 2005; |
| taurica*     |         | ms, |      |      | ole    | ECOPORT,    |
| (Lev.) G.    |         | L   |      |      | ifera* | 2006        |
| Arnaud       |         | eav |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | es, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | Fl  |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | owe |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | rs, |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | Fr  |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | uit |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+
| *Polyporus   | HI, US  | D   | No   | No   | *M.    | ECOPORT,    |
| gilvus*      |         | ead |      |      | ole    | 2006, Farr, |
| (S           |         | W   |      |      | ifera* | *et al*.,   |
| chwein.:Fr.) |         | ood |      |      |        | n.d.        |
| Pat.         |         | &   |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | St  |      |      |        |             |
|              |         | ems |      |      |        |             |
+--------------+---------+-----+------+------+--------+-------------+

^1^CA = California; FL = Florida; HI = Hawaii; TX = Texas; U.S. = United
States

^2^Quarantine pests identified only to the order, family or generic
levels are not further analyzed in this risk assessment (*See* Section
2.5 discussion).

^3^*Sybra alternans* is a long-horned beetle that is a wood-boring pest
of trees as a larva, and is also a secondary pest of many hosts
(Knowledge Master, 2005).

^4^*Adoretus sinicus* is a scarab beetle that feeds on the roots of many
hosts as a larva, and, as an adult, feeds on leaves (Stanaway *et al.,*
2001). Adults are nocturnal, relatively large, and conspicuous (Mau &
Kessing, 1991); thus, they would not be expected to follow the pathway
on leaves. Since 1985, they have been intercepted 71 times on the leaves
and stems of *Moringa* sp., in passenger baggage and permit cargo (PIN
309, 2005). Clearly, this species can follow the pathway on leaves.
Because this species is strongly attracted to lights (Mau & Kessing,
1991), it is probably a hitchhiker and not a pest. It is unlikely that
it will follow the pathway on *Moringa* fruit.

^5^One specimen of Tephritidae sp. was intercepted on the fruit of
*Moringa* sp. from Hawaii (PIN 309, 2005). *Bactrocera cucurbitae*, *B.
dorsalis*, and *Ceratitis capitata* are common species of Tephritidae
present in Hawaii (CABI, 2004; HTAC, 2005). Data were presented from
surveys of *Moringa oleifera* in southeast Asia and did not include any
findings of fruit flies (Allwood *et al.*, 1999); however, the fruit
flies were further analyzed.

^6^Large bodied, surface feeding pest that would not likely follow the
pathway.

^7^"Very little information is known about pathogens on this host. A
survey of the world literature in the electronic databases from 1969 to
date did not list plant pathogens on this host from this area" (USDA,
1992). "This tree is not affected by any serious disease in India either
in nurseries or in plantations" (ICFRE, 1994). A compound found in the
flowers and roots of the moringa tree, pterygospermin, has powerful
antibiotic and fungicidal effects (Das *et al.,* 1957).

^8^Due to limited information, association with host plant organs was
based on other members of the genus.

^9^Given its limited distribution, the United States considers this a
quarantine pest.

^10^*Platynota* spp. are generally leaf rolling caterpillars (Baker *et
al*., 2005) that may damage and feed on fruit when leaves become stuck
to fruit (Pfeiffer, 2005); thus, they are unlikely to follow the
pathway.

^11^*Phenacoccus parvus* was intercepted once by U.S. port inspectors on
a Moringa sp. fruit from the Phillipines coming through on personal
baggage (PIN 309, 2005). *Phenacoccus parvus* has a broad host range,
but literature does not indicate that *Moringa* is a host (Scalenet,
2005; Williams & Watson, 1988). The single interception and lack of
association with *Moringa* suggest that *P*. *parvus* was a probably a
biological contaminant on *Moringa,* and not a true pest; therefore, it
was considered unlikely to follow the pathway.

^12^*Maruca vitrata* is almost exclusively a pest of legumes (CABI,
2005), unrelated to plants in the Moringaceae family (Order Fabales vs.
Order Caparales) (Mabberley, 1987). Only one interception record
identifies Moringa as a host of *Maruca vitrata* (PIN 309, 2005). This
interception record may be a mistake or an unusually rare event;
therefore, it is unlikely that *M. vitrata* will regularly follow the
pathway on fresh Moringa fruit from Hawaii. If port inspectors intercept
additional individuals on Moringa fruit, then a risk analysis should be
required.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc145641750 .anchor}**2.5 Quarantine Pests that are
Likely to Follow the Pathway**

The quarantine pests of *Moringa oleifera,* that are reasonably expected
to follow the pathway on fruit, are further analyzed in this risk
assessment (Table 4). Other organisms included on the pest list (Table
3) were not chosen for further scrutiny because of one or more of the
following reasons: they are well-established and widespread in the
United States; they are associated mainly with plant parts other than
the commodity; they may be associated with the commodity, but it was not
considered reasonable to expect these pests to remain with the commodity
during processing; or they have been intercepted on rare occasions as
biological contaminants by APHIS-PPQ Officers during commodity
inspections and would not be expected to be common to commercial
shipments. Although organisms listed in Table 3 (at the genus level) are
quarantine pests, they were not considered for further analysis because
their identity was not clearly defined (IPPC, 2004).

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Table 4. Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway and Selected |
| for Further Analysis**                                                |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| *Aleurodicus dispersus* Russell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)              |
|                                                                       |
| *Aonidiella inornata* (McKenzie) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)             |
|                                                                       |
| *Bactrocera cucurbitae* (Coquillett) (Diptera: Tephritidae)           |
|                                                                       |
| *Bactrocera dorsalis* (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae)                 |
|                                                                       |
| *Ceratitis capitata* (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae)               |
|                                                                       |
| *Coccus viridis* (Green) (Hemiptera: Coccidae)                        |
|                                                                       |
| *Pseudococcus cryptus* Hempel (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)             |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc145641751 .anchor}**2.6** **Consequences of
Introduction---Economic/Environmental Importance**

Potential Consequences of Introduction are rated using five Risk
Elements: Climate-Host Interaction, Host Range, Dispersal Potential,
Economic Impact, and Environmental Impact. These elements reflect the
biology, host ranges, and climatic/geographic distributions of the
pests. For each Risk Element, pests are assigned a rating of Low (1
point), Medium (2 points), or High (3 points) (USDA, 2002). A Cumulative
Risk Rating is then calculated by summing all Risk Element values. Table
5 summarizes the values for the Consequences of Introduction for each
pest.

