**RAW transcript - not yet corrected by mission technical staff.**

**FTS-NASA-VOICE**

**Moderator: Trina Ray**

**September 26, 2006**

**1:00 pm CT**

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Trina Ray: Oh, yeah. Well, yes.

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Man: That was (Matthew). Hi. Hi, there.

Trina Ray: Hi.

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Thank you. You may begin.

Trina Ray: Thank you. And welcome everyone to the CHARM telecon
September 2006.

We have a terrific today. A very, very nice follow-on to last month's
presentation which is all about Titan's surface.

The presentation today by Dr. Hunter Waite who is the team leader for
Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer who will be telling us all about
Titan's atmosphere.

And with that, I'll let you take it away, Dr. Waite.

Hunter Waite: All right. Thanks, Trina.

Today, we're going to talk about Titan's in the way that it produces
organic molecules. As you probably know from last week, Titan's got a N2
atmosphere, molecular nitrogen atmosphere like that of the Earth with a
little bit of methane.

The methane is important because methane provides the feedstock so to
speak of the organic chemistry that takes place.

In the case of Earth, Earth has a little bit of methane as well, but its
methane is pretty small in terms of concentration in the atmosphere, in
Earth's atmosphere, perhaps larger in past times though. And that source
of methane is about - comes from biology.

So why - this is all to explain the title, The Solar System's Abiotic
Petroleum Factory. Methane comes about not by the process of biology on
Titan but by the process of original materials that were incorporated
into the material of the moon itself. And the chemistry that takes place
will describe in great detail, takes place in the upper atmosphere and
leaves the consequences - global consequences in Titan.

So if you go on to the second slide, I've been through a few - let me go
back up.

Yes, question?

Okay. I'll go back over the motivations for the Titan studies. Titan's
atmosphere is similar to Earth early atmosphere. For the rise of oxygen
in the Earth's atmosphere, oxygen obtaining...

Trina Ray: You know, Hunter, I'll go up to operator to see if I could
track down the noise on the line.

Hunter Waite: Okay.

First, it came about some life - from life on the Earth and that
happened about two and a half billion years ago. And before that time,
the Earth was not such an oxidizing environment and in fact there may
have been quite a bit of methane in the atmosphere. And in that earlier
time period, there's evidence that there may have been times where the
Earth had produced organic smog in a natural way much like Titan does in
the present day.

Titan is in (unintelligible) clouds. So if you look invisible light, you
don't see the surface; you just see the upper atmosphere is just all
organic smog. And we'll talk more about this in a bit.

As far as Titan may help us understand the origin of life in the solar
system, organic molecules are very important part of the ingredients for
producing life, at least life in the way we know it on Earth.

Amino acids are important for building proteins as you know and other -
and all of the compounds are important in life come about through
organic chemistry.

And so we can produce the precursors of these compounds by natural
processes in the upper atmosphere of Titan, so that can help us
understand the organic chemistry that had to go on before life began.

And Titan may help us unlock the mysteries of organic formation in other
regions of our galaxy and universe.

I'm just saying chemistry that we're going to talk about today takes
place in interstellar clouds as well. And so they're producing organic
compounds much like Titan is that could be precursors to biology.

If you go on to Slide 3, I've got three - four panels here. They
represent different ways in which Cassini-Huygens provides measurements
of Titan. And I'll go briefly through each of those.

The satellite itself represents what we call in-Situ instrumentation,
instruments that are strapped through the spacecraft that measure the
local environment. And in particular, we're going to talk about mass
spectrometry in that regard today for - as an important way of obtaining
information about composition.

The panel in the upper right is - represents the remote sensing. This is
the picture that near infrareds where we're looking down through the
clouds through the surface of Titan. And we can obtain both spectra and
images in this way to understand the surface of Titan and also the
composition of the atmosphere as well. So we'll talk about those types
of measurements.

The bottom left shows the (artist) rendition of the probe on the surface
of Titan. And the probe is - probe you've heard about I'm sure from
probably last week. The probe - Huygens probe was provided by European
and landed on the surface of Titan and provided in January of 2005 and
provided some very important information that we'll discuss briefly.

And finally, another way of remote sensing is radar mapping. And I'm
sure that was discussed fairly extensively last week. But we turn this
big antenna towards Titan and we can take a look at below - we can
penetrate through the (unintelligible) files and get information about
the surface in the highest resolution that Cassini can provide.

I think you most important thing about this slide is that Cassini is a
very, very well-equipped laboratory. And it's the all - of these
instruments working together that help us build up this picture and
understanding of what Titan is all about. It's not just one instrument.

