The CDC/ATSDR Public Health Vulnerability Mapping System:

Using a Geographic Information System

for Depicting Human Vulnerability to Environmental Emergencies

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Acknowledgements

This paper was prepared as part of a joint project of the NCEH Office of
Terrorism Preparedness and Emergency Response (OTPER) and the ATSDR
Geospatial Research Analysis & Services Program (GRASP) to assist state
and local health jurisdictions in their preparedness work.

NCEH OTPER

> Mark Keim, MD -- Principal investigator
>
> Rufus Reddick
>
> Miguel Cruz, MPH

ATSDR GRASP working on the project:

Virginia Lee, MD, MPH, MA

Janet Heitgerd, PhD

Brian Kaplan, MS, MA

Ed Gregory, PhD

Melissa Smith, MA

Arie Manangan, MA

Paul Calame

Rand Young, MA

Steve Bullard, MA, JD

Barry Flanagan, PhD

Kevin Liske, MA

Bob Neurath, MA

Eric Burger

Table of Contents

[I. Introduction to the White Paper 1](#introduction-to-the-white-paper)

[A. Purpose 1](#purpose)

[II. Context and Background 2](#context-and-background)

[A. Risk Reduction 2](#risk-reduction)

[B. Risk Analysis 2](#risk-analysis)

[C. Hazard Vulnerability Assessment (HVA)
2](#hazard-vulnerability-assessment-hva)

[D. Development of CDC Public Health Vulnerability Application
3](#development-of-cdc-public-health-vulnerability-application)

[III. Population Data 4](#population-data)

[A. A Most-Vulnerable Populations Literature Review
4](#a-most-vulnerable-populations-literature-review)

[B. Introduction 4](#introduction)

[IV. Conclusion 9](#conclusion)

[A. Other Population Dynamics for Consideration
9](#other-population-dynamics-for-consideration)

[B. Data Sources 12](#data-sources)

[V. Hazards 13](#hazards)

[A. Natural 13](#natural)

[B. Technological (Anthropogenic) 25](#technological-anthropogenic)

[C. Acts of Terrorism 36](#acts-of-terrorism)

[D. Hazardous Material and Hazardous Waste Transportation
38](#hazardous-material-and-hazardous-waste-transportation)

[VI. Preparedness 39](#preparedness)

[A. Data Sources 39](#data-sources-1)

[B. Tools for Preparedness and Emergency Response
41](#tools-for-preparedness-and-emergency-response)

[VII. Vulnerability Analysis -- GIS Methods for Data Overlay, Analysis
and Display
45](#vulnerability-analysis-gis-methods-for-data-overlay-analysis-and-display)

[A. Data Overlay 45](#data-overlay)

[B. Data Analysis 46](#data-analysis)

[VIII. References 50](#references)

[IX. Tables and Figures 54](#tables-and-figures)

[Table 1. Natural hazards and spatial layers
55](#__RefHeading___Toc183314870)

[Table 2. Technological hazards and spatial layers
55](#__RefHeading___Toc183314871)

[Table 3. Demographic Census Sources 56](#__RefHeading___Toc183314872)

[Table 4: Saffir/Simpson Hurricane Scale
58](#__RefHeading___Toc183314873)

[Table 5. Summary of National Response Center Reported Incidents
59](#__RefHeading___Toc183314874)

[Table 6. EPCRA Chemicals and Reporting Thresholds
60](#__RefHeading___Toc183314875)

[Table 7. EPCRA Reporting Schedules 60](#__RefHeading___Toc183314876)

[Table 9. Homeland Security Infrastructure Program (HSIP) GOLD Dataset
(NGA 2005) 63](#__RefHeading___Toc183314877)

[Table 10. Homeland Security Infrastructure Program (HSIP) GOLD Dataset
(NGA 2005) Files related to chemical sources.
78](#__RefHeading___Toc183314878)

[Table 11. Web links for Section D. Hazardous Material and Hazardous
Waste Transportation 79](#__RefHeading___Toc183314879)

[Figure 1. Disasters Caused by Severe Thunderstorms
81](#__RefHeading___Toc183314880)

[Figure 2. Disasters Caused by Tornadoes
82](#__RefHeading___Toc183314881)

[Figure 3. Counties Susceptible to Significant Earthquakes
83](#__RefHeading___Toc183314882)

[Figure 4. Disasters Caused by Flooding
84](#__RefHeading___Toc183314883)

[Figure 5. The number of hurricanes expected to occur during a 100-year
period based on historical data 85](#__RefHeading___Toc183314884)

[Figure 6. Disaster Caused by Hurricanes or Tropical Storms
86](#__RefHeading___Toc183314885)

[Figure 7. Disaster Caused by Winter Weather
87](#__RefHeading___Toc183314886)

[Figure 8. Disaster Caused by Wildfires
88](#__RefHeading___Toc183314888)

[Figure 9. Disasters Caused by Heat 89](#__RefHeading___Toc183314889)

[Figure 10. Disaster Caused by Volcanic Activity
90](#__RefHeading___Toc183314890)

[Figure 11. Counties Susceptible to Debris Flow
91](#__RefHeading___Toc183314891)

[Figure 12. Actual Shipping Lanes or Representative Paths in Open Water
-- San Francisco Bay Area 92](#__RefHeading___Toc183314892)

# Introduction to the White Paper

## Purpose

An important part of a public health professional's job is to identify
population groups vulnerable to environmental hazards. Such
identifications assist in anticipating the effect an emergency or a
disaster could have on persons within those groups. Yet while public
health professionals might easily identify vulnerable population groups
within, for example, parts of counties or in cities, they do not always
have the authority or the resources to conduct similar vulnerability
assessments across several such jurisdictions and sectors.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) Geospatial
Research, Analysis, and Services Program (GRASP) uses Geographic
Information System (GIS) software to provide support to the Director's
Emergency Operations Center (DEOC) including the production of maps
showing populations who, during a disaster, could be at risk of higher
morbidity or mortality. For example, the program staff can create maps
that identify census geographies (tracts, block groups, blocks) that
have a more vulnerable population. Vulnerable populations can be defined
as groups with a larger percentage of elders, children, or those in a
lower socio-economic status.

In 2007, the NCEH/ATSDR Office for Terrorism Preparedness and Emergency
Response requested GRASP to produce a white paper that catalogs readily
available population and hazard identification data sources that can be
used within a GIS to identify populations vulnerable to hazards. GIS
tools and methods for population vulnerability analysis are also
discussed.

How to Use This White Paper

This white paper is intended to serve as a reference for state and local
health agencies. Because vulnerability mapping is a complex,
multi-sectoral activity with ever changing data, this paper is not
intended to document the entire range of activities of NCEH/ATSDR in
addressing human vulnerability to environmental emergencies, nor does it
provide an exhaustive listing of potential databases and resources. This
white paper provides information on potential sources of data for
populations and hazards that public health agencies may find useful and
accessible when conducting vulnerability analyses.

Caveats and Limitations

The datasets included herein are all national in scope and may not
provide sufficient detail for local jurisdictions. Additionally, the
variables presented here serve as a broad overview and should be
considered only a guide for potential indicators of vulnerability.

# Context and Background

## Risk Reduction

Risk reduction is a systematic approach to identifying, assessing, and
reducing all kinds of risks associated with disaster hazards and with
human activities. The modern risk management approach recognizes that a
wide range of geological, meteorological, environmental, technological,
and socio-political hazards --- individually and in complex interaction
--- threaten society. Risks are located at the point where hazards,
communities, and environments interact; thus effective risk management
must address all of these aspects. As a result, disasters are no longer
seen only as unfortunate events to which public authorities must
respond, but as deep-rooted, long-term problems for which public
authorities must anticipate and prepare.

## Risk Analysis

As part of a larger risk-reduction strategy, "risk analysis" methods
lead to the development of mitigation plans and to operational
decisions. Technically speaking, risk analysis differs from hazard
vulnerability assessment in that risk analysis focuses on how often
specified events may occur and the magnitude of their consequences. Risk
analysis may be based on qualitative or quantitative data, or a
combination of the two. Qualitative analysis, for example, uses
descriptive scales to evaluate the likelihood and magnitude of risks.
Although qualitative analysis can be carried out to varying degrees of
complexity, it is mostly used as an initial screening in which the level
of risk does not appear to justify quantitative analysis or where the
data or resources for more quantitative analysis are insufficient.
Qualitative analysis often takes the form of a hazard probability/impact
matrix.

By contrast, quantitative risk analysis is based on numerical values. It
requires extensive and accurate "hard" data, and uses mathematical
manipulation of that data to produce an accurate map of all hazards and
to generate tables that assign numerical values to the probability and
frequency of risk and the exposure to risk. As it relates to terrorism,
risk analysis becomes complicated in that a security threat assessment
must accompany the hazard analysis*.* Moreover, for an entire
jurisdiction, all-hazard risk modeling and quantitative hazard analysis
are costly to produce and are thus beyond the capacity of most state and
local public health agencies.

## Hazard Vulnerability Assessment (HVA)

Within the framework of risk analysis, vulnerability becomes a complex
issue. It acquires economic, social, demographic, political, and
psychological dimensions. The numerous attempts to grapple with the
concept of vulnerability have centered on developing methods by which to
identify and analyze the different facets of human vulnerability, as
well as human resilience or capacity --- the other side of the
vulnerability coin.

Of the variety of definitions that exist for vulnerability assessments,
the most widely accepted identify and prioritize potential hazards.
These preferred definitions emphasize hazards that may affect a
community, suggest where hazard-related damage may occur, and identify
those community elements that should be modified to lessen exposure.
Such definitions also provide a baseline for recovery strategies in that
they establish a community's "normal" state. Additionally, comprehensive
hazard vulnerability assessments include an analysis of all critical
public and private facilities and infrastructure, as well as societal,
environmental, and economic susceptibilities.

The two components of a hazard vulnerability assessment --- a Hazard
Analysis and a Vulnerability Analysis --- are collectively referred to
as a Health Vulnerability Assessment (HVA). For critical infrastructure,
however, the use of GIS and risk modeling technologies have simplified
the HVA process. Until recently, public health scientists did not
perform HVAs as an independent assessor. Today, public health scientists
can use HVAs to now represent both the infrastructural impact of
disasters and the affected population's vulnerability to adverse health
consequences. Moreover, demand has recently increased for individual,
sectoral HVAs, driven by mandates from various U.S. federal agencies to
include assessments and subsequent emergency preparedness program
activities within these jurisdictions. Among these federal agencies are:

-   the Department of Transportation (DOT),

-   Department of Justice (DOJ),

-   Department of Energy (DOE),

-   the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),

-   the Department of Homeland Security (DHS),

-   the Department of Agriculture as well as, the Federal Aviation
    Administration (FAA),

-   the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and

-   the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS).

The 2004 HHS CDC Public Health Bioterrorism Preparedness Cooperative
Agreement (PH BT CA) requires public health agencies of state,
territorial and U.S.-associated governments to perform public health
HVAs to guide risk.

## Development of CDC Public Health Vulnerability Application

In 2005, to assist Pacific-based public health agencies in meeting the
terms of the CDC PH BT CA, Dr. Mark Keim, then director of the CDC
Pacific Emergency Health Initiative (PEHI), developed an instrument for
identifying the vulnerability of the population to disaster hazards.
This instrument incorporated demographics, health, and socio-economic
indicators to estimate relative public health vulnerability. Before Dr.
Keim's modifications, the PEHI public health HVA applied public health
data to estimate the vulnerability of public health to disaster hazards.
The new PEHI Public Health HVA compliments this previously developed
Hazard Risk Assessment Instrument (HRAI) in that it now facilitates 1)
assessment of hazards, 2) completion of *resource and infrastructure*
vulnerability analyses, and 3) projections of likely hazard impacts.

As a result of Dr. Keim's work involving public health HVAs, during 2006
several state health agencies contacted him to request technical
assistance with public health HVAs. The states sought a practical
application for public health HVA that would improve the efficiency and
impact of public health emergency preparedness and response activities.
As part of a project later supported by the CDC Coordinating Office for
Terrorism Preparedness and Emergency Response, Dr. Keim contacted the
lead of the ATSDR Geospatial Research Analysis & Services Program
(GRASP), to develop a methodology for identifying vulnerable populations
using readily available data and the process to develop public health
vulnerability maps that could be made available to the states on
request.

This white paper describes background on the population data, data
sources, and hazards associated with the CDC/ATSDR Public Health
Vulnerability Application.

# Population Data

## A Most-Vulnerable Populations Literature Review 

## Introduction

As Cutter et al. (2003:242) state, "Generally speaking, vulnerability to
environmental hazards means the potential for loss." The authors then
identify the three main areas of vulnerability research: 1) exposure
models, which focus on identifying conditions that render people or
places vulnerable to natural hazards and disasters; 2) human
vulnerability as a social condition, or as a measure of the resilience
of society in the face of calamity; and 3) the integration of potential
exposures and societal resilience with a specific focus on particular
places or regions. The authors contend that much vulnerability research
focuses on the individual characteristics of people such as age, race,
or income, and how those variables affect the ability of people to deal
with environmental disasters. On the other hand, say the authors, very
little research has addressed place inequalities such as level of
urbanization, population growth rates, or economic vitality, and how
these factors contribute to the social vulnerability of places as well
as individuals.

In this section, we will use the Social Vulnerability Index (SVI)
developed by Cutter et al. (2003) as our point of reference for
discussing U.S. Census Bureau data useful for analyzing vulnerability to
both environmental (e.g., hurricanes, earthquakes) and anthropogenic
(e.g., terrorist attacks) hazards. By using census data and the mapping
capabilities of a GIS, our goal is to put in place a blueprint with
which we can quickly identify areas where populations are
disproportionately susceptible to disaster impacts.

### Social Vulnerability Index

Cutter et al. (2003) found eleven factors that differentiated U.S.
counties according to their level of social vulnerability to
environmental hazards. The authors' statistical analysis of 1990 census
data indicates that these factors account for more than three-quarters
of the variance in the relative level of U.S. county vulnerability.
Among them are several racial and ethnic factors that we have combined
into one. An additional persons with disabilities --- has been added to
the index below, thus bringing our total factors to nine. These factors
are

-   age,

-   racial and ethnic disparities,

-   occupation,

-   personal wealth,

-   housing stock and tenancy,

-   density of the built environment,

-   single-sector economic dependence,

-   infrastructure dependence, and

-   persons with disabilities.

This data is available from the U.S. Census (Table 3).

A factor-by-factor review follows.

#### Age

Cutter et al. (2003:251) identify children and the elderly as the
demographic groups most affected by environmental disasters. Morrow
(1999) suggests it would be useful to know in advance the number of
children who might require special services following a disaster. Morrow
found that following Hurricane Andrew, authorities were not adequately
prepared to deal with children --- either in terms of physical items
such as diapers and baby formula, or in terms of other support services.
Similarly, Martin et al. (2006) found that fewer than half of emergency
medical programs are adequately prepared to deal with the special needs
of children, and that children are rarely incorporated into
disaster-scenario exercises. The research of Madrid et al. (2006)
revealed that following a life-changing event, mental and emotional
support is essential for children.

Morrow also states that the elderly are less likely than are younger
adults to have the physical and economic resources necessary to confront
an emergency situation; they tend to suffer more health-related
consequences, and they are slower to recover physically from their
injuries.

Age variables can be sorted into any number of categories. Children are
typically defined as 17 years of age and younger. Age 65 and older
usually defines older adults, and information on those who rely on
Social Security as their main source of income can help identify older
persons who may be lacking in financial resources.

#### Racial and Ethnic Disparities

"Race contributes to social vulnerability through the lack of access to
resources, cultural differences, and the social, economic, and political
marginalization that is often associated with racial disparities"
(Cutter et al. 2003:253). In this vein, Morrow (1999) points out that
minority communities are often excluded from disaster planning and
preparation functions, with the result that such activities go forward
without an understanding of minority culture and life circumstances
(e.g., housing, transportation, communication networks).

Cutter (2003) finds that African American is the racial variable that
corresponds to the highest level of vulnerability. Relative to other
groups, African Americans are more likely to live in substandard housing
or in multi-unit structures. Additionally, because female-headed
households of any ethnicity are more vulnerable than are two-parent
households, counties having significant percentages of households headed
by African-American females rank especially high in disaster
vulnerability.

The authors also find that the presence of an Asian population
correlates positively with vulnerability. This could result from the
fact that some hazard-prone coastal cities, particularly those of the
west, have higher percentages of inhabitants of Asian descent, and more
recent arrivals from Asia tend to live in older housing stock.

Finally, according to Cutter (2003), social vulnerability is positively
correlated with being Hispanic or Native American.

In areas with significant numbers of Hispanics or other partially or
fully non-English speaking populations, communication is a central
issue. Members of minority communities are more likely to rely on their
kin and local social networks (i.e., friends and neighbors) for
information (Morrow 1999). Thus, disaster preparation and mitigation
efforts should focus on the most efficient ways to get alerts and other
timely communications to non-English speaking communities. Like
African-Americans, because of the type and quality of housing structures
in which many live, minority ethnic groups located in urban areas are
also at added risk.

The U.S. Census Bureau classifies all but Hispanics as racial groups.
Hispanics can be of any race, and their numbers are compiled separately.
In addition to racial and ethnic categories, census variables useful for
determining the best ways to communicate with local residents include
language spoken at home and persons who speak English either not at all
or not very well. This information can help determine the languages
necessary to get critical information to the community.

#### Occupation

Certain occupations are associated with social vulnerability. People
engaged in low-paying jobs with few or no benefits are likely to find
recovery after a disaster difficult. So too will the unemployed. Persons
employed in economic sectors that suffer major damage (e.g., fishing
industry seriously impaired by a hurricane) are also vulnerable to the
possibility of enduring long periods without income.

Census variables related to local industries and occupations are useful
for determining the dominant sectors of the economy. Variables relating
to per capita and family income and persons living below poverty level
are also useful in determining the relative ability of local residents
to prepare adequately for, and recover from, a disaster.

#### Personal Wealth

Cutter et al. (2003:251) state that "Wealth enables communities to
quickly absorb and recover from losses, but it also means that there may
be more material goods at risk in the first place." And as van der Vink
et al. (1998) and De Souza (2006) indicate, although much rapid
population growth in the United States is in coastal areas vulnerable to
several types of hazards, many who have chosen to live in those areas
are financially secure. Thus in recent decades the financial loss from
damage incurred in disasters such as hurricanes has increased greatly.

