## Internal Dose Estimates from NTS Fallout

Radiation Dose to the Population of the Continental United States from
the Ingestion of Food Contaminated with Radionuclides from Nuclear Tests
at the Nevada Test Site

###### Final Report {#final-report .unnumbered}

**Lynn R. Anspaugh**

**Lynn R. Anspaugh, Consulting**

**Salt Lake City, UT**

**Report to the National Cancer Institute**

**Purchase Order No. 263-MQ-912901**

**February 4, 2000**

**(Revised May 30, 2000)**

**TABLE OF CONTENTS**

> **Page F-**

[Part I. Estimates of Dose](#PartI) 4

[Abstract](#Abstract) 5

[Introduction](#Introduction) 6

[Methods](#Methods) 7

Nuclear events of interest 7

General system of dose calculation 7

Radionuclides of interest 10

Estimates of deposition per unit area (deposition density) 11

Age groups to be considered 12

Estimates of integrated intake 12

Dose coefficients 23

Organs of interest 24

Periods of summation 26

Collective dose 26

[Results and Discussion](#Results) 27

Effective dose commitments for individuals 28

Collective dose commitments 37

Collective effective dose by year of testing 38

Collective effective dose by event 39

Collective effective dose by radionuclide 40

Collective effective dose by organ 40

Comparison to dose estimates from global fallout 43

Dose from inhalation 45

Comparison of results with those from NCI (1997) 46

[Conclusions](#Conclusions) 47

[References](#REFERENCES) 48

[Part II. Reference and Subsidiary Information](#PartII) 51

[List of Documents](#LISTDOCUMENTS) 52

Trinity event 52

Nuclear explosions at the Nevada Test Site 52

Congressional Hearings 53

Reports of organized Off-Site monitoring activities 53

Reports from the Off-Site Radiation Exposure Review Project 61

University of Utah studies 65

National Cancer Institute studies 66

Other studies containing calculations of internal dose resulting from
NTS tests 67

Other pertinent publications 67

[Classified Reports](#CLASSIFIEDREPORTS) 68

[High-Risk Populations](#HIGHRISKPOPULATIONS) 68

Radiation Dose to the Population of the Continental United States from
the Ingestion of Food Contaminated with Radionuclides from Nuclear Tests
at the Nevada Test Site

**Part I. Estimates of Dose**

**Lynn R. Anspaugh**

**Lynn R. Anspaugh, Consulting**

**Salt Lake City, UT**

**Report to the National Cancer Institute**

**Purchase Order No. 263-MQ-912901**

[]{#Abstract .anchor}**ABSTRACT**

According to a Congressional request to the Department of Health and
Human Services,\
a feasibility study has been conducted to determine if doses to the
American public from radionuclides other than ^131^I can be calculated
for the tests of nuclear weapons and related devices conducted at the
Nevada Test Site (NTS). Results of this feasibility study on doses
received via the ingestion of contaminated foods indicate that doses
from other radionuclides can be calculated, as have the doses from
^131^I that were reported earlier by the NCI. The methods of calculation
are based upon the methods developed and used earlier by the Off-Site
Radiation Exposure Review Project; these methods employed seasonally
adjusted values of radioecological transfer of radionuclides to humans.

Doses were calculated for 61 of the more significant events that
occurred at the NTS during 1951, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1957, and 1962.
Detailed results are provided in two CDs that accompany this report.
Summary results in the form of coded maps for each of the above years
and for the total time period are also provided. The total estimated
collective effective committed dose from the ingestion of contaminated
foods is 110,00014,000 Sv; the total estimated per caput effective
committed dose is 68090 µSv. The larger fractions of dose resulted from
the tests of Operation Plumbbob conducted in 1957, Operation
Tumbler-Snapper in 1952, and Operation Upshot-Knothole in 1953. The
largest contribution from any single event is estimated to have been
from Project Sedan, a cratering experiment in 1962, although the
uncertainty in dose calculated for this event is unusually large due to
the absence of information regarding its fission yield and other
factors; there is also concern about the validity of the input data for
this event. The radionuclide ^131^I was by far the most important
contributor to collective effective dose and accounted for nearly 90% of
the total age-corrected collective effective dose. The thyroid is
estimated to have received by far the largest collective organ dose of
2,000,000280,000 person Sv. Most organs received a collective dose of
about 15,000 person Sv; other than the thyroid, the organs receiving the
higher doses were the colon (56,0008400 person Sv) and the bone surface
(31,0004000 person Sv).

The per caput dose calculated here is almost the same as the 670 µSv
effective dose committed from the consumption of contaminated food over
a comparable time period of 50 years from global fallout, as inferred
from the work of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects
of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). However, the more important contributors
to dose from the NTS were short-lived radionuclides (^131^I, ^89^Sr, and
^140^Ba), whereas for global fallout the more important contributors
were long-lived radionuclides (^137^Cs ^90^Sr, and ^14^C). While the per
caput doses from the two sources are about the same, doses from the NTS
vary from county-to-county by a maximum factor of nearly 300; it is
expected that the doses from global fallout would have been much more
even due to the nature of the processes involved. Doses from the two
sources also would have been received at different times---during the
1950s for NTS fallout and during 1963--1965 for global fallout. The dose
from inhalation has not been calculated explicitly; rather, the relative
contribution of inhalation compared to ingestion has been estimated for
the ten more important radionuclides and for ^239+240^Pu. For the ten
more important radionuclides, the relative contribution varies from
about one-third to much less. For ^239+240^Pu the relative contribution
via inhalation is calculated to be about 2.6 times that from ingestion;
however the total contribution of dose from ^239+240^Pu is small.

[]{#Introduction .anchor}**INTRODUCTION**

Congress has asked the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to
study the health consequences to the American people of nuclear weapons
tests. Within that framework a purchase order has been received to
assist in the determination of radiation dose to the American people
from the weapons tests conducted in Nevada.

The primary work to be performed is to "prepare crude estimates of the
doses of internal radiation received by the American people as a result
of the aboveground tests carried out at the Nevada Test Site (NTS)."
These estimates are to be:

-   Based upon a review of the readily available open literature and
    information; it is not expected that sophisticated computer models
    should be developed or used for this purpose;

-   Based upon an electronic data base of radionuclide-deposition
    densities prepared by Beck (1999);

-   Averaged over large regions of the continental United States with
    indications of how the high-risk populations could be identified.
    However, primary calculations should be carried out on a
    county-by-county basis and averaged only for presentation purposes;

-   Calculated separately for the more important radionuclides produced
    in nuclear weapons tests of the types carried out at the Nevada Test
    Site. Radionuclides should include ^90^Sr, ^137^Cs, and ^106^Ru; if
    sufficient information is available from Beck and other sources
    doses from additional radionuclides should be calculated.

-   Provided in terms of absorbed dose for some of the more
    radiosensitive organs and tissues (red bone marrow, gastrointestinal
    tract, etc.);

-   Calculated by year of testing (1951, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1957,
    and 1962) and summed over all tests at the Nevada Test Site (NTS)
    with a comparison to the published latitudinal average doses
    (UNSCEAR 1993) for all tests; and

-   Provided both in written form and in an electronic version.

Additional work to be performed included the provision of a list of
references regarding (1) networks performing measurements of fallout
radionuclides in air and foodstuffs and (2) the assessment of doses from
internal radiation. The funds made available to accomplish this work
consisted of \$25,000. Thus, it was necessary to find very efficient
means to accomplish this complex task.

The purpose of this report is to describe the results of the study
outlined above. Based upon the deposition-density values provided by
Beck (1999), dose commitments to internal organs that originated from
the ingestion of contaminated food have been estimated for adults in
each of approximately 3,100 counties in the continental United States.
Estimates are made for 20 parent radionuclides from 61 events that took
place at the NTS from 1951 through 1962. For this feasibility study not
all organs have been considered; rather, effective doses have been
calculated and organ doses have been considered only in those cases
where the organ-dose coefficient for a particular radionuclide is more
than twice the dose coefficient for effective dose. According to this
criterion, organ doses are estimated for bone surface, colon, kidneys,
liver, red marrow, and thyroid. Results of the calculations are
summarized for each county by year of test (1951, 1952, 1953, 1955,
1957, and 1962) and for the total series. Collective effective dose
commitments are calculated for each year and for the total. These
summary results are presented in the main report in the form of maps and
tables. The attachments to this report provide results for other tasks.

The detailed results of the calculations by county for each test and
with yearly and total summaries by county are attached in the form of
spreadsheets on two compact discs (CDs).

[]{#Methods .anchor}**METHODS**

**Nuclear events of interest**

There were 100 nuclear events conducted in the atmosphere at the NTS
(DOE 1994). These tests ranged in yield from extremely small (\<1 t) to
a maximum of 74 kt (Shot Hood on 5 July 1957). In addition there were
"cratering" events that released significant amounts of debris; the most
notable was the 104-kt Project Sedan detonated on 6 July 1962. Not all
of these events produced fallout that was measured or measurable beyond
the confines of the NTS; thus Beck's and this investigation have focused
on those more meaningful events in terms of releases to the offsite
environment. Beck (1999) has reported results for a total of 61 events:
eight in 1951, eight in 1952, 11 in 1953, 13 in 1955, 19 in 1957, and
two in 1962 (including Sedan). Some of these events were detonated so
close together in time that it has been impossible to distinguish the
debris. Thus, results for Bee and Ess (both fired on 22 March 1955);
Apple and Wasp (both fired on 29 March 1955); Kepler (24 July 1957) and
Owens (25 July 1957); and Wheeler (6 September 1957), Coulomb (6
September 1957), and Laplace (8 September 1957) were combined in Beck
(1999). Results are thus reported here for 56 calculations. A complete
list of these events with dates and yields is given in Table 1.

**General system of dose calculation**

The method of calculation used for this report was derived from that
used for the Off-Site Radiation Exposure and Review Project (ORERP),
which was performed during the time period of approximately 1979 through
1987 (Church et al. 1990).[^1] The ORERP study was designed to calculate
external and internal doses from the tests of nuclear weapons at the
NTS, but the focus was on populations living in the near downwind
regions. Originally, the assessment domain consisted of several counties
in Nevada and one county in Utah that were known to have received higher
depositions. Eventually, the assessment domain was expanded to include
the entire states of Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico, and portions
of several additional states \[western Colorado, southwestern Wyoming,
southern Idaho, southeastern Oregon,

Table 1. A list and some parameters of the nuclear explosions at the
Nevada Test Site that are included in this assessment of dose from the
ingestion of food contaminated by these events. Some events were so
close together in time that they were considered together for the
estimates of deposition densities tabulated by Beck (1999).

  ------------- ----------- -------------- ----------- ----------- ----------
  Calculation   Operation   Test           Type        Date        Yield,

  number                                                           kt

  1             Ranger      Baker          Airdrop     28-Jan-51   8

  2                         Baker-2        Airdrop     2-Feb-51    8

  3             Buster      Baker          Airdrop     28-Oct-51   3.5

  4                         Charlie        Airdrop     30-Oct-51   14

  5                         Dog            Airdrop     1-Nov-51    21

  6                         Easy           Airdrop     5-Nov-51    31

  7             Jangle      Sugar          Surface     19-Nov-51   1.2

  8                         Uncle          Crater      29-Nov-51   1.2

  9             Tumbler-    Able           Airdrop     1-Apr-52    1

  10            Snapper     Baker          Airdrop     15-Apr-52   1

  11                        Charlie        Airdrop     22-Apr-52   31

  12                        Dog            Airdrop     1-May-52    19

  13                        Easy           Tower       7-May-52    12

  14                        Fox            Tower       25-May-52   11

  15                        George         Tower       1-Jun-52    15

  16                        How            Tower       5-Jun-52    14

  17            Upshot-     Annie          Tower       17-Mar-53   16

  18            Knothole    Nancy          Tower       24-Mar-53   24

  19                        Ruth           Tower       31-Mar-53   0.2

  20                        Dixie          Airdrop     6-Apr-53    11

  21                        Ray            Tower       11-Apr-53   0.2

  22                        Badger         Tower       18-Apr-53   23

  23                        Simon          Tower       25-Apr-53   43

  24                        Encore         Airdrop     8-May-53    27

  25                        Harry          Tower       19-May-53   32

  26                        Grable         Airburst    25-May-53   15

  27                        Climax         Airdrop     4-Jun-53    61

  28            Teapot      Wasp           Airdrop     18-Feb-55   1

  29                        Moth           Tower       22-Feb-55   2

  30                        Tesla          Tower       1-Mar-55    7

  31                        Turk           Tower       7-Mar-55    43

  32                        Hornet         Tower       12-Mar-55   4

  33                        Bee}Ess                                

                            Bee            Tower       22-Mar-55   8

                            Ess            Crater      23-Mar-55   1
  ------------- ----------- -------------- ----------- ----------- ----------

Table 1. (concluded).

  ------------- ----------- -------------- ----------- ----------- ----------
  Calculation   Operation   Test           Type        Date        Yield,

  number                                                           kt

  34                        Apple}Wasp'                            

                            Apple-1        Tower       29-Mar-55   14

                            Wasp\'         Airdrop     29-Mar-55   3

  35                        Post           Tower       9-Apr-55    2

  36                        Met            Tower       15-Apr-55   22

  37                        Apple-2        Tower       5-May-55    29

  38                        Zucchini       Tower       15-May-55   28

  39            Plumbbob    Boltzmann      Tower       28-May-57   12

  40                        Wilson         Balloon     18-Jun-57   10

  41                        Priscilla      Balloon     24-Jun-57   37

  42                        Hood           Balloon     5-Jul-57    74

  43                        Diablo         Tower       15-Jul-57   17

  44                        Kepler}Owens                           

                            Kepler         Tower       24-Jul-57   10

                            Owens          Balloon     25-Jul-57   9.7

  45                        Shasta         Tower       18-Aug-57   17

  46                        Doppler        Balloon     23-Aug-57   11

  47                        Smoky          Tower       31-Aug-57   44

  48                        Galileo        Tower       2-Sep-57    11

  49                        WCL                                    

                            Wheeler        Balloon     6-Sep-57    0.197

                            Coulomb-B      Surface     6-Sep-57    0.3

                            Laplace        Balloon     8-Sep-57    1

  50                        Fizeau         Tower       14-Sep-57   11

  51                        Newton         Balloon     16-Sep-57   12

  52                        Whitney        Tower       23-Sep-57   19

  53                        Charleston     Balloon     28-Sep-57   12

  54                        Morgan         Balloon     7-Oct-57    8

  55            Storax      Sedan          Crater      6-Jul-62    104

  56                        Small Boy      Tower       14-Jul-62   Low
  ------------- ----------- -------------- ----------- ----------- ----------

and nearby areas of California (including Los Angeles)\]. Given that
appropriate input data are available, it is a logical extension to apply
the ORERP methodology to a broader assessment domain.

The general ORERP methodology for calculating internal dose from the
consumption of contaminated foods has been described by Whicker and
Kirchner (1987), Breshears et al. (1989), Whicker et al. (1990, 1996),
Ng et al. (1990), and Kirchner et al. (1996). A modular system[^2] was
developed that depended upon three things:

-   Estimating the deposition per unit area of individual radionuclides
    on the ground. This was done either through evaluation of
    exposure-rate measurements with conversion to radionuclide
    deposition (Beck 1980; Hicks 1982, 1990), or through inference of
    the deposition of one or more of the important radionuclides (Beck
    and Anspaugh 1991).

-   Estimating the total amount of an individual radionuclide that might
    be ingested by humans of differing ages. This simple statement
    covers a very complex undertaking of estimating the dynamics of
    radionuclide contamination of foods and age-dependent
    human-consumption rates of food (Whicker and Kirchner 1987).