+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Aleurodicus dispersus* | **Risk |
| Russell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)**                          | V      |
|                                                             | alue** |
+=============================================================+========+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction\                | Medium |
| ***Aleurodicus dispersus* is native to tropical Americas.   |        |
| It occurs in tropical and subtropical Central and South     | \(2\)  |
| America, the Caribbean, Africa, Asia, and Oceania           |        |
| (Akinlosotu *et al*., 1993). Its distribution corresponds   |        |
| to U.S. Hardiness Zones 8-11 (USDA ARS, 1990). One or more  |        |
| of its potential hosts occur in these Zones (USDA NRCS,     |        |
| 2006).                                                      |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range\                              | High   |
| ***Aleurodicus dispersus* is a highly polyphagous species.  |        |
| Primary host species include Arecaceae (*Cocos nucifera*),  | \(3\)  |
| Rutaceae (*Citrus* spp.), Papilionoideae (*Glycine max*),   |        |
| Euphorbiaceae (*Manihot esculenta*), Musaceae (*Musa x      |        |
| paradisiacal*), Lauraceae (*Persea Americana*), Rosaceae    |        |
| (*Prunus* spp.), and Myrtaceae (*Psidium guajava*) (CABI,   |        |
| 2003). Other host species include Moraceae (*Artocarpus*    |        |
| spp., *Ficus* spp., *Morus* spp.), Fabaceae (*Acacia* spp., |        |
| *Arachis hypogaea*, *Pongamia pinnata*, *Bauhinia* spp.,    |        |
| *Cassia* spp., *Phaseolus* spp., *Vigna* spp.),             |        |
| Nyctaginaceae (*Bougainvillea* spp.), Asteraceae            |        |
| (*Chrysanthemum* spp., *Dahlia pinnata*, *Lactuca sativa*), |        |
| Lauraceae (*Cinnamomum camphora*), Cucurbitaceae (*Cucumis  |        |
| melo*, *Luffa aegyptiaca*, *Cucumis* spp.), Lamiaceae       |        |
| (*Coleus* spp., *Salvia* spp.), Euphorbiaceae (*Euphorbia   |        |
| pulcherrima*, *Acalypha* spp., *Euphorbia* spp., *Ricinus   |        |
| communis*), Myrtaceae (*Eugenia* spp.), Araliaceae          |        |
| (*Hedera* spp.), Oleaceae (*Jasminum* spp., *Osmanthus      |        |
| fragrans*), Convolvulaceae (*Ipomoea batatas*, *Ipomoea*    |        |
| spp.), Araceae (*Monstera deliciosa*, *Colocasia            |        |
| esculenta*), Ericaceae (*Rhododendron* spp.), Brassicaceae  |        |
| (*Rorippa indica*), Anacardiaceae (*Schinus                 |        |
| terebinthifolius*, *Mangifera indica*), Solanaceae          |        |
| (*Solanum melongena*, *Cestrum* spp., *Capsicum* spp.,      |        |
| *Lycopersicon esculentum*, *Physalis* spp., *Solanum*       |        |
| spp.), Poaceae (*Sorghum bicolor*), Strelitziaceae          |        |
| (*Strelitzia* spp.), Zingiberaceae (*Zingiber zerumbet*),   |        |
| Agavaceae (*Agave americana*), Amaranthaceae (*Amaranthus*  |        |
| spp.), Annonaceae (*Annona squamosa*), Arecaceae (*Areca    |        |
| catechu*, *Chrysalidocarpus lutescens*), Begoniaceae        |        |
| (*Begonia* spp.), Ulmaceae (*Celtis* spp.), Caricaceae      |        |
| (*Carica papaya*), Cannaceae (*Cannas* pp.), Rubiaceae      |        |
| (*Coffea* spp.), Malvaceae (*Hibiscus* spp.), Proteaceae    |        |
| (*Macadamia* spp.), Sapotaceae (*Manilkara zapota*),        |        |
| Musaceae (*Musa* spp.), Apocynaceae (*Plumeria* spp.),      |        |
| Rosaceae (*Rosa* spp., *Rubus* spp.), and Combretaceae      |        |
| (*Terminalia catappa*) (CABI, 2004; Martin-Kessing & Mau,   |        |
| 1993; EPPO, 2004).                                          |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential\                     | Medium |
| **The female lays her eggs within the day of emergence, and |        |
| continues to lay eggs throughout her lifetime               | \(2\)  |
| (Martin-Kessing & Mau, 1993). Each female lays 14-26 eggs   |        |
| in a loose spiral on the underside of leaves (CABI, 2004).  |        |
| The eggs hatch in 7-11 days (Martin-Kessing & Mau, 1993;    |        |
| CABI, 2004). There are four larval stages (Martin-Kessing & |        |
| Mau, 1993). The first instar lasts for 6-7 days; the second |        |
| instar, 4 days; the third instar, 5-13 days; and the fourth |        |
| (pupae), 5-16 days (CABI, 2004; Martin-Kessing & Mau,       |        |
| 1993). Adults live for about two weeks (CABI, 2004); thus,  |        |
| there are several generations per year.\                    |        |
| \                                                           |        |
| During the immature stages, the first instar is the only    |        |
| stage capable of active movement (Martin-Kessing & Mau,     |        |
| 1993). The adult disperses beyond the leaf by flying, and   |        |
| is most active in the morning hours (Martin-Kessing & Mau,  |        |
| 1993). Long distance dissemination is via infested plants   |        |
| and fruits (EPPO, 2004).                                    |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact\                         | High   |
| ***Aleurodicus dispersus* is a serious pest of tropical and |        |
| subtropical crops (EPPO, 2004). This whitefly has a high    | \(3\)  |
| potential to have major economic impact due to its          |        |
| polyphagous nature. *Aleurodicus dispersus* causes several  |        |
| types of economic damage: direct feeding damage to leaves;  |        |
| excreted honeydew encourages the development of sooty       |        |
| molds; and it vectors plant disease (CABI, 2004;            |        |
| Martin-Kessing & Mau, 1993). Whiteflies cause over 40       |        |
| worldwide plant diseases of vegetables and crops            |        |
| (Martin-Kessing & Mau, 1993). *Aleurodicus dispersus* is a  |        |
| vector of the lethal yellowing virus of coconut palms in    |        |
| Florida (Akinolosotu *et al*., 1993). Depending on the      |        |
| crop, season, and prevalence, *A. dispersus* is capable of  |        |
| damaging from 20 to 100 percent of crops (Martin-Kessing &  |        |
| Mau, 1993). In Florida, it feeds on avocados, citrus,       |        |
| guavas, and palms (CABI, 2004).                             |        |
|                                                             |        |
| *Aleurodicus dispersus* is a quarantine pest for French     |        |
| Polynesia, Korea, New Zealand, and eastern and southern     |        |
| Africa (EPPO, 2004; PRF, 2004).                             |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact\                    | High   |
| **In addition to the Threatened and Endangered species, *A. |        |
| dispersus* may already be affecting south Florida and       | \(3\)  |
| Puerto Rico. If it established outside of Florida, it could |        |
| affect Threatened and Endangered, including *Manihot        |        |
| walkerae* (Endangered species in TX), *Rorippa gambellii*   |        |
| (Endangered species in CA), *Solanum drymophilum*           |        |
| (Endangered species in PR), *Agave arizonica* (Endangered   |        |
| species in AZ), and *Amaranthus pumilus* (Threatened        |        |
| species in DE, MA, MD, NC, NJ, NY, RI, SC, VA). Further     |        |
| spread of *A. dispersus* in the continental United States   |        |
| would stimulate chemical or biological control programs.    |        |
| Successful biological control have been established in      |        |
| Hawaii (CABI, 2004; Martin-Kessing & Mau, 1993).            |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+