The property and possessions of those less well-off are, however, every
bit as dear to them as are those of the wealthy. Yet as Cutter points
out, poor individuals and families often lack the resources to rebound
quickly from a disaster, and, therefore, require more community support.
Morrow (1999) likewise contends that the indigent are unable to acquire
the goods and services necessary to prepare adequately for an impending
disaster, and find it more difficult to recover afterwards. The poor are
also frequently underinsured, and many lack insurance coverage
altogether.

Thus in measuring personal wealth, census variables remain useful. Such
variables include median and per capita income, persons living below
poverty level, and data on the value of housing in a given area.

#### Housing Stock and Tenancy

When evaluating disaster vulnerability, quality of housing is an
important factor to consider. It can be closely tied to personal wealth,
that is, those with lesser incomes tend to live in more poorly
constructed houses or mobile homes and are especially vulnerable to
strong storms (Morrow 1999; De Souza 2006). Studies on the aftermath of
tornadoes in Oklahoma (Daley et al. 2005) and the Carolinas (Eidson et
al. 1990), find more structural damage and injuries to persons who live
in mobile homes and older-vintage housing. Additionally, in studying the
1994 Northridge, California earthquake, Peek-Asa et al. (2003) found
that those living in multiple-unit commercial or housing structures are
more likely to have been injured than those living in single-family
housing.

Housing and building types particularly vulnerable to disasters vary
from mobile homes in rural tornado-prone environments to substandard or
multifamily housing in densely populated urban areas. Cutter et al.
(2003) found that the most dominant variables in determining
vulnerability for this factor are mobile homes, renters (more likely to
be in multiunit buildings), and urban residents in general.

#### Density of the Built Environment

Cutter et al. (2003) concluded that the degree of development in the
built environment contributes substantially to the vulnerability of a
given area --- in other words, the more buildings in an area, the
greater the potential for substantial structural and economic losses. As
van der Vink et al. (1998) note, trends in our society (e.g.,
significant migration to coastal areas) are making the United States
increasingly vulnerable to the high costs of natural disasters. The
authors also contend that the long-term impacts of low-probability
events such as hurricanes or massive earthquakes are not adequately
considered in the planning and development of our infrastructure. De
Souza (2006) echoes those contentions and notes that many disaster-prone
areas are settled by financially well-off persons. To the extent this is
true, the potential for high-cost damage becomes greater, but the
ability to rebound is also greater. Yet low-income communities are often
found in vulnerable areas as well, and their ability to rebound is more
limited.

Variables used in measuring the built environment include the density of
manufacturing or commercial establishments and housing units, as well as
the number of new housing permits. These variables help identify areas
where substantial structural losses are more likely.

#### Single-Sector Economic Dependence

Heavy reliance on one or very few sectors of the economy for generating
income and employment can make an area economically vulnerable to the
effects of a catastrophe. This may be evident after a hurricane
devastates coastal areas dependent on fishing or tourism, after a
tornado or hailstorm roars through farming areas, or after a drought
parches the soil. Moreover, a sudden downturn in the primary economic
sector can quickly spill over to other sectors. For example, if a
hailstorm destroys large quantities of local produce, retail sales in
nearby towns may drop as the disposable income of farm families and
workers declines.

In that regard, Cutter et al. (2003) found that single-sector economic
dependence is best defined by census variables relating to percent
employed in extractive industries (e.g., fishing, farming, and mining)
and percent classified as rural farm.

#### Infrastructure Dependence

The final factor that Cutter et al. (2003) identified combines two
indicators: 1) large debt-to-revenue ratio for counties, and 2) percent
of workers employed in public utilities and other infrastructure such as
transportation and communication. Counties with high levels of debt and
a high dependence on infrastructure employment have fewer resources
available for diversion to post-disaster recovery efforts. The Census
Bureau's County and City Data Book contain information on county-level
economies, while occupation and industry data in the decennial census
can provide information on infrastructure employment.

#### Persons with Disabilities

An additional factor is disabled persons, including those with either
partial or full physical or cognitive handicaps. Such persons may be
nonambulatory, less able than others to receive communications or to
reciprocate, may be sight or hearing impaired, or lacking in confidence
regarding their ability to complete successfully an evacuation order.
Often those with disabilities are in the care of someone who is unable
without further assistance to manage in a disaster. While nursing homes
and retirement communities may have emergency plans in place, many
persons of reduced ability live alone or in high-rises. As the needs of
those with disabilities are often specialized or require frequent
attention, efforts to provide timely and concerted intervention should
be part of all disaster planning.

The needs of persons with disabilities include transportation out of the
affected area either before or immediately following a disaster, access
to necessary prescriptions and to other medical care, and relocation
assistance if their residences are damaged or destroyed. Following
Hurricane Katrina, CDC (2006) assessed health needs of persons relocated
to San Antonio, Texas, and found those with physical and cognitive
disabilities were among the displaced. White et al. (2006) argue that
the post-Katrina evaluation of the shortcomings in the government's
response to the disaster did not adequately address the effect on the
disabled population. They found insufficient participation of persons
with disabilities in the disaster management process, as well as
inadequate disaster training of emergency personnel in dealing with the
unique problems of persons with disabilities. They also found that most
centers for independent living in Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi
had no staff trained in disaster preparedness, and, in the event of a
disaster, no plan to provide services to residents.

FEMA (2004), together with the American Red Cross, has prepared a
document that details the preparations and supplies that disabled
persons should have in case of an emergency. This document and similar
information should be disseminated in any area especially prone to
natural or human-induced disasters.

# Conclusion

The work of Cutter and colleagues provides a blueprint for identifying
segments of the U.S. economy and population particularly vulnerable to
the effects of environmental and anthropogenic disasters. Nearly all of
the information necessary to identify where people with special needs,
such as minorities, the economically disadvantaged, and those with
disabilities, are located, can be found by accessing U.S. Census data.
Still, by no means should these factors be considered exhaustive. For
instance, Morrow (1999) and many other researchers argue that women
suffer disproportionately during and after disasters, largely because of
their position as family caregivers with responsibility for children,
for the disabled, and, often, for elderly adults. Time spent in the
caregiver role detracts from any ability these women might otherwise
have to seek outside help. Additionally, particular areas may hold other
resident groups with special requirements. Continued research will,
however, reduce the need to learn through experience (e.g. Hurricane
Katrina) and will increase our ability to address ---in advance of
potential disaster --- the entire population's needs.

## Other Population Dynamics for Consideration

The precise location of the U.S. population is not static; it ebbs and
flows throughout the day as adults and children travel to and from work
and school. Although some regularity of population mobility occurs
within a 24-hour weekday, other considerations affect predictability,
including differences between work/school days and weekends, major
holidays, other seasonal trends (e.g., school spring break, college
towns, seasonal migration of "snowbirds" or migrant farm workers), and
special events. We now review some of the issues relating to population
estimates at different points and suggest possible data sources.

### Residential Population

The U.S. Census Bureau Decennial Census is the primary source for data
on the residential population of the United States. Census data detail
characteristics of the location of the residential population. Data are
available at several geographic levels (e.g., block, tract, county,
city) and are easily downloaded from the census Web site or for purchase
by a private vendor. Each state also has a state data center that can
assist with access to census data (<http://www.census.gov/sdc/>). The
American Community Survey (<http://www.census.gov/acs/www/>) is a new
nationwide survey intended to provide more current population and
housing data at a variety of geographic levels. The ACS will replace the
"long-form" version of the decennial census. Each year the Census
Bureau's Population Estimates Program publishes estimates by demographic
characteristics (i.e., age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin) for the
nation, states and counties. Other sources are, however, needed for
smaller geographic levels. Small area (block and block group)
current-year population estimates are available from private vendors
(e.g., Geolytics, Claritas). Local area governments may also provide
current-year population estimates at various geographic levels.

Of special note is a database generated by Oak Ridge National Laboratory
(ORNL) -- LandScan 2005 Global Population Database --- to estimate
daytime and nighttime populations. As the Web site notes, The
LandScan^TM^ Dataset comprises a worldwide population database compiled
on a 30\" x 30\" latitude/longitude grid. Census counts (at the
subnational level) were apportioned to each grid cell based on
likelihood coefficients, which in turn are based on proximity to roads,
slope, land cover, nighttime lights, and other information.

In this latest version of LandScan, distribution modeling and analysis
were calculated at the census block level for the United States and
reflect a more precise ambient population distribution (an aggregated
average of very high-resolution nighttime and daytime populations). The
population distribution incorporates several years of manual refinements
from photo interpretation and imagery analysis to produce a better
representation of where people are during an average day.
(<http://www.ornl.gov/sci/landscan/landscan2005/index.html>.)

The LandScan Dataset files are available via the Internet in
[**ESRI**](http://www.esri.com/) grid format by continent and for the
world, and in ESRI raster binary format for the world. Restrictions
apply to the access and use of these data (see section on data sources).

### Journey to Work

The U.S. Census Bureau collects data on the place-of-work and
journey-to-work characteristics of workers 16 years of age and over.
According to the Bureau of the Census (2004:1-2),

> > . . . the place-of-work questions provide information that is used
> > to understand the geographic patterns of commuter travel and the
> > volume of travel in 'flows' between origins and destinations (e.g.,
> > home in a suburban county to work in a central city).... Information
> > on the time the worker leaves home to go to work is used to estimate
> > the volume of commuter travel at different periods during a typical
> > day, particularly peak hours of travel when traffic congestion is
> > most severe.

For example, data from Census 2000 indicate that the average travel time
to work nationwide was about 26 minutes; the majority of workers
departing for work between 6:30 a.m. and 8:29 a.m. The 2000 census data
also revealed that for the first time, a majority of metropolitan area
residents worked outside the central city. These national trends may
also be analyzed at smaller census geographic levels for information
specific to a locality. The data are freely available from the U.S.
Census Bureau and considerable data documentation is available to assist
in their use.

### Location of Businesses and Number of Employees

The U.S. Census Bureau also has several programs that provide economic
statistics by geographies, sectors, and frequency. Counties, places, and
zip codes are the smallest geographic units for which select economic
data are provided. The Business Register is the Census Bureau's source
of information on employer establishments included in the County
Business Patterns and Zip Business Patterns. Data are available on the
total number of establishments and total number of employees by industry
code and by description. See <http://www.census.gov/econ/www/>. County
level data are available for download. Zip code data can also be
downloaded but only for one zip code at a time. The data are available
for a fee.

Private vendors also provide business data at smaller geographic levels
(census tract or census block group) at a cost.

### Location of Schools and School Enrollment

Several data sets provide school locations and attributes. As with
business data, some of these data are available for purchase from
private companies. Attribute data include student enrollment by grade
and migrant enrollment. Enrollment data are also available for the High
Ed database. Most recent data available are for 2003/2004.

Data on public school locations are also available from the National
Center for Education Statistics Common Core of Data File
(<http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/address.asp>). The data are not geocoded, but
address, city, state, and zip code are available. A search on the
National Center for Education Statistics Web site can also locate
private schools, and the data are downloadable into an Excel
spreadsheet. Data for the 2003--04 school year are available at
<http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pss/privateschoolsearch/>.

### Temporary Populations:

No single accepted definition has been developed for "temporary
population" (Smith 1989). It is nonetheless important to understand, if
not to capture quantitatively, seasonal migration into a locality.
Because of age (e.g., the elderly) or socioeconomic status (e.g.,
migrant workers), such persons may be particularly vulnerable in an
event.

### Location of Shopping Centers, Sports Arenas, and Other Venues of Potential Interest

Commercial databases are likely the most up-to-date sources for
georeferenced point data for venues that attract large numbers of
persons, such as retail malls and sports arenas.

## Data Sources

### U.S. Census

U.S. Bureau of the Census. This site includes links to journey-to-work
data, current-year county-level population estimates, the American
Community Survey, and geographic boundary files.\
<http://www.census.gov/>

Listing of U.S. Census Bureau State Data Centers. The State Data Center
(SDC) Program, a cooperative program between the states and the Census
Bureau, was created to make data available locally to the public through
a network of state agencies, universities, libraries, and regional and
local governments. <http://www.census.gov/sdc/www/>

### LandScan

LandScan 2005. LandScan^TM^ Dataset licenses are available free of
charge for U.S. federal government and educational research use.
Commercial license fees are determined on a case-by-case basis.
<http://www.ornl.gov/sci/landscan/landscanCommon/landscan05_release.html>

### Other

National Center for Educational Statistics. The National Center for
Education Statistics (NCES), located within the U.S. Department of
Education and the Institute of Education Sciences, is the primary
federal entity for collecting and analyzing data related to education.
Data can be downloaded from the site. In addition, licenses are
available for restricted data sets.

<http://nces.ed.gov/index.asp>

# Hazards

## Natural

The accurate and timely prediction of the location, magnitude, and
impact of natural hazards on human populations is in itself difficult,
and human alteration of the environment sometimes compounds that
difficulty. Whereas natural disasters can seriously disrupt an area's
economic life, created development can alter an area's vulnerability to
natural disaster either positively (e.g., more human resources
available), or negatively (e.g., building on steep slopes or other high
risk areas). Because the occurrence of natural hazards is a certainty,
and the human resources devoted to their mitigation has limits, careful
planning and preparation for response and recovery are of the utmost
importance.

Noji (1997) proposed the following activities as essential for effective
disaster mitigation and planning:

-   Map specific potential disaster locations.

-   Pinpoint potential disaster-associated risks.

-   Conduct a vulnerability analysis.

-   Develop an inventory of existing disaster response capacities and
    resources.

-   Plan and implement appropriate preventive, preparedness, and
    mitigation measures.

-   Conduct education, awareness-raising, and training of health
    personnel and the community to improve disaster response.

Because natural disasters can have potentially catastrophic effects on
the economic development of countries, the United Nations and the World
Bank have sponsored several projects to plan for disaster. These
projects have resulted in the development of a Disaster Risk Index (DRI)
that has been used to assess the risk that a natural disaster poses, at
the country level ,for adverse effects on economic development (UNDP
2004), as well as for presenting case studies for testing of the DRI at
the local level (Dilley 2005; Arnold 2006).

In the United States, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) Coastal Services Center (CSC) has sponsored three
workshops on vulnerability assessment techniques. Case studies from
those workshops have been made available at the CSC Web site:
<http://www.csc.noaa.gov/vata/case_pdf.html> (NOAA CSC 2005). The Center
also sponsors a listserv for vulnerability assessment where interested
persons can receive information on workshop techniques.

The NOAA review examines the types of natural hazards that have impacted
the nation and attempts to identify the counties most at risk for future
hazard events. It is similar to other studies that have examined the
burden of climate and weather factors on human habitation (Riebsame
1986).

Find hazard and disaster information at

> <http://www.fema.gov/hazard/index.shtm>
>
> <http://www.usgs.gov/hazards/>
>
> <http://www.bt.cdc.gov/disasters/>
>
> <http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/chrr/index.html>
>
> <http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/chrr/index.html>

### Thunderstorms (Figure 1)

The condensation of vast quantities of water vapor in clouds liberates
tremendous amounts of energy. This is a phenomenon we experience as
thunderstorms --- heavy precipitation, lightning, strong winds, and at
times hail, sleet, or tornadoes (Christopherson 2006). Generally, the
American southeast, especially Florida, and the southern and central
United States as far west as the Rocky Mountains experience
thunderstorms most frequently. The National Atlas shows that between
1995--2000 the metropolitan areas experiencing the greatest number of
severe thunderstorm disasters were, in order: Houston; Tampa-St.
Petersburg, FL; Mobile, AL; Jackson, MS; Pittsburgh; and Jacksonville,
FL (Carolina 2006; States 2006). Because thunderstorms form in zones of
low air pressure, they may also precede or follow in the path of a
hurricane (Ahrens 2003).

Morbidity and mortality in severe thunderstorms is usually a result of
damage caused by high winds and flooding. Mortality appears to be
scattered randomly throughout the United States, but
thunderstorm-related injuries coincide with those counties experiencing
the highest number of severe storms (Carolina 2006; States 2006).
Furthermore, the combination of extremely wet conditions and high winds
increases the risk of injuries and fatalities from falling trees.
Nonpermanent home structures (e.g., mobile homes) are also more
susceptible to wind damage. Severe downdrafts may even bring down
aircraft.

Deaths and injuries resulting from flooding are of concern, especially
when a breach occurs in a dam or levee. Buildings inside the 100-year
floodplain are particularly vulnerable to flood damage and may pose risk
of death or injury to less mobile populations (e.g. older adults).

> For more information on thunderstorms, see
>
> <http://www.fema.gov/hazard/thunderstorm/index.shtm>
>
> <http://www.weather.gov/os/severeweather/index.shtml>

### Tornados (Figure 2)

Tornadoes, sometimes referred to as "twisters," are nature's most
violent storms. A tornado is a funnel-shaped, rapidly rotating cloud of
dust and debris that extends downward from the thunderstorm to the
ground. Its whirling winds can exceed (though rarely) 300 miles per hour
over a period from seconds to several minutes. The more intense the wind
speed, the longer the duration of the tornado. A few extremely strong
storms have lasted an hour or more. The average tornado is approximately
500 feet across, and stays on the ground for about 4 or 5 miles (Ahrens
2003). Yet damage paths as large as 1 mile wide and 50 miles long have
been recorded (FEMA). Tornadoes frequently accompany hurricanes or other
tropical storms; thunderstorms, for example, are capable of producing
multiple tornadoes.

Tornado strength is measured on the Fujita Scale, which classifies
tornadoes by wind speed on a scale of F0 to F5, and a range of 40 mph to
318 mph (Christopherson 2006). Three quarters of all tornadoes fall into
the F0 or F1 categories, and only one percent reach F5. However, all
tornadoes are capable of destruction.

No state is immune to tornado occurrence, but because of their
preponderance in that area, a corridor stretching north and east of
Texas is termed "Tornado Alley." On the open plains of Texas, Oklahoma,
Kansas, and adjacent states to the east, cool, dry air originating in
the Rocky Mountains or in Canada overlays warm, moist air from the Gulf
of Mexico. Air currents aloft impart a spin to the air masses and, if
conditions are right, tornadoes may form.

Tornadoes can cause deaths and injuries, scarring a neighborhood in just
seconds. In the United States, an average of more than 800 are sighted
each year, causing approximately 86 deaths and more than 1,500 injuries
annually (NOAA 2007). A tornado is capable of major devastation, ripping
the roofs off homes, picking up even the largest of vehicles or
trailers, and leveling or uprooting large trees.