-   Estimating the amount of age-dependent dose that would be received
    by a member of the public from the ingestion of a unit activity of a
    particular radionuclide. When the ORERP work was started, the
    International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) had not
    yet published their work on this subject, and such calculations were
    performed within the project (Ng et al. 1990; Kirchner et al. 1996).

> Thus, the modular system used can be written as a simple equation:

  ----------------------------------------------------------------- -------
  $D = P \times I \times F_{g}$,                                    \(1\)

  ----------------------------------------------------------------- -------

where *D* = Absorbed dose, Gy, or equivalent/effective dose, Sv;

*P* = Deposition density of the radionuclide of interest at time of
fallout arrival, Bq m^-2^;

*I* = Integrated intake by ingestion of the radionuclide per unit
deposition,\
Bq per Bq m^-2^; and

*F~g~* = Ingestion-dose coefficient for the radionuclide, Gy Bq^-1^ or
Sv Bq^-1^.

Equivalent and effective doses were not calculated for the ORERP, but
such calculations are performed and reported here for this task. This
requires additional specification of the values and units for *F~g~* and
subsequently for *D*.

**Radionuclides of interest**

A great many fission-product radionuclides are created by a nuclear
explosion. Due to the extremely short reaction time, long-lived
radionuclides do not accumulate as they do during the operation of a
nuclear reactor. Thus, much of the dose from small nuclear weapons tests
(\<100 kt) in the atmosphere arises from fairly short-lived
radionuclides. The situation is rather different for the large U.S.
tests that were conducted in the Pacific or for the large Russian tests
conducted near the Arctic Circle. Those tests were powerful enough to
inject most of their debris into the stratosphere from which it devolved
with a half time of at least one year. Thus, most of the short-lived
radionuclides had already decayed by the time this global fallout was
deposited. In addition, the large nuclear explosions were mainly of
fusion devices with a rather small fission trigger (and with perhaps a
tertiary fission stage); these kinds of devices produced and/or spilled
large amounts of ^3^H. The intense flux of neutrons from these devices
also produced large amounts of ^14^C through the reaction
^14^N(n,p)^14^C. The amount of ^14^C produced by the fusion explosions
is so large that this radionuclide produces the largest portion of dose
commitment from the ingestion of foods contaminated by global[^3]
fallout (UNSCEAR 1993).

At the NTS the atmospheric tests were small in comparison; the debris
from the tests was not injected into the stratosphere to a significant
extent; and the amounts of ^3^H and ^14^C released were sufficiently
small that the resulting doses from these two radionuclides were trivial
in comparison to doses from other radionuclides.

For the ORERP, screening calculations (Ng et al. 1990) were performed
for more than 100 radionuclides in order to focus on the more important.
Beck (1999) has generally followed the results of this procedure and has
provided estimates of the deposition per unit area for this same group
of radionuclides. The radionuclides for which it is possible to estimate
internal doses without undertaking significant new work are ^89^Sr,
^90^Sr, ^91^Sr, ^97^Zr, ^99^Mo, ^103^Ru, ^105^Rh, ^106^Ru, ^131^I,
^132^Te, ^133^I, ^135^I, ^136^Cs, ^137^Cs, ^140^Ba, ^143^Ce, ^144^Ce,
^147^Nd, ^239^Np, ^239+240^Pu, and ^241^Pu.[^4] Based upon the screening
calculations performed for ORERP for its assessment domain, this group
of radionuclides accounts for at least 95% of the dose to each organ
through ingestion of contaminated foods. Due to the fact that the
current assessment domain is much larger and the average travel time of
the debris is longer, the importance of some of the shorter lived
radionuclides (e.g., ^91^Sr, ^97^Zr, ^133^I, ^135^I, and ^143^Ce) is
less than it was for the ORERP assessment domain. For this work dose
calculations were performed for 19 of the 21 radionuclides listed above;
^135^I and ^239^Np were not included, as deposition densities were not
reported in Beck (1999).

In addition to the parent radionuclides listed in the above paragraph,
doses from decay products were also included in the calculation to the
extent that the product arises from the decay of the parent radionuclide
after it has entered the body. For example, the decay product of ^132^Te
is ^132^I, which has a half life of 2.30 h (ICRP 1983). Any ^132^I that
originates in the body from the decay of ^132^Te is included in the dose
calculation; but any ^132^I on food at the time of consumption is not
included. Additional parent-progeny pairs are ^90^Sr(^90^Y),
^97^Zr(^97^Nb), ^103^Ru(^103m^Rh), ^106^Ru(^106^Rh), ^137^Cs(^137m^Ba),
^140^Ba(^140^La), and ^144^Ce(^144^Pr).

**Estimates of deposition per unit area (deposition density)**

The first parameter in eqn (1) is *P*, the deposition per unit area. For
the radionuclides indicated above as being included in this assessment,
Beck (1999) has provided estimates of the deposition densities of each
radionuclide in each of the approximately 3,100 counties in the
contiguous United States. Nearby the NTS where some of the larger
counties experienced considerable gradations in deposition, counties
have been broken into subparts. In all, estimates are provided for 3,094
geographic units (counties or subparts of counties). These estimates of
deposition are based primarily on measurements made at the time and
reported by the "gummed-film" network operated by the Department of
Energy's (DOE's) Environmental Measurements Laboratory (EML), which was
then known as the Atomic Energy Commission's (AEC's) Health and Safety
Laboratory (HASL). As the measurements occurred at a finite number
(which varied from year to year) of locations and the amount of fallout
within a small geographic area could be influenced significantly by
rainfall, the measured data were analyzed through a complex process
known as "kriging." This process is an unbiased interpolator that is
capable of correlating with other data such as rainfall rate; the latter
data were available on essentially a county-by-county basis. This
complex process has been described in general by Beck et al. (1990) and
Beck (1999), and for the important radionuclide, ^131^I, by the NCI
(1997). In some cases additional data, such as the experimentally
measured residual levels of ^137^Cs in the soil column, have been used
to validate results or to provide additional information (Beck et al.
1990; Beck and Anspaugh 1991). Estimates of radionuclide-deposition
density are provided in Beck (1999) as geometric mean estimates along
with the estimated geometric standard deviations.

**Age groups to be considered**

The detailed calculations of dose were performed for adults only. This
choice was necessitated by the limited resources available for this
study and because adults constitute by far the largest segment of the
population. Suggestions are provided below for how an interested reader
might convert the doses reported here for adults to doses for other age
groups. The specific situation of age differences in doses to the
thyroid from ^131^I has been treated extensively by the NCI (1997). In
addition, some calculations presented below of per caput and collective
dose commitment have been adjusted for the effect of age.

**Estimates of integrated intake**

For the radionuclides listed above, seasonally-dependent values of *I*,
the integrated intake per unit deposition, have been published by
Whicker and Kirchner (1987) based on their development of the PATHWAY
model for the ORERP. "Integrated intake" is an estimate of the
normalized (to deposition density) total amount of a radionuclide that
will enter a person's mouth over time subsequent to the initial
deposition of the radionuclide. Thus, the units of *I* are Bq per
Bq m^-2^. This is a very complex function that includes the two major
components of 1) seasonally dependent rate of radioecological transfer
of radionuclides through food chains and 2) the age-dependent rates of
consumption of differing types of food. These estimates are also
equivalent to geometric means (Breshears et al. 1989), and estimates of
geometric standard deviations have been published by Breshears et al.
(1989). Values of both geometric means and geometric standard deviations
vary according to a radionuclide's chemical characteristics, including
half life, and the season. As milk is generally a critical pathway, a
key factor that varies with season is whether cows are grazing on fresh
pasture (or being fed green chop) or are being fed stored feed.

For this assessment, the values published in Whicker and Kirchner (1987)
were used. In their Table 9, values of integrated intakes by adults for
20 radionuclides are given for eight nuclear shots that occurred over a
range of seasonal times. Based upon these published values for the eight
times, values for other times were interpolated or extrapolated.
Examples of input data for four of the more significant radionuclides
are shown in Fig. 1.

Plots of the actual data used in this assessment for 19 radionuclides
are shown in Figs. 2 through 19. Each point in the plots of Figs. 2
through 19 represents one of the "calculation numbers" indicated in
Table 1. Estimates of the geometric standard deviations that accompany
these values were taken from Table 5 of Breshears et al. (1989); these
values are reproduced here as Table 2.

The radioecological component of PATHWAY is complex and includes many
factors:

-   Initial retention of radionuclides by vegetation;

-   Loss of radionuclides from vegetation;

-   Dilution of radionuclide concentration in fresh vegetation by plant
    growth;

-   Movement through several soil compartments;

-   Uptake of a radionuclide through the soil-root system; and

-   Recontamination of plant surfaces by resuspension and redeposition
    and by rain splash.

![](media/image1.wmf){width="6.15in" height="3.8993055555555554in"}

Fig. 1. Examples of the seasonally dependent values of integrated intake
reported by Whicker and Kirchner (1987) for four of the more important
radionuclides*.*![](media/image2.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 2. Values for integrated intake used for ^89^Sr.

![](media/image3.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8222222222222224in"}

Fig. 3. Values for integrated intake used for ^90^Sr.

![](media/image4.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 4. Values for integrated intake used for ^91^Sr.

![](media/image5.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 5. Values for integrated intake used for ^97^Zr.

![](media/image6.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 6. Values for integrated intake used for ^99^Mo.

![](media/image7.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 7. Values for integrated intake used for ^103^Ru.

![](media/image8.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 8. Values for integrated intake used for ^106^Ru.

![](media/image9.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 9. Values for integrated intake used for ^105^Rh.

![](media/image10.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 10. Values for integrated intake used for ^132^Te.

![](media/image11.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 11. Values for integrated intake used for ^131^I.

![](media/image12.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 12. Values for integrated intake used for ^133^I.

![](media/image13.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 13. Values for integrated intake used for ^136^Cs.

![](media/image14.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 14. Values for integrated intake used for ^137^Cs.

![](media/image15.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 15. Values for integrated intake used for ^140^Ba.

![](media/image16.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 16. Values for integrated intake used for ^143^Ce*.*

![](media/image17.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 17. Values for integrated intake used for ^144^Ce.

![](media/image18.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 18. Values for integrated intake used for ^147^Nd.

![](media/image19.wmf){width="5.804861111111111in"
height="3.8159722222222223in"}

Fig. 19. Values for integrated intake used for ^239+240^Pu and ^241^Pu.

Table 2. Values of geometric standard deviation associated with the
values of\
the geometric means of integrated deposition shown in Figs. 2--19.\
Values are from table 5 of Breshears et al. (1989).

  ------------------------- --------------- --------------- ---------------
  Month of fallout          Physical half                   
  deposition                life                            

                            \<30 d          30--500 d       \>500 d

  January                   1.7             1.9             2.1

  February                  1.7             1.9             2.1

  March                     1.7             1.9             2.1

  April                     1.9             2.0             2.1

  May                       2.3             2.2             2.1

  June                      2.1             2.1             2.1

  July                      2.1             2.1             2.1

  August                    2.1             2.1             2.0

  September                 2.7             2.3             2.0

  October                   1.7             1.8             1.9

  November                  1.7             1.8             1.9

  December                  1.7             1.8             1.9
  ------------------------- --------------- --------------- ---------------

One of the critical factors that is known to vary substantially is the
initial retention of fallout by fresh vegetation, particularly when
deposition occurs with precipitation (Anspaugh 1987; NCI 1997). The
value used for this parameter in PATHWAY is 0.39 m^2^ kg^-1^. The value
of this parameter is known to vary with particle size (and distance from
the site of detonation) for dry deposition and with rainfall rate for
wet deposition. In addition, values vary substantially for reasons that
are not yet explicable. Thus, uncertainty in this parameter contributes
substantially to the uncertainty in the estimates of internal dose. Some
reduction in uncertainty might be achieved, if the county-by-county
estimates of rainfall for each day following each shot were retrieved
and used to adjust this value, as was done in NCI (1997) for dose from
^131^I. This effort was beyond the scope of the present study, and it is
not clear from the data in NCI (1997) that this laborious process
resulted in a substantial reduction in uncertainty.

Thus, while the discussed values of integrated intake were originally
derived for dry deposition in the semi-arid western areas of the U.S.
nearby the NTS, this same value has been used for the entire study
performed here. Based upon the experimental data reported by Hoffman et
al. (1989), the value of 0.39 m^2^ kg^-1^ is actually a reasonable value
for retention during rainfall, except during conditions of very light
rainfall when higher values have been observed.

**Dose coefficients**

The ICRP (1989, 1993, 1995, 1996) has provided compilations of dose
coefficients, *F~g~*, for ingestion of radionuclides by members of the
general public. These published values, however, are incomplete in the
sense that dose coefficients are not listed for all organs for all age

groups. Recently, the ICRP (1998) has made available a CD-ROM system
that allows the calculation of equivalent and effective doses for all
organs for the six age groups[^5] considered by the ICRP. The dose
values provided by the ICRP represent the dose from a given intake that
will occur over the next 50 years for adults or until age 70 y for the
younger age groups.

The ICRP-tabulated values are the basic source of dose coefficients used
for this dose assessment. As for previously performed assessments (Ng et
al. 1990), the ICRP dose coefficients have been considered to be average
values (or arithmetic means). Thus, in order to be consistent and to
allow for the analytical propagation of error, the ICRP values have been
converted to geometric means,${\overline{x}}_{g}$, by the use of eqn
(2):

  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------
  ${\overline{x}}_{g} = \text{exp}\lbrack(\text{ln}(\overline{x}) - \text{ln}^{2}(\sigma_{g})\rbrack$,   \(2\)

  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------

where $\overline{x}$ is the arithmetic mean (from the ICRP tabulation)
and *~g~* is the estimated geometric standard deviation. The latter
values have been taken from Kirchner et al. (1996). The estimated values
of $\sigma_{g}$ for adults are 1.6 for ^89^Sr and ^91^Sr, 1.4 for
^90^Sr, 1.5 for ^136^Cs, 1.3 for ^137^Cs, and 1.8 for all other
radionuclides. These values were used for all target organs and for
effective dose.

The dose coefficients actually used for this study are shown in Table 3
along with the original values taken from ICRP (1998).

**Organs of interest**

In principle, doses can be calculated for the 22 organs considered by
the ICRP and dose coefficients are available (ICRP 1998). However,
experience from ORERP (Ng et al. 1990) is that only the thyroid would be
expected to receive a higher dose from the ingestion of fallout compared
to the dose received from external exposure to the same fallout. For
this and reasons of efficiency, calculations are provided here in terms
of effective dose. In addition, if the dose to any organ for any
radionuclide is more than twice that of the effective dose, calculations
for those organs are also provided. For example, for ^137^Cs, which is
distributed throughout the body, calculations are provided only for
effective dose. On the other hand, for plutonium radionuclides doses are
also provided for the bone surface and the liver, which are organs where
plutonium concentrates. An approximation of the dose to any organ from
all of the radionuclides considered would be to sum doses for all
radionuclides for which that organ is specifically listed and to add the
effective dose for any radionuclide for which calculations for a
specific organ have not been provided. Alternatively, a more accurate
calculation for a specific situation could be done by using a ratio of
the dose coefficients found in ICRP (1998).

