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| ## chokecherry {#chokecherry .Title-Header}                           |
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| *Prunus virginiana* L.                                                |
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| Plant Symbol = PRVI                                                   |
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Contributed by: USDA NRCS Pullman, Washington and Manhattan, Kansas
Plant Materials Centers and Kansas State University Forestry Division

### ![](media/image2.wmf){width="1.8118055555555554in" height="2.6881944444444446in"}

PARTS OF THIS PLANT CAN BE POISONOUS-See Environmental Concerns section
of this document

##### Alternate Names

common chokecherry, choke cherry, black chokecherry, red chokecherry,
California chokecherry, Virginia chokecherry, eastern chokecherry,
western chokecherry, rum chokecherry, whiskey chokecherry, wild cherry,
wild blackcherry, bird cherry, jamcherry, chokeberry, cabinet cherry,
chuckleyplum, sloe tree, bitter-berry, caupulin.

##### Uses

Many people do not realize cherry and some other very important
commercial fruit trees (apple, peach, plum, apricot, nectarines, and
almonds) are in the rose family. Anthropologists indicate cherries have
been harvested in Eurasia from 4,000 to 5,000 B.C. In 1629, chokecherry
was imported to England where it has been cultivated as an ornamental.
It was first cultivated in North America as an orchard crop in 1724.

The seeds are toxic due to production of hydrocyanic acid in the leaves,
stems and seeds. The almond nuts are treated to deactivate the poisonous
glycosides before they are put on the market. Cases of illness and
deaths have been traced back to eating the seeds of these trees.

*Conservation:* Chokecherry is used extensively in shelterbelts,
windbreaks, wildlife habitat and mass plantings for erosion control.
Chokecherry does well in riparian area planting. It provides thermal
cover over the water and works well in stabilizing streambanks. It has
been used on disturbed sites such as mined land reclamation, highway
right-of-ways and construction sites. It is a good erosion control plant
because it can form thickets and spread by rhizomes.

*Wildlife:* Chokecherry is important to many wildlife animals. Birds,
rabbits, hares, rodents and bears all seek out and eat its fruit. It
provides food, cover and nesting habitat for a variety of birds. Birds
will also take advantage of its growth form for cover and nesting
habitat. It is used extensively by deer as a browse source in the
winter. The early spring flowers provide an important source of nectar
for butterflies, honeybees and ants.

*Food*: The common name, chokecherry, came from the bitter and
astringent taste of the fruit. The fruit was a staple for numerous
Indian tribes across the North American continent, especially to tribes
who lived on the plains and prairies. Chokecherries were routinely
cooked before they were eaten or dried thoroughly. Both methods served
to break down any formation of prussic acid contained in the stone pits.
Drying chokecherries improves their taste by sweetening them, or at the
very least, getting rid of the naturally occurring bitter taste.
Chokecherries were consumed in three ways by Indians. The fruit and/or
juice were eaten. Whole cherries, including pulp, skin and stone, were
pulverized into a pulp, shaped into balls and dried in the sun. Fruit
balls could be stored for future use. Either boiling or drying the fruit
will neutralize the naturally occurring hydrocyanic acid. The most
important use was as part of the recipe for pemmican, or mince-meat.
Pemmican was made by getting a slice of dried meat (bison was preferred
over elk, deer or antelope) and pounding it with a stone until it had a
fine texture. Bone marrow and animal lard were then heated and mixed
with the meat. Crushed chokecherries were then added. Pemmican would be
cached as a winter food. Some form of pemmican was a mainstay for all
plains tribes. Chokecherry butter was made by cooking the mature fruit,
straining out the seed and skins, mixing this poultice with an equal
quantity of wild plums or crabapples and adding sugar. The bark was
brewed for a tea drink. Many tribes would add the fruits to soups and
stews as flavoring and as a thickening agent. A green branch was speared
through a meat slab while it was cooking to add spice to the taste.

Likewise, pioneers and settlers came to realize its food value. Mature
fruits are still collected today and used to make jellies, jams,
pie-fillings, syrups, sauces and wines.