In recent years tornado sightings, deaths, injuries, and property damage
have increased, as has the number of especially violent tornadoes.
(Christopherson 2006). Often a meteorologist can detect within a few
minutes whether a tornado will form from a thunderstorm cell, but
tornadoes sometimes develop with little or no advance warning. Also, as
increasingly sophisticated mobile equipment has become available,
tornado-trackers have taken to the field to capture data in real time.

> For more information on tornadoes go to these Web sites:
>
> <http://www.fema.gov/hazard/tornado/index.shtm>
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado_alley>
>
> <http://www.bt.cdc.gov/disasters/tornadoes/about.asp>
>
> <http://www.spc.noaa.gov/>
>
> <http://www.noaa.gov/tornadoes.html>

### Earthquakes (Figure 3)

Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of stored energy in the
earth's crust. The crust is made up of dozens of roughly fitted pieces
(tectonic plates) that migrate in a very slow but constant motion across
the surface of the planet. Plates create frictional stress when forced
into each other at what are known as fault lines. When the stress
exceeds a critical value known as local strength, a failure occurs and,
as the edges of the plates take up new positions, a tremendous amount of
energy is released in waves throughout the earth. This is an earthquake.

Earthquakes and their aftershocks pose a significant public health
threat. The propagating waves may cause the ground to shake, resulting
in structural collapse, ruptures of natural gas/petroleum lines and
water mains, and destruction of transportation and communication links.
Damage is compounded when ruptured gas lines ignite, ruptured water
lines are rendered useless for fire fighting, and consequent flooding
curtails access to damaged areas. Buildings and other structures located
on unconsolidated ground (e.g., landfills, sand, beaches) are most
susceptible to failure. During an earthquake older structures that have
not been strengthened to meet recent seismic design codes --- in
particular unreinforced masonry buildings --- are the most serious
safety threat. Aware of this danger, in the early 1980s the City of Los
Angeles began strengthening such buildings. By the time of the 1994
Northridge shock more than 6,000 buildings had been reinforced. The
structural building enhancement program undoubtedly prevented
substantial loss of life and property during the Northridge earthquake.

Substantial damage and loss of life is also possible if a shallow-ocean
quake results in a tsunami (i.e., tidal wave). The force of a tsunami is
capable of rapidly pushing water inland; considerable destruction may be
caused by the impact of tsunami-borne waves and debris as the waves
retreat rapidly to the sea. During such events near-shore craft are also
at high risk.

Earthquake wave intensity is measured using the Richter scale (and more
recently, the moment magnitude scale). A quake measured at Richter 2.0
has not twice the energy released of a Richter 1.0 quake, but actually
computes to about 31.5 times -- thus a 3.0 earthquake is 992 times as
powerful as a 1.0 quake. The Northridge shock registered 6.8 on the
Richter scale -- but this was considerably less powerful than the
Alaskan earthquake of 1964, which registered 8.6.

Active earthquake regions include the West Coast, Utah northward into
Canada, the central Mississippi valley, the southern Appalachians,
portions of South Carolina, New Jersey north through New England, and
Hawaii (Christopherson 2006).

> > For more information on earthquakes, go to:
> > <http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1995/fs225-95/>
>
> > <http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/neic/>
>
> > <http://www.fema.gov/hazard/earthquake/index.shtm>
>
> > <http://www.bt.cdc.gov/disasters/earthquakes/>

### Floods (Figure 4)

A flood occurs when water from a river or stream overflows its banks.
Some of the events that can cause a flood are prolonged rainfall over
several days, intense rainfall over a short period of time, or an ice or
natural debris jam. For rivers to overflow their banks periodically is
part of the natural cycle, and in so doing rivers create an adjacent
flood plain. Historically, humans have chosen to live on the flood
plains of rivers because of the flood plains' level grade, rich soil,
and proximity to water. Thus flood plains are often densely populated.
For this reason the potential for human catastrophe from flooding is
substantial.

In the United States, flooding causes more damage than any other severe
weather-related event. In 1999, as a result of successive hurricanes,
flooding in Eastern North Carolina left scores dead, 50,000 homeless,
more than \$10 billion in estimated property damage, and ongoing
environmental damage. Nationally, estimated insurance payouts from
flood-related damage averaged \$4.6 billion a year from 1984--2003.

At any time of the year flooding poses a risk in all 50 states. Melting
snow can combine with rain in the winter and early spring, severe
thunderstorms can bring heavy rain in the spring and summer, or
hurricanes can bring intense rainfall to coastal and even inland states
in the summer and fall. Because a river stage height in one location may
have an entirely different impact than the same river stage height in
another, the effects of a flood vary from one location to another.

During flood-associated weather events, the National Weather Service
(NWS) provides a forecast of the river flood stage and the NWS flood
severity categories for flood-prone areas. Each category is defined
based on property damage and public threat. The categories are

1.  Minor (minimal or no property damage, but possibly some public
    threat or inconvenience).

2.  Moderate (some inundation of structures and roads near streams, some
    evacuations of people or transfer of property to higher elevations
    are necessary).

3.  Major (extensive inundation of structures and roads, significant
    evacuations of people or transfer of property to higher elevations).

Persons who live in areas prone to flash floods should plan to protect
their family and property. To assist in that planning the Red Cross and
other agencies have prepared Web sites.

> <http://www.weather.gov/floodsafety/floodsafe.shtml>
> [http://www.redcross.org/services/prepare/0,1082,0_240\_,00.html#Know](http://www.redcross.org/services/prepare/0,1082,0_240_,00.html%23Know)
>
> <http://iwin.nws.noaa.gov/iwin/us/nationalflood.html>

### Hurricanes (Figure 5 and Figure 6)

A hurricane is a natural hazard, with great destructive potential over a
wide area. Known in Asia as typhoons or cyclones, hurricanes kill
thousands every year. The dangers from a hurricane arise from the winds,
the storm surge, the rainfall, and the tornadoes a hurricane can
generate. Even the smallest hurricane has a much wider storm path than
does a tornado, ranging in diameter from 100 to 600 miles wide and
larger. The area of most intense precipitation is the hurricane's eye
wall, which surrounds the relatively calm eye of the storm. The entire
storm usually moves along at speeds of 10 to 25 miles per hour. When it
makes landfall it pushes immense amounts of seawater inland, a
phenomenon known as storm surge. Atop the storm surge the hurricane
delivers high and hard-pounding waves. The strongest winds of a
hurricane are in its right-front quadrant (when viewed from above). It
is here that numerous tornadoes often spawn (Christopherson 2006).

The principal difference between hurricanes and more common
thunderstorms is that hurricanes originate in and receive their energy
from warm tropical waters. A hurricane loses considerable energy as it
moves through cooler waters or overland --- though it is still capable
of threatening both life and property (Ahrens 2003).

Hurricanes and tropical storms are categorized in the Saffir-Simpson
scale based on air pressure, sustained winds, and height of storm surge
(Table 4). A tropical storm has achieved hurricane status when sustained
wind speeds exceed 74 mph. Hurricanes of Category 3 or greater are
considered major hurricanes (Neumann 1999), and cause the greatest
damage and loss of life.

While all Gulf Coast and Atlantic Coast counties are at risk of
hurricane landfall, the potential varies by state; Hawaii is also at
risk for hurricanes. More than fifty percent of the U.S. population
lives in coastal areas, and such populations are growing. Thus, many
living on the coast have very little experience with hurricanes. This
raises the potential for risk (Jarrell 1992). Development in low-lying
coastal areas and certain construction styles make certain areas more
vulnerable to damage from hurricanes. As infrastructure development
proceeds along susceptible coastlines, the potential for property damage
increases even as better hurricane forecasting and preparation limits
the loss of life.

A study conducted by The International Hurricane Research Center at
Florida International University identified the most vulnerable areas of
the United States for hurricane damage. FIU used twelve criteria
including physical factors, socioeconomic indicators, and history to
evaluate the vulnerability of U.S. mainland areas to hurricanes.

> The nation's most vulnerable areas are:

1.  New Orleans, Louisiana

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
4.  Lake Okeechobee, Florida

5.  Florida Keys

6.  Coastal Mississippi

7.  Miami/Ft. Lauderdale, Florida

8.  Galveston/Houston, Texas

9.  Cape Hatteras, North Carolina

10. Eastern Long Island, New York

11. Wilmington, North Carolina

12. Tampa/St. Petersburg, Florida

Source:
<http://www.ihc.fiu.edu/media/docs/10_Most_Hurricane_Vulnerable_Areas.pdf>.

For the 20-year period 1985--2004, an average of 11.5 tropical storms,
6.4 hurricanes, and 2.6 major hurricanes struck the U. S. coast
annually. September is the most common month for hurricanes to make
landfall in the United States, with 37 percent of storms occurring in
that month (Blake 2005). Consequently, neither the very active 2005
hurricane season nor the relatively quiet 2006 season (June 1 --
November 30) should be construed as a precise indicator of future
hurricane numbers or intensity.

For more information on hurricanes, see:

> <http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/>
>
> <http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/index.html>
>
> <http://www.geocities.com/hurricanene/index.html>
>
> <http://www.fema.gov/hazard/hurricane/index.shtm>
>
> <http://www.bt.cdc.gov/disasters/hurricanes/>
>
> <http://www.boatus.com/hurricanes/tracking.asp>

### Blizzards (Figure 7)

For much of the United States, winter weather conditions include
extended subfreezing temperatures and repeated bouts of heavy snow,
icing, and high winds. A blizzard is a weather condition characterized
by low temperatures and winds greater than 24.3 miles per hour (28
knots) bearing large amounts of snow. Direct exposure to a combination
of cold temperatures and wet conditions can induce hypothermia. Cold
temperatures are also associated with increased rates of respiratory
illnesses and heart disease, with a concomitant increase in mortality
(McGeehin and Mirabelli 2001).

From 1995--2000, the counties surrounding Burlington, VT, Salt Lake
City, and the northernmost counties in New York State experienced the
largest number of hazardous winter weather events (National Atlas of the
United States 2006). Yet the cities experiencing the largest winter
weather-related mortality over this period were San Diego, Philadelphia,
Chicago, Cleveland, and Salt Lake City, respectively.

All these cities other than San Diego are in the northern tier of the
United States and endure relatively long winters. Although Chicago and
Philadelphia are among the largest cities in the nation and should
expect higher absolute totals of morbidity and mortality, the other
cities are mid-sized and their presence on this list suggests further
review of emergency response or public health resources may be
necessary. With regard to San Diego and other southerly cities, it may
be that winter weather events, whether blizzards or near-freezing
temperatures, are mistakenly viewed as infrequent occurrences for which
no preparation is necessary. As with most northerly cities, Cleveland
and Salt Lake City routinely anticipate adverse winter weather
conditions and, when events occur, must more effectively focus their
response.

In an effort to decrease the incidence of resultant illness and loss of
life, authorities might consider improved allocation of appropriate
emergency response or public health resources to these cities and to
others insufficiently prepared for winter weather emergencies.

> For more information on blizzards, see
>
> <http://www.ussartf.org/blizzards.htm>
>
> <http://www.weather.com/encyclopedia/winter/blizzard.html>

### Wild fires (Figure 8)

Forest fires are natural events --- they are an important component of
ecosystems that on balance help to sustain life and recycle nutrients.
In addition, public agencies purposely set controlled fires (cool fires)
to consume excess undergrowth and leaf litter that would otherwise be
available for a much larger destructive fire. A wildfire, however, is an
uncontrolled fire in a wildland area that not only endangers the
ecosystem but could eventually present a direct threat to human life and
property. Commonly caused by
[lightning](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning) strike, other
wildfire sources include pyroclastic debris from a volcanic eruption as
well as anthropogenic sources such as human carelessness and
[arson](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arson). Every year tens of
thousands of wildfires consume millions of acres of forested land across
the United States.

Dry and windy conditions are factors that literally add fuel to a
wildfire. A feedback mechanism frequently occurs as the heat from a fire
dries out adjacent vegetation, which then becomes fodder for the fire.
Firefighting tactics for such fires include mitigating this feedback
system by wetting down objects in the fire's likely path. The western
United States is noted for the frequency and size of its forest fires,
particularly at the end of customarily dry summers and early autumn. A
notable phenomenon is the Santa Ana wind that descends into coastal
California from inland desert plateaus, drying out vegetation as it
passes. This insures the likelihood of very destructive brush fires that
freely burn both forests and residences. Because of the constant wind,
Santa Ana fires may burn up to 40 miles of wildland per day (Ahrens
2003).

Nevertheless, in California as elsewhere, residential development
proceeds apace in areas that were only recently considered remote from
civilization. Thus with each passing year, the threat increases to human
life and property. Further, as fire removes vegetation from forests and
as then-unimpeded winter rains wash away topsoil, soil erosion becomes a
problem. On slopes, mudslides may also present a problem.

The smoke produced by a wildfire is a mixture of toxic gases and fine
particles from burning trees and other vegetation. The smoke acts as an
irritant to the eyes and respiratory system and is deleterious to those
with chronic heart and lung diseases.

Careful use of fire is advised in wildland areas --- particularly so
during the dry season or drought. Fireproofing homes and advising the
public to avoid "wildfire prone" areas are essential elements in
programs designed to minimize wildfires and protect citizens from
wildfire losses.

> For more information on wildfires, see
>
> <http://www.noaa.gov/fireweather/>
>
> <http://www.usgs.gov/hazards/wildfires/>
>
> <http://www.fema.gov/hazard/wildfire/index.shtm>
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire>
>
> <http://www.bt.cdc.gov/firesafety/wildfires/index.asp>

### Heat waves (Figure 9)

Of all mortality associated with natural disasters, for the period 1979
-- 2002 heat-related death was the leading contributor (CDC 2006).
Although no one is immune from heat-related debility, under conditions
of intense heat and humidity older persons, children, and those with
compromised immune systems are most susceptible (CDC 2006). The use of
indoor air-conditioning is the most significant factor in decreasing the
incidence of heat-related death and illness. Thus midsummer power
outages pose an increased public health risk, especially to the infirm
and immobile (CDC 2006). Consequently, municipalities must maintain and
upgrade electrical power infrastructures.

According to the National Atlas, the cities experiencing the most heat-
related hazardous events from 1995 -- 2000 were, respectively, Houston,
Dallas, Philadelphia, St Louis, Chicago, and Oklahoma City. Of these,
Philadelphia, Chicago, and Dallas incurred the greatest mortality
incidence.

On a per capita basis, heat-related deaths occur more frequently in
urban/suburban areas than in rural communities (Kilbourne 1982). This
may be due to the greater residential density of elderly persons
rendered more vulnerable in prolonged periods of hot weather. In urban
settings, the elderly often live alone or are confined to beds (Semenza
et al. 1996).

Extreme humidity, that is, high moisture content in the air, combined
with intense heat produces uncomfortable conditions for everyone. If
humidity is also high, air at a given temperature will have a much
higher so-called apparent temperature. The National Weather Service (and
the local weather reporter) use a heat index (HI) that combines heat and
humidity to indicate how the air affects the average person. The Level
of Concern is divided into four categories: Caution, Extreme Caution,
Danger, and Extreme Danger with this last category -- Category I --
describing conditions that place people in high-risk groups vulnerable
to heatstroke or sunstroke.

In July of 1995, extremely hot summer air sitting over the Midwest ---
combined with moist air originating in the Gulf of Mexico --- produced
heat index values in the region and the Northeast that remained at
Category I for almost a week. Even at night people found little respite
from the heat --- over several nights, temperature cooling was
negligible. Nearly 1000 persons died, including 700 in Chicago, many of
whom were sick, elderly, and alone (Christopherson 2006).

Note too that a sustained high heat wave coupled with drought conditions
also poses increased risk to vulnerable individuals (CDC 2006).

For more information on heat waves, see

> <http://weather.noaa.gov/weather/hwave.html>
>
> <http://www.redcross.org/services/prepare/0,1082,0_243_,00.html>
>
> <http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/heat/index.shtml>

### Volcanic Eruptions (Figure 10)

Volcanoes form when molten rock (magma) from the planet's interior
gathers in an underground chamber until increasing pressure forces it to
rupture the earth's surface through a conduit of its own creation. The
volcano itself is an accumulation of eruptive products, largely lava
(surface magma), pyroclastics (mostly pulverized rock), and ash.

Globally, most volcanoes are located along plate boundaries. At such
boundaries oceanic crust is diving under (i.e., subducting) continental
crust where at sufficient depths it melts into magma. Pressure and heat
intensify to the point that the magma penetrates upward through weaker
areas in the crust, erupting at the surface as a volcano.

Volcanoes are considered extinct, dormant, or active --- though our
interest here is necessarily the active volcanoes. Volcanic eruptions
can be relatively gentle (i.e., effusive), or explosive, depending on
the magma's chemical makeup. A volcano can spew rivers of molten lava,
clouds of poisonous gases, and hailstorms of pyroclastics over a wide
area (FEMA 2006).

![](media/image3.png){width="3.1458333333333335in"
height="2.3409722222222222in"}The "Ring of Fire" is a zone of frequent
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions encircling most of the Pacific Ocean
--- including the American west coast. North America has some 70
volcanoes, largely in the Pacific Northwest, including Alaska and
Hawaii. Few are active, with the famous exception of Mount St. Helens in
Washington State. In the continental United States, most active
volcanoes are of the explosive variety, their eruptions posing extreme
hazards to humans. Upon erupting, the immediate danger area is generally
within a 20-mile or so radius around the volcano, although 100 miles
away or more, some danger may still threaten (FEMA 2006).

The volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands are not located at the margins of
plates; instead, they are at so-called "hot spots." These are weak zones
in the earth's crust where magma is slowly pushed upwards to the
surface. Although a few are active, Hawaiian volcanic eruptions are
effusive in nature, their hazards being occasional tremors and fires
from flowing lava. The lava flow itself, while extremely hot, moves too
slowly to present an immediate threat to those sufficiently alerted. It
will however, destroy all in its path, putting at risk such plant and
animal life as vegetation, penned or tethered animals, and nestlings
(Volcano, 2007).

While not immediately dangerous to most adults, the acidic gas and ash
may cause lung damage to small infants, the elderly, and to those with
severe respiratory illnesses, thus affecting people hundreds of miles
away from the eruption. Volcanic ash also can damage machinery,
including engines and electrical equipment; for example, airplanes
should avoid flying near an ash cloud. Rain-soaked ash accumulations are
heavy enough to collapse roofs (FEMA, 2006). Volcanic eruptions as large
as the Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines blast in 1991 may have a significant
effect on the global environment, adding contaminants to the atmosphere
and lowering temperatures worldwide

Sideways-directed volcanic explosions such as the 1980 Mt. St. Helens
explosion are known as "lateral blasts." Large pieces of rock may be
projected at very high speeds for several miles. Lateral blasts can kill
by projectile impact, by burial under debris, or by the intense heat of
rapidly moving caustic gas. Entire forests may be leveled. Moreover,
volcanic eruptions can be accompanied by other natural hazards,
including earthquakes, mudflows and flash floods, rock falls and
landslides, sulfuric acid rain, fire, and, rarely, tsunamis (FEMA,
2006).