As the effective dose is a weighted sum of the dose to all organs, where
the weights represent the estimated probability of the occurrence of a
"stochastic" effect in that organ, the effective dose is the most
efficient choice of an input parameter for the estimation of health

##### Table 3. Dose coefficients used in this study. The arithmetic mean values ($\overline{x}$) are taken from ICRP (1998), the geometric standard deviations ($\sigma_{g}$) are from Kirchner et al. (1996), and the geometric means (${\overline{x}}_{g}$) are calculated according to eqn (2). {#table-3.-dose-coefficients-used-in-this-study.-the-arithmetic-mean-values-overlinex-are-taken-from-icrp-1998-the-geometric-standard-deviations-sigma_g-are-from-kirchner-et-al.-1996-and-the-geometric-means-overlinex_g-are-calculated-according-to-eqn-2. .unnumbered}

  -------------- -------------- ----------------- ---------------- -----------------------
  Radionuclide   Organ          Dose coefficient                   

                                $\overline{x}$,   $$\sigma_{g}$$   ${\overline{x}}_{g}$,
                                Sv Bq^-1^                          Sv Bq^-1^

  ^89^Sr         Effective      2.6 10^-9^        1.4              2.5 10^-9^

                 Bone surface   5.9 10^-9^        1.4              5.6 10^-9^

                 Colon          1.4 10^-8^        1.4              1.3 10^-8^

  ^90^Sr         Effective      2.8 10^-8^        1.3              2.7 10^-8^

                 Bone surface   4.1 10^-7^        1.3              4.0 10^-7^

                 Red marrow     1.8 10^-7^        1.3              1.7 10^-7^

  ^91^Sr         Effective      6.5 10^-10^       1.8              5.5 10^-10^

                 Colon          3.8 10^-9^        1.8              3.2 10^-9^

  ^97^Zr         Effective      2.1 10^-9^        1.8              1.8 10^-9^

                 Colon          1.5 10^-8^        1.8              1.3 10^-8^

  ^99^Mo         Effective      6.0 10^-10^       1.8              5.0 10^-10^

                 Kidneys        3.1 10^-9^        1.8              2.6 10^-9^

                 Liver          2.8 10^-9^        1.8              2.4 10^-9^

  ^103^Ru        Effective      7.3 10^-10^       1.8              6.1 10^-10^

                 Colon          4.3 10^-9^        1.8              3.6 10^-9^

  ^106^Ru        Effective      7.0 10^-9^        1.8              5.9 10^-9^

                 Colon          4.5 10^-8^        1.8              3.8 10^-8^

  ^105^Rh        Effective      3.7 10^-10^       1.8              3.1 10^-10^

                 Colon          2.7 10^-9^        1.8              2.3 10^-9^

  ^132^Te        Effective      3.8 10^-9^        1.8              3.2 10^-9^

                 Colon          1.3 10^-8^        1.8              1.1 10^-8^

                 Thyroid        3.1 10^-8^        1.8              2.6 10^-8^

  ^131^I         Effective      2.2 10^-8^        1.8              1.9 10^-8^

                 Thyroid        4.3 10^-7^        1.8              3.6 10^-7^

  ^133^I         Effective      4.3 10^-9^        1.8              3.6 10^-9^

                 Thyroid        8.2 10^-8^        1.8              6.9 10^-8^

  ^136^ Cs       Effective      3.0 10^-9^        1.4              2.8 10^-9^

  ^137^Cs        Effective      1.3 10^-8^        1.3              1.3 10^-8^

  ^140^Ba        Effective      2.6 10^-9^        1.8              2.2 10^-9^

                 Colon          1.7 10^-8^        1.8              1.4 10^-8^

  ^143^Ce        Effective      1.1 10^-9^        1.8              9.3 10^-10^

                 Colon          8.3 10^-9^        1.8              7.0 10^-9^

  ^144^Ce        Effective      5.2 10^-9^        1.8              4.4 10^-9^

                 Colon          4.2 10^-8^        1.8              3.5 10^-8^

  ^147^Nd        Effective      1.1 10^-9^        1.8              9.3 10^-10^

                 Colon          8.2 10^-9^        1.8              6.9 10^-9^
  -------------- -------------- ----------------- ---------------- -----------------------

Table 3. (concluded).

  -------------- -------------- ----------------- ---------------- -----------------------
  Radionuclide   Organ          Dose coefficient                   

                                $\overline{x}$,   $$\sigma_{g}$$   ${\overline{x}}_{g}$,
                                Sv Bq^-1^                          Sv Bq^-1^

  ^239+240^Pu    Effective      2.5 10^-7^        1.8              2.1 10^-7^

                 Bone surface   8.2 10^-6^        1.8              6.9 10^-6^

                 Liver          1.7 10^-6^        1.8              1.4 10^-6^

  ^241^Pu        Effective      4.8 10^-9^        1.8              4.0 10^-9^

                 Bone surface   1.6 10^-7^        1.8              1.3 10^-7^

                 Liver          3.4 10^-8^        1.8              2.9 10^-8^
  -------------- -------------- ----------------- ---------------- -----------------------

effects to the U.S. population from the radionuclides released by the
Nevada tests. As noted in

the paragraph above, past experience has shown the thyroid is the only
organ anticipated to receive a dose from the ingestion of contaminated
foods that would exceed the dose from external exposure.

In Table 3, dose coefficients are given for the colon, and this
corresponds to the values given in ICRP (1998). This represents a change
in the usual practice of the ICRP, which was not to give dose
coefficients for the colon but for the Upper Large Intestine (ULI) and
the Lower Large Intestine (LLI) separately. This new procedure is more
consistent with the practice of the ICRP in assigning a weighting factor
(for the purpose of calculating effective dose) to the colon. In
practice the LLI had been used for this, and the ULI had been considered
a "remainder" organ. Now the colon dose is considered as the mass
average of the equivalent dose in the walls of the upper and lower large
intestine (ICRP 1995). Thus, with *H* representing equivalent dose, the
dose coefficient for the colon is defined in terms of the dose
coefficients for the ULI and LLI as

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------
  $H_{\text{colon}} \equiv 0\text{.}\text{57}H_{\text{ULI}} + 0\text{.}\text{43}H_{\text{LLI}}$ . \(3\)

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------

**Periods of summation**

For each county (or part of a county) the dose commitments for a given
radionuclide received within the years of major testing have been summed
for those tests that took place in the years of 1951, 1952, 1953, 1955,
1957, or 1962. In order to achieve this summation, the individual
estimates of geometric mean dose and geometric standard deviation for
each test during the year have been converted to arithmetic means and
variances, summed, and then reconverted to estimates of geometric mean
and geometric standard deviation. The equations used for this purpose
are as given in Ng et al. (1990).

The sum of effective doses from all radionuclides for each geographical
unit has also been calculated for each test, for each year, and for the
total time period by use of the same methodology as indicated in the
paragraph above.

**Collective dose**

Estimates of collective dose to the entire contiguous U.S. were
calculated by multiplying the arithmetic mean dose for each county by
its estimated 1954 population and summing over all counties. The sums of
collective effective doses for all radionuclides have been calculated
for each test and summed for each year of testing. For the total summary
over all years, additional tabulations of collective dose were
calculated by summing collective effective dose and the collective dose
to each organ indicated in Table 3. If the organ dose had not been
calculated for a particular radionuclide, the effective dose for that
radionuclide was included instead. This procedure overestimates the
actual collective organ dose, and some corrections to this
overestimation are considered and presented in the results discussed
below. This correction is useful, as the great majority of effective
dose is contributed by the dose from ^131^I to the thyroid. Even though
the tissue-weighting factor for the thyroid is only 0.05, the dose to
many organs is less than 0.001 of that of the thyroid.

[]{#Results .anchor}**RESULTS AND DISCUSSION**

The results of the basic calculations made for this project are provided
on two CDs that accompany this report. Information on the CDs is
organized with a folder containing all data for each year of significant
tests at the NTS: 1951, 1952, 1953, and 1955 on the first CD; and 1957
and 1962 on the second CD. Within the folder for each year is a workbook
for each event shown in Table 1. Each workbook contains two
spreadsheets: "S1" contains data on geometric means and geometric
standard deviations, and "S2" contains data on arithmetic means and
arithmetic variances and collective effective dose. The data available
for each event are indicated in Table 4. In addition, there is a summary
workbook for each year that includes three spreadsheets. Spreadsheet
"AM" contains the sum of doses for each geographic unit by arithmetic
means and arithmetic standard deviations, whereas spreadsheet "GM"
contains similar data according to geometric means and geometric
standard deviations. These values of dose and effective dose are in
units of mSv. The third spreadsheet, "Coll," contains information on the
collective dose for each geographic unit summed over all events that
took place during that year. Units for the third spreadsheet are person
Sv. At the bottom of the latter spreadsheet is the sum of collective
effective dose over all geographic units.

Information on these spreadsheets is coded according to the geographic
location. An explanation of these codes is provided in the "FIPS"
spreadsheet found on the first CD. In addition to providing the name of
the county, the area of the county in km^2^ and the estimated population
in 1954 are given. The FIPS spreadsheet was provided by Beck (1999) and
is reproduced from that report.

A final workbook is provided on the second CD that is labeled
"TotalSummary." This contains three spreadsheets as for the yearly
summaries. In addition, the total collective dose for effective dose and
for each organ for all tests is summarized at the bottom of the "Coll"
spreadsheet.

Table 4. Dose calculations provided for every significant nuclear test
at the NTS. For each indicated calculation, data are provided on the
geometric mean estimate, the geometric standard deviation, the
arithmetic mean, and the arithmetic standard deviation. Effective doses
are calculated for all radionuclides. In cases where the dose
coefficient for an organ was more than twice that for effective dose, an
additional calculation was made for that organ.

  ------------------------- ---------------------------------------------
  Radionuclide              Doses calculated

  ^89^Sr                    Effective, bone surface, colon

  ^90^Sr                    Effective, bone surface, red marrow

  ^91^Sr                    Effective, colon

  ^97^Zr                    Effective, colon

  ^99^Mo                    Effective, kidneys, liver

  ^103^Ru                   Effective, colon

  ^106^Ru                   Effective, colon

  ^105^Rh                   Effective, colon

  ^132^Te                   Effective, colon, thyroid

  ^131^I                    Effective, thyroid

  ^133^I                    Effective, thyroid

  ^136^Cs                   Effective

  ^137^Cs                   Effective

  ^140^Ba                   Effective, colon

  ^143^Ce                   Effective, colon

  ^144^Ce                   Effective, colon

  ^147^Nd                   Effective, colon

  ^239+240^Pu               Effective, bone surface, liver

  ^241^Pu                   Effective, bone surface, liver

  All                       Effective

  All                       Collective effective
  ------------------------- ---------------------------------------------

**Effective dose commitments for individuals**

Such large amounts of data are more easily summarized graphically. Figs.
20 through 25 consist of color-coded maps that provide information on
the effective dose summed over all

radionuclides for each year of testing. Fig. 26 is a summary over all
years. For these plots the best estimator of effective dose is
considered to be the geometric means, as tabulated in the

spreadsheets contained in the CDs. Some dose was estimated to have
occurred in every county considered; the highest total dose (3.0 mSv)
occurred in part of Nye County, Nevada, and the lowest (0.011 mSv) in
Wahkiakum County, Washington. Data for the 80 counties or parts of
counties with higher estimates of total individual effective dose are
given in Table 5. It is not surprising to see a large representation
from Nevada (11) and Utah (31), but 21 counties from Colorado also
appear on the list. This is apparently due to two reasons: These
locations are downwind from many fallout tracks that passed over Utah,
and there was enhanced deposition with rain after some clouds passed
over the Rocky Mountains (see Beck 1984).

![](media/image20.wmf){width="9.0in" height="5.524305555555555in"}

Fig. 20. Map of the effective dose by geographical area for the tests
conducted in the year 1951.

![](media/image21.wmf){width="9.0in" height="5.524305555555555in"}

Fig. 21. Map of the effective dose by geographical area for the tests
conducted in the year 1952.

![](media/image22.wmf){width="9.0in" height="5.524305555555555in"}

Fig. 22. Map of the effective dose by geographical area for the tests
conducted in the year 1953.

![](media/image23.wmf){width="9.0in" height="5.524305555555555in"}

Fig. 23. Map of the effective dose by geographical area for the tests
conducted in the year 1955.

![](media/image24.wmf){width="9.0in" height="5.524305555555555in"}

Fig. 24. Map of the effective dose by geographical area for the tests
conducted in the year 1957.

![](media/image25.wmf){width="9.0in" height="5.524305555555555in"}

Fig. 25. Map of the effective dose by geographical area for the tests
conducted in the year 1962.

![](media/image26.wmf){width="9.0in" height="5.524305555555555in"}

Fig. 26. Map of the effective dose by geographical area for the tests
conducted from 1951 through 1962*.*

Table 5. Counties or subcounties with higher estimates of total
individual effective dose*.*

  ------- --------------- ----------------------- ---------------- -- ------- --------------- ----------------------- ----------------
  State   County          ${\overline{x}}_{g}$,   $$\sigma_{g}$$      State   County          ${\overline{x}}_{g}$,   $$\sigma_{g}$$
                          mSv                                                                 mSv                     

  NV      Nye 2           3.0                     1.5                 UT      Box Elder 2     0.72                    1.5

  NV      White Pine 2    1.8                     1.5                 CO      Eagle           0.71                    2.1

  NV      Lincoln 1       1.4                     1.8                 CO      Lake            0.71                    2.3

  NV      White Pine 3    1.4                     1.5                 UT      Rich            0.71                    1.5

  UT      Utah            1.2                     1.5                 UT      Garfield        0.71                    2.4

  AZ      Mohave 2        1.2                     1.8                 CO      Saguache        0.70                    2.2

  NV      White Pine 1    1.1                     1.5                 NV      Lander 2        0.70                    1.8

  UT      Washington 3    1.1                     1.7                 UT      Sanpete         0.70                    1.6

  CA      Inyo 3          1.1                     2.0                 CO      Clear Creek     0.70                    1.8

  UT      Wasatch         1.0                     1.5                 UT      Uintah          0.70                    1.6

  UT      Tooele 1        0.99                    1.7                 UT      Beaver          0.69                    1.6

  NV      Eureka          0.99                    1.7                 WY      Sweetwater      0.69                    1.7

  UT      Millard         0.97                    1.5                 MO      Audrain         0.69                    2.5

  UT      Washington 2    0.97                    1.7                 UT      Grand           0.68                    1.6

  UT      Kane 2          0.93                    2.3                 UT      Cache           0.67                    1.5

  UT      Tooele 2        0.91                    1.5                 NV      Lincoln 2       0.67                    3.9

  CO      Conejos         0.91                    3.2                 UT      Iron 2          0.66                    2.3

  UT      Davis           0.90                    1.5                 NV      Mineral         0.66                    1.9

  UT      Morgan          0.89                    1.5                 CO      Rio Blanco      0.66                    1.5

  UT      Washington 1    0.88                    2.3                 NV      Elko            0.66                    1.6

  UT      Juab            0.88                    1.5                 CO      Delta           0.65                    1.6

  UT      Weber           0.88                    1.5                 CO      Montrose        0.65                    1.8

  UT      Salt Lake       0.87                    1.4                 NM      McKinley        0.64                    1.7

  UT      Iron 1          0.86                    2.1                 UT      Dagget          0.64                    1.6

  CO      Archuleta       0.86                    2.8                 CO      Pitkin          0.64                    2.9

  UT      Summit          0.84                    1.4                 ID      Custer          0.63                    3.7

  CO      Hinsdale        0.82                    2.7                 WY      Carbon          0.63                    1.4

  AZ      Mohave 1        0.81                    2.2                 UT      Iron 3          0.62                    2.6

  CO      Gunnison        0.80                    3.7                 CO      Rio Grande      0.62                    2.8

  CO      Mineral         0.80                    2.7                 SD      Haakon          0.62                    2.0

  UT      Kane 1          0.80                    2.4                 CO      Douglas         0.62                    1.9

  WY      Fremont         0.79                    1.5                 WY      Uinta           0.62                    1.5

  AZ      Coconino 2      0.77                    1.7                 CO      Summit          0.61                    2.5

  NV      Washoe          0.76                    1.6                 UT      Sevier          0.61                    1.5

  CO      Garfield        0.76                    1.5                 CO      Grand           0.61                    2.6

  CO      Mesa            0.75                    1.6                 CO      Gilpin          0.60                    1.8

  AZ      Apache          0.75                    1.7                 MT      Meagher         0.60                    2.7

  UT      Duchesne        0.74                    1.6                 CO      Boulder         0.60                    2.0

  MO      Knox            0.73                    3.4                 WY      Sublette        0.60                    1.5

  UT      Emery           0.72                    1.6                 ID      Gem             0.59                    3.8
  ------- --------------- ----------------------- ---------------- -- ------- --------------- ----------------------- ----------------

**Collective dose commitments**

The collective effective dose commitments and the per caput[^6]
effective dose commitments for all years are summarized in Table 6,
where the internal doses are compared to the recent calculations of Beck
(1999) for external dose commitments. As considered in more detail
later, the values for internal dose in the middle column of Table 6 are
dominated by the value of effective dose from ^131^I, which in turn is
dominated by the dose from ^131^I to the thyroid. The dose from ^131^I
to the thyroid also varies strongly with age with the larger doses being
received by infants and young children. Thus, even though infants and
young children make up a small fraction of the population, their
contribution to the total collective dose can be proportionally much
higher. Therefore, it is appropriate to consider an age correction to
the collective doses for the contribution from ^131^I. (It would be
appropriate to consider such an age correction for all radionuclides;
this was not done for this feasibility study for radionuclides other
than ^131^I, as the age-correction effects for other radionuclides are
known to be much smaller.) The details of the age-correction calculation
for ^131^I are shown in Table 7, where data are shown for each year of
age group from \<1 through age 20 y and for 21 y. The year-by year
population values are from the U.S. 1960 census; the dose coefficients
(without modification to geometric means) are from ICRP (1998), and the
integrated intakes represent average ratios of age-adjusted intakes from
Whicker and Kirchner (1987) multiplied by the average
seasonally-adjusted intakes used for this study. The results are that
the age-corrected collective doses from ^131^I would be 2.52 times
higher for thyroid dose and 2.45 times higher for effective dose
compared to the values calculated for adults only. The age-corrected
values of collective dose and per caput dose are shown in the last
column of Table 6.