+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Aonidiella inornata*       | **Risk |
| McKenzie (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)**                         | V      |
|                                                             | alue** |
+=============================================================+========+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction\                | Medium |
| ***Aonidiella inornata* occurs in Hawaii and Texas          |        |
| (ScaleNet, 2005). Distribution also includes Australia,     | \(2\)  |
| Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Puerto Rico, India,            |        |
| Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, China, and Japan (ScaleNet,  |        |
| 2005). Its distribution corresponds to U.S. Hardiness Zones |        |
| 9-11 (USDA ARS, 1990). One or more of its potential hosts   |        |
| occurs in these Zones (USDA NRCS, 2006).                    |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range\                              | High\  |
| **The papaya red scale, *A. inornata*, is a polyphagous     | (3)    |
| species. Host species include Agavaceae (*Cordyline         |        |
| terminalis*), Anacardiaceae (*Campnosperma brevipetiolata,  |        |
| Mangifera indica*), Apocynaceae (*Allemanda, Nerium         |        |
| oleander, Ochrosia, Plumeria acuminate, P. rubra*),         |        |
| Barringtoniaceae (*Barringtonia*), Bischofiaceae            |        |
| (*Bischofia javanica*), Caricaceae (*Carica papaya*),       |        |
| Casuarinaceae (*Casuarina*), Cycadaceae (*Cycas*),          |        |
| Euphorbiaceae (*Annesijoa, Euphorbia*), Hippocrateaceae     |        |
| (*Salacea*), Leguminosae (*Cassia*), Moraceae (*Artocarpus  |        |
| alticis*), Musaceae (*Musa*), Myrtaceae (*Melaleuca*),      |        |
| Oleaceae (*Jasminum sambac*), Palmae (*Areca catechu, Cocos |        |
| nucifera, Nipa fruitcans*), Pandanaceae (*Pandanus          |        |
| odoratissimus*), Piperaceae (*Piper, Piper aduncum, P.      |        |
| betle, P. methysticum*), Polygonaceae (*Polygonum*),        |        |
| Potaliaceae (*Fagraea cambageana*), Rhizophoraceae          |        |
| (*Rhizophora mucronata*), Rubiaceae (*Hedyotis ocutangulus, |        |
| Platanocephalus morindaefolius*), Rutaceae (*Astronia,      |        |
| Citrus, Citrus paradise, C. reticulata*), Vitaceae (*Vitis  |        |
| vinifera*), and Zingiberaceae (*Elettaria cardamomum*)      |        |
| (ScaleNet, 2005).                                           |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential\                     | Medium |
| **Little information is available on the biology of *A.     |        |
| inornata.* Other species within the same genus have an      | \(2\)  |
| average of three to four generations per year (CABI, 2004). |        |
| On average, the life-cycle of scales within the genus       |        |
| *Aonidiella* is about 65 days (CABI, 2004). During the      |        |
| immature stages, the first instar, or crawler, is the only  |        |
| stage capable of active movement (CABI, 2004). Long         |        |
| distance dissemination is via wind-blown crawlers and       |        |
| animals; adults are readily moved on infested plants and    |        |
| fruits (CABI, 2004).                                        |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact\                         | High   |
| ***Aonidiella inornata* is pest of papaya in Taiwan, and of |        |
| mango in the Philippines and Puerto Rico (ScaleNet, 2005).  | \(3\)  |
| Because this scale is polyphagous, and it can infest        |        |
| citrus, there is a high potential that it will cause        |        |
| economic damage. There is no scientific literature that     |        |
| describes *A. inornata* as causing serious damage to crops. |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact\                    | High   |
| ***Aonidiella inornata* has the potential to damage         |        |
| Threatened and Endangered species that are listed in Title  | \(3\)  |
| 50, Part 17, Section 12 of the United States Code of        |        |
| Federal Regulations (50 CFR §17.12), such as *Euphorbia     |        |
| telephioides* (threatened species in FL), *Piperia yadonii* |        |
| (endangered species in CA), and *Polygonum hickmanii*       |        |
| (endangered in CA) (USFWS, 2005). Because it may have a     |        |
| potentially high economic impact, it would stimulate        |        |
| chemical control.                                           |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+

+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Bactrocera cucurbitae* | **Risk |
| Coquillett (Diptera: Tephritidae)**                         | V      |
|                                                             | alue** |
+=============================================================+========+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**            | Medium |
|                                                             |        |
| *Bactrocera cucurbitae* is native to Asia and distributed   | \(2\)  |
| throughout Asia. It is also found in several African        |        |
| countries and Hawaii. Its distribution corresponds to U.S.  |        |
| Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11 (USDA ARS, 1990). One or more of |        |
| its potential hosts occurs in these Zones (USDA NRCS,       |        |
| 2006).                                                      |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                             | High   |
|                                                             |        |
| *Bactrocera cucurbitae* is a serious pest of cucurbit crops | \(3\)  |
| (CABI, 2004). Its primary host is Cucurbitaceae (*Cucumis   |        |
| melo*, *Cucurbita maxima*, *Cucurbita pepo*, *Trichosanthes |        |
| cucumerina var. anguinea*) (CABI, 2004). Other host species |        |
| include Cucurbitaceae (*Cucumis sativus*, *Benincasa        |        |
| hispida*, *Citrullus colocynthis*, *Citrullus lanatus*,     |        |
| *Cucumis auguria*, *Cucurbita moschata*, *Lagenaria         |        |
| siceraria*, *Luffa acutangula*, *Luffa aegyptiaca*,         |        |
| *Momordica balsamina*, *Momordica charantia*, *Sechium      |        |
| edule*, *Trichosanthes cucumerina*), Moraceae (*Artocarpus  |        |
| heterophyllus*, *Ficus carica*), Malvaceae (*Abelmoschus    |        |
| moschatus*), Caricaceae (*Carica papaya*), Rutaceae         |        |
| (*Citrus maxima*, *Citrus sinensis*), Rosaceae (*Cydonia    |        |
| oblonga*, *Prunus persica*), Solanaceae (*Cyphomandra       |        |
| betacea*, *Lycopersicon esculentum*), Anacardiaceae         |        |
| (*Mangifera indica*), Sapotaceae (*Manilkara zapota*),      |        |
| Passifloraceae (*Passiflora* spp., *Passiflora edulis*),    |        |
| Lauraceae (*Persea americana*), Fabaceae (*Phaseolus        |        |
| vulgaris*, *Sesbania grandiflora*, *Vigna unguiculata*),    |        |
| Myrtaceae (*Psidium guajava*, *Syzygium samarangense*), and |        |
| Rhamnaceae (*Ziziphus jujube*) (CABI, 2004).                |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                    | High   |
|                                                             |        |
| Females can lay up to 40 eggs below the fruit skin; the     | \(3\)  |
| total fecundity per female is more than 1000 eggs (CABI,    |        |
| 2004). Eggs hatch within 1-2 days; larval stages last for   |        |
| 4-17 days, depending on the thickness of fruit skin (CABI,  |        |
| 2004). Pupation takes place in the soil under the host      |        |
| plants for 7-13 days (CABI, 2004). Adults begin to mate     |        |
| after 10-12 days, and may live from 5 to 15 months (CABI,   |        |
| 2004); thus, there are multiple generations per year.       |        |
|                                                             |        |
| Many *Bactrocera* species can fly 50-100 km. *Bactrocera    |        |
| cucurbitae* can be dispersed by infected plant materials,   |        |
| such as fruits and flowers (CABI, 2004).                    |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                        | High   |
|                                                             |        |
| *Bactrocera cucurbitae* can attack cucurbit crops (CABI,    | \(3\)  |
| 2004). Up to 100 percent of unprotected crops can be        |        |
| damaged (CABI, 2004). This pest has the potential to cause  |        |
| serious losses in other economically important crops, such  |        |
| as mango, avocado, and tomato (CABI, 2004).                 |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                   | High   |
|                                                             |        |
| *Bactrocera cucurbitae* has a high potential to damage      | \(3\)  |
| Threatened and Endangered species listed in Title 50, Part  |        |
| 17, Section 12 of the United States Code of Federal         |        |
| Regulations (50 CFR §17.12). Threatened and Endangered      |        |
| species likely to be damaged include *Cucurbita             |        |
| okeechobeensis* spp. *okeechobeensis* (Endangered species   |        |
| in FL), *Prunus geniculata* (Endangered species in FL), and |        |
| *Ziziphus celaata* (Endangered species in FL) (USFWS,       |        |
| 2005). The establishment and introduction of *B.            |        |
| cucurbitae* could stimulate biological and chemical control |        |
| programs in the continental United States.                  |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+