For more information on volcanoes, see:

> <http://www.fema.gov/hazard/volcano/index.shtm>
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano>
>
> <http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Vdap/framework.html>
>
> <http://www.noaa.gov/volcanoes.html>
>
> <http://www.usgs.gov/hazards/volcanoes/>
>
> <http://www.bt.cdc.gov/disasters/volcanoes/>

### Debris Flow (mud slides/land slides) (Figure 11)

Debris Flow (or mass movement) consists of the movement of a volume of
earth, soil, and rock debris downslope under the force of gravity ---
sometimes suddenly and rapidly, and often in considerable amounts. For
Debris Flow to occur, the force of gravity must overcome the resisting
force --- the friction --- that enables material to cling to a slope.
The resisting force is typically weakened if the material (clay and
shale being particularly susceptible) is wet or saturated with water.
Once over this friction threshold, material may fall, slide, flow or
creep.

![](media/image4.jpeg){width="4.743055555555555in"
height="2.2152777777777777in"}

Debris Flow may be fast, slow, large, or small and can be activated by
rainfall or snowmelt, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, wildfires,
bioturbation (animal movement such as burrowing), structural overburden,
alternate freezing and thawing (frost heave), and erosion of a slope due
to human modification (FEMA).

Rockfalls and avalanches involve large numbers of individual rocks or a
mass of rock, debris, and soil falling at high speed, often lubricated
by water and triggered by an earthquake. The material involved in
landslides is more cohesive and may fall as a unit. Landslides, too, are
typically sudden and rapid moving. "Flow" refers to earthflows and
mudflows (saturated soil) that move as a consequence of drenching rains
on mountain slopes. Soil creep, as the name implies, is a much more
gradual process that can move trees or property slowly downslope but
which poses little threat to life (Christopherson 2006).

Debris Flow may cause extensive property damage and, in instances of
sudden, rapidly moving landslides, considerable loss of life. Landslides
pose threats in areas of poor land management, mostly in mountainous
regions and coastal regions, where moisture and slopes come into
frequent contact or where housing is expanding into areas previously
avoided.

Flows can move very fast and are the most deadly type of Debris Flow
event, striking with little or no warning. They grow in a type of
"snowball-effect," travel several miles from their source, and, as they
pick up trees, boulders, cars, and other materials, expand in size.
Land-use zoning, professional inspections, and proper design can,
however, minimize many landslide, mudflow, and debris flow problems.

For more information on landslides/Debris Flow, see:

> <http://www.usgs.gov/hazards/landslides/>
>
> <http://www.fema.gov/hazard/landslide/index.shtm>
>
> <http://www.bt.cdc.gov/disasters/landslides.asp>
>
> <http://landslides.usgs.gov/index.html>

## Technological (Anthropogenic) 

This section discusses technological or anthropogenic (i.e. caused by or
derived from human activity) acute hazards. Acute hazard events are
nonroutine, accidental, or intentional events that have immediate public
health consequences for an affected population. Unlike long-term chronic
hazards, acute hazards are short-term events that frequently lead to
immediate injury, fatalities, and emergency response activities
(Chakraborty 2001).

The cause of an acute event may originate in the technology itself or as
a result of a natural hazard. Regardless of cause, the first step in the
methodology to determine human vulnerability is always to identify the
hazards. In this section, we discuss five hazard categories: chemical,
radiological, dam and levee failures, flooding, and terrorism.

Acute events related to hazardous materials or hazardous waste transport
can be the result of unintentional accidents or terrorism events.
Information on acute transport events are discussed throughout this
section and summarized at the end.

### Chemical

Today more than 80,000 chemicals are registered in the United States for
use in commerce. An estimated 2,000 new chemicals are introduced
annually for use in products such as food, personal care, prescription
drugs, household cleaners, and lawn care. The effects of many of these
chemicals on human health are unknown. Yet people and the environment
may be exposed to them during manufacture, distribution, use, and
disposal, or as pollutants in air, water, or soil (NTP 2001). Persons
may also be exposed during acute events such as accidents or terrorism.

According to the National Response Center (NRC), in 2006, 36,855
accidents led to a reportable release (See Table 5), about 100 reports
per day. Human vulnerability to these events is an important concern,
given that approximately one in every six Americans currently resides in
an area vulnerable to a hazardous material incident (Phillips and Gray
1996 in (Chakraborty 2001).

The potential health effects from chemical exposure are functions of the
amount and length of time of exposure as well as the toxicity of the
chemical. Most of the releases reported to the NRC may be small and may
lead to no exposure at all. Large exposures, however, do occur, and the
projected risk from industrial facilities that store large quantities of
hazardous chemicals is of concern. According to the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), at some 123 facilities in the United States an
accidental release of chemicals would threaten exposure of more than one
million persons. Further, a release at any of another 750 chemical
plants poses a threat to more than 100,000 persons. Some 15,000 chemical
facilities in the United States use, produce, or store large quantities
of hazardous chemical products. See
<http://www.marshriskconsulting.com/st/PDEv_C_370_NR_306_PI_391625.htm>
(last accessed 2006 November 11).

The first step in risk assessment is the identification of the hazard
--- this includes chemical, biological,[^1] or radiological hazards. The
primary sources of information for the location of chemicals are the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) databases on facilities that
generate, store, treat, transport, or dispose of certain chemicals, or
their databases on past releases of certain chemicals. In addition, in
the following eight sections we discuss databases from the National
Geospatial Intelligence Agency and the Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry.

#### CERCLIS 

The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability
Information System (CERCLIS) supports the U.S. EPA implementation of the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(CERCLA). Commonly known as Superfund, CERCLA was enacted by Congress in
1980 to clean up abandoned or uncontrolled hazardous waste sites.
CERCLIS contains general information on these sites across the United
States and its territories and includes location, contaminants, and
cleanup actions taken.

The sites in the database include

-   Sites first discovered to be a potential hazard to human health or
    the environment, and which are abandoned or uncontrolled,

-   Sites that have been inspected after discovery,

-   Sites that have been discovered and inspected and no additional work
    has been completed (e.g., after closer inspection, a site was
    determined not to be a hazard or was deferred to another
    environmental program).

-   Sites that are undergoing investigation or cleanup under an
    emergency (short-term) action or longer-term action.

After discovery and inspection, sites are evaluated using a hazard
ranking system (HRS). If the HRS score and other factors indicate that
further investigation and cleanup is required, the site is proposed for
the federal National Priorities List (NPL). NPL sites are considered to
present the greatest hazard to human health or the environment. All
other sites in the database are considered non-NPL sites. Non-NPL sites
may be addressed at the state level. Sites may be deleted from the NPL
if cleanup is completed (other reasons may also prompt deletion), but
they are will still be maintained in CERCLIS.

From an exposure perspective, CERCLIS sites could be sources of exposure
to on- and off-site populations. For the most part, CERCLIS does not
usually represent a potential for an acute hazard from anthropogenic
acts or technological accidents but should be reviewed to verify the
potential for release. During natural disasters, contamination from
these sites may be spread by wind or water. The actual potential for
exposure depends on the site history and conditions.

On a national level, CERCLIS data can be obtained from EPA's Envirofacts
at <http://www.epa.gov/enviro/> or the Right-To-Know Network at
<http://www.rtknet.org/>. For persons working at the state level,
databases maintained at the state environmental agencies are preferred.
They represent the original data provided to EPA, and environmental
state contacts will have more information on the content of their data.

#### RCRAInfo and BRS

The U.S. EPA developed the RCRAInfo database to support its RCRA
compliance and permitting program. RCRA (Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act of 1976, amended by the Hazardous and Solid Waste
Amendments \[HSWA\] of 1984) is a program to ensure that hazardous
wastes and some nonhazardous wastes are generated, stored, transported,
treated, and disposed of in an environmentally sound manner. RCRA
provides for the management of hazardous wastes from the point of origin
to the point of final disposal (i.e., "cradle to grave").

The RCRAInfo data includes a list of regulated RCRA facilities with
facility status, regulated activities, and compliance histories. The
list also includes transporters. The actual information in RCRAInfo is
facility-dependent; facilities that generate small quantities of
hazardous waste and store hazardous waste for less than 90 days have
fewer items of information than those generating large quantities.
Detailed data are available on facilities that generate large quantities
of hazardous waste or treat and dispose of hazardous wastes on site.
These data include the waste types and the maximum allowed (i.e.,
permitted amounts), treatment throughput, storage volumes, and disposal
volumes.

The Biennial Reporting System Database (BRS) is a database compiled from
the Hazardous Waste Reports that must be filed every 2 years under the
RCRA program. Whereas RCRAInfo contains information about all the units
and the maximum allowed volumes or process rates, the BRS contains
information about actual amounts.

The universe of facilities in BRS includes facilities whose activities
classify them as a

-   Large Quantity Generator (LQG) of waste, or

-   A treatment, storage, or disposal facility of RCRA hazardous waste
    on site in units subject to RCRA permitting requirements.

The complete definition of Large Quantity Generator is complex, but a
simplified version is any site that in any single month generates or
accumulates

-   more than 2,200 lbs of RCRA waste

-   more than 2.2 lbs of RCRA acute hazardous waste, or

-   more than 220 lbs of spill cleanup material contaminated with RCRA
    acute hazardous waste.

RCRAInfo also contains information about the release of hazardous waste
from the RCRA facilities into the environment. Facilities must assess
their property for contamination and, if contamination is found,
evaluate and clean up that contamination in a process similar to
Superfund sites.

From an exposure perspective, sites listed in RCRAInfo may be sources of
exposure to on- or off-site populations. Indeed, technological
incidents, such as a fire in a hazardous waste storage area or the
rupture of a tank, can cause a sudden release of hazardous waste from.
Natural disasters may also lead to sudden releases and acute exposures.

On a national level, RCRAInfo and BRS data can be obtained from EPA's
Envirofacts <http://www.epa.gov/enviro/> or the Right-To-Know Network at
<http://www.rtknet.org/>. Again, for those working at the state level,
databases maintained at the state environmental agencies are preferred
--- they are the original data provided to EPA, and environmental state
contacts will have more information on the content of their data.

#### EPCRA Facilities-TRI and Tier 2 Facilities 

The Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) of 1986
establishes requirements for federal, state, and local governments, as
well as for industry for emergency planning, and "community
right-to-know" reporting on hazardous and toxic chemicals. This law was
designed to help local communities protect public health and the
environment from chemical hazards. Details on EPCRA are shown in the
side box below.

Data available from EPCRA are based on the type and volume of chemicals
stored at the facility as shown in Table 6 and the reporting
requirements as shown in Table 7. The level of reporting is based on the
types of substances handled by the facility.

EPCRA Section 303 governs extremely hazardous substances in threshold
planning quantities (TPQ) ranging from 1 to 10,000 pounds, which must be
initially reported to the SERC and LEPC (see
<http://yosemite.epa.gov/oswer/ceppoweb.nsf/content/epcraOverview.htm>)
and, if applicable under Sections 311 and 312, to the fire department.

EPCRA hazardous substances (Section 311/312) must also be reported to
the SERC, LEPC, and to the fire department. This section also requires
submission of MSDS sheets for each chemical. The TPQ for these chemicals
is higher; Tier I refers to an aggregated dataset from the more detailed
Tier II. Most of the time the Tier II data are available, thus making
the Tier I data unnecessary.

Tier I data include an estimate (in ranges) of the maximum amount of
chemicals for each category present at the facility at any time during
the preceding calendar year, an estimate (in ranges) of the average
daily amount of chemicals in each category, and the general location of
hazardous chemicals in each category.

The Tier II report contains basically the same information as Tier I,
but also names the specific chemicals and their general location. Many
states require Tier II information under state law. Tier II forms
provide the following information for each substance:

-   The chemical name or the common name as indicated on the MSDS,

-   An estimate (in ranges) of the maximum amount of the chemical
    present at any time during the preceding calendar year and the
    average daily amount,

-   A brief description of the manner of storage of the chemical,

-   The location of the chemical at the facility, and

-   An indication of whether the owner elects to withhold disclosing
    location information to the public.

Because many SERCs have added requirements or have incorporated the
federal contents into their own forms, Tier I/II forms should be
obtained from the SERC. The information submitted under sections 311 and
312 is available to the public from LEPCs and SERCs. Centrally collected
data are also available at [https://erplan.net](https://erplan.net/);
the local agencies should, however, have more complete and up-to-date
information.

In 1999, EPA excluded gasoline held at most retail gas stations from
EPCRA 311/312 reporting. EPA estimates that about 550,000 facilities are
now covered by EPCRA 311/312 requirements (USEPA 2000).

A subset of the chemicals in the EPCRA list is provided in Table 8.

Under EPCRA Section 304, releases of CERCLA hazardous substances must be
reported, including certain radionuclides greater than the reportable
quantity (RQ). Spills of RQs must be reported to the National Response
Center (NRC, [http://www.nrc.uscg.mil](http://www.nrc.uscg.mil/)), whose
primary functions are to serve as the sole national point of contact for
reporting all oil, chemical, radiological, biological, and etiological
discharges into the environment anywhere in the United States and its
territories, and to coordinate all federal containment, removal,
disposal efforts, and resources during an incident. The NRC maintains a
database of calls and events.

Lastly, Section 313 covers the Toxic Release Inventory, which includes
about 650 chemicals. TRI is a publicly available EPA database that
contains information on toxic chemical releases and other waste
management activities reported annually by certain covered industry
groups as well as by federal facilities. Data are submitted to EPA
annually, but the publicly available data runs about 2 years behind.
Thus in 2006, year 2004 data were available. Most releases reported in
the TRI database are routine, but the data are also supposed to contain
quantities of chemicals released during spills and accidents. TRI also
includes data about applicable off-site disposal locations.

On a national level, TRI data can be obtained from EPA's Envirofacts
(<http://www.epa.gov/enviro/>), EPA's TRI Web site
(<http://www.epa.gov/tri/> <http://www.epa.gov/enviro/>), or the
Right-To-Know Network (<http://www.rtknet.org/>). For those working at
the state level, databases maintained at state environmental agencies
are preferred --- they are the original data provided to EPA, and
environmental state contacts will have more information on the data
content.

#### Risk Management Plan Facilities

When Congress passed the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, it required
EPA to publish regulations and guidance for chemical accident prevention
at facilities using extremely hazardous substances. The Risk Management
Program Rule (RMP Rule) was written to implement Section 112(r) of these
amendments. The rule, which built upon existing industry codes and
standards, requires companies of all sizes that use certain flammable
and toxic substances to develop a Risk Management Program, which
includes a(n):

-   Hazard assessment that details the potential effects of an
    accidental release, an accident history of the last 5 years, and an
    evaluation of worst-case and alternative accidental releases;

-   Prevention program with safety precautions and maintenance,
    monitoring, and employee training measures; and

-   Emergency response program that, should an accident occur, spells
    out emergency health care, employee training measures, and
    procedures for informing the public and response agencies (e.g., the
    fire department).

Beginning in 1999, facilities began submitting a summary of their risk
management program (known as a "Risk Management Plan" or "RMP") to EPA.
Every 5 years the plans must be revised and resubmitted.

The List of Regulated Substances under section 112(r) of the Clean Air
Act is found in 40 CFR Part 68 and includes synonyms and threshold
quantities (in pounds). States that have taken delegation of the Clean
Air Act Section 112(r) program may have additional requirements for the
federally listed chemicals, additionally listed chemicals, or both.
Table 8 contains a sample table of the cross-reference between the RMP
chemicals and other previously referenced chemicals.

The RMP data can be used to identify facilities that could have a direct
impact on public health. The data also contain estimates of worst-case
accidents and risks to the public.

The RMP data are available from U.S. EPA and from states that have been
delegated authority to implement the program. See the implementing
agencies at this Web site:
(http://yosemite.epa.gov/oswer/ceppoweb.nsf/content/112r-sts.htm).
States may also adopt their own regulations requiring this data, thus
the state agencies should be contacted for information.

At U.S. EPA, the RMP data is considered sensitive but not
classified.[^2] As a result, RMP data are not readily available on the
Internet. Limited access to the data is available at the Right-To-Know
Network (<http://www.rtknet.org/>). More complete access can be obtained
from U.S. EPA through one of the contacts listed at this Web site:
<http://yosemite.epa.gov/oswer/ceppoweb.nsf/content/112r-sts.htm#HQContact>.

#### Permit Compliance System (PCS) - Majors and Minors (water dischargers)

The Permit Compliance System (PCS) provides information on companies
that have been issued permits to discharge waste water into water bodies
such as rivers and lakes. Information is available as to when a permit
was issued and expires, the quantity the company is permitted to
discharge, and the actual monitoring data showing the quantity the
company has in fact discharged.

PCS facilities are facilities that should be evaluated for risk in the
event of a technological accident or natural disaster. These facilities
may have wastewater ponds subject to spillage during an accident or that
can wash out during flooding or large rainfall events.

On a national level, PCS data can be obtained from EPA's Envirofacts
<http://www.epa.gov/enviro/> or the Right-To-Know Network at
<http://www.rtknet.org/>. At the state level, databases maintained at
the state environmental agencies are is the original data provided to
EPA, and environmental state contacts will have more information on the
content of their data.

#### Aerometric Information Retrieval System (AIRS)/AIRS Facility Subsystem (AFS)

Information on air releases is found in U.S. EPA's Aerometric
Information Retrieval System (AIRS), a computer-based repository for
information regarding air pollution in the United States. This
information originates in source reports by various stationary sources
of air pollution, such as electric power plants, steel mills, factories,
and universities and provides information about the air pollutants they
produce. In AIRS, these sources are known as facilities, and the part of
AIRS associated with data about sources is known as the AIRS Facility
Subsystem, or AFS. The information in AFS is used by the states to
prepare State Implementation Plans, to track the compliance status of
point sources with various regulatory programs, and to report air
emissions estimates for pollutants regulated under the Clean Air Act
(USEPA 2006).

Because of the industrial processes and chemicals that could be on-site,
the AFS database provides another list of facilities that should be
evaluated for risk in the event of a technological accident or natural
disaster.