As shown in Table 6, the age-corrected values of collective effective
dose and per caput dose are somewhat larger for internal dose than for
external dose. This follows from the fact that the effective dose is
dominated by the dose to the thyroid from ^131^I. As will be shown
later, the dose to all organs except for the thyroid is much lower than
the effective dose.

Table 6. Total collective effective doses and per caput doses from all
tests.

  ------------------------------------ ----------------- -----------------
  Parameter                            Value             Age corrected
                                                         value^a^

  Internal dose commitment                               

  Collective effective dose, person Sv 53,000 5,900      110,000 14,000

  Per caput dose, Sv                   320 40            680 90

  External dose commitment (Beck 1999)                   

  Collective effective dose, person Sv 84,000            

  Per caput dose, Sv                   520               
  ------------------------------------ ----------------- -----------------

^a^ For the contribution from ^131^I.

Table 7. Derivation of an age correction for collective dose from
^131^I.

  -------------- ------------ ---------- ------------ ------------ ----------- -----------
  Age            Fraction\    Thyroid\   Effective\   Average      Thyroid     Effective
                 of 1960      *F~g~*,\   *F~g~*,\     integrated   product,\   product,\
                 population   Sv Bq^-1^  Sv Bq^-1^    intake,\     Sv m^2^     Sv m^2^
                                                      Bq Bq^-1^    Bq^-1^      Bq^-1^
                                                      m^2^                     

  \<1            0.0229       3.70       1.80 10^-7^  0.0645       5.47 10^-9^ 2.66
                              10^-6^                                           10^-10^

  1              0.0229       3.60       1.80 10^-7^  0.0548       4.52 10^-9^ 2.26
                              10^-6^                                           10^-10^

  2              0.0229       3.60       1.80 10^-7^  0.0548       4.51 10^-9^ 2.25
                              10^-6^                                           10^-10^

  3              0.0224       2.10       1.00 10^-7^  0.0548       2.58 10^-9^ 1.23
                              10^-6^                                           10^-10^

  4              0.0222       2.10       1.00 10^-7^  0.0548       2.56 10^-9^ 1.22
                              10^-6^                                           10^-10^

  5              0.0220       2.10       1.00 10^-7^  0.0548       2.54 10^-9^ 1.21
                              10^-6^                                           10^-10^

  6              0.0213       2.10       1.00 10^-7^  0.0548       2.45 10^-9^ 1.17
                              10^-6^                                           10^-10^

  7              0.0211       2.10       1.00 10^-7^  0.0548       2.43 10^-9^ 1.16
                              10^-6^                                           10^-10^

  8              0.0204       1.00       5.20 10^-8^  0.0548       1.11 10^-9^ 5.80
                              10^-6^                                           10^-11^

  9              0.0194       1.00       5.20 10^-8^  0.0548       1.06 10^-9^ 5.53
                              10^-6^                                           10^-11^

  10             0.0194       1.00       5.20 10^-8^  0.0548       1.06 10^-9^ 5.53
                              10^-6^                                           10^-11^

  11             0.0194       1.00       5.20 10^-8^  0.0548       1.06 10^-9^ 5.52
                              10^-6^                                           10^-11^

  12             0.0199       1.00       5.20 10^-8^  0.0623       1.24 10^-9^ 6.46
                              10^-6^                                           10^-11^

  13             0.0196       6.80       3.40 10^-8^  0.0623       8.29        4.14
                              10^-7^                               10^-10^     10^-11^

  14             0.0153       6.80       3.40 10^-8^  0.0623       6.47        3.24
                              10^-7^                               10^-10^     10^-11^

  15             0.0154       6.80       3.40 10^-8^  0.0623       6.52        3.26
                              10^-7^                               10^-10^     10^-11^

  16             0.0156       6.80       3.40 10^-8^  0.0623       6.61        3.31
                              10^-7^                               10^-10^     10^-11^

  17             0.0160       6.80       3.40 10^-8^  0.0623       6.76        3.38
                              10^-7^                               10^-10^     10^-11^

  18             0.0141       4.30       2.20 10^-8^  0.0623       3.78        1.93
                              10^-7^                               10^-10^     10^-11^

  19             0.0127       4.30       2.20 10^-8^  0.0447       2.44        1.25
                              10^-7^                               10^-10^     10^-11^

  20             0.0122       4.30       2.20 10^-8^  0.0447       2.35        1.20
                              10^-7^                               10^-10^     10^-11^

  21             0.6030       4.30       2.20 10^-8^  0.0447       1.16 10^-8^ 5.93
                              10^-7^                                           10^-10^

  Weighted sum   1.00                                              4.85 10^-8^ 2.41 10^-9^

  Ratio of                                                         2.52        2.45
  weighted                                                                     
  sum-to-adult                                                                 
  value                                                                        
  -------------- ------------ ---------- ------------ ------------ ----------- -----------

As a consequence, the doses to organs except for the thyroid are
substantially higher from external exposure than from internal dose.

**Collective effective dose by year of testing**. The collective
effective dose commitments by year of testing are shown in Table 8. Age
corrections have not been made in this table, as the primary goal is to
indicate the contributions by year only in a relative sense. The highest
contribution occurred in 1957 during the 16 explosions of Operation
Plumbbob. The second and third higher contributions occurred in 1952
during the eight events of Operation Tumbler-Snapper and in 1953 during
the 11 events of Operation Upshot-Knothole.

Table 8. Collective effective dose commitments from ingestion by year of
testing.\
Values are not corrected for age.

  ------------------------- ---------------------------------------------
  Year of testing           Collective effective dose commitment,

                            person Sv

  1951                      1,900 310

  1952                      10,000 700

  1953                      7,900 560

  1955                      5,900 1,600

  1957                      20,000 1,300

  1962                      6,600 5,400

  Total                     53,000 5,900
  ------------------------- ---------------------------------------------

A surprisingly large contribution is attributed to the two explosions
that occurred in 1962 during Operation Storax; almost all of the later
was due to Project Sedan, a large cratering experiment.[^7] The relative
ranking of contributions by year is not the same as for external dose
(Beck 1999), although the largest contribution for both was from tests
conducted in 1957. The reason for differences in order is primarily due
to the seasonal dependence for the contribution from dose via ingestion.
As shown in Figs. 3 through 19, the seasonal dependence is quite strong
for many radionuclides with a peak typically occurring in June--July.
The relative ranking by year is the same as noted for the dose to the
thyroid from ^131^I only as reported in NCI (1997).

**Collective effective dose by event**. The collective effective dose
commitments for the 16 events contributing at least 1000 person Sv are
indicated in Table 9 in descending order of dose. As for Table 8, these
values have not been age-corrected. It was not anticipated that Project
Sedan[^8] would head this list, but there are several notable factors
for this event. First, the uncertainty associated with the deposition
for this event is very large; this and the additional uncertainties
involved in the dose calculation result in a very large uncertainty for
the associated dose from this event---in fact, the uncertainty is nearly
as large as the estimated dose. Another important factor is that this
event took place during a time of year when the integrated intake
function is at a maximum. And finally, the yield for the Project Sedan
was the largest of those listed in Table 1. However, the yield for this
event is presumed to have been mostly fusion, although the fractional
fission yield is not available; the fact that the fission yield is
unavailable is a major contributor to the uncertainty in the calculated
deposition values for Project Sedan. The other events listed in Table 9
are generally known to have been major contributors to off-site dose,
and they typically occurred during the time of year when radioecological
transfer would have been high.

Table 9. Collective effective dose commitments from ingestion for the 16
nuclear explosions that are estimated to have resulted in more than 1000
person Sv. Values are not corrected for age.

  ---------------------- ---------------- --------------------------------
  Event                  Date             Collective effective dose
                                          commitment,

                                          person-Sv

  Storax Sedan           6 July 1962      6200 5400

  Tumbler-Snapper George 1 June 1952      4400 540

  Plumbbob Diablo        15 July 1957     4100 850

  Upshot-Knothole Harry  19 May 1953      2800 280

  Plumbbob Kepler}Owens  24--25 July 1957 2600 380

  Plumbbob Hood          5 July 1957      2600 340

  Tumbler-Snapper How    5 June 1952      2100 240

  Tumbler-Snapper Simon  25 April 1953    1900 280

  Plumbbob Priscilla     24 June 1957     1900 460

  Teapot Zucchini        15 May 1955      1700 510

  Plumbbob Galileo       2 September 1957 1600 250

  Teapot Apple 2         5 May 1955       1600 180

  Tumbler-Snapper Fox    25 May 1952      1500 250

  Plumbbob Doppler       23 August 1957   1400 480

  Plumbbob Wilson        18 June 1957     1300 150

  Buster Charlie         30 October 1951  1100 180

  Sum of the above                        39,000 5,600
  ---------------------- ---------------- --------------------------------

Together, these 16 events account for 73% of the total non-age-corrected
estimated dose.

**Collective effective dose by radionuclide**. The collective effective
dose commitments (not corrected for age) for all tests according to the
ten radionuclides contributing more than 98% of the estimated dose are
shown in Table 10 arranged in descending order of dose. Iodine-131 alone
accounts for 76% of the non-age-corrected collective effective dose. Of
the ten more important radionuclides only ^90^Sr and ^137^Cs are long
lived. Plutonium radionuclides accounted for only 0.4% of the estimated
total dose. As noted above, the potentially important radionuclide
^239^Np has not been included in this feasibility study.

**Collective dose by organ.** As indicated above, doses were also
calculated for each radionuclide for any organ that had a dose
coefficient more than twice that of the dose coefficient for effective
dose. Total collective organ doses were then calculated by summing the
dose by organ, but if a dose had not been calculated separately for that
organ for a radionuclide, then the effective dose for that radionuclide
was added to the sum. This procedure is only approximate, but was used
for this feasibility study in order to derive some estimate of the
organs receiving the more significant doses. The results for the organs
listed in Table 4 are given in the middle column of Table 11 and
indicate that the bone surface and colon are of potential interest.

Table 10. Collective effective dose commitments for all tests according
to radionuclide. The ten radionuclides in the table account for more
than 98% of the total dose from ingestion calculated for all 20
radionuclides. Doses from ^239^Np were not considered in this
feasibility study.

  ---------------------- ------------------------------------------------
  Radionuclide           Collective effective dose commitment,

                         person-Sv

  ^131^I                 40,000 5,700^a^

  ^89^Sr                 2800 150

  ^140^Ba                1900 180

  ^137^Cs                1700 120

  ^132^Te                1300 160

  ^106^Ru                1200 250

  ^144^Ce                860 69

  ^103^Ru                620 87

  ^90^Sr                 600 37

  ^136^Cs                580 210

  Sum of above           52,000 5,900
  ---------------------- ------------------------------------------------

^a^ The age-corrected value is 99,00014,000.

Table 11. Collective dose commitments for all tests according to organ.\
If an organ dose had not been calculated separately for a given
radionuclide, the effective dose for that radionuclide was added to the
organ total; this resulted in a substantial overestimate. The last
column is corrected to remove the overestimate due to ^131^I effective
dose. Doses are based on calculations for adults.

  ------------ ---------------------------- -----------------------------
  Organ        Collective organ dose        Corrected^a^\
               commitment, person-Sv        collective organ dose
                                            commitment,\
                                            person-Sv

  Effective    53,000 5,900                 110,000 14,000

  Bone surface 71,000 7,000                 31,000 4,000

  Colon        96,000 10,000                56,000 8,400

  Kidneys      53,000 5,900                 13,000 1,600

  Liver        54,000 5,900                 14,000 1,600

  Red marrow   56,000 5,900                 16,000 1,600

  Thyroid      820,000 110,000              2,000,000 280,000
  ------------ ---------------------------- -----------------------------

> ^a^ Excess contribution from ^131^I effective dose eliminated and age
> corrections made for effective and thyroid dose.

However, as the doses to the bone surface and colon were not calculated
specifically for ^131^I, it is also clear from the results in Table 10
that the effective dose from ^131^I accounts for most of the estimated
dose to the bone surface and colon shown in the middle column of Table
11. The ICRP (1998) dose coefficients for the organs considered here and
for effective dose are reproduced in Table 12. The thyroid has a very
high dose coefficient compared to the other organs, and, even though its
tissue weighting factor is only 0.05, it accounts for essentially all of
the effective dose coefficient; the dose coefficients for the other
organs are at least 100 times smaller than that for the effective dose.
Therefore, the collective organ doses shown in the middle column of
Table 11 were corrected by subtracting the effective dose from ^131^I
and adding back the dose for that organ. Operationally, this was done by
the following calculation:

  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------
  $S_{\text{Organ,corrected}} = S_{\text{Organ}} - S_{\text{Effective},\text{131}} \cdot \left( 1 - \frac{\text{DC}_{\text{Organ,131}}}{\text{DC}_{\text{Effective,131}}} \right)$ , \(4\)

  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------

where *S* is collective dose and *DC* is dose coefficient. The estimates
of effective dose and thyroid dose are also age corrected, as explained
above and according to the values derived in Table 7. The results of
these estimates of corrected collective organ dose commitments are shown
in the last column of Table 11. Practically, the net result was the
subtraction of 40,000 person Sv from the collective dose for all organs,
except thyroid. Compared to the corrected collective doses for most
other organs (thyroid being a notable exception), the collective doses
to the bone surface and colon are significantly higher.