+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Bactrocera dorsalis*       | **Risk |
| (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae)**                           | V      |
|                                                             | alue** |
+=============================================================+========+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**               | M      |
|                                                             | edium\ |
| Except for adventive populations in Guam and Hawaii, *B*.   | (2)    |
| *dorsalis* is restricted to subtropical and tropical Asia   |        |
| (White & Elson-Harris, 1992). It is estimated that this     |        |
| species could establish in the continental United States in |        |
| areas corresponding to Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11. One or   |        |
| more of its potential hosts occurs in these Zones (USDA     |        |
| NRCS, 2006).                                                |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                             | High\  |
|                                                             | (3)    |
| This species is extremely polyphagous. Recorded hosts       |        |
| include Rubiaceae (*Coffea* sp.), Moraceae (*Ficus* sp.),   |        |
| Rosaceae (*Prunus* spp.), Myrtaceae (*Eugenia uniflora*),   |        |
| Anacardiaceae (*Mangifera* spp.), Rutaceae (*Citrus* spp.), |        |
| Arecaceae (*Areca catechu*), Sapotaceae (*Chrysophyllum     |        |
| cainito*), Cucurbitaceae (*Cucumis* spp.), Sapindaceae      |        |
| (*Dimocarpus longan*), Ebenaceae (*Diospyros* *kaki*),      |        |
| Flacourtiaceae (*Flacourtia indica*), Punicaceae (*Punica   |        |
| granatum*), Rhamnaceae (*Ziziphus* spp.), Annonaceae        |        |
| (*Annona* spp.), Oxalidaceae (*Averrhoa carambola*),        |        |
| Caricaceae (*Carica papaya*), Malpighiaceae (*Malpighia*    |        |
| *glabra*), Elaeocarpaceae (*Muntingia calabura*), Lauraceae |        |
| (*Persea americana*), Combretaceae (*Terminalia catappa*),  |        |
| Musaceae (*Musa* x *paradisiaca*) (CPC, 2004);              |        |
| Passifloraceae (*Passiflora mollissima*), Juglandaceae      |        |
| (*Juglans hindsii*), Simaroubaceae (*Quassia* *simarouba*), |        |
| Solanaceae (*Solanum seaforthianum*), and Rutaceae          |        |
| (*Clausena lansium*) (White & Elson-Harris, 1992).          |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                    | High\  |
|                                                             | (3)    |
| Females deposit 3-30 eggs per host fruit; total fecundity   |        |
| per female may exceed 1000 eggs (Fletcher, 1989a). There    |        |
| are several generations per year. Adult flight is capable   |        |
| of flying distances up to 65 km (Fletcher, 1989b); the      |        |
| transport of infested fruit are the major means of movement |        |
| and dispersal to previously uninfested areas (CABI, 2004).  |        |
| Like other dacine tephritids, *B*. *dorsata* exhibits high  |        |
| reproductive and dispersal potentials.                      |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                        | High\  |
|                                                             | (3)    |
| There are three kinds of economic losses that result from   |        |
| this pest (Harris, 1989): downgrading of fruit quality,     |        |
| which is caused by oviposition "stings" that spoil the      |        |
| fruits' appearance, including those unfavorable for larval  |        |
| survival; fruit spoilage caused by larval tunneling and the |        |
| entry of organisms that cause decay; and indirect damage in |        |
| the form of lost markets resulting from the imposition of   |        |
| quarantine restrictions. In Hawaii, annual losses in major  |        |
| fruit crops caused by *B*. *dorsalis* may exceed 13         |        |
| percent, or \$3 million (Culliney, 2002).                   |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                   | High\  |
|                                                             | (3)    |
| Because of its extremely broad host range, *B*. *dorsalis*  |        |
| is a potential threat to Threatened or Endangered plants in |        |
| Title 50, Part 17, Section 12 of the United States Code of  |        |
| Federal Regulations (50 CFR §17.12), and those hosts        |        |
| occurring in the southern regions of the United States      |        |
| (*e.g*., *Prunus geniculata*, *Ziziphus* *celata*). As the  |        |
| species is a pest of numerous crops of economic             |        |
| significance in the continental United States (*e.g*.,      |        |
| apple, peach, pear, citrus), its entry and establishment    |        |
| could stimulate the initiation of chemical or biological    |        |
| control programs, as has occurred in Hawaii.                |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+

+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Ceratitis capitata*        | **Risk |
| (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae)**                        | V      |
|                                                             | alue** |
+=============================================================+========+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**               | High   |
|                                                             | (3)    |
| *Ceratitis capitata* is found in southern Europe and west   |        |
| Asia, Africa, South and Central America (CABI, 2004), and   |        |
| northern Australia (Hassan, 1977). This species has the     |        |
| capacity to tolerate colder climates better than most other |        |
| fruit fly species (Weems, 1981). It is estimated that *C*.  |        |
| *capitata* could establish in areas of the U.S.             |        |
| corresponding to Plant Hardiness Zones 8-11. One or more of |        |
| its potential hosts occurs in these Zones (USDA NRCS,       |        |
| 2006).                                                      |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                             | High   |
|                                                             | (3)    |
| This pest has been recorded from a wide variety of host     |        |
| plants in several families, including Rubiaceae (*Coffea*   |        |
| sp.), Solanaceae (*Capsicum annuum*), Rutaceae (*Citrus*    |        |
| spp.), Rosaceae (*Malus* *pumila*, *Prunus* spp.), Moraceae |        |
| (*Ficus carica*), Myrtaceae (*Psidium guajava*),            |        |
| Sterculiaceae (*Theobroma cacao*), Arecaceae (*Phoenix      |        |
| dactylifera*), and Anacardiaceae (*Mangifera* *indica*)     |        |
| (CABI, 2004). CABI (2004) list dozens of other hosts.       |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                    | High   |
|                                                             | (3)    |
| Females deposit as many as 800 eggs in a lifetime, although |        |
| 300 is the more typical number (Weems, 1981). Eggs are      |        |
| inserted into host fruit in small batches of one to 10.     |        |
| Breeding is continuous throughout the year, with several    |        |
| overlapping generations (Hassan, 1977). Adult flight (with  |        |
| a range of 20 km or more), and the transport of infested    |        |
| fruit, are the major means of movement and dispersal to     |        |
| previously uninfested areas (CABI, 2004).                   |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                        | High   |
|                                                             | (3)    |
| *Ceratitis capitata* is an important pest in Africa,        |        |
| spreading nearly worldwide to become the single most        |        |
| important pest species in its family. In Mediterranean      |        |
| countries, it is particularly damaging to citrus and peach  |        |
| crops. It may transmit fruit-rotting fungi (CABI, 2004).    |        |
| The species is of quarantine significance worldwide,        |        |
| especially in Japan and the United States. Its presence,    |        |
| even as temporary adventive populations, can lead to severe |        |
| additional constraints for the export of fruits to          |        |
| uninfested areas in other parts of the world. In this       |        |
| respect, *C. capitata* is one of the most significant       |        |
| quarantine pests for any tropical or warm temperate area in |        |
| which it is not yet established (CABI, 2004).               |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                   | High   |
|                                                             | (3)    |
| As it represents a significant threat to citrus and peach   |        |
| production, the establishment of *C. capitata* in the       |        |
| continental United States would undoubtedly trigger the     |        |
| initiation of chemical or biological control programs, as   |        |
| has occurred in California and Hawaii. This species is      |        |
| highly polyphagous and, thus, has the potential to attack   |        |
| plants listed as Threatened or Endangered (*e.g.,*          |        |
| *Opuntia* *treleasei*, *Prunus geniculata*) (50 CFR §17.12) |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+