On a national level, AIRS/AFS data can be obtained from EPA's
Envirofacts <http://www.epa.gov/enviro/> or the Right-To-Know Network at
<http://www.rtknet.org/>. For those working at the state level,
databases maintained at the state environmental agencies are preferred
because they are the original data that were provided to EPA, and
environmental state contacts will have more information on the content
of their data.

Air release information in Envirofacts contains data on the facilities
stacks and emissions, compliance actions, and industrial activities.
This data provides valuable information not only regarding the
industrial facilities, but about the chemicals they introduce into the
local air (USEPA 2006).

Some of the AFS data are also available from EPA\'s Enforcement and
Compliance History Online (ECHO) Web site. This tool provides the public
with compliance, permit, and demographic data from approximately 800,000
facilities regulated under the Clean Air Act stationary source program
and under other statutes. ECHO\'s integrated reports present
inspections, violations, enforcement actions, and penalties, and locate
facilities on demographic maps (<http://www.epa.gov/echo/index.html>).

#### Hazardous Substance Release and Health Effects Database (HAZDAT) -- ATSDR

HazDat is the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry\'s
Hazardous Substance Release/Health Effects Database. It is the
scientific and administrative database used to track sites on which
ATSDR has worked. These data will include proposed or Final National
Priority Sites (NPL) that are a subset of CERCLIS. They will also
include other sites ATSDR has been petitioned to evaluate for potential
chemical exposure. The amount of information for each site will depend
on the level of ATSDR's involvement. Sites at which the agency has been
extensively involved will include

-   site characteristics,

-   activities and site events,

-   contaminants found,

-   contaminant media and maximum concentration levels,

-   impact on population,

-   community health concerns,

-   ATSDR public health threat categorization,

-   ATSDR recommendations,

-   the environmental fate of hazardous substances,

-   exposure routes, and

-   physical hazards at the site/event.

Sites in HazDat provide another data source of potential locations
which, during a technological accident or natural disaster, could affect
public health. Although a number of sites are duplicative of CERCLIS,
other sites in this database --- because they represent ATSDR's work
from petitions --- may not appear in any other databases listed.

HazDat is available at <http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/hazdat.html>.

#### Homeland Security Infrastructure Program (HSIP) Gold Dataset

The National Geospatial Intelligence Agency (NGA) has developed a set of
infrastructure data for its analysis and for visual representation of
security-related activities. These data were developed under NGA's
Homeland Security Infrastructure Program (HSIP) through NGA's partners
and contractors and are referred to as the HSIP GOLD Dataset. The HSIP
GOLD Dataset represents NGA's initial compilation of vector data across
all national infrastructure sectors for distribution to the federal
customer base supporting homeland security and homeland defense
missions. The data represent the best available infrastructure-specific
vector data layers that NGA has in terms of accuracy, inclusiveness, and
attribution. HSIP data layers are shown in Table 9.

Four of the datasets are relevant to the evaluation of chemical risks in
a community (Table 10):

-   Chemical Industries

-   Hazmat Locations

-   Oil Terminals

-   Refineries

As with any of the datasets here, the data quality, completeness, and
accuracy vary by source, and metadata for each dataset should be
reviewed to understand the data strengths and weaknesses.

The NGA data are available through The Homeland Infrastructure
Foundation-Level Database (HIFLD) Working Group
(<http://www.hifldwg.org/>). Applicants must join the working group
through this Web site before requesting the dataset. Because of the
release restrictions, the data may not be available to state or local
agencies. Please check the Web site for membership information and
contacts.

### Radiological

For the purposes of this section, radiological refers to nuclear power
reactors (e.g., electrical generating stations), uranium fuel
fabrication facilities, and nuclear research facilities. Nuclear
research facilities include, among others, U.S. Department of Energy
sites such as Oak Ridge Laboratories and Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratories. The fuel fabrication facilities include uranium fuel,
uranium hexafluoride production facilities, and gaseous diffusion
enrichment facilities.

National level datasets for these facilities are available from NGA's
Homeland Security Infrastructure Program (HSIP) discussed in the
previous section. Sources of HSIP's data include, among others:

-   The Nuclear Regulatory Commission
    ([www.nrc.com](http://www.nrc.com/))

-   The Brookings Institute
    ([www.brook.edu/fp/projects/nucwcost/sites.htm](http://www.brook.edu/fp/projects/nucwcost/sites.htm)

-   The Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board
    ([www.dnfsb.gov/](http://www.dnfsb.gov/))

-   The International Atomic Energy Agency
    ([www.iaea.org/worldatom/rrdb/](http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/rrdb/))

    Each facility must have an emergency plan which should be obtained
    and used in any hazard assessment

### Dam Failures/Levee and Other Flood Control Structure Failures

Dam and levee failures have caused some of the worst disasters in
American history. The 1889 Johnstown flood, caused by the failure of a
privately owned dam, killed 2,200 persons and, before September 11,
2001, was the worst civilian disaster in the United States.

Locating dams, levees and other flood control structures is the first
step in a human vulnerability assessment related to these structures.
The second and third steps are identifying their ability to retain and
control the water and to identify potentially affected populations if
these structures fail.

The location of dams and a dam hazard rating may be obtained from the
National Inventory of Dams (NID), a geospatial database containing a
list of 79,000 dams. The data is maintained by the Army Corps of
Engineers in an ArcGIS shapefile and Microsoft Access format. The
database includes an attribute indicating the potential hazard to the
downstream area resulting from failure or mis-operation of the dam or
facilities. The hazard may be designated low, medium or high. Of the
79,000 dams, 11,800 are considered high-hazard dams. The data is
available at <http://crunch.tec.army.mil/nid/webpages/nid.cfm> [and can
be]{.underline} downloaded by-state or for the entire United States.

The NID does not provide information on dams that have fuse plugs. A
fuse plug is a collapsible dam on spillways or dams to allow the release
of water during high flood conditions. The extra flow after the fuse
plug release may create the potential for additional hazards downstream.
It is not known if the NID attribute from potential hazard considers
fuse plugs.

Stanford University maintains the National Performance of Dams Program
which provides information about dam incidents, dam performance, and
searchable database of the dam inventory. In 2005 the Program reported
20 dam incidents and three dam failures in the United States.
<http://npdp.stanford.edu/index.html>.

The Association of State Dam Safety Officials provides through their Web
site (<http://www.damsafety.org/>) contact information for local
officials responsible for dams, overviews of dam hazard potentials, and
other resources about dams. The state officials should be contacted to
identify specific information about the dams in your community.

Levees, dikes, floodwalls, and road and railroad embankments are all
structures that can provide protection from flooding and are potential
hazards if they fail. The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA) has developed a database to inventory these structures when they
provide protection from the 1-percent-annual-chance (100-year) flood on
effective and soon to be effective National Flood Insurance Program
Federal Insurance Rate maps (FIRM). The database system, which is
web-based, is called the FEMA Levee Inventory System (FLIS) and is
available to various FEMA partners through a password protected FEMA web
site (temporarily housed at the web address
[http://flis.pbsjdfirm.com](http://flis.pbsjdfirm.com/)). Access to this
system may be requested from the web page at
<https://hazards.fema.gov/femaportal/wps/portal/usercare_access>. The
development of the inventory is a work in progress and the completeness
of the database is not known.

The designation of meeting the 1-percent-annual-chance (100-year) is
very important because it these structures affect the designation of
areas in a flood plain as shown on the FIRM. To be considered eligible
for inclusion on a NFIP, the levees must be publicly owned and meet FEMA
standards for design, operation, and maintenance. Privately owned,
operated, or maintained levees are not eligible for this designation
unless State's statutes mandate their operation and maintenance.[^3]

In addition to FEMA, the Corps of Engineers have a long-range plan for
collecting levee information[^4] but the Corps approach is passive and
as a consequence, the data is likely not to be incomplete.

In preparing this document, we found that the USGS developed a levee
database for the Upper Mississippi river system
(<http://eros.usgs.gov/sast/>) and California maintains information on
levees within the state and has contracted with a private company to map
levee conditions: <http://www.levees.water.ca.gov/>, and
<http://www.pbsj.com/What/Core/FloodHazardManagement/CaliforniaDWR.asp>.

Levees also have fuse plugs that are designed to be removed to protect
other areas from flooding. It will be important to identify and map
these plugs when levees are evaluated.

In the United States, there is no one owner or operators of dams and
levees. The Army Corps of Engineers has constructed 10,500 miles of
levees, but most of these have been assigned to nonfederal sponsors for
operation and maintenance. Regulation of dams and levees varies state by
state so an assessor should contact the State agencies working with
water resources, dams or flood maps for more information.

A geographic information system (GIS) can be used to model an area
likely to be impacted by a dam failure. A simple model can be
constructed using land elevation data and water levels and volume
contained by a dam. More sophisticated models can be built using
software such as the M2M Dam Failure model
(<http://www.pdc.org/iweb/dam_modeling.jsp>) or the National Weather
Service FLDWAV Model
(<http://www.ntis.gov/search/product.asp?ABBR=PB2003500004&starDB=GRAHIST>).

## Acts of Terrorism

For the purposes of the paper, acts of terrorism will be divided into
acts of Mass Casualty and acts of Infrastructure Damage. It should be
noted that one type of terrorist act does not preclude the other, thus
some events can qualify in both categories.

An act of mass casualty is defined here as anything done by explosives
or by nuclear, chemical, or biological agents with the intent to cause
as many deaths or injuries as possible.

An act of infrastructure damage is defined here as anything done with
the intent to destroy or damage the civil infrastructure with the
further purpose of creating social chaos, denial of services, and
hardship for the affected population. Such infrastructure targets may
include but are not limited to power generation facilities (i.e., coal,
nuclear or natural gas) or substations, electric transmission lines,
transportation nodes (e.g., airports, shipping ports, cargo exchange
yards, railroad yards), bridges and tunnels, dams, water sources, water
or waste treatment facilities, roads, interstate highway interchanges,
waterways, petroleum processing facilities, natural gas facilities,
gasoline or natural gas pipelines, chemical production facilities,
radioactive waste storage facilities, telephone switching exchanges,
computer network nodes, raw agricultural product processing and storage
facilities, agricultural production, large office buildings, government
and administrative centers, and hospitals.

#### Mass Casualty

The greatest potential for mass casualty terrorism is likely to occur in
those places and events where large numbers of people gather in a
contained area. Examples include sporting events, political events,
conventions, or public entertainment events, all of which concentrate
large numbers of people in a relatively small area.

To find venues for such events at the state level, consult geospatial
databases such as Select Phone (a national business listing), Geographic
Data Technology, Inc.'s (GDT) Large Area Landmarks, or HSIP, which
represents common landmark areas within United States including military
areas, prisons, educational institutions, amusement centers, government
centers, sport centers, golf courses, and cemeteries.

At the local level, geospatial data sources would be the county or city
planning departments, which ideally will have more detailed and
information-rich references, either in an electronic format or in a
format suitable for scanning.

#### Infrastructure Damage

Acts of terrorism with the primary intent of causing disruption to
everyday life would more likely be aimed at the nation's physical
infrastructure. A majority of the infrastructure is either maintained or
overseen by government entities or centralized public and private
companies providing essential public services. An example would be the
TVA (Tennessee Valley Authority), which maintains, in conjunction with
the Army Corps of Engineers, a series of dams and hydroelectric power
generating plants in the TVA service area.

National-level datasets for these facilities are available from NGA's
Homeland Security Infrastructure Program (HSIP) discussed in the
previous sections. HSIP data layers are shown in Table 9.

Public use infrastructure (highways and interstate) data sources are
more easily accessible at the USGS Seamless Data Distribution page:
<http://seamless.usgs.gov/website/seamless/viewer.php>, as are airports,
parkways, railroads, and roads. These are derived from the U.S. Census
TIGER files and also available as a printable image from the National
Atlas\
( <http://nationalatlas.gov/maplayers.html>[)]{.underline}.

Transportation data is also available from the National Transportation
Atlas Database NTAD
(<http://www.bts.gov/publications/national_transportation_atlas_database/>).
This data includes the measure of annual average daily traffic for major
roads and highways. More detailed traffic counts can be found with the
departments of transportation in each state. For example, Georgia has a
State Traffic and Report Statistics (STARS) system and the data is
available in tables, static maps, and interactive maps:\
http://www.dot.state.ga.us/DOT/plan-prog/transportation_data/

In each instance, state and local details of the public service
infrastructure should be verified with the local service providers or
with government entities. For example, telephone and power generation
companies are generally multistate operations and will have to supply
their internal GIS/CAD databases of their coverage areas. HSIP data
contain some of this data.

Other corporate entities supplying essential services and infrastructure
may also operate over a wide area, but have geographically specific
locations. Relationships and contacts with these companies will have to
be established to obtain GIS/CAD information. At the county and city
level, the local planning and GIS departments may have the information.

## Hazardous Material and Hazardous Waste Transportation

Information about hazardous material and hazardous waste transport for
human vulnerable assessments is available in manifest systems, tracking
systems, or commodity surveys for past shipments and in accident and
spill databases for past events. Transportation systems can include
roadways, waterways, rails, pipelines, and aviation.

Information on hazardous material road routes is available from the U.S.
Bureau of Transportation Statistics (see Table 11 for the web links in
this section). This data consists of non-radioactive hazardous materials
and radioactive road based routes which are either designated for the
hazmat transportation or restricted from use by hazmat carriers. This
database does not list every road that is used for hazardous material or
waste transport.

Information on hazardous material routes via waterways is available from
the Corps of Engineers' Waterway Network Link Commodity Data. This data
is also available from U.S. DOT Commercially Navigable Waterways
database. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers data appears to contain more
waterways but with fewer attribute information than the US DOT database.
A sample of the data is shown in Figure 12.

Pipeline data is available from HSIP or from the U.S. DOT Pipeline and
Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA).

Exact routes and shipments information of hazardous materials and wastes
are available from individual transportation companies but the data is
not generally available to the public or government officials. The U.S.
DOT Bureau of Transportation Statistics do provides a Commodity Flow
Survey of hazardous material shipments with data showing state to state
shipments.

U.S. EPA's TRI data provides data on off-site shipments of waste to
waste treatment, storage and disposal sites. This data includes a
starting and ending street address.

Several local jurisdictions have conducted their own hazardous materials
commodity flow studies. Among others, these include Wake County, North
Carolina, Calexico, California, and Sedgwick County, Kansas.

Accidents and spills during transport are recorded in several different
national database systems. In general, these systems include the
National Response Center, the Hazardous Substances Emergency Events
Surveillance (HSEES) system, the U.S. DOT Hazardous Materials Incident
Data system, and the U.S. DOT State Transportation Statistics system.
Data specific for waterway spills or accidents is available from the
U.S. DOT Marine Casualty and Pollution Database. Aviation accidents for
any cause and result are available at the NTSB aviation accident
database and the FAA Accident /Incident Data System

State environmental protection agencies or departments are likely to
have greater detail about spills and accidents involving hazardous
materials and waste.

For information on the calculation of risk using this data, there have
been several published papers and books. One such book is the
Quantitiative Risk Assesmsent of Hazardous Materials Transport Systems
by Michel Nicolet-Monnier and Adrian V. Gheorghe (1996).

# Preparedness

## Data Sources

Emergency preparedness for response to natural or anthropogenic hazards
relies on access to a multitude of data and tools. This section
highlights data available from national sources for use in this arena.
Information about how to obtain the data or the tools is included.

### Emergency Planning and Community Right to Know Act

The Emergency Planning and Community Right to Know Act (EPCRA) is
designed to provide information necessary to protect the public health
of local communities by proper notification of the chemical hazards
present in those communities. The act requires each state to create a
State Emergency Response Commission (SERC) and that those SERCs in turn
establish emergency planning districts and local emergency planning
committees (LEPCs). The LEPCs develop emergency response plans, which in
the event of a release of a chemical substance, contain all the
information that local officials need for response. The emergency
response plan outlines

-   the facilities with hazardous substances in the community,

-   methods for determining the potentially affected population,

-   transportation and evacuation routes,

-   emergency response resources,

-   coordinators and facilitators and their contact information, and

-   emergency notification procedures.

For additional information about EPCRA and to locate your local SERCs
and LEPCs refer to:
<http://yosemite.epa.gov/oswer/ceppoweb.nsf/content/epcraOverview.htm>.

Another EPCRA requirement is the Toxic Release Inventory (TRI). This
directs that certain facilities meeting criteria regarding chemical
production or use, report information about toxic substances handled by
the facility or released into the environment during the year. Data
available through the TRI program are in a national database that is
updated annually. The TRI identifies releases of toxic chemicals into
the environment. It includes several data files with over 200 attributes
about each release, including the name and location of each facility
that handles toxic chemicals above a certain threshold. To obtain more
information about TRI refer to: <http://www.epa.gov/tri/> and to
download TRI data refer to: <http://www.epa.gov/tri/tridata/index.htm>

> Sources:
>
> 1\. EPCRA Fact Sheet. United States Environmental Protection Agency
> Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, March 2000.
>
> 2\. Title 42 U.S. Code
> <http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode42/usc_sup_01_42_10_116.html>

### Homeland Security Infrastructure Program (HSIP) Gold Data

The Department of Homeland Security National Geospatial-Intelligence
Agency (NGA) has compiled a description of national level critical
infrastructure. This description represents the most comprehensive and
accurate unclassified vector data available on the national level. It
results from a directive NGA received to explore and identify data that
could assist in providing a common operating picture for the federal
government in support of preventing and mitigating the effects of
terrorism in the United States. Data sources include both government
sources and commercial entities.

Data layers include the following themes:

-   agriculture,

-   borders,

-   boundaries,

-   chemical industries,

-   commercial and retail locations,

-   fiber-optics lines,

-   educational institutes,

-   emergency services,

-   energy,

-   broadcast facilities,

-   finance institutions,

-   food-related locations,

-   populated places,

-   government,

-   HAZMAT,

-   land use,

-   law enforcement,

-   shipping,

-   manufacturing,

-   mining,

-   tourism,

-   natural hazards,

-   health,

-   public venues,

-   transportation, and

-   water supply.

Although the list is exhaustive, in affected areas local sources may be
required to form a more complete infrastructure picture.

This data set has, however, a few limitations. While the
government-supplied data are for public use, under the current licensing
agreements with private vendors it is only accessible by the federal
government and its contractors. Some discussion has occurred regarding
extending access to other users at other levels of government for
emergency response efforts. The dataset's completeness and accuracy is
high, but may vary from theme to theme due to the varying number of
sources. Also, the original collector of the information may have had
plans for the dataset other than emergency preparedness. Thus some
desired attributes may be absent, and other attributes may be unwanted.