About two thirds of the corrected collective dose commitment to the bone
surface is contributed by three radionuclides: ^90^Sr, ^239+240^Pu, and
^89^Sr in that order. For the colon, three-fourths of the corrected dose
is contributed by four radionuclides: ^89^Sr, ^140^Ba, ^106^Ru, and
^144^Ce in that order (^239^Np was not considered during this
feasibility study). It is also useful to note that these collective
organ doses are less than the collective dose received from external
radiation, as inferred from Table 6. (The collective dose to the bone
surface from external exposure would be larger than the collective
effective dose from external exposure.) Thus, the only organ that has
received a substantially higher collective dose from the ingestion of
contaminated foods as compared to the dose from external exposure

Table 12. ICRP (1998) dose coefficients for ^131^I for effective dose\
and for the organs considered in this study.

  --------------------------- -------------------------------------------
  Organ                       Dose coefficient, Sv Bq^-1^

  Effective                   2.2 10^-8^

  Bone surface                1.3 10^-10^

  Colon                       1.2 10^-10^

  Kidneys                     4.6 10^-11^

  Liver                       4.9 10^-11^

  Red marrow                  1.0 10^-10^

  Thyroid                     4.3 10^-7^
  --------------------------- -------------------------------------------

is the thyroid, which is estimated to have received a collective dose
about 24 times higher than that due to external exposure.

**Comparison to dose estimates from global fallout**

One of the requirements for this project was to compare the doses
calculated above to the latitudinal average doses published by the
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
(UNSCEAR 1993). The latter doses are for "global fallout" from the large
explosions conducted by the U.S. in the Pacific Region and by Russia
near the Arctic Circle, whereas the doses calculated here are for local
and regional fallout from the relatively small tests at the NTS. The
nature of the UNSCEAR calculations is basically the same as that
conducted for this study: Calculated doses are per caput doses for
adults and focus on effective dose commitments with the only age
correction having been made for doses from ^131^I. A comparison of dose
commitments arising from the ingestion of contaminated foods is shown in
Table 13. The UNSCEAR values listed here are for averages over the
40--50 latitude band of the north temperate zone, which would cover
much, but not all, of the contiguous United States.

As discussed above, the small nuclear tests conducted in the atmosphere
at the NTS would not have created significant amounts of ^3^H and ^14^C
in comparison to the large amounts that were produced by the much larger
tests of fusion devices in the atmosphere conducted by the U.S. in the
Pacific Region and by Russia near the Arctic Circle. Thus, these two
radionuclides have not been included in the current assessment of doses
from the NTS, but the two radionuclides are noted to be significant
contributors to dose from global fallout.

The method used by the UNSCEAR (1993) to calculate dose commitment from
^14^C also deserves some comment. The value in UNSCEAR (1993) for the
effective dose commitment from ^14^C is 2600 µSv, but this commitment
extends over infinite time for a radionuclide with a half life of 5730
years and which remains widely distributed in the atmosphere and
hydrosphere over very long times. Thus, the per caput dose commitment
calculated by the UNSCEAR is intergenerational. According to UNSCEAR
(1993) 5% of this dose would be delivered during the first 100 years;
therefore, in order to compare more reasonably with the dose commitments
from the NTS the value of 2600 µSv has been reduced by multiplying by
0.03; this modified result is given in Table 13.

In general, the effective dose commitment from the NTS is dominated by
short-lived radionuclides, such as ^131^I, ^89^Sr, and ^140^Ba. In
contrast, the estimates of dose commitment from global fallout are
dominated by long-lived radionuclides, such as ^137^Cs and ^90^Sr. This
is consistent with the mechanisms that produced the deposition of
fallout from the two sources.

Another feature of global fallout was that the debris was injected into
the upper troposphere and stratosphere and circulated around the globe
with relatively little mixing across latitude bands; debris was removed
from these regions of the upper atmosphere with a half life of about one
year. Thus, if rainfall had been equal at all locations within a
latitude band, then the deposition of radionuclides from global fallout
should have been essentially constant within latitude bands. Of course,
rainfall was not equal at all locations, and the amount of yearly
rainfall correlates strongly with the amount of fallout deposition.

Table 13. Comparison of fallout dose commitments from NTS and from
global sources.

  ---------------- ---------------------------- --------------------------
                   Per caput effective dose     
                   commitment, Sv               

  Radionuclide     This project                 UNSCEAR (1993)

                   Nevada Test Site (NTS)       Global fallout

  ^3^H             \-                           48

  ^14^C            \-                           78^a^

  ^55^Fe                                        14

  ^89^Sr           17                           2.3

  ^90^Sr           3.7                          170

  ^91^Sr           0.0065                       

  ^97^Zr           0.15                         

  ^99^Mo           1.0                          

  ^103^Ru          3.8                          

  ^106^Ru          7.2                          

  ^105^Rh          0.086                        

  ^132^Te          7.8                          

  ^131^I           610^b^                       79

  ^133^I           1.9                          

  ^136^Cs          3.6                          

  ^137^Cs          10                           280

  ^140^Ba          12                           0.42

  ^143^Ce          0.40                         

  ^144^Ce          5.3                          

  ^147^Nd          1.1                          

  ^238^Pu                                       0.0009

  ^239+240^Pu      1.2                          0.50

  ^241^Pu          0.087                        0.004

  ^241^Am                                       1.5

  Sum              680^b^                       670^a^
  ---------------- ---------------------------- --------------------------

> ^a^ The UNSCEAR (1993) value of 2600 Sv was multiplied by a factor of
> 0.03, the portion estimated to be delivered in 50 y.
>
> ^b^ Age corrected.

Debris from the NTS originated from relatively small explosions, and
much of the debris remained within the lower regions of the atmosphere.
Thus, a much greater fraction of NTS debris was deposited within the
U.S. during the first few days following the explosions. Rainfall was
also an important determining feature of the amount of NTS fallout
deposited at a given location, but also important was the distance from
the NTS. Thus, the variation in the amount of NTS fallout deposition is
expected to be larger than for global fallout. As mentioned earlier, the
maximum amount (averaged over a county-size area) of non-age-corrected
dose commitment from NTS fallout summed over all years was 3000 µSv and
the minimum was 11 µSv---a ratio of nearly 300. Although the per caput
dose commitments shown in Table 13 indicate that dose from global
fallout was about the same as the value from NTS fallout, at any
specific location the true ratio can vary substantially. The timing of
deposition also varied for NTS versus global fallout. While most of the
NTS fallout occurred in the 1950's, most of the global fallout occurred
in 1963--1965 (UNSCEAR 1993).

**Dose from inhalation**

For this feasibility study, dose has not been estimated for inhalation.
The primary reason is that estimates of integrated air concentration
were not available. When the gummed-film network was being operated,
substantial numbers of measurements were made of concentrations of
radionuclides in air. If these measurements should be used in the future
for calculations of dose from inhalation, it would be necessary to go
through a similar process of kriging with consideration of rainfall to
produce estimates on a county-by-county basis. In the case of air
concentration, rainfall should be inversely correlated with integrated
air concentration, whereas the reverse is true for deposition.

Past experience (Ng et al. 1990; UNSCEAR 1993) indicates that dose from
inhalation is much less important than the dose received from external
exposure or the ingestion of contaminated foods. In general, dose via
inhalation only becomes of some importance for those radionuclides that
have an extremely low rate of absorption across the gut wall, but remain
in the lung for a long time when inhaled. Such a radionuclide is
^239+240^Pu.

Another approach to providing crude estimates of dose from inhalation is
to base the calculation upon a deposition density and to assume that
there is a relationship between deposition density, *P*, and integrated
air concentration, *IAC*, that is given by a deposition velocity,
*v~g~*. This approach is only approximate, as this relationship is
influenced very strongly by rainfall amount; and rainfall is an
important vector producing deposition of fallout. Such an approach has
been used by the UNSCEAR (1993) and is based upon long-term observations
of the relationship between *IAC* and *P* at New York City. According to
the UNSCEAR, an average value of *v~g~* is 1.76 cm s^-1^. Thus, given
*P*, the dose from inhalation can be calculated by

  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------
  $D_{h} = K \times R \times P \times \frac{1}{v_{g}} \times B \times F_{h}$ , \(5\)

  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------

where K is a units-conversion factor, *R* is a reduction factor
associated with indoor occupancy, *B* is breathing rate, and *F~h~* is
the dose coefficient for intake via inhalation. According to NCI (1997)
a reasonable derivation of *R* is to assume that adults spend 80% of
their time indoors where the concentration of radionuclides in air is
0.3 of that in outdoor air. A commonly used value by the ICRP for *B* is
22 m^3^ day^-1^; values of *F~h~* are available for all organs in ICRP
(1998).

For the purpose here it is more convenient to calculate the ratio of
dose from inhalation to the dose from ingestion for a particular
radionuclide for a particular event:

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------
  $\frac{D_{h}}{D_{g}} = \frac{K' \times R \times B \times F_{h}}{v_{g} \times I \times F_{g}}$ . \(6\)

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------

For illustrative purposes, the event (Project Sedan) estimated to have
produced the largest dose is used and values have been calculated for
the ten radionuclides of greater impact (Table 10) plus ^239+240^Pu. The
results are presented in Table 14. For these conditions the only
radionuclide whose dose via inhalation would have exceeded the dose via
ingestion is ^239+24^Pu. However, ^239+240^Pu did not account for a
significant amount of the total dose from the tests. For the other
radionuclides, the estimated ratio is generally a third or much less.
These values are biased toward the low side by the date of Project
Sedan, which occurred when radioecological transfer was high. The values
are biased toward the high side due to the fact that most of the
deposition occurred during rainstorms. Better estimates could be made in
the future of doses via inhalation, but kriged or otherwise derived
values of integrated air concentration would be necessary.

**Comparison of results with those from NCI (1997)**

NCI (1997) presents the results of a very detailed, multi-year study of
the dose to residents of the U.S. The study considers only ^131^I and
the dose to the thyroid. The bottom line result from NCI (1997) is a
collective thyroid dose of 4,000,000 person Sv, whereas a comparable
number estimated from this work (Table 11) is 2,000,000 Sv. Further, the
distribution of individual dose on a county-by-county basis appears to
be somewhat different with the NCI (1997) values appearing to be higher
in Idaho, Montana, and the Midwest.

Table 14. Calculated ratios of dose from inhalation-to-dose from\
ingestion for the conditions of Project Sedan*.*

  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------
  Radionuclide                       $$\frac{D_{h}}{D_{g}}$$

  ^131^I                             0.022

  ^89^Sr                             0.079

  ^140^Ba                            0.33

  ^137^Cs                            0.00087

  ^132^Te                            0.38

  ^106^Ru                            0.053

  ^144^Ce                            0.13

  ^103^Ru                            0.17

  ^90^Sr                             0.011

  ^136^Cs                            0.014

  ^239+240^Pu                        2.6
  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------

Differences most likely result from the different treatments for the
critical factor of the amount of fallout retained by vegetation. For
this study a constant value was used, whereas NCI (1997) used a value
that varied depending upon the amount of rainfall. A similar treatment
(which would require the input data on the daily amounts of rainfall for
each county) could be used, if the assessment of dose from other
radionuclides is to move beyond this feasibility phase. However, there
is still large uncertainty in the rainfall-rate dependent values of this
parameter, and it might be useful to undertake once again a review of
the data that can be used to derive such factors and the uncertainties
in such values. For lower amounts of rainfall and high standing
biomasses the NCI (1997) procedure results in estimates of the retention
of fallout by vegetation of essentially 100%, which is not consistent
with several experimental observations \[Hoffman et al. (1989) and as
reviewed by Anspaugh (1987)\].

[]{#Conclusions .anchor}**CONCLUSIONS**

The main objective of this work was to determine whether it is feasible
to reconstruct the doses from radionuclides other than ^131^I to the
population of the United States that resulted from the tests of nuclear
weapons at the Nevada Test Site. The results provided here establish
that such a reconstruction is feasible, provided that estimates of
deposition density for a particular radionuclide are available. As it
was demonstrated many years ago for the ORERP project that there is a
definable relationship for the ratio of one radionuclide to another for
all radionuclides of interest (Hicks 1982, 1990), this conclusion is not
surprising.

What is more of a surprise is the extent to which the dose from ^131^I
dominates the dose received by the American public from tests at the
NTS. Other than the doses from ^131^I to the thyroid (and how this
effects the effective dose), doses to other organs are much smaller and
are less than the dose that was estimated by Beck (1999) to have
resulted from external exposure.

The effective dose received by the U.S. population from releases from
the NTS is about the same as the dose received from global fallout.
However, large deviations from the average are expected, and the two
sources resulted in doses delivered during two different time periods.

This study and the deposition values calculated by Beck for 20 different
radionuclides are based upon the NCI (1997) data base of
county-by-county ^131^I-deposition values for each test. A review of
these values for Project Sedan has revealed a major discrepancy of a
factor of 30 between the total calculated deposition within the U.S. and
the amount stated to have been produced by the Sedan event. This error
is believed to have resulted from the meteorological model used for
Sedan and a few other events. Correction of these values was beyond the
scope of the current feasibility study, but should be an item of
importance for any follow-on study.

Deposition values of ^239^Np were not provided as input data for this
study. Any follow-on study should include this important radionuclide,
as it can contribute a substantial fraction of dose to the colon.

[]{#REFERENCES .anchor}

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Laboratory; ORNL-6542; 1989.

International Commission on Radiological Protection. Radionuclide
transformations. Energy and intensity of emissions. Annals ICRP 11--13.
Oxford: Pergamon Press; Publication 38; 1983.

International Commission on Radiological Protection. Age-dependent doses
to members of the public from intake of radionuclides: Part 1. Annals
ICRP 20(2). Oxford: Pergamon Press; Publication 56; 1989.

International Commission on Radiological Protection. Age-dependent doses
to members of the public from intake of radionuclides: Part 2: Ingestion
dose coefficients. Annals ICRP 23(3/4). Oxford: Pergamon Press;
Publication 67; 1993.

International Commission on Radiological Protection. Age-dependent doses
to members of the public from intake of radionuclides: Part 3: Ingestion
dose coefficients. Annals ICRP 25(1). Oxford: Pergamon Press;
Publication 69; 1995.

International Commission on Radiological Protection. Age-dependent doses
to members of the public from intake of radionuclides: Part 5:
Compilation of ingestion and inhalation dose coefficients. Annals ICRP
26(1). Oxford: Pergamon Press; Publication 72; 1996.

International Commission on Radiological Protection. The ICRP database
of dose coefficients: Workers and members of the public. Oxford:
Pergamon Press; Version 1.0 on CD-ROM; 1998.

Kirchner, T. B.; Whicker, F. W.; Anspaugh, L. R.; Ng, Y. C. Estimating
internal dose due to ingestion of radionuclides from Nevada Test Site
fallout. Health Phys. 74:487--501; 1996.

National Cancer Institute. Estimated exposures and thyroid doses
received by the American people from Iodine-131 in fallout following
Nevada atmospheric nuclear bomb tests. Washington: NCI Report; 1997.

Ng, Y. C.; Anspaugh, L. R.; Cederwall, R. T. ORERP internal dose
estimates for individuals. Health Phys. 59:693--713; 1990.

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation.
Sources and effects of ionizing radiation. New York: United Nations;
Sales No. E.94.IX.2; 1993.

Whicker, F. W.; Kirchner, T. B. PATHWAY: A dynamic food-chain model to
predict radionuclide ingestion after fallout deposition. Health Phys.
52:717--737; 1987.

Whicker, F. W.; Kirchner, T. B.; Breshears, D. D.; Otis, M. D.
Estimation of radionuclide ingestion: The "PATHWAY" food-chain model.
Health Phys. 59:645--657; 1990.