+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Coccus viridis* (Green)    | **Risk |
| (Hemiptera: Coccidae)**                                     | V      |
|                                                             | alue** |
+=============================================================+========+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**               | Medium |
|                                                             | (2)    |
| *Coccus viridis* has a pantropical distribution, which      |        |
| includes southern Florida and Hawaii (CABI, 2005; Deckle &  |        |
| Fasulo, 2001). These areas correspond to U.S. Plant         |        |
| Hardiness Zones 9-11. Within these Zones, several of its    |        |
| hosts occur. It is estimated that *C. viridis* could        |        |
| establish in areas of the United States corresponding to    |        |
| these Zones, including southern Texas, Arizona, California  |        |
| and Puerto Rico. Survival outside of these areas would be   |        |
| limited to greenhouse or other artificial situations.       |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                             | High   |
|                                                             | (3)    |
| *Coccus viridis* has a broad host range (CABI, 2005),       |        |
| including the following genera and families: Acanthaceae    |        |
| (*Jacobinia, Odontonema, Sanchezia*)*,* Agavaceae           |        |
| (*Cordyline, Dracaena*), Amaranthaceae (*Gomphrena*)*,*     |        |
| Anacardiaceae (*Campnosperma, Dodonaea, Mangifera*)*,*      |        |
| Annonaceae (*Annona*)*,* Apocynaceae (*Alstonia, Alyxia,    |        |
| Carissa, Nerium, Ochrosia, Plumeria, Rauwolfia, Thevetia*), |        |
| Aquifoliaceae (*Ilex*)*,* Araceae (*Caladium*)*,*           |        |
| Araliaceae (*Aralia, Meryta, Polyscias, Schefflera*)*,*     |        |
| Barringtoniaceae (*Barringtonia*)*,* Bignoniaceae           |        |
| (*Tecomaria*)*,* Boraginaceae (*Cordia, Ehretia*)*,*        |        |
| Bromeliaceae (*Ananas*)*,* Celastraceae (*Maytenus*)*,*     |        |
| Combretaceae (*Terminalia*)*,* Commelinaceae                |        |
| (*Commelina*)*,* Compositae (*Arctotis, Fitchia, Gerbera,   |        |
| Pluchea, Senecio*)*,* Crassulaceae (*Bryophyllum*)*,*       |        |
| Cucurbitaceae (*Cucurbita*)*,* Dioscoreaceae                |        |
| (*Dioscorea*)*,* Euphorbiaceae (*Carissa, Codiaeum, Croton, |        |
| Manihot*)*,* Flacourtiaceae (*Doryalis*)*,* Goodeniaceae    |        |
| (*Scaevola*)*,* Guttiferae *Mammea*)*,* Hydrangaceae        |        |
| (*Hydrangea*)*,* Lauraceae (*Persea*)*,* Leguminosae        |        |
| (*Cassia, Gliricidia, Inocarpus, Tipuana*)*,* Loranthaceae  |        |
| (*Loranthus*)*,* Lythraceae (*Lagerstroemia*)*,*            |        |
| Malpighiaceae (*Hiptage*)*,* Malvaceae (*Hibiscus*)*,*      |        |
| Melastomataceae,*.* Meliaceae (*Melia*)*,* Moraceae         |        |
| (*Ficus*)*,* Myristicaceae (*Myristica*)*,* Myrsinaceae     |        |
| (*Ardisia, Moesa*)*,* Myrtaceae (*Eucalyptus, Eugenia,      |        |
| Melaleuca, Myricaria, Myrtella, Psidium*)*,* Nyctaginaceae  |        |
| (*Ceodes*)*,* Orchidaceae (*Broughtonia, Lissochilus*)*,*   |        |
| Palmae (*Areca, Cocos*)*,* Pandanaceae (*Pandanus*)*,*      |        |
| Periplocaceae (*Cryptostegia*)*,* Pittosporaceae            |        |
| (*Pittosporum*)*,* Podocarpaceae (*Podocarpus*)*,*          |        |
| Polygonaceae (*Coccoloba, Homalocladium, Muehlenbeckia,     |        |
| Polygonum*)*,* Rubiaceae (*Bobea, Borreria Canthium,        |        |
| Chioccoca, Cinchona, Coffea, Faramea, Gardenia, Genipa,     |        |
| Ixora, Morinda, Platanocephalus, Psychotria, Randia,        |        |
| Timonius*)*,* Rutaceae (*Aegle, Aeglopsis, Atalantia,       |        |
| Balsamocitrus, Boninia, Chaetospermum, Citropsis, Citrus,   |        |
| Clausena, Coffea, Feroniella, Hesperethusa, Lavanga,        |        |
| Microcitrus, Murraya, Poncirus, Triphasia*)*,* Sapindaceae  |        |
| (*Dodonaea, Euphoria, Litchi, Melicoccus*)*,* Sapotaceae    |        |
| *Achras, Chrysophyllum, Lucuma, Manilkara, Mimusops,        |        |
| Palaquium, Planchonella, Pouteria*)*,* Solanaceae           |        |
| (*Brunfelsia, Cestrum*)*,* Sterculiaceae (*Heritiera,       |        |
| Theobroma*)*,* Stilaginaceae (*Antidesma*)*,* Strychnaceae  |        |
| (*Strychnos*)*,* Theaceae (*Camellia*)*,* Umbelliferae      |        |
| (*Apium*)*,* Verbenaceae (*Callicarpa, Clerodendron,        |        |
| Lantana, Verbena*)*,*and Zingiberaceae (*Alpinia,           |        |
| Zingiber*) (ScaleNet, 2005).                                |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                    | Medium |
|                                                             | (2)    |
| *Coccus viridis* is parthenogenetic and oviparous (Deckle & |        |
| Fasulo, 2001). Females deposit up to 500 eggs, which begin  |        |
| hatching within minutes to several hours (CABI, 2005).      |        |
| There may be several generations per year (CABI, 2005). As  |        |
| with all scale insects, the crawlers, inherently do not     |        |
| move very far, often settling somewhere near their parent;  |        |
| however, crawlers can sometimes be transported by wind or   |        |
| animals, such as birds (Greathead, 1997). Because scales    |        |
| are relatively small and unnoticeable, particularly         |        |
| crawlers, they are readily transported in commercial trade. |        |
| Since 1985, *C. viridis* has been intercepted 11,099 times  |        |
| by PPQ at ports-of-entry (PIN 309 query February 13, 2006). |        |
| There is strong evidence that this species can, and has,    |        |
| quickly spread worldwide via the transport of infested      |        |
| plant materials.                                            |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                        | High   |
|                                                             | (3)    |
| Although its economic impact is usually minor, *C. viridis* |        |
| can be extremely devastating, depending on its location and |        |
| crop host (CABI, 2005). *Coccus viridis* is a pest of       |        |
| coffee, citrus and other crops in several tropical regions. |        |
| It is reported as a major pest of citrus in Bolivia         |        |
| (Ben-Dov, 1993), and of coffee in India (Krishnan, 1973).   |        |
| In Brazil, infestations of 50 scales per plant caused       |        |
| significant damage to coffee seedlings, reducing leaf area  |        |
| and plant growth rate (Silva and Parra, 1982). In India,    |        |
| *C. viridis* infestation on citrus fruit, followed by an    |        |
| overgrowth of a sooty mold, significantly lowered fruit     |        |
| quality in the following seasons when trees were            |        |
| recuperating from infestations (Haleem 1984). Based on this |        |
| evidence, the wider *Coccus viridis'* establishment is in   |        |
| the United States, the more likely it would lead to a lower |        |
| yield of host crops, a lower value of host crop             |        |
| commodities, and the loss of foreign or domestic markets.   |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                   | High   |
|                                                             | (3)    |
| Because *C. viridis* is polyphagous**,** it may affect      |        |
| additional federally Threatened and Endangered (T&E)        |        |
| species not present in southern Florida or Puerto Rico. T&E |        |
| species that are congeners of current hosts include the     |        |
| following five (5) species: Asteraceae: *Senecio            |        |
| franciscanus*, *Senecio layneae*; Euphorbiaceae: *Manihot*  |        |
| *walkerae*; Polygonaceae: *Polygonum hickmanii*; and        |        |
| Verbenaceae: *Verbena californica* (USFWS, 2005). If the    |        |
| potential host range of United States' T&E plants is        |        |
| considered at the family level, then there may be           |        |
| additional native hosts that *C. viridis* may impact. The   |        |
| wider the establishment of *C. viridis* in U.S. areas where |        |
| it is not present, the more likely it will have a negative  |        |
| impact on the citrus industry, such as those in Arizona and |        |
| Texas, and stimulate the initiation of chemical or          |        |
| biological control programs impacting the environment.      |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+