> Source: HSIP GOLD Readme Document, United States Department of
> Homeland Security, Office of the Americas/North America and Homeland
> Security Division.

## Tools for Preparedness and Emergency Response

A number of tools are available to facilitate response to an actual
event or to prepare for a hypothetical event. This section highlights
some of the resources available for hazard preparedness and response
activities. Some resources relate to all hazards, and others focus on
one or a few specific types. Some of the tools discussed herein have
also been developed for vulnerability assessments and were based on
vulnerability experts' researched methodologies. Tool descriptions are
included to make the reader aware of their existence, purpose, and known
limitations. This section is not meant as a recommendation or
endorsement of any product; the products are listed for vulnerability
analysis only.

### HAZUS-MH

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) developed HAZUS-MH with
the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS). It is a no-cost
planning tool for estimating the potential loss of life and
infrastructure, and the economic impact of an earthquake, flood, or
hurricane. It may be used to assess damages for scenarios at the county,
state, or region level. The software package functions with three models
and several included data layers. To run the GIS functionality, support
software known as ARCGIS is required, and for the flood model the
additional spatial analyst extension is required.

Although HAZUS is not solely intended as a hazard vulnerability
assessment tool, it has been used by decision makers for HVA studies. It
has been used in immediate response to disasters as well. HAZUS is not
intended for, nor is it appropriate for use in place of
engineering-level analysis of damaged infrastructure. Many training
courses are available to users and for the creation of HAZUS user groups
(HUGs), which have spread the knowledge base of tips and techniques
throughout the United States. Additional resources and ordering
information may be found at:
<http://www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/hazus/index.shtm>

> Source: <http://www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/hazus/index.shtm>

### Hurrevac 2000

Hurricane Evacuation, or Hurrevac 2000 was developed with support and
funding from FEMA and the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). It is
an evacuation decision support tool for emergency management officials
facing the threat of a tropical cyclone (tropical storms and
hurricanes). Although Hurrevac is provided free of charge, it is limited
to a restricted user base.

Hurrevac has many capabilities concerning tropical cyclones. It accesses
weather advisories from the National Weather Service's National
Hurricane Center and plots active storms' projected and observed track
and position. It also posts traffic information for major hurricanes.
For certain areas, **S**ea, **L**ake, and **O**verland **S**urge from
**H**urricanes (SLOSH) model maps are available. These are graphics
depicting along coastal areas the projected surge of water brought on by
hurricane-associated high winds and low pressure. River flood outlook
predictions are also downloadable. Hurrevac can download past data from
historical cyclones going back to the beginning of record keeping on
such storms. This capability allows for a limited degree of analysis on
past storms for determining where and when storms have traveled in the
Atlantic and Pacific Ocean basins. Hurrevac does not provide GIS
functionality beyond the plotting of the weather information, but the
forecasted storm and weather data are exportable to shape file format.
This enables performance of more powerful spatial analysis and overlay
onto other themes pertinent to the user's focus. For more information
and to register to obtain Hurrevac go to:
<http://www.hurrevac.com/index.html>.

> Source: <http://www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/nhp/hurrevac.shtm> and
> <http://www.hurrevac.com/index.html>

### Community Vulnerability Assessment Tool --- New Hanover County, North Carolina Case Study

The Community Vulnerability Assessment Tool is collection of tutorials
available through the NOAA Coastal Services Center and produced with the
collaboration of FEMA, of New Hanover County, North Carolina, and a
number of other North Carolina state and county partners. The tool
demonstrates methodologies developed to assess hazard risks and hazard
vulnerabilities for communities. New Hanover County, North Carolina was
one of seven pilot communities selected to demonstrate the methodology.
The New Hanover County study is an excellent example of how to guide the
user step-by-step through the process of identifying high risk areas of
vulnerability and hazard mitigation planning. One of the study goals was
to recognize the roles of government and nongovernment players; New
Hanover County included in their hazards planning some of their major
private organizations.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are a major component of this tool.
Several maps illustrate the analysis used to develop the hazard
assessment/mitigation. The various sections include identification of
hazards, analysis of infrastructure, environmental inventory, and
analysis of societal vulnerabilities. Because the pilot community has a
coastal location, the tutorial also introduces some methodologies and
data available for tracking coastal changes, such as using LIDAR
topographical analysis to track beach erosion. It stresses the
importance of maintaining an up-to-date picture as to the location of
vulnerabilities. The inclusion of the pilot study illustrates the
methodology with real world data and greatly accentuates the usefulness
of this tutorial. To obtain the tutorial go to:

> Source: <http://www.csc.noaa.gov/products/nchaz/startup.htm>

### Coastal Risk Atlas Vulnerability Assessment Tools (VAT) and Interactive Maps

The Coastal Risk Atlas is part of NOAA National Coastal Data Development
Center's (NCDDC) objective to aid communities in hurricane preparedness.
The effort involves the cooperative efforts of local, state, and federal
governments to develop a collection of tools and data to help prepare
communities to cope with disasters incurred by coastal weather events.
The Coastal Risk Atlas is a work in progress as refinements are made to
reformat and disseminate existing weather observation data and new
coastal areas are added.

The VAT provides an ESRI ARCGIS extension to conduct vulnerability
assessments. It consists of a Demographic Vulnerability Assessment Tool
(DVAT) and a Multi-Hazard Vulnerability Assessment Tool (MHVAT). These
tools work with data provided with the Coastal Risk Atlas and any
additional data the user possesses. At time of printing, the extension
ran under an ARCGIS 8.x environment. The data provided with the tool
include Census 2000 demographics, emergency and health facilities, and
evacuation zones and evacuation routes, as well as base map layers.

For communities without the in-house ability to conduct their own
vulnerability assessment, the Coastal Risk Atlas web site offers a
vulnerability assessment map atlas online with the demographic,
infrastructure, environmental, and hazard data displayed for each state.
Active storms are included during the hurricane season, as is a national
vulnerabilities risk. Ultimately, the assessment will include all
communities along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts. Check the web
site periodically as new coastal areas are added:
<http://portal.ncddc.noaa.gov/cra/gislibrary/>.

> Source: <http://portal.ncddc.noaa.gov/cra/>

### National Atmospheric Release Advisory Center (NARAC)

According to the U.S. National Response Plan, the Interagency Modeling
and Atmospheric Assessment Center (IMAAC) is designated as the federal
agency to provide airborne hazard modeling predictions for Incidents of
National Significance (INS) and incidents with potential for national
significance. The National Atmospheric Release Advisory Center (NARAC)
--- primarily a support facility for Department of Defense and
Department of Energy (DOE) sites --- is the interim agency providing
IMAAC support. NARAC provides plume dispersion modeling for accidental
and intentional releases of chemical, radiological, nuclear, and
biological substances. In the event of a significant release of airborne
hazards, NARAC is automatically called upon to conduct real-time
assessments of the spread of hazardous airborne substances. Registered
federal emergency management customers may make requests any time public
health or safety is threatened or when decision-making information is
needed to protect people in the vicinity of a release. NARAC also
provides services for those conducting national and local planning and
preparedness exercises. It is also helpful in vulnerability assessments
for airborne hazards, particularly in communities with facilities that
could pose such threats. The facility provides services mainly to
federal customers charged with making decisions for populations in the
vicinity of a hazardous release, although state and local governments
are covered through their supporting partner federal agencies. In cases
of life or death emergency, however, unregistered users can make
requests through the Department of Energy Watch office. Phone number is
(925) 422-7627 and (925) 424-6465.

NARAC modeling is a dynamic process. Using preliminary data, initial
predictions can be ready within minutes of an incident. As new
information about hazardous substances is obtained from field
observations and measurements, the dispersion model is refined. NARAC
offers to end users a suite of modeling and prediction tools for
planning purposes that can be used with or without involving NARAC staff
expertise. Additionally, a secure web tool is available that provides
the user with an initial and more accurate assessment of a release. It
presents a basic set of maps and reports, and the ability to share the
information among other users in the system. See the web site for more
information on products and services, and contact information for
questions regarding access.

> Source: <http://narac.llnl.gov/index.php>

# Vulnerability Analysis -- GIS Methods for Data Overlay, Analysis and Display

Vulnerability analysis seeks to delineate the areas affected by a
hazard. Identifying areas that are more vulnerable to real or
hypothetical hazards has value in all stages of disaster management.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software provides tools for the
data overlay, analysis, and display used in vulnerability analysis.

Although vulnerability cannot be evaluated directly, measurements,
calculations, and models can yield meaningful representations. Because
vulnerability has different meanings for different hazards, the maps,
data, and analysis needed to represent vulnerability vary according to
the situation. A variety of methods have been used to derive measures of
vulnerability. Sometimes vulnerability is expressed as a probability,
but more often it is mapped in relative terms, with high, moderate, and
low-risk areas delineated.

The starting-point for assessing vulnerability is, as stated previously,
identifying the hazard source. Mapping some hazards is straightforward,
but others are impossible to map accurately. Easily mapped examples
include facilities such as dams and nuclear power plants. These
facilities contain risks at known, fixed locations. As mentioned in
Section V (Hazards), EPA's CERCLIS and RCRA databases are good resources
for identifying locations handling hazardous chemicals.

On the other hand, some hazard sources are not so easy to identify or
map --- they are transient in space, in time, or in both. Consider
transportation routes: a spill might occur anywhere along an interstate
truck route, railroad line, or waterway and can happen at any time.
Hazards due to severe weather can not be mapped in advance because
meteorological conditions change continuously and rapidly. For example,
mapping with any degree of certainty when or where a tornado will strike
is impossible. However, vulnerability can still be assessed in a
generalized way by mapping the factors or conditions that can give rise
to an event. Important here is the fact that maps always include some
degree of error and uncertainty, and, especially for hazard maps, that
uncertainty must be noted.

## Data Overlay

To determine the areas of vulnerability for a given hazard and to
portray vulnerability on a map, GIS analysts use spatial data that
correspond to the hazard. Each kind of hazard or event has distinct
physical characteristics, and the spatial data needed to assess
vulnerability is determined by the hazard's physical qualities. For
example, to map a flood event with some accuracy requires a few datasets
such as topography, stream networks, and precipitation data. Those
layers are less relevant for mapping risk associated with earthquakes
because the physical causes and effects of earthquakes are so different
from floods. Table 1 and Table 2 list hazards and certain spatial data
layers used in conjunction with assessing vulnerability for each hazard.

## Data Analysis

For hazards with known physical dimensions, analysts can gather data
before the event, perform analytical operations, and generate a
vulnerability map. For example, a reservoir behind a dam contains a
volume of water that can be calculated with a fair degree of accuracy.
That volume of water, along with topographic data for the area
downstream, is input into a flow-modeling algorithm to determine the
flood wave that would result from dam failure.

By contrast, the flood-model points to the computational complexity of
modeling natural processes. GIS software provides powerful tools for
spatial analysis, but two other ingredients are required to produce
meaningful models: 1) people with a high degree of analytical expertise,
and 2) good data --- sometimes, a lot of good data.

The point is that modeling is complex --- even for processes with a
relatively small number of input variables. More complex hazards such as
wildfires encompass multiple and interacting spatial variables: fuel
type, fuel availability, wind speed and direction, slope and topography.
Developing and running models with that degree of complexity requires a
dedicated staff that specializes in model algorithms.

Still, modeling is not the only option; measures of vulnerability can be
derived using analytical methods apart from modeling. For example,
locating features is the fundamental strength of maps and GIS. The
ability to attach a spatial record such as a coordinate to a feature
makes it possible to map an event and to see its relationship to other
events or geographic features. The map below depicts the storm track of
a hurricane, including both its historical path, as well as the path
projected by a storm model. The map effectively conveys the notion that
the storm will affect a large geographic area, but it also presents the
inherent uncertainty in hurricane predictions.

> ![](media/image5.jpeg){width="3.7291666666666665in" height="2.8875in"}

Tracking hurricanes provides such vital information that NOAA provides
hourly data feeds. Those feeds have been integrated into GIS
applications for the purpose of monitoring and disseminating storm
information to emergency responders and the wider public.

Beyond simply showing where hazards are located, distance analysis is
the first (and probably easiest) way to assess vulnerability. For many
hazards, proximity to the event is crucial: people near a hazardous
event are often more affected than those far from the event. A basic map
might show an event with lines of equal distance as concentric rings. By
overlaying numerous spatial layers using GIS, we can answer a basic
question very quickly: who and what is within a given distance of the
event?

By creating a buffer or a ring at a predetermined distance around an
event, GIS can be used to monitor what is happening and take specific
action by mapping the inside of an area. For example, if a chemical were
to spill from a train, it may be important to know the number of
schools, day cares, businesses, and people within a certain buffer
distance around the event. By adding detailed Census data at the block
level a researcher could look at total counts for certain populations,
such as children 5 years of age and younger, and adults 65 and older.

While the buffering technique is widely effective and often used,
researchers also need to know how far away the vulnerable populations
are from the event. A starting point is that the appropriate data sets
or in-place GIS allow for single or multiple distance analysis. For
example, it may be important to look at the distance of a school to TRI
site or it may be important to look at the distances of all the schools
to the nearest TRI site and determine an average distance. This
methodology can be applied to anything that has coordinates and can be
mapped.

> ![](media/image6.jpeg){width="3.8854166666666665in"
> height="2.9895833333333335in"}

For some hazards, direction is as important as distance. People located
far downstream from a dam failure may be at great risk, while those near
the failure --- but upstream from it --- face little immediate danger.
Direction is a key factor for hazards influenced by flow; chemicals and
radiation flow with air and water currents while mud and debris, lava
and snow flow downslope. Additionally, some hazards have directional
bias caused by their geometric orientation (Mount St. Helens) or other
factors.

> ![](media/image7.wmf){width="6.489583333333333in" height="4.625in"}

In addition to location and people, mapping can also help show
population density and location of activities. This provides an
additional level of information beyond simply mapping feature locations.

![](media/image8.jpeg){width="3.5in" height="2.66875in"}

Taking mapping quantities one step further, mapping change is a powerful
way to analyze spatial-temporal relationships to anticipate future
conditions, to decide on a course of action, or to evaluate the results
of an action or policy. By mapping where and how things move over a
period of time, ability to anticipate future needs is improved. For
example, do we expect the West Nile Virus to decrease or increase for a
given area in the future? What changes need to be made to protect our
vulnerable populations? By adding Census data we can determine where our
most vulnerable populations are located and compare them to areas of
concern for West Nile Virus. It may even be possible to map conditions
before and after an action or event to see the impact that action or
event had on affected vulnerabilities.

![](media/image8.jpeg){width="2.602777777777778in"
height="2.078472222222222in"}![](media/image9.jpeg){width="2.6875in"
height="2.0965277777777778in"}

# References

Ahrens D. 2003. Meteorology today*.* Pacific Grove, CA:
Brooks/Cole-Thomas Learning.

Arnold M et al. 2006. Natural disaster hotspots: case studies.
Washington DC: The World Bank.

Blake ES, Rappaport EN, Jarrell JG, and Landsea CW. 2005. The deadliest,
costliest, and most intense United States tropical cyclones from 1851 to
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# Tables and Figures

> []{#__RefHeading___Toc183314870 .anchor}Table 1. Natural hazards and
> spatial layers

  --------------- ------------------------------------------- --------------
  Hazard          Spatial layers                              *Section*

  Thunderstorms   Meteorological data                         1

  Tornados        Meteorological data                         2

  Earthquakes     Geologic faults, seismic data               3

  Floods          Topography, drainage networks,              4
                  meteorological data                         

  Hurricanes      Meteorological data, storm track,           5
                  topography                                  

  Blizzards       Meteorological data                         6

  Forest and Wild Vegetation, meteorological data, topography 7
  Fires                                                       

  Heat Waves      Meteorological data                         8

  Volcanic        Topography, seismic data, volcanoes         9
  Eruptions                                                   

  Debris Flows    Topography (especially slope)               10
  --------------- ------------------------------------------- --------------

> []{#__RefHeading___Toc183314871 .anchor}Table 2. Technological hazards
> and spatial layers

  -------------- -------------------------------------------- --------------
  Hazard         Spatial layers                               *Section*

  Chemical       CERCLIS, RCRInfo, TRI, RMP, PCS, AFS,        1
                 HAZDAT, HSIP                                 

  Radiological   Facilities handling radiological materials   2
                 including NRC, DNFSB, and IAEA               

  Dam or Levee   Geology, topography, stream networks,        3
  Failure        information about the dam (age,              
                 construction, etc)                           

  Traffic        Transportation networks for roads, railways, D
  Accidents      waterways, and pipelines; accident and spill 
                 databases.                                   