Whicker, F. W.; Kirchner, T. B.; Anspaugh, L. R.; Ng, Y. C. Ingestion of
Nevada Test Site fallout: Internal dose estimates. Health Phys.
71:477--486; 1996.

Radiation Dose to the Population of the Continental United States from
the Ingestion of Food Contaminated with Radionuclides from Nuclear Tests
at the Nevada Test Site

[]{#PartII .anchor}**Part II. Reference and Subsidiary Information
Pertaining to Exposure and Doses to the American Publics from
Nuclear-Weapons Related Tests Conducted at the Nevada Test Site (NTS)**

**Lynn R. Anspaugh**

**Lynn R. Anspaugh, Consulting**

**Salt Lake City, UT**

**Report to the National Cancer Institute**

**Purchase Order No. 263-MQ-912901**

[]{#LISTDOCUMENTS .anchor}**LIST OF DOCUMENTS**

**Trinity Event**

Before the Trinity event took place, Fermi and others had performed
calculations and were aware that fallout might be a problem (Hoddeson et
al. 1993). Thus, monitors were ready to evacuate people, if necessary,
and did follow the cloud across New Mexico and into Colorado (Hoffman
1947). It is reported that residents of one farm received exposures of
up to 60 R (Hacker 1987). A source term (Hicks 1985) for Trinity was
calculated and a fallout pattern (Quinn 1987) was reconstructed on
behalf of the ORERP. However, doses from this event have not been
reconstructed, due primarily to scarcity of data. It is known that
photographic film was fogged due to packing in strawboard that was
contaminated by Trinity debris that was deposited in Indiana (Webb
1949).

Hacker, B. C. The dragon's tail. Radiation safety in the Manhattan
Project, 1942--1946. Berkeley: University of California Press; 1987.

Hicks, H. G. Results of calculations of external gamma radiation
exposure rates from local fallout and the related radionuclide
compositions---the TRINITY event. Livermore: Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory; UCRL-53075; 1985.

Hoddeson, L.; Henriksen, P. W.; Meade, R. A.; Westfall, C. Critical
assembly. A technical history of Los Alamos during the Oppenheimer
years, 1943--1945. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1993.

Hoffman, J. G. Nuclear explosion 16 July 1945 health physics report on
radioactive contamination throughout New Mexico following the nuclear
explosion. Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory; LA-626; 1947.

Olafson, J. H.; Nishita, H.; Larson, K. H. The distribution of plutonium
in the soils of central and northeastern New Mexico as a result of the
atomic bomb test of July 16, 1945. Los Angeles: University of
California; UCLA 406; 1957.

Quinn, V. E. Analysis of nuclear test Trinity radiological and
meteorological data. Las Vegas: U.S. Department of Energy Nevada
Operations Office; NVO-313; 1987.

Webb, J. H. The fogging of photographic film by radioactive contaminants
in cardboard packaging materials. Phys. Rev. 76:375--380; 1949.

**Nuclear explosions at the Nevada Test Site**

Carter, M. W.; Moghissi, A. A. Three decades of nuclear testing. Health
Phys. 33:5571; 1977.

U.S. Department of Energy. United States nuclear tests. Las Vegas:
Nevada Operations Office; DOE/NV-209, Rev. 14; 1994.

**Congressional Hearings**

Over the years Congress has held several hearing on fallout, and the
records of the major hearings listed below are major sources of
information on fallout. Most of the material is concerned with global
fallout, but significant amounts of information pertaining to the Nevada
Test Site are also included, particularly in the 1957, 1959, and 1963
hearings.

U.S. Congress. The nature of radioactive fallout and its effects on man.
Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office; Hearings before the Special
Subcommittee on Radiation, Joint Committee on Atomic Energy; 85^th^
Congress; 1957.

U.S. Congress. Fallout from nuclear weapons tests. Washington: U.S.
Government Printing Office; Hearings before the Special Subcommittee on
Radiation, Joint Committee on Atomic Energy; 86^th^ Congress; 1959.

U.S. Congress. Radiation standards, including fallout. Washington: U.S.
Government Printing Office; Hearings before the Subcommittee on
Research, Development, and Radiation, Joint Committee on Atomic Energy;
87^th^ Congress; 1962.

U.S. Congress. Fallout, radiation standards, and countermeasures.
Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office; Hearings before the
Subcommittee on Research, Development, and Radiation, Joint Committee on
Atomic Energy; 88^th^ Congress; 1963.

U.S. Congress. Low-level radiation effects on health. Washington: U.S.
Government Printing Office; Hearings before the Subcommittee on
Oversight and Investigations, Committee on Interstate and Foreign
Commerce, House of Representatives; 96^th^ Congress; 1979.

**Reports of organized off-site monitoring activities (Military,
National Laboratory, Public Health Service, Environmental Protection
Agency, Atomic Energy Commission, University of California at Los
Angeles, U.S. Weather Service)**

Based upon the experience with the Trinity test and the test series
conducted in the Pacific during 1946 and 1948, the potential exposure of
workers and the public to fallout were known and appreciated. Beginning
with the first test in Nevada monitoring of the nearby region was
performed by members of the military, the Los Alamos National
Laboratory, and the on-site contractor. In addition, the then Atomic
Energy Commission undertook monitoring across the United States through
its then Health and Safety Laboratory in New York. On-site
radioecological studies were also conducted by a team from the
University of California at Los Angeles.

Over the years these monitoring activities became increasingly
sophisticated. For the 1955 test series at the NTS responsibility for
the monitoring of the nearby off-site area was assumed by the U.S.
Public Health Service, and a laboratory for this purpose was established
in Las Vegas. The name of this laboratory has changed several times over
the years, but their responsibility for off-site monitoring continued
until the end of testing.

The U.S. Public Health Service also undertook the creation and
management of nationwide networks to monitor activity in air, milk, and
water. The earliest measurements on a nationwide basis occurred in 1954;
the importance of milk as a vector for ^131^I had been postulated but
was not known clearly until 1962. Prior to 1962 there was more interest
in milk as a vector for the transmission of ^90^Sr and ^137^Cs from
global fallout. Early results of the nationwide networks are reviewed by
Terrill (1963); the nationwide monitoring networks that existed in 1961
are summarized in the first issue of *Radiological Health Data and
Reports*.

Andrews, V. E.; Vandervort, J. C. Fruit and vegetable radioactivity
survey, Nevada Test Site environs. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency; EMSL-LV-0539-13; 1978.

Andrews, V. E.; Vandervort, J. C. Fruit and vegetable radioactivity
survey follow-on, Nevada Test Site environs. Las Vegas: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency;LV-VL-0539-19; 1978.

Atomic Energy Commission. 11^th^ Semiannual report to Congress.
Washington: U.S. Department of Energy; 1952.

Atomic Energy Commission. 13^th^ Semiannual report to Congress.
Washington: U.S. Department of Energy; 1953.

Atomic Energy Commission. 14^th^ Semiannual report to Congress.
Washington: U.S. Department of Energy; 1953.

Barth, D. S.; Engel, R. E.; Black, S. C.; Shimoda, W. Dairy farm
radioiodine studies following the Pin Stripe event of April 25, 1966.
Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; SWRHL-41r; 1969.

Baurmash, L.; Neel, J. W.; Vance, W. K.; Mork, H. M.; Larson, K. H.
Distribution and characterization of fallout and airborne activity from
10 to 160 miles from ground zero. Spring 1955. Los Angeles: University
of California; WT-1178; 1955.

Beck, H. L. Estimates of fallout from Nevada weapons testing in the
western United States based on gummed-film monitoring data. New York:
U.S. Department of Energy Environmental Measurements Laboratory;
EML-433; 1984.

Beck, H. L. Results of reanalyses for ^137^Cs, ^90^Sr, and plutonium of
continental U.S. soil samples collected in the 1950s. New York: U.S.
Department of Energy Environmental Measurements Laboratory; EML-544;
1992.

Black, S. C.; Douglas, R. L.; Barth, D. S. Gaseous radioiodine transport
in the air-forage-cow-milk system. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency; EMSL-LV-539-2; 1976.

Black, S. C.; McNelis, D. N.; Bretthauer, E. W. Radionuclide studies in
dairy cows following Project Schooner. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency; SWRHL-112r; 1972.

Bliss, W. A.; Jakubowski, F. M. Plutonium distribution in the environs
of the Nevada Test Site---Status report. In: White, M. G.; Dunaway, P.
B., eds., The radioecology of plutonium and other transuranics in desert
environments. Las Vegas: U.S. Department of Energy Nevada Operations
Office; NVO-153; 1975:237--250.

Bouton, E. H.; Hardin, L. M.; Wilsey, E. F.; Showers, R. L.; Tompkins,
R. C.; Egerland, W. O.; Dombeck, N. J. Operation Sun Beam. Shots Little
Feller I, II, Johnie Boy, and Small Boy. Projects Officers
Report---Project 2.8. Radiological Surveys. Edgewood Arsenal: U.S. Army
Nuclear Defense Laboratory; POR-2266; 1964.

Collison, T. D. Operation Upshot-Knothole, Nevada Proving Grounds,
March-June 1953. Radiological Safety Operation. Albuquerque: Field
Command, Armed Forces Special Weapons Project; WT-702 (Ref.); 1953.

Coogan, J. S.; Bliss, W. A. Protective action taken at Schofield's
dairy, Hiko, Nevada, following an accident release of radioactivity from
the Nevada Test Site. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency;
SWRHL-56r; 1972.

Dunning, G. M. Fallout from nuclear tests at the Nevada Test Site.
Washington: U.S. Department of Energy; TID-5551; 1959.

Dunning, G. M. Nuclear safety in fallout situations. Nucl. Safety
4(3):69--77, 81; 1963.

Eisenbud, M.; Harley, J. H. Radioactive dust from nuclear detonations.
Science 117:141--147; 1953.

Eisenbud, M.; Harley, J. H. Radioactive fallout in the United States.
Science 121:677--680; 1955.

Eisenbud, M.; Harley, J. H. Radioactive fallout through September 1955.
Science 124:251--255; 1956.

Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory. Environmental
monitoring report for the Nevada Test Site and other test areas used for
underground nuclear detonations. January through December 1975. Las
Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; EMSL-LV-539-4; 1976.

Garrett, J. R. A study of the milk distribution system in Nevada. Reno:
University of Nevada; 1984.

Grossman, R. F.; Black, S. C.; Dye, R. E.; Smith, D. D.; Thomé, D. J.;
Mullen, A. A. Off-site environmental monitoring report. Radiation
monitoring around United States nuclear test areas, calendar year 1985.
Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; EPA/600/4-86-022; 1985.

Gwynn, P. S. Operation Tumbler-Snapper radiological safety report to the
test manager. Washington: Armed Forces Special Weapons Project; WT-558
(DEL); 1952.

Harley, J. H.; Hallden, N. A.; Ong, L. D. Y. Summary of gummed film
results through December, 1959. New York: U.S. Department of Energy
Environmental Measurements Laboratory; HASL-93; 1960.

Health and Safety Laboratory. Survey of fallout of radioactive material
following the Las Vegas, Nevada, test explosions. New York: U.S.
Department of Energy Environmental Measurements Laboratory; unpublished
report; 1951.

Health and Safety Laboratory. Radioactive debris from Operations Buster
and Jangle, observations beyond 200 miles from the test site. New York:
U.S. Department of Energy Environmental Measurements Laboratory;
NYO-1576 (del.); 1952.

Health and Safety Laboratory. Radioactive debris from Operations Tumbler
and Snapper, Part I. New York: U.S. Department of Energy Environmental
Measurements Laboratory; NYO-4505 (del.); 1953.

Health and Safety Laboratory. Radioactive debris from Operations Upshot
and Knothole. New York: U.S. Department of Energy Environmental
Measurements Laboratory; NYO-4552 (del.); 1954.

Johnson, W. S.; Hyatt, E. C.; Schulte, H. F. Report of the advisory
personnel to the Air-Sampling Program, Operation Tumbler-Snapper. Los
Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory; WT-566; 1953.

Johnson, W. S.; McClelland, J.; Skillern, C. P. Monitoring of cow's milk
for fresh fission products following an atomic detonation. Los Alamos:
Los Alamos National Laboratory; LA-1597; 1953.

Johnston, R. W. Utilization of telemetering techniques in evaluating
residual radioactive contamination. Washington: U.S. Department of
Energy; WT-1182; 1956.

Larson, K. H.; Neel, J. W.; Hawthorne, H. A.; Mork, H. M.; Rowland, R.
H.; Baurmash, L.; Lindberg, R. G.; Olafson, J. H.; Kowalewsky, B. W.
Distribution, characteristics, and biotic availability of fallout,
Operation Plumbbob. Los Angeles: University of California; WT-1488;
1966.

Larson, K. H.; Olafson, J. H.; Mork, H. M.; Howton, D. R. Field
observations and preliminary field data obtained by the UCLA survey
group, Operation Jangle, November 1951. Los Angeles: University of
California; UCLA-182; 1952.

LeVine, H. D.; Graveson, R. T. Measurement of off-site fallout by
automatic monitoring stations. New York: U.S. Department of Energy
Environmental Measurements Laboratory; WT-1186; 1956.

Lindberg, R. G.; Romney, E. M.; Olafson, J. H.; Larson, K. H. Factors
influencing the biological fate and persistence of radioactive fallout.
Los Angeles: University of California; WT-1177; 1959.

Lindberg, R. G.; Scanlan, J. T.; Watson, J. C.; Rhoads, W. A.; Larson,
K. H. Environmental and biological fate of fall-out from nuclear
detonations in areas adjacent to the Nevada Proving Grounds. Los
Angeles: University of California; WT-812; 1954.

List, R. J. Radioactive debris from Operations Tumbler and Snapper, Part
II. Washington: Weather Bureau; NYO-4512 (del.); 1953.

List, R. J. The transport of atomic debris from Operation
Upshot-Knothole. Washington: Weather Bureau; NYO-4602 (del.); 1954.

List, R. J. Radioactive fallout in North America from Operation Teapot.
Washington: Weather Bureau; NYO-4696 (del.); 1956.

Martin, W. E. Loss of I^131^ from fallout-contaminated vegetation.
Health Phys. 9:1141--1148; 1963.

Martin, W. E. Interception and retention of fallout by desert shrubs.
Health Phys. 11:1341--1354; 1965.

Mork, H. M.; Larson, K. H.; Kowalewsky, B. W.; Wood, R. A.; Paglia, D.
E.; Rhoads, W. A.; Guillou, R. B. Project Sedan. Part I. Characteristics
of fallout from a deeply buried nuclear detonation from 7 to 70 miles
from Ground Zero. Part II. Aerial radiometric survey. Los Angeles:
University of California at Los Angeles; PNE-225F; 1967.

Nagler, K. M.; Telegadas, K. The distribution of significant fallout
from Nevada tests. Silver Spring: U.S. Weather Bureau; 1956.

National Environmental Research Center. Environmental monitoring report
for the Nevada Test Site. January--December 1971. Las Vegas: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency; NERC-LV-539-1; 1972.

National Environmental Research Center. Off-site surveillance activities
of the National Environmental Research Center from July through December
1970. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; NERC-LV-539-17;
1974.

Olafson, J. H.; Larson, K. H. Plutonium, its biology and environmental
persistence. Los Angeles: University of California; UCLA 501; 1961.

Paas, H. J. Radioactive particle fallout in the Hanford environs from
Nevada nuclear explosions, Spring 1953. Richland: Pacific Northwest
National Laboratory; HW-28925; 1953.

Pan, V.; Stevenson, K. A. Temporal variation analysis of plutonium
baseline concentration in surface air from selected sites in the
continental U.S. J. Environ. Radioact.32:239--257; 1996.