+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Pseudococcus cryptus*  | **Risk |
| Hempel (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)**                        | V      |
|                                                             | alue** |
+=============================================================+========+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**               | Medium |
|                                                             |        |
| *Pseudococcus cryptus* is widely distributed in southeast   | \(2\)  |
| Asia, tropical Africa, the mideastern Mediterranean, and    |        |
| South America (ScaleNet, 2005). Its distribution            |        |
| corresponds to U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11 (USDA ARS,   |        |
| 1990). One or more of its potential hosts occurs in these   |        |
| Zones (USDA NRCS, 2006).                                    |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                             | High   |
|                                                             |        |
| Host species of *P. cryptus* include Anacardiaceae          | \(3\)  |
| (*Mangifera* *indica*), Apocynaceae (*Plumeria* spp.),      |        |
| Compositae (*Dahlia* spp.), Dilleniaceae (*Dillenia*        |        |
| *indica*), Euphorbiaceae (*Hevea* *brasiliensis*),          |        |
| Guttiferae (*Calophyllum* *inophyllum*), Heliconiaceae      |        |
| (*Heliconia* spp.), Lauraceae (*Ocotea* *pedalifolia*,      |        |
| *Persea* *americana*), Leguminosae (*Erythrina* spp.),      |        |
| Liliaceae (*Crinum* *asiaticum*), Moraceae (*Artocarpus*    |        |
| *altilis*, *Artocarpus* *incisa*, *Artocarpus*              |        |
| *odoratissimus*), Musaceae (*Musa* spp.), Myrtaceae         |        |
| (*Osbornia* *ocdonta*, *Psidium* *guajava*), Palmae         |        |
| (*Cocos* *nucifera*, *Elaeis* *guineensis*), Pandanaceae    |        |
| (*Pandanus* spp., *Pandanus* *upoluensis*), Passifloraceae  |        |
| (*Passiflora* *foetida*), Piperaceae (*Piper*               |        |
| *methysticum*), Rubiaceae (*Coffea* *arabica*, *Coffea*     |        |
| *liberica*, *Gardenia* spp., *Ixora* spp.), Rutaceae        |        |
| (*Citrus* spp., *Citrus* *aurantifolia*, *Citrus*           |        |
| *aurantium*, *Citrus* *grandis*, *Citrus* *limon*, *Citrus* |        |
| *paradisi*, *Citrus* *reticulata*, *Citrus* *sinensis*),    |        |
| and Selaginellaceae (*Selaginella* spp.) (ScaleNet, 2005).  |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                    | Medium |
|                                                             |        |
| The number of eggs produced by females varies with the      | \(2\)  |
| seasons; the greatest number of eggs produced in summer,    |        |
| and the smallest number in the winter. Females typically    |        |
| lay groups of 30-50 eggs, for a total of 200-500 eggs       |        |
| (Avidov & Harpaz, 1969). This mealybug is able to have six  |        |
| generations per year (Avidov & Harpaz, 1969). The insect is |        |
| only capable of limited dispersal under its own power. Long |        |
| distance dispersal could be accomplished via the movement   |        |
| of infected plant materials.                                |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                        | High   |
|                                                             |        |
| *Pseudococcus cryptus* is considered a major pest of citrus | \(3\)  |
| (Hill, 1983). The insect produces copious quantities of     |        |
| honeydew, on which sooty molds develop, sometimes reaching  |        |
| a thickness of 5-8 mm (Avidov & Harpaz, 1969). In heavy     |        |
| infestations, entire trees may be contaminated, and leaves  |        |
| and fruit prematurely shed. High population densities on    |        |
| coconut palm may cause inflorescences to dry up and floral  |        |
| buttons to shed (Moore, 2001). In Israel, both biological   |        |
| and chemical controls have succeeded in maintaining         |        |
| populations below economically damaging densities (Avidov & |        |
| Harpaz, 1969; Blumberg *et al*., 2001). Citrus are          |        |
| commercially produced in AZ, CA, FL, and TX in the          |        |
| continental United States, and are worth more than \$2.3    |        |
| billion (USDA NASS, 2004). This mealybug may have a high    |        |
| potential to damage the citrus industry in the continental  |        |
| United States.                                              |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                   | High   |
|                                                             |        |
| *Pseudococcus cryptus* has the potential to damage          | \(3\)  |
| Threatened and Endangered species listed in Title 50, Part  |        |
| 17, Section 12 of the United States Code of Federal         |        |
| Regulations (50 CFR §17.12), such as *Eugenia* and          |        |
| *Hibiscus* species (USFWS, 2005). In Israel, where *P.      |        |
| cryptus* was introduced, it is successfully controlled by   |        |
| its natural enemy, *Clausenia purpurea* (ScaleNet, 2005),   |        |
| in addition to chemical treatment. The introduction and     |        |
| establishment of this pest would stimulate biological and   |        |
| chemical controls in the continental United States.         |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+

For each pest, the sum of the five Risk Elements gives a Cumulative Risk
Rating. This Cumulative Risk Rating is a biological indicator of the
potential of the pest to establish, spread, and cause economic and
environmental impacts. Table 5 summarizes the summary of risk ratings
for Consequences of Introduction.