Like many plants and animals which were vital to their survival some
tribes used parts of the chokecherry plant in their rituals. A green dye
was derived from the leaves, inner bark and immature fruit. A
purplish-red dye was derived from the ripe fruit. The Cheyenne used the
limbs to make arrow shafts and bows. The Crows used it for tipi stakes
and pins. Mountain men washed their steel traps in water boiled with the
bark to remove the scent. It is speculated many tribes planted seeds in
places they frequented to ensure a supply of chokecherries was always
available.

Chokecherry is being promoted for planting as a minor crop in the
prairie provinces of Canada for juice production. Estimated fruit
production potential is 15,000 pounds per acre from mature plants. There
is a significant research effort in Canada for developing fruit
producing cultivars.

*Landscaping:* In some parts of the U.S., chokecherry is a popular
ornamental. Its quick growth, mature size, attractive white flowers in
the spring and strong, sweet and almond-like aroma fragrance make it a
good yard tree in urban neighborhoods. Cultivars are planted for
ornamentals rather than the native species. All native chokecherry
varieties have a great tendency to sucker, which can create problems in
lawn care. Most cultivated varieties do not have this suckering trait
while producing more attractive flowers and/or larger fruit. The fruit
also attracts a diverse population of birds for a number of weeks.
Chokecherries can be a component in a screen or noise barrier planting.

*Ethnobotany:* Chokecherry covered a large geographic range in North
America, so a majority of tribes used it to treat a variety of health
problems. It was valued especially for its astringent properties and
beneficial effect upon the respiratory system.

The Arika women would drink the berry juice to stop post-partum
hemorrhage.

The Blackfeet drank berry juice for diarrhea and sore throats. An
infusion of the cambium layer mixed with Saskatoon serviceberry
(*Amelanchier almifolia*) was taken as a general purge treatment and to
lactating mothers so they could pass on the medicinal qualities to the
nursing baby. They also used it in an enema solution for their children.
Willow (*Salix* spp.) tea was used to counteract the laxative effect of
chokecherry.

The Cherokees used chokecherry in the following ways: mixed chokecherry
with hazel alder (*Alnus serrulata*), downy rattlesnake plantain
(*Goodyera pubescens*), Canadian wildginger (*Asarum canadense*) and
yellowroot (*Xanthorhiza simplicissima*) to make a blood tonic. An
infusion made from boiled bark was given for coughs, laryngitis, chills,
ague, fevers and to loosen phlegm. Warm chokecherry tea was given to
women when labor pains began. The root bark is a good astringent and was
mixed with water and used as a rinse for open sores and old skin ulcers.
The tree bark of spicebush (*Lindera benzoin*) and flowering dogwood
(*Cornus florida*) was added to corn whiskey and used to treat for
measles. The fruit was boiled and eaten to treat for bloody bowels. The
branches and leaves were one of six ingredients burned in sweat lodges
to treat for indigestion and jaundice.

The Cheyenne would gather the immature fruit, dry it in the sun,
pulverize it and use it as a treatment for diarrhea.

The Paiutes made a medicinal tea from the leaves and twigs to treat
colds and rheumatism.

The Sioux chewed the dried roots and then placed this poultice in open
wounds to stop the bleeding. The Sioux, Crows, Gros Ventres and others
made a bark tea to cure stomach aches, diarrhea and dysentery. The Crows
also used the bark to cleanse sores and burns.

In the 19^th^ century medical doctors used many concoctions of
chokecherry leaves and bark to treat a number of ailments. Chokecherry
bark was listed in the *U.S. Pharmacopoeia* from 1820 to 1970. It is
still listed as a pharmaceutical aid, a flavor agent for liquid
medicines. Among the health complaints treated were debility, hectic
fever, irritative dyspepsia, irritability of the nervous system, fever,
pleurisy, whooping cough, tuberculosis, pneumonia, sore throats and
gastrointestinal problems. It was recommended as a rinse on burns, open
sores, cankers and skin ulcers. Pharmaceutical books at that time
cautioned against boiling any mixture using chokecherry leaves or bark
because it would drive off the medicinal properties. The bark was used
as a flavoring agent in many cough syrups. In 1834, Dr. Proctor first
identified the bark as containing prussic acid.

In their journals, Lewis and Clark recorded that while camped on the
upper Missouri River Captain Lewis became will with abdominal cramps and
fever. He made a tea from chokecherry twigs and was well the next day.