  Terrorism Acts Public gathering places such as stadiums and C
                 convention centers                           
  -------------- -------------------------------------------- --------------

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314872 .anchor}Table 3. Demographic Census
Sources

  ------------------------------- ---------------- -----------------------
  PERSONAL WEALTH                                  

  ***Source***                    ***Variable      ***Variable
                                  Number***        Description***

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     P53              Median Household Income
                                                   in 1999

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     P82              Per Capita Income in
                                                   1999

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     P87              Poverty Status in 1999
                                                   by Age

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     H85              Median Value for All
                                                   Owner-Occupied Housing
                                                   Units

  **AGE**                                          

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     P8               Sex by Age

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     P62              Social Security Income
                                                   in 1999 for Households

  **DENSITY OF BUILT                               
  ENVIRONMENT**                                    

  2000 County and City Data Book  B-7              Labor Force and
                                                   Business Establishments
                                                   and Employment

  2000 County and City Data Book  C-5              Manufacturing and
                                                   Wholesale Trade

  2000 County and City Data Book  C-6              Retail Trade and
                                                   Accommodation and Food
                                                   Services

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     H30              Units in Structure

  **SINGLE-SECTOR ECONOMIC                         
  DEPENDENCE**                                     

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     P49              Sex by Industry for the
                                                   Employed Civilian
                                                   Population 16+ Years

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     P50              Sex by Occupation for
                                                   the Employed Civilian
                                                   Population 16+ Years

  **RACE**                                         

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     P6               Race
  ------------------------------- ---------------- -----------------------

  ------------------------------- ---------------- -----------------------
  **ETHNICITY**                                    

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     P7               Hispanic or Latino by
                                                   Race

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     P19              Age by Language Spoken
                                                   at Home by Ability to
                                                   Speak English

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     P20              Household Language by
                                                   Linguistic Isolation
  ------------------------------- ---------------- -----------------------

  ------------------------------- ---------------- -----------------------
  **OCCUPATION**                                   

  See Single-Sector Economic                       
  Dependence                                       

  **INFRASTRUCTURE DEPENDENCE**                    

  Annual Survey of State and      N/A              General Revenue and
  Local Government Finance                         Debt Outstanding at End
                                                   of

  **HOUSING STOCK AND TENANCY**                    

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     H7               Tenure

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     H16              Household Size

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     H30              Units in Structure

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     H34              Year Structure Built

  **PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES**                    

  2000 Census, Summary File 3     P42              Disabled population 5
                                                   Years and Older
  ------------------------------- ---------------- -----------------------

**\* All sources can be found at
[www.census.gov](http://www.census.gov/) .**

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314873 .anchor}Table 4: Saffir/Simpson
Hurricane Scale

> > ![](media/image10.jpeg){width="3.998611111111111in"
> > height="1.7819444444444446in"}

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314874 .anchor}Table 5. Summary of National
Response Center Reported Incidents

  ------------------ -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
  Incident Type      2000     2001     2002     2003     2004     2005     2006

  Fixed              11,813   12,441   11,917   11,972   12,972   13,017   13,621

  Unknown Sheen      4,016    4,147    3,426    3,733    3,411    3,934    3,797

  Vessel             3,945    4,378    3,919    3,961    4,385    4,611    4,767

  Mobile             3,597    3,216    2,942    2,946    3,192    3,215    3,267

  Pipeline           1,618    1,841    1,621    1,643    1,574    1,896    1,839

  Platform           1,428    1,355    1,233    1,343    1,198    1,395    1,606

  Storage Tank       1,379    3,140    3,044    2,809    2,838    2,687    2,577

  Railroad           1,335    1,235    1,124    1,173    1,476    1,685    1,868
  Non-Release                                                              

  Railroad           1,332    1,241    1,200    1,074    1,276    1,532    1,451

  Continuous         938      238      393      462      112      189      150

  Aircraft           248      297      278      262      277      211      217

  Drill/Exercise     669      789      908      809      1,073    1,223    1,578

  Unknown            84       0        0        0        0        0        0

  Terrorist          33       42       180      107      125      119      117
  Non-Release                                                              

  TOTAL INCIDENTS    32,435   34,360   32,185   32,294   33,909   35,714   36,855
  ------------------ -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

> <http://www.nrc.uscg.mil/incident97-02.html>. Last accessed 2006
> November 11.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314875 .anchor}Table 6. EPCRA Chemicals and
Reporting Thresholds

+-----------+---------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
|           | Extremely     | CERCLA      | EPCRA       | TRI         |
|           | hazardous     | Hazardous   | hazardous   | Substances  |
|           | substances    | Substances  | substances  |             |
|           |               |             |             | (Section    |
|           | (Section 302) | (Section    | Tier I and  | 313 )       |
|           |               | 304)        | II          |             |
|           |               |             |             |             |
|           |               |             | (Section    |             |
|           |               |             | 311/312)    |             |
+-----------+---------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| **Ch      | 356           | \>1,000     | 500,000     | 650 toxic   |
| emicals** |               | substances  | products    | chemicals   |
|           |               |             |             | and         |
| **        |               |             |             | categories  |
| Covered** |               |             |             |             |
+-----------+---------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| **Thr     | Threshold     | Reportable  | TPQ or 500  | 25,000      |
| esholds** | Planning      | quantity    | pounds for  | pounds per  |
|           | Quantity      | (RQ),       | Section 302 | year        |
|           | (TPQ) ranging | ranging     | chemicals;  | m           |
|           | from a        | from a      | 10,000      | anufactured |
|           | minimum of    | minimum of  | pounds on   | or          |
|           | 1-10,000      | 1-5,000     | site at any | processed;  |
|           | pounds on     | pounds,     | one time    | 10,000      |
|           | site at any   | released in | for other   | pounds a    |
|           | one time      | a 24-hour   | chemicals   | year used;  |
|           |               | period      |             | certain     |
|           |               |             |             | persistent  |
|           |               |             |             | bioa        |
|           |               |             |             | ccumulative |
|           |               |             |             | toxics have |
|           |               |             |             | lower       |
|           |               |             |             | thresholds  |
+-----------+---------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+

> []{#__RefHeading___Toc183314876 .anchor}Table 7. EPCRA Reporting
> Schedules

  --------------- -------------------------------------------------------
  Section         Reporting

  302             One time notification to SERC

  304             Each time a release above a reportable quantity occurs;
                  to LEPC and SERC

  311             One time submission; update only for new chemicals or
                  information; to SERC, LEPC, fire department

  312             Annually, by March 1 to SERC, LEPC, fire department

  313             Annually, by July 1, to EPA and State
  --------------- -------------------------------------------------------

SERC -- State Emergency Response Commission

LEPC -- Local Emergency Planning Committee

Table 8. One Sample Page from the Consolidated List of Chemicals (By CAS
Number) Subject to the Emergency Planning and community Right-To-Know
Act (EPCRA) and Section 112(R) Of the Clean Air Act (List of Lists)[^5]

+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| NAME              | CAS/ | S      | S   | C     | S   | R   | CAA |
|                   | 313  | ection | ect | ERCLA | ect | CRA |     |
|                   |      | 302    | ion |       | ion |     | 112 |
|                   | Cate |        |     | RQ    |     | C   | (r) |
|                   | gory | (EHS)  | 304 |       | 313 | ODE |     |
|                   |      | TPQ    | EHS |       |     |     | TQ  |
|                   | C    |        |     |       |     |     |     |
|                   | odes |        | RQ  |       |     |     |     |
+===================+======+========+=====+=======+=====+=====+=====+
| 2-Ac              | 53-  |        |     | 1     | 313 | U   |     |
| etylaminofluorene | 96-3 |        |     |       |     | 005 |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Nicotine          | 54-  | 100    | 100 | 100   | 3   | P   |     |
|                   | 11-5 |        |     |       | 13c | 075 |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Nicotine and      | 54-  |        |     | 100   | 3   | P   |     |
| salts             | 11-5 |        |     |       | 13c | 075 |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Pyridine,         | 54-  | 100    | 100 | 100   |     | P   |     |
| 3-(1-methyl-2-py  | 11-5 |        |     |       |     | 075 |     |
| rrolidinyl)-,(S)- |      |        |     |       |     |     |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Aminopterin       | 54-  | 500/   | 500 |       |     |     |     |
|                   | 62-6 | 10,000 |     |       |     |     |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| N-Ni              | 55-  |        |     | 1     | 313 | U   |     |
| trosodiethylamine | 18-5 |        |     |       |     | 174 |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Benzamide         | 55-  |        |     |       | 313 |     |     |
|                   | 21-0 |        |     |       |     |     |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Fenthion          | 55-  |        |     |       | 313 |     |     |
|                   | 38-9 |        |     |       |     |     |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| O,O-Dimethyl      | 55-  |        |     |       | X   |     |     |
| O-(3-meth         | 38-9 |        |     |       |     |     |     |
| yl-4-(methylthio) |      |        |     |       |     |     |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| phenyl) ester,    |      |        |     |       |     |     |     |
| phosphorothioic   |      |        |     |       |     |     |     |
| acid              |      |        |     |       |     |     |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Nitroglycerin     | 55-  |        |     | 10    | 313 | P   |     |
|                   | 63-0 |        |     |       |     | 081 |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Diisoprop         | 55-  | 100    | 100 | 100   |     | P   |     |
| ylfluorophosphate | 91-4 |        |     |       |     | 043 |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Isofluorphate     | 55-  | 100    | 100 | 100   |     | P   |     |
|                   | 91-4 |        |     |       |     | 043 |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Methylthiouracil  | 56-  |        |     | 10    |     | U   |     |
|                   | 04-2 |        |     |       |     | 164 |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Carbon            | 56-  |        |     | 10    | 313 | U   |     |
| tetrachloride     | 23-5 |        |     |       |     | 211 |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Cantharidin       | 56-  | 100/   | 100 |       |     |     |     |
|                   | 25-7 | 10,000 |     |       |     |     |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Bis(tributyltin)  | 56-  |        |     |       | 313 |     |     |
| oxide             | 35-9 |        |     |       |     |     |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Parathion         | 56-  | 100    | 10  | 10    | 313 | P   |     |
|                   | 38-2 |        |     |       |     | 089 |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Phosphorothioic   | 56-  | 100    | 10  | 10    | X   | P   |     |
| acid,             | 38-2 |        |     |       |     | 089 |     |
| O,O-diethyl-O-(4- |      |        |     |       |     |     |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| nitrophenyl)      |      |        |     |       |     |     |     |
| ester             |      |        |     |       |     |     |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| 3-M               | 56-  |        |     | 10    | 313 | U   |     |
| ethylcholanthrene | 49-5 |        |     |       | +\^ | 157 |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| D                 | 56-  |        |     | 1     |     | U   |     |
| iethylstilbestrol | 53-1 |        |     |       |     | 089 |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Be                | 56-  |        |     | 10    | 313 | U   |     |
| nz\[a\]anthracene | 55-3 |        |     |       | +\^ | 018 |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Coumaphos         | 56-  | 100/   | 10  | 10    |     |     |     |
|                   | 72-4 | 10,000 |     |       |     |     |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Cyanides (soluble | 57-  |        |     | 10    | 3   | P   |     |
| salts and         | 12-5 |        |     |       | 13c | 030 |     |
| complexes)        |      |        |     |       |     |     |     |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| 1,1-Dimethyl      | 57-  | 1,000  | 10  | 10    | 313 | U   | 15, |
| hydrazine         | 14-7 |        |     |       |     | 098 | 000 |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Dimethylhydrazine | 57-  | 1,000  | 10  | 10    | X   | U   | 15, |
|                   | 14-7 |        |     |       |     | 098 | 000 |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+
| Hydrazine,        | 57-  | 1,000  | 10  | 10    | X   | U   | 15, |
| 1,1-dimethyl-     | 14-7 |        |     |       |     | 098 | 000 |
+-------------------+------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314877 .anchor}Table 9. Homeland Security
Infrastructure Program (HSIP) GOLD Dataset (NGA 2005)

  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Sector              File            Source               Date         Release        Disclosure
                                                                        Restrictions   
  ------------------- --------------- -------------------- ------------ -------------- -------------
  Agriculture         Animal          Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Aquaculture     SICCODE 0273                      use license.   facilities
                      Businesses                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Crop Businesses Dun & Bradstreet     4/2/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      SICCODE 0111, 0112,               use license.   facilities
                                      0115, 0116, 0119,                                may be
                                      0131, 0132, 0133,                                released for
                                      0134, 0139, 0161,                                official use.
                                      0171, 0172, 0173,                                
                                      0174, 0175, 0179,                                
                                      0181, 0182, 0191                                 

                      Dairy           Dun & Bradstreet,    4/3/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Businesses      SICCODE 0241                      use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Farm and Ranch  Dun & Bradstreet,    4/4/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Businesses      SICCODE (same as                  use license.   facilities
                                      Crops) 0111, 0112,                               may be
                                      0115, 0116, 0119,                                released for
                                      0131, 0132, 0133,                                official use.
                                      0134, 0139, 0161,                                
                                      0171, 0172, 0173,                                
                                      0174, 0175, 0179,                                
                                      0181, 0182, 0191,                                
                                      and Additional                                   
                                      SICCODE 0211, 0212,                              
                                      0213, 0214, 0219,                                
                                      0241, 0251, 0252,                                
                                      0253, 0254, 0259,                                
                                      0271, 0272, 0273,                                
                                      0279, 0291                                       

                      Feedlot         Dun & Bradstreet,    4/5/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Businesses      SICCODE 0211                      use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Poultry and Hog Dun & Bradstreet,    4/6/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Farm Businesses SICCODE 0213, 0251,               use license.   facilities
                                      0252, 0253, 0254,                                may be
                                      0259                                             released for
                                                                                       official use.

  Borders             Canadian and    NGA                  6/30/03      Federal Wide   Federal Wide
                      Mexican Border                                    use, For       use, For
                      Crossings                                         Official Use   Official Use
                                                                        Only           Only

                      Non-Crossing    NGA                  2/18/2004    Federal Wide   Federal Wide
                      Ports Of Entry                                    use, For       use, For
                                                                        Official Use   Official Use
                                                                        Only           Only

                      Mexico/US       NGA                               Federal Wide   Federal Wide
                      Boundaries                                        use, For       use, For
                                                                        Official Use   Official Use
                                                                        Only           Only

                      Canada/US       NGA                               Federal Wide   Federal Wide
                      Boundaries                                        use, For       use, For
                                                                        Official Use   Official Use
                                                                        Only           Only

  Boundaries          HSIP 133 Cities NGA                  11/30/2003   Federal Wide   Federal Wide
                                                                        use, For       use, For
                                                                        Official Use   Official Use
                                                                        Only           Only

                      City Civil      NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Division        AdminBndy4                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Counties        NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      AdminBndy3                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      FAA Regions     NGA                  2/13/2004    Federal Wide   Federal Wide
                                                                        use, For       use, For
                                                                        Official Use   Official Use
                                                                        Only           Only

                      FEMA REGIONS    NGA.                 2/13/2004    Federal Wide   Federal Wide
                                                                        use, For       use, For
                                                                        Official Use   Official Use
                                                                        Only           Only

                      Great Lakes     NAVTEQ Q2 2003 from  Q2 2003      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Boundaries      WaterPoly                         use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Islands         NAVTEQ               Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Military Bases  NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      LandUseA                          use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      National Parks  NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      LandUseA                          use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Reservations    NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      LandUseB                          use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Urban Clusters  Census               1/1/2000     Public         Public

                      Urbanized Areas Census               1/2/2000     Public         Public

                      USACE Line      USACE                1998         Public         Public
                      Boundaries                                                       

                      USACE Polygon   USACE                1998         Public         Public
                      Boundaries                                                       

                      US States       USGS, National Atlas 6/1/2005     Public         Public
                      Boundaries                                                       

                      Watershed Lines USGS, National Atlas 11/30/2002   Public         Public

                      Watershed       USGS, National Atlas 11/30/2002   Public         Public
                      Polygons                                                         

  Chemicals           Chemical        Dun & Bradstreet     4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Industries                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  CommercialRetail    Corporate       NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Headquarters    LandUseB                          use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Grocery Stores  Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      SICCODE 5411                      use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Hotels and      NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Motels          TravDest, Fac_Type                use license.   facilities
                                      7011                                             may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Malls and       NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Centers         Shopping                          use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  Communications      Fiber Optic     NGA, from                         Federal Wide   Federal Wide
                      Lines           un-restricted platts              use, For       use, For
                                                                        Official Use   Official Use
                                                                        Only           Only

                      Regional Fiber  NGA, from                         Federal Wide   Federal Wide
                      Optic Lines     un-restricted platts              use, For       use, For
                                                                        Official Use   Official Use
                                                                        Only           Only

  Education           Colleges        IONIC Enterprise,    12/5/2003    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Universities    MCH                               use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Flight Schools  Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      SICCODE 8249,                     use license.   facilities
                                      NAICSDESC \'Flight                               may be
                                      Training\'                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Schools         IONIC Enterprise,    12/5/2003    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      MCH                               use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  EmergencyServices   EMS             TGS, IONIC, MCH      8/17/2005    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      FEMA Regional   NGA                               Federal Wide   Federal Wide
                      Hqs                                               use, For       use, For
                                                                        Official Use   Official Use
                                                                        Only           Only

                      Fire Stations   TGS, IONIC, MCH      6/21/2005    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  Energy              Electric        Global Energy        9/9/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Control Centers                                   use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Electric        Global Energy        9/9/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Generating                                        use license.   facilities
                      Units                                                            may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Electric        Global Energy        9/9/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Holding Area                                      use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Electric Power  Global Energy        9/9/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Plants                                            use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Electric        Global Energy        9/9/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Service                                           use license.   facilities
                      Territories                                                      may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Electric        Global Energy        9/9/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      SubStations                                       use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Electric        Global Energy        9/9/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Transmission                                      use license.   facilities
                      Lines                                                            may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Energy Control  Global Energy        9/9/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Areas                                             use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      EST Planning    Global Energy        9/9/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Areas                                             use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Gas Stations    NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      AutoSvc, Fac_Type                 use license.   facilities
                                      5540                                             may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Gulf Depth      Penwell              5/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Contours                                          use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Gulf Platforms  Penwell              5/4/2005     Federal Wide   Federal Wide
                                                                        use, For       use, For
                                                                        Official Use   Official Use
                                                                        Only           Only

                      Gulf Shipping   Penwell              5/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Fairways                                          use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Liquid Natural  Global Energy        9/9/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Gas Facilities                                    use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Lube, Oil and   Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Grease Plants   SICCODE 2992                      use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Natural Gas     Global Energy        9/9/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Storage                                           use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      NERC Region     Global Energy        9/9/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      NERC            Global Energy        9/9/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Reliability                                       use license.   facilities
                      Coordinators                                                     may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      NERC SubRegion  Global Energy        9/9/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Nuclear Fuel    TGS, NRC, MNI        9/15/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Nuclear Plants  NGA, from NRC        6/20/2005    Federal Wide   Federal Wide
                                                                        use, For       use, For
                                                                        Official Use   Official Use
                                                                        Only           Only

                      Nuclear         TGS, NRC             9/15/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Research                                          use license.   facilities
                      Facilities                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Offshore        Penwell              5/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Interconnect                                      use license.   facilities
                      Pts                                                              may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Offshore        Penwell              5/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Pipelines                                         use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Oil and Gas     Penwell              5/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Facilities                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Oil and Gas     Penwell              5/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Pipelines                                         use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Oil and Pipe    TGS, NPMS, MMS       9/15/2004    For Official   EPA retains
                      Lines                                             Use, Sensitive Authority for
                                                                        data           Disclosure

                      Oil Terminals   TGS, IRS             10/29/2004   Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Pacific         Mineral Management   5/4/2005     Federal Wide   Federal Wide
                      Platforms       Service                           use, For       use, For
                                                                        Official Use   Official Use
                                                                        Only           Only

                      Pipeline        Penwell              5/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Interconnect                                      use license.   facilities
                      Points                                                           may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Refineries      NGA, from EIA        4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Strategic       TGS, DOE, EIA        10/15/2004   Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Petroleum                                         use license.   facilities
                      Reserve                                                          may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      US Oil and Gas  TGS, MMS, USGS,      10/29/2004   Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Wells           State Entities                    use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  FCCCDBS             AM Broadcast    FCC CDBS Database,   7/31/2001    Public         Public
                      Facilities      from cdbs_am_l.mif,                              
                                      duplicate stations                               
                                      removed querying \*N                             
                                      in PATHSITETE field.                             