Placak, O. R. Final off-site report of the Project Sedan event, July 6,
1962. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; PNE-200F; 1963.

Placak, O. R.; Carter, M. W.; Gilmore, R. A.; Goeke, R. H.; Weaver, C.
I. Operation Plumbbob off-site radiological safety report. Las Vegas:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; OTO-57-3; 1957.

Placak, O. R.; Seal, M. S.; McBride, J. R.; Gilmore, R. A.; Elder, R.
L.; Silhanek, J. S.. Operation Hardtack---Phase II. Off-site
radiological safety report, Nevada Test Site, 1958. Las Vegas: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency; OTO-58-6; 1957.

Rainey, C. T.; Neel. J. W.; Mork, H. M.; Larson, K. H. Distribution and
characteristics of fallout at distances greater than 10 miles from
ground zero, March and April 1953. Los Angeles: University of
California; WT-811; 1954.

Rehm, F. R. Aerial-monitoring operations development. Battle Creek:
Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization; WT-1485; 1962.

Romney, E. M.; Lindberg, R. G.; Hawthorne, H. A.; Bystrom, B. G.;
Larson, K. H. Contamination of plant foliage with radioactive fallout.
Ecology 44:343--349; 1963.

Romney, E. M.; Lindberg, R. G.; Kinnear, J. E.; Wood, R. A. Persistence
of ^90^Sr and ^137^Cs in fallout areas of southern Nevada and Utah. Los
Angeles: University of California; UCLA 12-1308; 1981.

Sanders, J. B.; Placak, O. R.; Carter, M. W. Report of off-site
radiological safety activities, Operation Teapot. Las Vegas: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency; M-7001; 1955.

Schoengold, C. R.; DeMarre, M. E.; McDowell, E. M. Radiological
effluents released from announced U.S. continental tests. 1961 through
1988. Las Vegas: U.S. Department of Energy Nevada Operations Office;
DOE/NV-317; 1990.

Seal, M. S.; Fountain, E. L. Iodine inhalation study for Project Sedan,
July 6, 1962. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; SWRHL-2r;
1964.

Shelton, A. V.; Goeke, R. H.; Kennedy, W. R.; Larson, K. H.; Nagler, K.
M.; Placak, O. R. Exposures prior to 1960. Report of the Test Manager's
Committee to establish fallout doses to communities near the Nevada Test
Site. unpublished report. Reproduced as Appendix A in Anspaugh and
Church (1985).

Shipman, T. L. Operation Buster-Jangle radiological safety. Los Alamos:
Los Alamos National Laboratory; WT-425; 1953.

Sigoloff, S. C.; Borella, H. M. Remote radiological monitoring.
Washington: U.S. Department of Energy; WT-1509; 1958.

Skillern, C. P.; Johnson, W. S.; Schulte, H. P. Some observations on air
sampling techniques used at the Nevada Proving Ground. Los Alamos: Los
Alamos National Laboratory; LA-1685; 1955.

Smith, D. D.; Andrews, V. E. Selected radioisotopes in animal tissues in
Nevada: ^90^Sr and ^137^Cs measurements from 1956 to 1977. Las Vegas:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; EPA-600/3-71-027; 1981.

Smith, D. D.; Black, S. C.; Giles, K. R.; Moghissi, A. A. Report of
animal investigation program activities for the Baneberry event. Las
Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; NERC-LV-539-10; 1975.

Smith, D. D.; Coogan, J. S. Population distribution around the Nevada
Test Site---1984. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency;
EPA-600/4-84-067; 1984.

Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory. Final report of off-site
surveillance for Operation Nougat, September 15, 1961, to June 30, 1962.
Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; SWRHL-1r; 1964.

Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory. Final report of off-site
surveillance for Operation Dominic II. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency; SWRHL-3r; 1965.

Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory. Final report of off-site
surveillance for Operation Storax. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency; SWRHL-4r; 1965.

Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory. Final report of off-site
surveillance for Operation Niblick. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency; SWRHL-12r; 1966.

Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory. Off-site surveillance
activities of the Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory from
January through June 1964. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency; SWRHL-20r; 1966.

Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory. Off-site surveillance
activities of the Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory from July
through December 1964. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency;
SWRHL-22r; 1968.

Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory. Off-site surveillance
activities of the Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory from
January through June 1965. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency; SWRHL-23r; 1966.

Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory. Off-site surveillance
activities of the Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory from July
through December 1965. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency;
SWRHL-24r; 1966.

Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory. Off-site surveillance
activities of the Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory from
January through June 1966. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency; SWRHL-37r; 1970.

Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory. Off-site surveillance
activities of the Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory from July
through December 1966. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency;
SWRHL-38r; 1968.

Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory. Off-site surveillance
activities of the Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory from
January through June 1967. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency; SWRHL-47r; 1970.

Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory. Off-site surveillance
activities of the Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory from July
through December 1967. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency;
SWRHL-64r; 1970.

Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory. Off-site surveillance
activities of the Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory from July
through December 1968. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency;
SWRHL-83r; 1971.

Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory. Off-site surveillance
activities of the Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory from
January through June 1969. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency; SWRHL-97r; 1971.

Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory. Off-site surveillance
activities of the Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory from July
through December 1969. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency;
SWRHL-98r; 1971.

Tami, T. M.; Gibson, R. A., Jr.; Prindle, A. L. Project Schooner,
far-out fallout collection program. Livermore: Army Corps of Engineers
Nuclear Cratering Group; PNE-527; 1971.

Taplin, G. V.; Meredith, O. V.; Kade, H. Evaluation of the acute
inhalation hazard from radioactive fallout material by analysis of
results from field operations and controlled inhalation studies in the
laboratory. Los Angeles: University of California; WT-1172; 1958.

Telegadas, K. Letter to Gene Quinn with tabulated fallout data.
unpublished data. Reproduced as Appendices B and C in Anspaugh and
Church (1985).

Terrill, J. G., Jr. Review of radionuclides in the food chain. In: U.S.
Congress (1963), Vol. 1:71--201.

Thompson, G. D. C. Utah's experience with radioactive milk. Salt Lake
City: Utah State Department of Health and Salt Lake City Department of
Health; 1962.

U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. Off-site environmental contamination from
nuclear explosives at the Nevada Test Site. September 15, 1961September
15, 1962. Washington: U.S. Department of Energy; TID-18892; 1963.

U.S. Public Health Service. Report of Public Health Service activities
in the off-site monitoring program. Nevada Proving Ground---Spring 1953.
Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1955.

U.S. Public Health Service. Radiological health data. A series of
monthly reports published from April 1960 through December 1974.
Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. (Later names of this
journal were "Radiological Health Data and Reports" and "Radiation Data
and Reports.")

Weiss, M. M. A study of the airborne radioactivity at Brookhaven
National laboratory from the Nevada tests, March through June 1953;
Upton: Brookhaven National laboratory; BNL-252; 1953.

Western Environmental Research Laboratory. Final report of off-site
surveillance for Project Schooner, December 8, 1968. Las Vegas: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency; PNE-524; 1971.

Western Environmental Research Laboratory. Final report of off-site
surveillance for the Pin Stripe event, April 25, 1966. Las Vegas: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency; SWRHL-59r; 1972.

Western Environmental Research Laboratory. Off-site surveillance
activities of the Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory from
January through June 1968. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency; SWRHL-81r; 1972.

Western Environmental Research Laboratory. Final report of off-site
surveillance for the Baneberry event, December 18, 1970. Las Vegas: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency; SWRHL-107r; 1972.

Western Environmental Research Laboratory. Off-site surveillance
activities of the Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory from
January through June 1970. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency; SWRHL-108r; 1972.

Wilsey, E. F. Residual gamma radiation patterns from the SUNBEAM and
SEDAN nuclear detonations. Edgewood: U.S. Army Nuclear Defense
Laboratory; NDL-TR-77 (DEL); 1966.

**Reports from the Off-Site Radiation Exposure Review Project on dose
reconstruction (including reports of supporting studies made by the
Environmental Measurements Laboratory)**

Anspaugh, L. R.; Church, B. W. Historical estimates of external gamma
exposure and collective external gamma exposure from testing at the
Nevada Test Site. I. Test series through Hardtack II, 1958. Las Vegas:
U.S. Department of Energy Nevada Operations Office; NVO-226; 1985.

Anspaugh, L. R.; Church, B. W. Historical estimates of external gamma
exposure and collective external gamma exposure from testing at the
Nevada Test Site. I. Test series through Hardtack II, 1958. Health Phys.
51:35--51; 1986.

Anspaugh, L. R.; Ricker, Y. E.; Black, S. C.; Grossman, R. F.; Wheeler,
D. L.; Church, B. W.; Quinn, V. E. Historical estimates of external
gamma exposure and collective external gamma exposure from testing at
the Nevada Test Site. II. Test Series after Hardtack II, 1958, and
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Beck, H. L.; Anspaugh, L. R. Development of the County Database:
Estimates of exposure rates and times of arrival of fallout in the ORERP
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Vegas: United States Department of Energy Nevada Operations Office;
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Beck, H. L.; Krey, P. W. Cesium-137 inventories in undisturbed
soils---Interim report on radionuclides in soils of populated areas. New
York: U.S. Department of Energy Environmental Measurements Laboratory;
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Beck, H. L.; Krey, P. W. External radiation exposure of the population
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Environmental Measurements Laboratory; EML-401; 1982.

Beck, H. L.; Krey, P. W. Radiation exposures in Utah from Nevada nuclear
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Breshears, D. D.; Kirchner, T. B.; Whicker, F. W. Contaminant transport
through agroecosystems: Assessing relative importance of environmental,
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Cederwall, R. T.; Peterson, K. R. Meteorological modeling of arrival and
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Cederwall, R. T.; Ricker, Y. E.; Cederwall, P. L.; Homan, D. N.;
Anspaugh, L. R. Ground-based air-sampling measurements near the Nevada
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1990.

Church, B. W.; Wheeler, D. L.; Campbell, C. M.; Nutley, R. V.; Anspaugh,
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Dose Assessment Advisory Group. Transcript of proceedings. Las Vegas:
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Grossman, R. F.; Thompson, C. B. Creation of a data base of survey meter
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Henderson, R. W.; Smale, R. F. External exposure estimates for
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Hicks, H. G. Radiochemical data collected on events from which
radioactivity escaped beyond the borders of the Nevada Test Range
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1981.

Hicks, H. G. Results of calculations of external radiation exposure
rates from fallout and the related radionuclide compositions. Livermore:
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory; UCRL-53152, parts 18; 1981.

Hicks, H. G. Calculation of the concentration of any radionuclide
deposited on the ground by off-site fallout from a nuclear detonation.
Health Phys. 42:585--600; 1982.

Hicks, H. G. Results of calculations of external radiation exposure
rates from local fallout and the related radionuclide compositions of
selected U.S. Pacific tests. Livermore: Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory; UCRL-53505; 1984.

Hicks, H. G. Results of calculations of external radiation exposure
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SIMON event of Operation Upshot-Knothole, 1953. Livermore: Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory; UCRL-53529; 1984.

Hicks, H. G. Results of calculations of external radiation exposure
rates from local fallout and the related radionuclide compositions of
two hypothetical 1-Mt nuclear bursts. Livermore: Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory; UCRL-53569; 1984.

Hicks, H. G. Additional calculations of radionuclide production
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events. Health Phys. 59:515--523; 1990.

Hicks, H. G.; Barr, D. W. Nevada Test Site atom ratios: ^240^Pu/^239^Pu
and ^241^Pu/^239^Pu. Livermore: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory;
UCRL-53499/1; 1984.

Kirchner, T. B.; Whicker, F. W. Validation of PATHWAY, a simulation
model of the transport of radionuclides through agroecosystems. Ecol.
Modelling 22:21--44; 1983.

Kirchner, T. B.; Whicker, F. W.; Anspaugh, L. R.; Ng, Y. C. Estimating
internal dose due to ingestion of radionuclides from Nevada Test Site
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Krey, P. W.; Beck, H. L. The distribution throughout Utah of ^137^Cs and
^239+240^Pu from Nevada Test Site detonations. New York: U.S. Department
of Energy Environmental Measurements Laboratory; EML-400; 1981.

Krey, P. W.; Hardy, E. P.; Heit, M. Nevada Test Site fallout in the area
of Enterprise, Utah. New York: U.S. Department of Energy Environmental
Measurements Laboratory; EML-386; 1980.

Krey, P. W.; Heit, M.; Miller, K. M. Radioactive fallout reconstruction
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59:541--554; 1990.

McArthur, R. D.; Miller, F. L. Offsite Radiation Exposure Review Project
Phase-II soil program. Las Vegas: U.S. Department of Energy Nevada
Operations Office; DOE/NV/10384-23RE; 1989.

Miller, K. M.; Gogolak, C. V.; Tanabe, H. Natural background radiation
and ^137^Cs inventories in southern Nevada---Preliminary report on
fallout. New York: U.S. Department of Energy Environmental Measurements
Laboratory; EML-386; 1980.

Ng, Y. C.; Anspaugh, L. R.;. Cederwall, R. T. ORERP internal dose
estimates for individuals. Health Phys. 59:693--713; 1990.

Phillips, W. G.; Sherman, S.; Young, R. User's guide for survey meter
and film badge dosimetry data bases. Las Vegas: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency; EPA-600/4-81-035; 1981.

Potter, G. B. Film-badge and survey-meter data bases for historical
off-site radiation exposures around the Nevada Test Site. Health Phys.
50:424; 1986.

Quinn, V. E. Analysis of Operation Upshot-Knothole nuclear test BADGER
radiological and meteorological data. Las Vegas: U.S. Weather Service
Nuclear Support Office; NVO-299; 1986.

Quinn, V. E. Analysis of Operation Teapot nuclear test BEE radiological
and meteorological data. Las Vegas: U.S. Weather Service Nuclear Support
Office; NVO-304; 1986.

Quinn, V. E. Analysis of Operation Teapot nuclear test ZUCCHINI
radiological and meteorological data. Las Vegas: U.S. Weather Service
Nuclear Support Office; NVO-307; 1987.

Quinn, V. E. Analysis of meteorological and radiological data for
selected fallout episodes. Health Phys. 59:577--592; 1990.

Quinn, V. E.; Kennedy, N. C. Fallout particle trajectory computations
and fallout particle arrival time calculations. Las Vegas: Weather
Service Nuclear Support Office; NVO-318; 1989.

Quinn, V. E.; Kennedy, N. C.; Steadman, C. R., Jr. Analysis of Operation
Dominic II SMALL BOY radiological and meteorological data. Las Vegas:
U.S. Weather Service Nuclear Support Office; NVO-285; 1984.

Quinn, V. E.; Kennedy, N. C.; Urban, V. D. Analysis of Operation
Plumbbob SMOKY radiological and meteorological data. Las Vegas: U.S.
Weather Service Nuclear Support Office; NVO-249; 1982.

Quinn, V. E.; Urban, V. D.; Kennedy, N. C. Analysis of Upshot-Knothole 9
(HARRY) radiological and meteorological data. Las Vegas: U.S. Weather
Service Nuclear Support Office; NVO-233; 1981.

Quinn, V. E.; Urban, V. D.; Kennedy, N. C. Analysis of Operation
Tumbler-Snapper nuclear test EASY radiological and meteorological data.
Las Vegas: U.S. Weather Service Nuclear Support Office; NVO-297; 1986.

Steadman, C. R., Jr. Analysis of Operation Upshot-Knothole nuclear test
SIMON radiological and meteorological data. Las Vegas: U.S. Weather
Service Nuclear Support Office; NVO-315; 1987.