Modern medicinal research shows in small dosages hydrocyanic acid can
stimulate respiration, improve digestion and gives a false sense of
well-being. Some cancer research involving hydrocyanic acid is being
conducted.

![](media/image3.jpeg){width="3.4375in"
height="2.2916666666666665in"}Margaret Williams, Nevada Native Plant
Society, @ PLANTS

##### Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural
Resources for this plant's current status (e.g. threatened or endangered
species, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).

##### 

##### Weediness

This plant may become weedy or invasive in some regions or habitats and
may displace more desirable vegetation if not properly managed. Please
consult with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative Extension Service
office, or state natural resource or agriculture department regarding
its status and use. Weed information is also available from the PLANTS
Web site.

##### Description

*General*: Rose Family (Rosaceae). Chokecherry is a native, perennial,
deciduous, woody, thicket-forming large erect shrub or small tree. It
rarely reaches a height of over 30 feet. The crown is irregular and from
10 to 20 feet wide when mature. The stems are numerous and slender.
Reproduction can either be by seed or root rhizomes.

Leaves are dark green and glossy above and paler beneath. They are
alternate, simple, glabrous, oval to broadly elliptic in shape, 1 to 4
inches long, and 3/4 to 2 inches wide. The margins are toothed with
closely-spaced sharp teeth pointing outward forming a serrated edge.
They turn yellow in autumn.

The bark of young trees may vary from gray to a reddish brown. As it
ages the bark turns darker, into brownish-black and becomes noticeably
furrowed. The bark is distinctly marked by horizontal rows of raised air
pores (lenticels). With maturation the lenticels develop into shallow
grooves.

It has perfect flowers which are aromatic and arranged in cylindrical
racemes 3 to 6 inches long. The racemes always grow on the current
year\'s leafy twig growth. Individual flowers are perfect, 1/4 to 3/8
inch in diameter with 5 white petals. The flowers start appearing before
the leaves are fully developed. Flowers may appear from April to July
and fruits form a couple of months later.

######## 

######## The fruits are spherical drupes (fleshy fruit with a stone in the center), globose, 1/4 to 3/8 inch in diameter. Small ripe cherries range in color from dark red or purple to almost black. There are from 3,000 to 5,000 seeds per pound. 

######## 

######## The roots are a network of rhizomes. Deep root systems grow at irregular intervals along the length of the rhizomes. Rhizomes can extend beyond the drip zone, up to 35 feet away from the base of the tree. Rhizomes grow up to 3/4 inch in diameter.

There are three recognized varieties of *Prunus virginiana*. The variety
*demissa* is commonly called western chokecherry. It produces dark red
fruit. The variety *melanocarpa* produces black fruit. The variety
*virginiana* produces crimson to deep red fruit. This variety can be
found in two forms, one with red and one with white fruit.

*Habitat*: Chokecherry is found in a large geographic area and it grows
abundantly in many habitat types and plant associations. It may be found
in thin stands, as dense thickets or individually in open forest
clearings. It prefers direct sunlight and is not an understory species
of boreal forests.

Chokecherry occurs naturally in a wide range of soil types and textures.
Soils supporting chokecherry vary considerably, from abandoned
construction sites, with almost no soil depth or fertility, to deep
virgin grasslands, with deep profiles and a high level of nutrients.
Soil textures range from silt to sandy loam, it does not do well on
heavy clay soils. Soil pH can vary from 5.2 (mildly acid) to 8.4
(moderately alkaline) without any adverse effect upon growth.
Precipitation ranges from 13 to 65 inches annually. Sites range from low
to mostly mid-elevation, although it also occurs from 8,000 to 10,000
feet in Idaho, Nevada and Utah. It is widely adaptable to temperature
extremes. It is found in USDA hardiness zones 2 to 7 naturally. If
planted, chokecherry will grow into zone 10. The four major limiting
factors in its habitat are that it is intolerant of shade, poor
drainage, frequent flooding and soils with a large amount of clay.

Many wildlife animals eat the fruit and distribute it. Birds are by far
the most common carrier of the seeds. As a consequence it grows
abundantly on places where birds rest, like along roadsides, fences,
hedgerows, riparian margins and forest clearings.