Low: 5-8 points

Medium: 9-12 points

High: 13-15 points

**Table 5. Risk Rating for Consequences of Introduction (*Moringa
oleifera* from Hawaii**).

+-----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+
| **Pest**  | **Risk | **Risk | **Risk | **Risk | **Risk    | **Cum   |
|           | E      | E      | E      | E      | Element   | ulative |
|           | lement | lement | lement | lement | 5**       | Risk    |
|           | 1**    | 2**    | 3**    | 4**    |           | R       |
|           |        |        |        |        | **Envi    | ating** |
|           | **Clim | **Host | **Dis  | **Ec   | ronmental |         |
|           | ate/** | R      | persal | onomic | Impact**  |         |
|           |        | ange** | Poten  | Im     |           |         |
|           | **Host |        | tial** | pact** |           |         |
|           | I      |        |        |        |           |         |
|           | nterac |        |        |        |           |         |
|           | tion** |        |        |        |           |         |
+===========+========+========+========+========+===========+=========+
| *Al       | Medium | High   | Medium | High   | High (3)  | High    |
| eurodicus | (2)    | (3)    | (2)    | (3)    |           | (13)    |
| d         |        |        |        |        |           |         |
| ispersus* |        |        |        |        |           |         |
| Russell   |        |        |        |        |           |         |
+-----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+
| *A        | Medium | High   | Medium | High   | High (3)  | High    |
| onidiella | (2)    | (3)    | (2)    | (3)    |           | (13)    |
| inornata* |        |        |        |        |           |         |
| McKenzie  |        |        |        |        |           |         |
+-----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+
| *B        | Medium | High   | High   | High   | High (3)  | High    |
| actrocera | (2)    | (3)    | (3)    | (3)    |           | (14)    |
| cu        |        |        |        |        |           |         |
| curbitae* |        |        |        |        |           |         |
| (Co       |        |        |        |        |           |         |
| quillett) |        |        |        |        |           |         |
+-----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+
| *B        | Medium | High   | High   | High   | High (3)  | High    |
| actrocera | (2)    | (3)    | (3)    | (3)    |           | (14)    |
| dorsalis* |        |        |        |        |           |         |
| (Hendel)  |        |        |        |        |           |         |
+-----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+
| *         | High   | High   | High   | High   | High (3)  | High    |
| Ceratitis | (3)    | (3)    | (3)    | (3)    |           | (15)    |
| capitata* |        |        |        |        |           |         |
| (W        |        |        |        |        |           |         |
| iedemann) |        |        |        |        |           |         |
+-----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+
| *Coccus   | Medium | High   | Medium | High   | High (3)  | High    |
| viridis*  | (2)    | (3)    | (2)    | (3)    |           | (13)    |
| (Green)   |        |        |        |        |           |         |
+-----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+
| *Pse      | Medium | High   | Medium | High   | High (3)  | High    |
| udococcus | (2)    | (3)    | (2)    | (3)    |           | (13)    |
| cryptus*  |        |        |        |        |           |         |
| Hempel    |        |        |        |        |           |         |
+-----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc145641752 .anchor}**2.7 Likelihood of
Introduction---Quantity Imported and Pest Opportunity**

The Likelihood of Introduction is a function of both the quantity of the
commodity imported annually, and the opportunity of the pest to follow
the pathway. The pest opportunity component consists of five criteria
that consider the potential for pest survival along different steps of
the pathway (USDA, 2002) (Table 6).

**Quantity imported annually**

Small quantities (less than ten containers per year) of *M. oleifera*
will be imported as a specialty ethnic commodity with irregular
shipments (Liquido, 2005); therefore, the ranking for each pest will be
Low (1).

**Survive post-harvest treatment**

The fruit flies *(Bactrocera cucurbitae*, *B. dorsalis* and *Ceratitis
capitata)* are ranked High (3) due to their ability to survive minimal
post-harvest treatment, such as washing and culling.

The Hemipteran pests (*Aleurodicus dispersus, Aonidiella inornata*,
*Coccus viridis* and *Pseudococcus cryptus*) are rated Low (1) for their
ability to survive post-harvest treatments, such as washing and culling.
In contrast to the many host plants of these pests that have cracks and
crevices for hiding and protection (Kosztarab, 1996), the smooth
*Moringa* pods do not provide tight, protected areas for pests to escape
during culling and inspection. Furthermore, the hard and fibrous nature
of the pods allow a high-pressure wash to dislodge the waxy and smallest
scale insects (most scales are less than 5 mm long) (Gullan & Kosztarab,
1997). Washing, followed by culling and inspection, are a commonly
approved post-harvest quarantine procedures to mitigate pests.

**Survive shipment**

*Moringa oleifera* is stored between 8-10°C (Wall, 2005). Under such
benign conditions, all of the pests are expected to have a High (3)
probability of surviving shipment (because all species or
representatives from each family have been intercepted at ports-of-entry
(PIN 309, 2005)).

**Not detected at port-of-entry**

As with assessing the risk of pests surviving post-harvest treatment,
estimating the risk that these pests will not be detected at a
port-of-entry involves consideration of pest size, mobility, and degree
of concealment. Internal feeders (*Bactrocera cucurbitae, B. dorsalis,*
and *Ceratitis* *capitata*) have a High (3) potential to evade detection
at the port-of-entry, as fruit fly-infested fruit commonly go
unrecognized (White & Elson-Harris, 1992).

External feeders (*Aleurodicus dispersus, Aonidiella inornata*, *Coccus
viridis* and *Pseudococcus cryptus*) are ranked Low (1). The smooth
surface of the pods does not provide concealment for these hemipterous
pests. Inspection is an approved component of post-harvest quarantine
mitigation for these pests.

[]{.mark}

**Moved to suitable habitat**

All pests (*A. dispersus, A. inornata, B. cucurbitae, B. dorsalis, C.
capitata, C. viridis* and *P. cryptus*) are rated Medium (2) due to
their ability to survive subtropical or tropical conditions. In the
continental United States, those regions are limited to the South and
the West Coast, which comprise an estimated 10-12% of the total land
area.