Steadman, C. R., Jr.; Kennedy, N. E.; Quinn, V. E. Analysis of
Upshot-Knothole 1 (ANNIE) radiological and meteorological data. Las
Vegas: U.S. Weather Service Nuclear Support Office; NVO-254; 1983.

Steadman, C. R., Jr.; Kennedy, N. E.; Quinn, V. E. Analysis of Operation
Plumbbob nuclear test SMOKY aerial radiological data. Las Vegas: U.S.
Weather Service Nuclear Support Office; NVO-275; 1984.

Steadman, C. R., Jr.; Kennedy, N. E.; Quinn, V. E. Analysis of Operation
Upshot-Knothole nuclear test NANCY radiological and meteorological data.
Las Vegas: U.S. Weather Service Nuclear Support Office; NVO-282; 1984.

Steadman, C. R., Jr.; Kennedy, N. E.; Quinn, V. E. Analysis of Operation
Plumbbob BOLTZMANN radiological and meteorological data. Las Vegas: U.S.
Weather Service Nuclear Support Office; NVO-285; 1984.

Thompson, C. B. Estimates of exposure rates and fallout arrival times
near the Nevada Test Site. Health Phys. 59:555--563; 1990.

Thompson, C. B.; McArthur, R. D.; Hutchinson, S. W. Development of the
Town Database: Estimates of exposure rates and times of fallout arrival
near the Nevada Test Site. Las Vegas: U.S. Department of Energy Nevada
Operations Office; DOE/NV-374; 1994.

Ward, G. M.; Whicker, F. W. Milk production and distribution in nine
western states in the 1950s. Livermore: Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory; UCRL-15907; 1987.

Ward, G. M.; Whicker, F. W. Milk distribution and feeding practice data
for the PATHWAY model. Health Phys. 59:637--643; 1990.

Whicker, F. W.; Kirchner, T. B. PATHWAY: A dynamic food-chain model to
predict radionuclide ingestion after fallout deposition. Health Phys.
52:717--737; 1987.

Whicker, F. W.; Kirchner, T. B.; Breshears, D. D.; Otis, M. D.
Estimation of radionuclide ingestion: The "PATHWAY" food-chain model.
Health Phys. 59:645--657; 1990.

Whicker, F. W.; Kirchner, T. B. Final report on the pathway analysis
task. Fort Collins: Colorado State University; 1993.

Whicker, F. W.; Kirchner, T. B.; Anspaugh, L. R.; Ng, Y. C. Ingestion of
Nevada Test Site fallout: Internal dose estimates. Health Phys.
71:477--486; 1996.

**University of Utah studies**

Church, B. W.; Lloyd, R. d.; Pendleton, R. C.; Mays, C. W. Evidence for
radioruthenium in milk. Nature 207:775--776; 1965.

Gren, D. C.; Hawthorne, H. A.; Crockett, R. A.; Lloyd, R. D.; Simon, S.
L.; Till, J. E.; Stevens, W. Feeding of dairy livestock and milk
distribution for the Thyroid Cohort Study. Salt Lake City: University of
Utah; 1988.

Kerber, R. A.; Till, J. E.; Simon, S.; Lyon, J. L.; Thomas, D. C.;
Preston-Martin, S.; Rallison, M. L.; Lloyd, R. D.; Stevens, W. A cohort
study of thyroid disease in relation to fallout from nuclear weapons
testing. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 270:2076--2082; 1993.

Lloyd, R. D.; Gren, D. C.; Simon, S. L.; Wrenn, M. E.; Hawthorne, H. A.;
Lotz, T. M.; Stevens, W.; Till, J. E. Individual external exposures from
Nevada Test Site fallout for Utah leukemia cases and controls. Health
Phys. 59:723--737; 1990.

Lloyd, R. D.; Mays, C. W.; Pendleton, R. C.; Clark, D. O. A comparison
of the cesium-137 content of milk and people from 19 dairy farms in
Utah. Radiol. Health Data Repts. 10:427--433; 1969.

Lloyd, R. D.; Pendleton, R. C.; Clark, D. O.; Mays, C. W.; Goates, G. B.
Cesium-137 in humans: A relationship to milk ^137^Cs content. Health
Phys. 24:23--36; 1973.

Mays, C. W. Radioactive fallout measurements in air and people. Salt
Lake City: University of Utah; AECU-4112; 1958.

Mays, C. W. Thyroid irradiation in Utah infants exposed to iodine-131.
Scientist and Citizen August 1966:3--9.

Pendleton, R. C.; Koranda, J. J.; Wagner, W. W.; Phelps, P. L.; Lloyd,
R. D.; Anspaugh, L. R.; Chapman, W. H. Radioecological studies in Utah
subsequent to the Baneberry Event. In: Nelson, D. J., ed., Radionuclides
in ecosystems. Springfield: National Technical Information Services;
1971:150--169.

Pendleton, R. C.; Lloyd, R. D. Environmental levels of radioactivity in
Utah following Operation Pinstripe. Radiol. Health Data Repts.
11:65--67; 1970.

Pendleton, R. C.; Lloyd, R. D.; Mays, C. W. Iodine-131 in Utah during
July and August 1962. Science 141:640--642; 1963.

Pendleton, R. C.; Mays, C. W.; Lloyd, R. D.; Brooks, A. L. Differential
accumulation of iodine-131 from local fallout in people and milk. Health
Phys. 9:1253--1262; 1963.

Pendleton, R. C.; Mays, C. W.; Lloyd, R. D.; Church, B. W. A trophic
level effect on ^137^Cs concentration. Health Phys. 11:1503--1510; 1965.

Simon, S. L. An analysis of vegetation interception data pertaining to
close-in weapons test fallout. Health Phys. 59:619--626; 1990.

Simon, S. L.; Lloyd, R. D.; Till, J. e.; Hawthorne, H. A.; Gren, D. C.;
Rallison, M. L.; Stevens, W. Development of a method to estimate dose
from fallout radioiodine in a thyroid cohort study. Health Phys.
59:669--691; 1990.

Stevens, W. Till, J. E.; Thomas, D. C.; Lyon, J. L.; Kerber, R. A.;
Preston-Martin, S.; Simon, S. L.; Rallison, M. L.; Lloyd, R. D.
Assessment of leukemia and thyroid disease in relation to fallout in
Utah, report of a cohort study of thyroid disease and radioactive
fallout from the Nevada Test Site. Salt Lake City: University of Utah;
1992.

Till, J. E.; Simon, S. L.; Kerber, R.; Lloyd, R. D.; Stevens, W.;
Thomas, D. C.; Lyon, J. L.; Preston-Martin, S. The Utah Thyroid Cohort
Study: Analysis of the dosimetry results. Health Phys. 68:472--483;
1995.

Walters, J. L.; Plowman, R. D.; Mickelsen, C. H.; Zaugg, N. L. Dairy
production and pasture utilization by dairy cows in Utah between 1952
and 1961. Logan: Utah State University; 1985.

**National Cancer Institute Studies**

Beck, H. L.; Helfer, I. K.; Bouville, A.; Dreicer, M. Estimates of
fallout in the continental U.S. from Nevada weapons testing based on
gummed-film monitoring data. Health Phys. 59:565--576; 1990.

Bouville, A.; Dreicer, M.; Beck, H. L.; Hoecker, W. H.; Wachholz, B. W.
Models of radioiodine transport to populations within the continental U.
S. Health Phys. 59:659--668; 1990.

Dreicer, M.; Bouville, A.; Wachholz, B. W. Pasture practices, milk
distribution, and consumption in the continental U.S. in the 1950s.
Health Phys. 59:627636; 1990.

Hoecker, W. H.; Machta, L. Meteorological modeling of radioiodine
transport and deposition within the continental United States. Health
Phys. 59:603617; 1990.

National Cancer Institute. Estimated exposures and thyroid doses
received by the American people from Iodine-131 in fallout following
Nevada atmospheric nuclear bomb tests. Washington: NCI Report; 1997.

**Other studies containing calculations of internal dose resulting from
NTS tests**

Knapp, H. A. Iodine-131 in fresh milk and human thyroids following a
single deposition of nuclear test fallout. Washington: U.S. Department
of Energy; TID-19266; 1963.

Lapp, R. E. Nevada test fallout and radioiodine in milk. Science
137:756--757; 1962.

Perez, L. J.; Robinson, P. B. Estimates of iodine-131 thyroid doses from
gross beta radioactivity in milk samples collected at St. George, Utah,
1953. Rockville: National Center for Radiological Health, Public Health
Service; 1967.

Reiss, E. Statement and papers presented to Congress on behalf of the
Greater St. Louis Citizens' Committee for Nuclear Information. In: U.S.
Congress (1963), Vol. 2:601--658.

Tamplin, A. R.; Fisher, H. L. Estimation of dosage to thyroids of
children in the U.S. from nuclear tests conducted in Nevada during 1952
through 1955. Livermore: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory;
UCRL-14707; 1966.

**Other pertinent publications**

Åberg, B.; Hungate, F. P. Radioecological concentration processes.
Proceedings of an international symposium held in Stockholm 2529 April
1966. New York: Pergamon Press; 1967.

Anspaugh, L. R. Retention by vegetation of radionuclides deposited in
rainfall: A literature summary. Livermore: Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory; UCRL-53810; 1972.

Anspaugh, L. R. Technical basis for dose reconstruction. In:
Environmental dose reconstruction and risk implications, Till, J., ed.
Bethesda: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements;
Proceedings No. 17; 1996:25--48.

Barry, P. J.; Chamberlain, A. C. Deposition of iodine onto plant leaves
from air. Health Phys. 9:1149--1157; 1963.

Beierwaltes, W. H.; Crane, H. R.; Wegst, A.; Spafford, N. R.; Carr, E.
A., Jr. Radioactive iodine concentration in the fetal human thyroid
gland from fall-out. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 173:1895--1902; 1960.

Beierwaltes, W. H.; Hilger, M. T. J.; Wegst, A. Radioiodine
concentration in fetal human thyroid from fallout. Health Phys.
9:1263--1266; 1963.

Clark, H. M. The occurrence of an unusually high-level radioactive
rainout in the area of Troy, N. Y. Science 119:619--622; 1954.

Cohn, S. H.; Gusmano, E. A. Uptake and transfer of fallout I^131^ in
pregnant women. Heath Phys. 9:12671269; 1963.

Dunning, G. M. Two ways to estimate thyroid dose from radioiodine in
fallout. Nucleonics 14(2):38--44; 1956.

Dunning, G. M. Criteria for evaluating gamma radiation exposures from
fallout following nuclear detonations. Radiology 66:585--594; 1956.

Dunning, G. M. Criteria for establishing short term permissible
ingestion of fallout material. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 19:111--120;
1958.

Garner, R. J. A mathematical analysis of the transfer of fission
products to cows' milk. Health Phys. 13:205212; 1967.

Koranda, J. J. Agricultural factors affecting the daily intake of fresh
fallout by dairy cows. Livermore: Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory; UCRL‑12479; 1965.

Koranda, J. J.; Phelps, P. L.; Anspaugh, L. R.; Potter, G. B.; Chapman,
W.; Hamby, K. O.; Peterson, K. R.; Crawford, T. V.; Pendleton, R. C.
Radioecological studies related to the BANEBERRY Event. Livermore:
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory; UCRL‑51027; 1991.

Meinke, W. W. Observations on radioactive snows at Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Science 113:545--546; 1951.

Rupp, E. M. Age dependent values of dietary intake for assessing human
exposure to environmental pollutants. Health Phys. 39:151163;1980.

Stannard, J. N. Radioactivity and health. A history. Springfield, VA:
National Technical Information Service; 1988.

Ward, G. M.; Johnson, J. E. Forage-milk relationships of ^137^Cs, ^131^I
and ^90^Sr in one herd of cows. J. Dairy Sci. 46:644647; 1963.

Weaver, J. C.; Kamm, M. L.; Dobson, R. L. Excretion of radioiodine in
human milk. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 173:872875; 1960.

[]{#CLASSIFIEDREPORTS .anchor}**CLASSIFIED REPORTS**

One of the tasks for this work was "To identify classified reports that
could be declassified for the purposes of this study, including those
that would greatly facilitate the estimation of doses from internal
irradiation that are due to the plutonium isotopes."

For many years it has been the policy of the U.S. Government not to
identify in unclassified documents the titles of classified reports, and
the author presumes that is still the case. However, it can be noted
that there is a classified version of the Hicks and Barr (1984) report
\[see above reference\] that would be extremely useful in allowing for a
more accurate and consistent calculation of doses from the plutonium
radionuclides.

Also, there is a specific problem in dealing with the Sedan event that
is caused by the fact that the fission yield of the Sedan event is still
classified. The present author cannot identify a specific report in
which this fission yield is listed, but such a report obviously exists.

Other than the reports noted above that would be useful in defining the
releases of plutonium in general and the fission yield of a few events
\[beyond the feasibility study, the fission yields of other events, such
as Schooner, Buggy, Palanquin, etc., might be needed in order to perform
a complete assessment\], the author does not know of any reports that
would be useful in general in defining the dose from the consumption of
contaminated foods. Some isolated classified reports on this subject
might exist, but it is doubtful that classified information of a
generally useful nature exists.

[]{#HIGHRISKPOPULATIONS .anchor}**HIGH-RISK POPULATIONS**

Another task was to identify how high-risk populations might be
identified. On a geographic basis the areas with the higher estimated
doses are shown in Figs. 20--26, and the 80 county or sub-county areas
with the higher doses for adults are listed in Table 5. As the most
important radionuclide is ^131^I, young children are also at higher risk
(see Table 7). In addition, it is known that children drinking goats'
milk would receive doses that are approximately ten times higher than
those drinking cows' milk. Thus, the higher risk populations would be
young children living in the 80 county or sub-county areas shown in
Table 5. The highest risk population would be young children drinking
goats' milk in the 80 county or sub-county areas.

[^1]: The author of the current report was the Scientific Director of
    the ORERP.

[^2]: The modular system was necessitated by the fact that many
    different organizations at several locations had responsibilities
    for the conduct of the project.

[^3]: Debris injected into the high troposphere or the stratosphere
    circulates in a latitudinal band around the entire globe and
    eventually deposits on the earth. Hence, the term "global" fallout.

[^4]: Plutonium-241 was not included in the ORERP calculations, but
    deposition densities were provided in Beck (1999); ^241^Pu was
    assumed to have the same value of *I* as does ^239+240^Pu.

[^5]: The six age groups considered by the ICRP are 1) three months \[0
    to 12 months\], 2) one y \[from 1 y to 2 y\], 3) five y \[\>2 y to 7
    y\], 4) 10 y \[\>7 y to 12 y\], 5) 15 y \[\>12 y to 17 y\], and 6)
    adult \[\>17 y\].

[^6]: The per caput dose is the collective dose divided by the number of
    persons in the population considered. The value of the population
    for this report is the estimated 1954 population of 163 million.

[^7]: See the following footnote concerning Sedan.

[^8]: This illogical prominence of the estimated dose from Sedan
    prompted a re-evaluation of the deposition values by Beck (personal
    communication 2000) for this event. The conclusion is that the
    original ^131^I-deposition values taken from the NCI data base used
    for NCI (1997) are seriously in error for Sedan: The calculated
    total deposition across the U.S. is thirty times higher than the
    amount of ^131^I stated to have been released by this event. The
    error is apparently associated with the meteorological model used to
    calculate deposition for Sedan. As this model was also used for
    Ranger Baker, Ranger Baker-2, and Storax Small Boy, similar errors
    may have occurred for these three events. This major discrepancy for
    Sedan and questions about the other events must be resolved, if this
    dose-reconstruction project evolves beyond the current feasibility
    phase.