Chokecherry is well adapted to fire disturbance. It can be top-killed by
fire, but re-sprouts readily from root crowns and rhizomes. Seed
germination is apparently improved with heat treatment, suggesting a
further adaptation to fire.

**Known Distribution**

*Distribution*: Chokecherry is found in all but eight states or
territories. For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

##### 

##### Establishment

Nursery grown seedlings establish satisfactorily if planted free of
competition in areas having 15 or more inches of annual precipitation.
If seeds are planted in the spring they should be pre-chilled for 3
months, then placed about 1/2 inch deep. Saplings are not tolerant of
weedy competition for 2 to 3 years after planting. Use of weed barrier
mat, a strict cultivation regime, or proper herbicide treatment is
necessary if a successful planting is to occur. Check with your local
NRCS Field Office to determine if chokecherry is adapted to your area or
soils before planting any trees.

**Management**

Management of chokecherry will be dependent on whether it is looked upon
as a desirable or undesirable plant. On range and pastures it is often
considered a potential hazard to livestock. As a consequence either
mechanical and/or herbicide treatments combined with good grassland
management is needed to prevent animal loss. When it is used in
windbreaks, as an ornamental plant or as a wildlife resource it is
beneficial. Control of weedy vegetation, and treatment for potential
diseases, is necessary if it is expected to grow for an extended period
of years

**Pests and Potential Problems**

Chokecherry is susceptible to X-disease, black knot, stem decay,
shothole, Valsa canker, and honey fungus *Plowrightia stansburiana*.
Common insect~~s~~ pests are the prairie tent caterpillar, eastern tent
caterpillar and aphids. In the northeastern United States, chokecherry
is a primary host of the eastern tent caterpillar. Browsing by deer on
young immature trees causes considerable damage in some areas.

**Environmental Concerns**

The leaves, bark, stem, and stone (seed pit) of chokecherry are all
toxic. It is potentially poisonous to all classes of livestock, but
cattle and sheep are the ones commonly affected. The meaty flesh of the
fruit is not toxic.

Hydrocyanic acid (HCN) is often called Prussic acid. HCN does not occur
freely as a plant compound. It is formed only after disruption of the
plant cell, either by mechanical injury or a sudden freeze. Only then do
the degradative enzymes (hydroxynitrile lyases) and glycoside come into
contact and mix together. HCN acid occurs in greatest amounts in the
leaves. Generally, the amount of HCN in the leaves lessens as the
growing season progresses. By autumn chokecherry leaves have so little
glycoside, a component of HCN, they are not normally considered
hazardous. Drought stress may cause the leaves to concentrate the
glycoside in heavier amounts than usual. Wilted leaves are more toxic
per unit weight due to dehydration, which concentrates the components,
which make up HCN. HCN is so toxic at low levels because it inhibits
blood cells from absorbing oxygen. One symptom of HCN poisoning is the
blood turns bright red when exposed to the air and it clots abnormally
slow.

Cyanogenic glycosides (prunasin, produced in the leaves and twigs, and
amygdalin, produced in the stone) are the building blocks for HCN. Of
the two, prunasin is found in a much larger quantity. HCN is most
commonly formed in the plant due to mechanical injury (such as
browsing), a sudden change in temperature (an early and heavy frost) or
in the animal during digestion. The glycosides can either be hydrolyzed
by enzymes in the plants or by rumen microorganisms. The glycosides
occur in vacuoles in plant tissue while the enzymes are found in the
cytosol.

Ingestion of about 0.25 percent of an animal\'s body weight, or 50
milligrams/kilogram of body weight, is the Lethal Dose of fifty percent
of animals (LD50). This means less than 4 ounces of fresh leaves can be
toxic to a 100 pound animal.

Poisoning generally occurs when animals graze this amount or more in an
hour or less. Formation of HCN must occur primarily within the short
time between the mastication of the forage and its arrival in the
stomach, for the acidic contents of the stomach slows down the reaction
of the chemical process which creates the HCN. The toxic elements become
even more active if the animal drinks water immediately after browsing.
HCN works so quickly by the time poisoning symptoms are identified it is
generally too late to treat. Injection of a combination of sodium
thiosulfate and sodium nitrite in the veins or peritoneum is the
recommended antidote. Oxidizing substances such as potassium
permanganate or hydrogen peroxide given as a drench may help some. Any
other medications promoting respiratory help and nerve stimulants may
also contribute to recovery. For any treatment to be effective it must
be given immediately upon symptoms of poisoning.