**Contact with host material**

Because *A. dispersus*, *B*. *cucurbitae*, *B.* *dorsalis* and *C*.
*capitata* have winged-adult stages capable of long distance flight, and
because these species are highly polyphagous, it is highly likely they
will come into contact with suitable hosts in the continental United
States, should they be introduced (USDA, 2003); consequently, these
pests are rated High (3) for this sub-element. The sessile nature of *A.
inornata*, *C. viridis* and *P. cryptus* severely limits their chances
to locate suitable hosts (Miller, 1985; Gullan & Kosztarab, 1997).
Successful establishment of these insects in a new environment is
contingent on the likelihood of at least two necessary conditions
occurring: close proximity of susceptible hosts and their presence on
the imported fruit of crawlers or other mobile forms to transfer to new
hosts. Since these circumstances are highly unlikely to co-occur
(Miller, 1985), these particular pests receive a risk rating of Low (1).

Table 6 summarizes the ratings for Likelihood of Introduction.

Low: 6 -- 9 points

Medium: 10 -- 14 points

High: 15 -- 18 points

**Table 6. Risk Rating for Likelihood of Introduction (*Moringa
oleifera*** from Hawaii).

+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| **Pest**  | **Qua | **S    | **Su  | *    | **M  | *    | **Cum   |
|           | ntity | urvive | rvive | *Not | oved | *Con | ulative |
|           | imp   | Post-h | shipm | dete | to   | tact | Risk    |
|           | orted | arvest | ent** | cted | suit | with | R       |
|           | annua | treat  |       | at   | able | host | ating** |
|           | lly** | ment** |       | por  | h    | ma   |         |
|           |       |        |       | t-of | abit | teri |         |
|           |       |        |       | -ent | at** | al** |         |
|           |       |        |       | ry** |      |      |         |
+===========+=======+========+=======+======+======+======+=========+
| *Al       | Low   | Low    | High  | Low  | Me   | High | Medium  |
| eurodicus |       |        |       |      | dium |      |         |
| d         | \(1\) | \(1\)  | \(3\) | \    | (2)  | \    | \(11\)  |
| ispersus* |       |        |       | (1\) |      | (3\) |         |
| Russell   |       |        |       |      |      |      |         |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *A        | Low   | Low    | High  | Low  | Me   | Low  | Medium  |
| onidiella |       |        |       |      | dium |      |         |
| inornata* | \(1\) | \(1\)  | \(3\) | \    | (2)  | \    | \(9\)   |
| (         |       |        |       | (1\) |      | (1\) |         |
| McKenzie) |       |        |       |      |      |      |         |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *B        | Low   | High   | High  | High | Me   | High | High    |
| actrocera |       |        |       |      | dium |      |         |
| cu        | \(1\) | \(3\)  | \(3\) | \    | (2)  | \    | \(15\)  |
| curbitae* |       |        |       | (3\) |      | (3\) |         |
| (Co       |       |        |       |      |      |      |         |
| quillett) |       |        |       |      |      |      |         |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *B        | Low   | High   | High  | High | Me   | High | High    |
| actrocera |       |        |       |      | dium |      |         |
| dorsalis* | \(1\) | \(3\)  | \(3\) | \    | (2)  | \    | \(15\)  |
| (Hendel)  |       |        |       | (3\) |      | (3\) |         |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *         | Low   | High   | High  | High | Me   | High | High    |
| Ceratitis |       |        |       |      | dium |      |         |
| capitata* | \(1\) | \(3\)  | \(3\) | \    | (2)  | \    | \(15\)  |
| (W        |       |        |       | (3\) |      | (3\) |         |
| iedemann) |       |        |       |      |      |      |         |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *Coccus   | Low   | Low    | High  | Low  | Me   | Low  | Medium  |
| viridis*  |       |        |       |      | dium |      |         |
| (Green)   | \(1\) | \(1\)  | \(3\) | \    | (2)  | \    | \(9\)   |
|           |       |        |       | (1\) |      | (1\) |         |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *Pse      | Low   | Low    | High  | Low  | Me   | Low  | Medium  |
| udococcus |       |        |       |      | dium |      |         |
| cryptus*  | \(1\) | \(1\)  | \(3\) | \    | (2)  | \    | \(9\)   |
| Hempel    |       |        |       | (1\) |      | (1\) |         |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc145641753 .anchor}**2.8 Conclusion---Pest Risk
Potential, Pests Requiring Phytosanitary Measures, and Risk Mitigation
Options**

The summation of the values for the Consequences of Introduction and the
Likelihood of Introduction yield Pest Risk Potential values (USDA, 2002)
(Table 7). This is an estimate of the risks associated with importation.

**Pest Risk Potential Values:**

Low: 11 -- 18 points

Medium: 19 -- 26 points

High: 27 -- 33 points

Table 7. Pest Risk Potential.

  ------------------------- ---------------- ---------------- ---------------
  **Pest**                  **Consequences   **Likelihood of  **Pest Risk
                            of               Introduction**   Potential**
                            Introduction**                    

  *Aleurodicus dispersus*   Medium (13)      Medium (11)      Medium (24)
  Russell                                                     

  *Aonidiella inornata*     Medium (13)      Medium (9)       Medium (22)
  (McKenzie)                                                  

  *Bactrocera cucurbitae*   High (14)        High (15)        High (29)
  (Coquillett)                                                

  *Bactrocera dorsalis*     High (14)        High (15)        High (29)
  (Hendel)                                                    

  *Ceratitis capitata*      High (15)        High (15)        High (30)
  (Wiedemann)                                                 

  *Coccus viridis* (Green)  High (13)        Medium (9)       Medium (22)

  *Pseudococcus cryptus*    High (13)        Medium (9)       Medium (22)
  Hempel                                                      
  ------------------------- ---------------- ---------------- ---------------

The PPQ Guidelines state that a High Pest Risk Potential means that
specific phytosanitary measures are strongly recommended, and that
port-of-entry inspection is not sufficient to provide phytosanitary
security. Pests with a Medium Pest Risk Potential may require specific
phytosanitary measures, whereas a value within the Low range does not
require mitigation measures.

Based on the Pest Risk Potential of the quarantine significant pests
that are likely to follow the movement of *Moringa* pods from Hawaii
into the continenatal United States, the appropriate phytosanitary
measures to mitigate the risks posed by these pests include the
following:

1\. Irradiation treatment at a dose of 400 Gy (7 CFR §305.31a) for all
quarantine-significant insect pests.

2\. Irradiation treatment at a dose of 150 Gy (7 CFR §305.31a) for
*Bactrocera* spp. and *Ceratitis capitata*; warm, soapy water wash and
brushing (T102-c, PPQ Treatment Manual) for *Aleurodicus dispersus,
Aonidiella inornata, Coccus viridis,* and *Pseudococcus cryptus*.

3\. Irradiation treatment at a dose of 150 Gy (7 CFR §305.31a) for
*Bactrocera* spp and *Ceratitis capitata*; inspection for *Aleurodicus
dispersus, Aonidiella inornata, Coccus viridis,* and *Pseudococcus
cryptus*.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc145641754 .anchor}**III. Author(s) and
Reviewer(s)**

Written by: Christie A. Hurt, Entomologist, CPHST-PERAL

Anthony L. Koop, Botanist, CPHST-PERAL

Reviewed by: Charles Thayer, Pathologist, CPHST-PERAL

Nicanor J. Liquido, Senior Risk Analyst (Lead Scientist), CPHST-PERAL

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