                      FM Broadcast    FCC CDBS Database,   7/31/2001    Public         Public
                      Facilities      from cdbs_l.mif                                  
                                      subsetted using the                              
                                      BF value in the                                  
                                      FCCRADSVC field.                                 

                      TV Broadcast    FCC CDBS Database,   7/31/2001    Public         Public
                      Facilities      from cdbs_l.mif                                  
                                      subsetted using the                              
                                      BT value in the                                  
                                      FCCRADSVC field.                                 

  Finance             Banking         Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Institutions    SICCODE 6021, 6022,               use license.   facilities
                                      6029, 6035, 6036                                 may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Branches Of     Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Foreign Banks   SICCODE 6081                      use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Bullion         NGA                  10/31/2004   Federal Wide   Federal Wide
                      Repositories                                      use, For       use, For
                                                                        Official Use   Official Use
                                                                        Only           Only

                      Commodity       Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Exchanges       SICCODE 6231                      use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Credit Unions   Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      SICCODE 6061, 6062                use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Federal Reserve Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      SICCODE 6011                      use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Foreign Trade   Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Banking         SICCODE 6082                      use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  Food Industry       Bakeries        Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      SICCODE 2051, 2052,               use license.   facilities
                                      2053                                             may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Beverage        Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Manufacturing   SICCODE 2082, 2083,               use license.   facilities
                                      2084, 2085, 2086                                 may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Breweries and   Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Distilleries    SICCODE 2082, 2083,               use license.   facilities
                                      2084, 2085                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Canneries       Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      SICCODE 2023, 2032,               use license.   facilities
                                      2033, 2034, 2035,                                may be
                                      2068, 2091, 2092                                 released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Grain Mills     Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      SICCODE 2041, 2044,               use license.   facilities
                                      2046                                             may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Meat Packing    Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      And Processing  SICCODE 2011, 2013,               use license.   facilities
                      Plants          2015                                             may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Soft Drink      Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Bottling Plants SICCODE 2086                      use license.   facilities
                                      \[NAICSDESC\] =                                  may be
                                      \'Soft Drink Mfg\'                               released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Water Bottling  Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      SICCODE 2086                      use license.   facilities
                                      \[NAICSDESC\] =                                  may be
                                      \'Bottled Water                                  released for
                                      Mfg\'                                            official use.

  GeographicNames     Populated       USGS, GNIS           3/31/2004    Public         Public
                      Places                                                           

  Government          DC Chanceries   NGA                  4/1/2005     Federal Wide   Federal Wide
                      and Embassies                                     use, For       use, For
                                                                        Official Use   Official Use
                                                                        Only           Only

                      Governors       TGS                  5/21/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Mansions                                          use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      State Capitols  TGS                  5/21/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  Hazmat              Hazmat          EPA , RFMP 2005 Data 7/1/2005     For Official   EPA retains
                      Locations                                         Use, Sensitive Authority for
                                                                        data           Disclosure

  Indexes             USGS_DOQQ1m     USGS                 6/25/1905    Public         Public

  LandUse             Land Use        NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      LandUseA merged with              use license.   facilities
                                      LandUseB                                         may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  LawEnforcement      All Law         Explore Information  1/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Enforcement     Services, from                    use license.   facilities
                                      pol_jan05.shp                                    may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      ATF             Explore Information  11/29/2004   Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      Services, from                    use license.   facilities
                                      pol_0105_final.shp                               may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Correctional    TGS, IONIC,MCH       1/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Facilities                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      DEA             Explore Information  1/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      Services, from                    use license.   facilities
                                      pol_0105_final.shp                               may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      FBI             Explore Information  1/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      Services, from                    use license.   facilities
                                      pol_0105_final.shp                               may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      INS             Explore Information  1/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      Services, from                    use license.   facilities
                                      pol_0105_final.shp                               may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Local Police    Explore Information  1/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      Services, from                    use license.   facilities
                                      pol_0105_final.shp                               may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      State Police    Explore Information  1/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      Services, from                    use license.   facilities
                                      pol_0105_final.shp                               may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      US Border       Explore Information  1/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Patrol          Services, from                    use license.   facilities
                                      pol_0105_final.shp                               may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      US Customs      Explore Information  1/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      Services, from                    use license.   facilities
                                      pol_0105_final.shp                               may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      US Marshals     Explore Information  1/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      Services, from                    use license.   facilities
                                      pol_0105_final.shp                               may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      US Secret       Explore Information  1/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Service         Services, from                    use license.   facilities
                                      pol_0105_final.shp                               may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  MailShipping        Air Shipping    Dunn & Bradstreet,   5/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Hubs            SICCODE 4512, 4522,               use license.   facilities
                                      4581                                             may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Bulk Mail       Dunn & Bradstreet    5/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Centers         database, SICCODE                 use license.   facilities
                                      4311, OFFICENAME                                 may be
                                      \'Bulk Maill\'                                   released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Post Offices    Dun & Bradstreet     5/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      SICCODE 4311                      use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Private Express Dunn & Bradstreet,   5/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Shipping        .SICCODE 4215, 4513,              use license.   facilities
                      Facilities      4581                                             may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  Manufacturing       Armament        Pinpointer Q22005    4/30/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Manufacturing   data (SIC 3482-3484,              use license.   facilities
                                      3489)                                            may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Steel Plants    Pinpointer Q22005    4/30/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      data (SIC 3312,                   use license.   facilities
                                      3315, 3316, 3317,                                may be
                                      3324, 3325)                                      released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Textile Plants  Pinpointer Q22005    4/30/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      data (SIC 2211-2295,              use license.   facilities
                                      2297-2299)                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  Mining              Agricultural    USGS                              Public         Public
                      Minerals                                                         
                      Operations                                                       

                      Coal Fields     USGS                              Public         Public

                      Construction    USGS                              Public         Public
                      Minerals                                                         
                      Operations                                                       

                      Crushed Stone   USGS                              Public         Public
                      Operations                                                       

                      Ferrous Metal   USGS                              Public         Public
                      Mines                                                            

                      Ferrous Metal   USGS                              Public         Public
                      Processing                                                       
                      Plants                                                           

                      Miscellaneous   USGS                              Public         Public
                      Industrial                                                       
                      Minerals                                                         
                      Operations                                                       

                      Nonferrous      USGS                              Public         Public
                      Metal Mines                                                      

                      Nonferrous      USGS                              Public         Public
                      Metal Process                                                    
                      Plants                                                           

                      Refract         USGS                              Public         Public
                      Abrasive and                                                     
                      Other                                                            
                      Operations                                                       

                      Sand and Gravel USGS                              Public         Public
                      Operations                                                       

                      Uranium Mines   Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      SICCODE 1094                      use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  NationalSymbols     National        NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Symbols         TravDest, Fac_Type                use license.   facilities
                                      5999                                             may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Tourist         NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Attractions     TravDest, Fac_Type                use license.   facilities
                                      7999                                             may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  NaturalHazards      Faults          USGS, from web       4/30/2004    Public         Public
                                      download of                                      
                                      Generalized Geologic                             
                                      Map of the                                       
                                      Conterminous United                              
                                      States                                           

                      Volcanoes       USGS, National Atlas 9/27/2004    Public         Public

  PublicHealth        Ambulance       IONIC Enterprise,    1/31/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Providers       MCH                               use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Ambulatory      IONIC Enterprise,    1/31/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Surgical        MCH                               use license.   facilities
                      Facilities                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Blood And Organ Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Banks           SICCODE 1094                      use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Cemeteries And  Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Crematories     SICCODE 7261                      use license.   facilities
                                      \[NAICSDESC\] =                                  may be
                                      \'Cemeteries &                                   released for
                                      Crematories\'                                    official use.

                      Centers For     Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal Wide   Federal Wide
                      Disease Control SICCODE 9431, query               use, For       use, For
                                      on BUSINESSNM                     Official Use   Official Use
                                                                        Only           Only

                      Daycare         IONIC Enterprise,    1/31/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Facilities      MCH                               use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Funeral Homes   Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      SICCODE 7261                      use license.   facilities
                                      \[NAICSDESC\] =                                  may be
                                      \'Funeral Homes &                                released for
                                      Funeral Srvcs\'                                  official use.

                      Homeless        IONIC Enterprise,    1/31/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Shelters        MCH                               use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Hospitals       TGS, IONIC,MCH       5/11/2005    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Nursing Homes   IONIC Enterprise,    1/31/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      MCH                               use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Public Health   IONIC Enterprise,    1/31/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      State and Local MCH                               use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Red Cross       IONIC Enterprise,    1/31/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      MCH                               use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Urgent Care     TGS, IONIC,MCH       5/11/2005    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  PublicVenues        Convention      NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Centers         TravDest                          use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Golf Courses    NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      LandUseB                          use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Houses Of       USGS, GNIS           3/31/2004    Public         Public
                      Worship                                                          

                      Libraries       Dun & Bradstreet,    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      SICCODE 8231                      use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Museums         NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      TravDest and ParkRec              use license.   facilities
                                      FAC_TYPE 8410                                    may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Parks           NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      LandUseA                          use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Sports          NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Complexes       ParkRec, Fac_Type                 use license.   facilities
                                      7940                                             may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  TransAir            Aero Navaids    TGS, NOAA            6/9/2004     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Aero            TGS, NOAA            6/9/2004     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Obstructions                                      use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Airports        TGS, BTS and NGA     5/21/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Heliports       TGS, BTS and NGA     5/21/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Runways         TGS, DAFIF           5/21/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  TransGround         Amtrak Station  NTAD                 1/1/2004     Public         Public

                      Bus Stations    TGS, D&B and BTS     6/9/2004     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Railroad        TGS, BTS and US      6/9/2004     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      Census                            use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Railroad        TGS, BTS and NAVTEQ  6/9/2004     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Stations                                          use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Transit Lines   NTAD                 1/1/2004     Public         Public

                      Transit         NTAD                 1/1/2004     Public         Public
                      Stations                                                         

  TransWater          Anchorages      TGS, USACOE          6/9/2004     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Breakwater      TGS, NOAA            6/9/2004     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Lines                                             use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Breakwater      TGS, USACOE          6/9/2004     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Points                                            use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Canals          TGS, BTS             6/9/2004     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Channels        TGS, BTS             6/9/2004     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Commercial      TGS, USACOE          6/9/2004     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Ports                                             use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Fairways        TGS, NOAA            6/9/2004     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Ferries         TGS, BTS             8/31/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Ferry Routes    TGS, BTS             8/31/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Locks           TGS, USACOE          6/9/2004     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Nautical        TGS, NOAA            5/21/2004    Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      NAVAIDS                                           use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Navigable       TGS, BTS             6/9/2004     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Waterways                                         use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Piers, Wharves  TGS, USACOE          6/9/2004     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      and Quays                                         use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

  WaterSupply         Aquifers        USGA National Atlas  10/31/2003   Public         Public

                      Dams            USGA National Atlas  4/30/2004    Public         Public

                      Drainage        USACE                1998         Public         Public

                      Lakes           NAVTEQ Q3 2004 from  Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                      WaterPoly, Feat_Type              use license.   facilities
                                      Lake                                             may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Oceans          NAVTEQ Q3 04         Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Reservoir       USGS GNIS            3/31/2004    Public         Public

                      Sewage          Dun & Bradstreet ,   4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                      Treatment       SICCODE 4952                      use license.   facilities
                      Facilities                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.

                      Spring          USGS GNIS            3/31/2004    Public         Public

                      Water Polygons  NAVTEQ Q3 2004       Q3 2004      Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                                       may be
                                                                                       released for
                                                                                       official use.
  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314878 .anchor}Table 10. Homeland Security
Infrastructure Program (HSIP) GOLD Dataset (NGA 2005) Files related to
chemical sources.

  -------------- ------------ ------------ ------------ -------------- -------------
  File           Sector       Source       Date         Release        Disclosure
                                                        Restrictions   

  Chemical       Chemicals    Dun &        4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
  Industries                  Bradstreet                use license.   facilities
                              using SIC                                may be
                              code 2812                                released for
                                                                       official use.

  Oil Terminals  Energy       TGS, IRS     10/29/2004   Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                                                        use license.   facilities
                                                                       may be
                                                                       released for
                                                                       official use.

  Refineries     Energy       NGA, from    4/1/2005     Federal-Wide   Graphics of
                              EIA                       use license.   facilities
                                                                       may be
                                                                       released for
                                                                       official use.

  Hazmat         Hazmat       EPA , RFMP   7/1/2005     For Official   EPA retains
  Locations                   2005 Data                 Use, Sensitive Authority for
                                                        data           Disclosure
  -------------- ------------ ------------ ------------ -------------- -------------

TGS -- Techni Graphic Systems, Inc

EIA -- Energy Information Agency/Department of Energy

RFMP -- Assumed to be Risk Management Plan facilities.

IRS -- Internal Revenue Service.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314879 .anchor}Table 11. Web links for Section
D. Hazardous Material and Hazardous Waste Transportation

  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Description                     Link
  ------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Calexico, California material   <http://yosemite.epa.gov/oswer/CeppoWeb.nsf/vwResourcesByFilename/calexicofactsheet.pdf/$File/calexicofactsheet.pdf>
  commodity flow survey           

  Corps of Engineers' Waterway    <http://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/NDC/data/datalink.htm>
  Network Link Commodity Data     

  FAA Accident /Incident Data     <http://www.asias.faa.gov/portal/page?_pageid=56,86203,56_86223:56_86227:56_96434&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL>
  System (AIDS)                   

  NTSB aviation accident          <http://www.ntsb.gov/ntsb/query.asp#query_start>
  databases                       

  Sedgwick County, Kansas         <http://www.sedgwickcounty.org/emermgmt/cfs_sedgwick.pdf>
  commodity flow survey           

  U.S. Bureau of Transportation   <http://www.bts.gov/publications/national_transportation_atlas_database/2007/>
  Statistics                      

  U.S. DOT Commercially Navigable <https://www.npms.phmsa.dot.gov/application.asp?tact=pimma&page=pimma/about_pimma.htm>
  Waterways database              

  U.S. DOT Commodity Flow Survey  [http://www.transtats.bts.gov/Tables.asp?DB_ID=510&DB_Name=Commodity%20Flow%20Survey%20%28CFS%29&DB_Short_Name=CFS](http://www.transtats.bts.gov/Tables.asp?DB_ID=510&DB_Name=Commodity Flow Survey (CFS)&DB_Short_Name=CFS)

  U.S. DOT Pipeline and Hazardous (<https://www.npms.phmsa.dot.gov/application.asp?tact=pimma&page=pimma/about_pimma.htm>
  Materials Safety Administration 

  U.S. EPA TRI data provides data <http://www.epa.gov/enviro/html/tris/adhoc.html>
  on off-site shipments           

  US DOT Marine Casualty And      [http://transtats.bts.gov/Tables.asp?DB_ID=610&DB_Name=Marine%20Casualty%20And%20Pollution%20Database&DB_Short_Name=Marine%20Casualty/Pollution](http://transtats.bts.gov/Tables.asp?DB_ID=610&DB_Name=Marine Casualty And Pollution Database&DB_Short_Name=Marine Casualty/Pollution)
  Pollution Database              

  US DOT Hazardous Materials      <http://hazmat.dot.gov/pubs/inc/data/2007/2007frm.htm>
  Incident Data                   

  US DOT State Transportation     <https://www.bts.gov/pdc/index.xml>
  Statistics                      

  Wake County, North Carolina     <http://a.abclocal.go.com/three/wtvd/pdf/101006wakestudy.pdf>
  hazardous materials commodity   
  flow survey                     
  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Figures

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314880 .anchor}Figure 1. Disasters Caused by
Severe Thunderstorms

> ![](media/image11.png){width="6.5in" height="4.4625in"}

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314881 .anchor}Figure 2. Disasters Caused by
Tornadoes

> ![](media/image12.wmf){width="6.375in" height="4.376388888888889in"}

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314882 .anchor}Figure 3. Counties Susceptible
to Significant Earthquakes

![](media/image13.png){width="6.375in" height="4.377083333333333in"}

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314883 .anchor}Figure 4. Disasters Caused by
Flooding

> ![](media/image14.wmf){width="6.66875in"
> height="4.5784722222222225in"}

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314884 .anchor}Figure 5. The number of
hurricanes expected to occur during a 100-year period based on
historical data

![](media/image15.jpeg){width="4.916666666666667in"
height="3.9131944444444446in"}

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314885 .anchor}Figure 6. Disaster Caused by
Hurricanes or Tropical Storms

![](media/image16.png){width="6.66875in" height="4.5784722222222225in"}

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314886 .anchor}Figure 7. Disaster Caused by
Winter Weather

![](media/image17.wmf){width="6.66875in" height="4.5784722222222225in"}

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314888 .anchor}Figure 8. Disaster Caused by
Wildfires

![](media/image18.png){width="6.668055555555555in"
height="4.5784722222222225in"}

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314889 .anchor}Figure 9. Disasters Caused by
Heat

![](media/image19.wmf){width="6.66875in" height="4.5784722222222225in"}

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314890 .anchor}Figure 10. Disaster Caused by
Volcanic Activity

![](media/image20.png){width="6.66875in" height="4.5784722222222225in"}

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314891 .anchor}Figure
![](media/image21.png){width="6.668055555555555in"
height="4.5784722222222225in"}. Counties Susceptible to Debris Flow

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc183314892 .anchor}Figure 12. Actual Shipping Lanes
or Representative Paths in Open Water -- San Francisco Bay Area

![](media/image22.jpeg){width="6.489583333333333in"
height="5.014583333333333in"}

[^1]: Biological hazards are not included in this version of this
    document.

[^2]: These documents do not require a security clearance; rather, they
    are distributed on a need-to-know basis.

[^3]: See http://www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=2159

[^4]: See https://cadbim.usace.army.mil/default.aspx?p=s&t=15&i=6 and
    [https://tsc.wes.army.mil/symposium/2006/Wednesday%5C111%20wed%20pm%5Clevee%2024Martp.pdf](https://tsc.wes.army.mil/symposium/2006/Wednesday\111 wed pm\levee 24Martp.pdf).

[^5]: Title III Consolidated List of Lists - October 2006 Version,
    http://yosemite.epa.gov/oswer/ceppoweb.nsf/content/ds-epds.htm#lol
    \[accessed November 21, 2006\]. Go to this web site for the full
    table