Removing livestock from the HCN source is the only practical way to
prevent mass poisoning and numerous losses once it has been detected.
Good livestock management includes keeping hungry livestock away from
areas where chokecherry is abundant. Maintaining a good level of
preferred forage in pastures will do a great deal in preventing HCN
poisoning.

When a person eats a single apple seed or cherry pit, though not
recommended, it is unlikely to cause discomfort or serious illness.
However, there have been reported deaths, usually of children chewing on
the stems and leaves, or swallowing the stones. Visible reactions to
poisoning may include; anxiety; uneasiness; confusion; dizziness;
vertigo; headache; nausea; vomiting; the lips turn blue; bloating;
dilation of the eyes; muscular weakness; abnormal breathing, either very
labored or very rapid; paralysis of the throat; irregular heart beat;
convulsions; coma ensues and finally death. Clinically, death results
from the general anoxic state created by the inhibition of cytochrome
oxidase.

##### Seeds and Plant Production

Chokecherry can be propagated by seed, rhizome cuttings, suckers, crown
division, semi-hardwood cuttings and grafting. Generally, seed crops are
regular and viable. The flowers are more abundant and more fruit is
produced on plants growing on open sites or in forest clearings. Natural
dispersal of the seed occurs when it passes through the digestive tracts
of mammals and birds. The seeds may be carried a long distance from the
parent plant in this manner. If the rhizomatous roots are damaged due to
a mechanical injury suckers will be produced. This is often how thickets
are formed. A fire initially causes major damage to a stand of
chokecherry. However, regrowth is enhanced for several years following a
burn. It sprouts vigorously from surviving root crowns and suckers arise
from the rhizomes.

Chokecherry has seed dormancy. About half of the seed which is not
stratified germinates within a couple of months. Delayed germination may
occur up to 4 months. An after-ripening period in the presence of oxygen
and moisture is needed for a majority of seed to germinate. Good
germination can only be expected after a cool, moist stratification
regime lasting 90 to 160 days at 36 to 41 degrees Fahrenheit. Sow 25
seeds per foot of drill row. One- year-old bareroot stock should be
planted on deep, well-drained soils in sunny locations.

##### Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Planting materials can be obtained from most commercial hardwood
nurseries and seed sources. Several cultivars have been released by
government agencies and private nurseries for use in landscaping and/or
fruit production. The two most commonly marketed cultivars are
\'Schubert\', and \'Canada Red\'. A lot of literature states that these
two cultivars are the same one with just different names. This is not
the entire truth. \'Schubert\' is one of the oldest cultivars. Its
parent rootstock is *Prunus virginiana melanocarpa* selected from a
native stand near Valley City, North Dakota. It was released by the
Oscar Will Nursery which was located in Bismarck. \'Canada Red\' was
created by grafting \'Schubert\' on Mayday rootstock to get rid of the
suckering trait. Releases from Canada include, \'Garrington\',
\'Goertz\' and \'Robert\'.

##### Control

##### Please contact your local agricultural extension specialist or county weed specialist to learn what works best in your area and how to use it safely. Always read label and safety instructions for each control method. Trade names and control measures appear in this document only to provide specific information. USDA, NRCS does not guarantee or warranty the products and control methods named, and other products may be equally effective.

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##### Prepared By: 

*Wayne Crowder*

USDA NRCS Pullman, Washington

Plant Materials Center

*Dr. Wayne A. Geyer*

Forestry Division

K-State Research and Extension

Kansas State University

Manhattan, Kansas

##### 

##### *Patrick J. Broyles*

Formerly USDA NRCS Manhattan Plant Materials Center, Manhattan, KS

##### Species Coordinator: 

##### *Patrick J. Broyles*

Formerly USDA NRCS Manhattan Plant Materials Center, Manhattan, KS

##### 

##### Edited: 14jan04 jsp; 060808 jsp; 080716 jsp

For more information about this and other plants, please contact your
local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the PLANTS
Web site\<[http://plants.usda.gov](http://plants.usda.gov/)\> or the
Plant Materials Program Web site
\<[http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov](http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov/)\>

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