We go on to the next panel.

In-situ instrumentation as I said are things that detect energetic
particles, things that measure the composition of dust, instruments that
measure the composition of gases, and instruments that measure the local
radio waves and plasma waves that surround the spacecraft. But the point
being is\
in-situ, it's things near the spacecraft that are being measured.

The thing we're going to concentrate on today is in the fifth slide
where you - this is one animation that you could see where you get gas
molecules coming in on the left side and they go through this ionization
source region and they're bombarded with electron and ionized. And what
they're ionized and they passed through this mass analyzer which filters
them according there - at the mass and then they're detected on the
green panel in the back.

To give an idea of what spectrum looks like, go on to Slide 6 and you
can see a spectrum for carbon dioxide. And you can see that you not only
form through electron bombardment, the carbon dioxide ions, CO2+, at
mass 44, but you also - the electron can also break it apart so that you
can form CO+, O+ and C+.

So these things taken together in certain - and the rations represented
in this graph are fingerprint of CO2 coming into the mass spectrometer.

So there's a whole lot of different molecules. The spectrum gets quite
complicated as we'll see a little bit later. But this is the way we can
DIC involve and understand what the spectra are telling us about the
composition.

That's for neutrals.

For ions, they're already ionized, and I'll go into that in just a few
minute.

Okay, back to this panel. The second thing we're going to talk about are
remote observations.

This first - if you go on to Slide 8, you can see - and it's actually
animated, but it doesn't come across in the PDF file, getting closer.
This is taken by the ISS cameras in the near infrared as we move towards
Titan on one of the early flybys. And the dark region and the bright
region represent different types of surface composition on Titan. So
you're seeing below the clouds because you're looking in the near
infrared. If you were looking in the visible, you wouldn't see the
surface because it's surrounded by this chemical smog that we're going
to discuss.

In Figure 9, this is a figure that does have an animation. The animation
is this little molecule aldehyde that's represented by the blue - the
turquoise, red and gray. Carbon is gray, oxygen is red, and the hydrogen
are blue.

And an important point at that top is that Cassini can look at many,
many wavelengths. So we can look at ultraviolet light, we can look at
visible light, we can look at infrared light, we can also look at radio
wavelength, which is not represented here, and that's what we are
looking at when we're looking at the - or when we're looking at longer
wavelengths, so that's what is used by the radar for the surface. In
that case, it's centimeter wavelength.

The important thing though about this particular figure is that in the
infrared, much like in the case of the mass spectra, different ways in
which the molecule wiggles, vibrates and rotates make a series of
fingerprints at certain wavelengths in the infrared, and those ratios at
those lines are used in the same way we do mass spectrometry as a
fingerprint that we're looking from aldehyde. So we see all these
different spectral features \-- these are absorptions in the particular
case.

So those absorptions at different wavelengths are indicative of us of
the composition of the atmosphere. So we're going to use this
information, the spectral information and the infrared in today's
presentation as well.

Back to our original figure, the next thing to talk about is the probe.

So on Slide 11, there's a little animation that shows the probe
descending on parachute in the last few meters \-- this is an animation
of course \-- and actually taking data not only as it - as it moves
through the atmosphere, but on the surface after it landed as well. And
we'll talk about that.

Now, finally, back to this original figure in Slide 12, we're going to
talk about radar and how radar obtains data. This is the one time in
Slide 13 where you'll see a blank unless you have the animation. The
animation shows the spacecraft flying by Titan, turning its big antenna
in the direction of Titan and sending down a beam of radiation that's
scattered off the surface back up to the radar antenna detected and
tells us about the surface.

If it's a bright - if it turns out to be bright in the radar image, then
that's telling us that the surface is rough. It's scattering light -
electromagnetic radiation back at us in this wavelength region in all
directions and we see it and it turns out bright.

If it's a very smooth surface, it will turn out to be radar dark. And I
know that this is repeated from what (Larry) told you about last week,
but I'm going to show a couple of radar images to put things in
perspective, and I just wanted to explain that as well.

Okay. So and finally in 14 we come to what I think the most - the
central focus of understanding organic chemistry on the surface of
Titan. And that's the methane cycle.

And there's two aspects of this methane cycle that I want to point out
to you. One of them is a short-term cycle that I think was discussed
fairly extensively by (Larry) last week which has to do with methane
venting out of volcanoes or coming - evaporating from lakes and going up
into the atmosphere forming clouds and then finally precipitating back
to form lake. So it's a hydrological cycle that's much like the cycle
for water on the Earth.

And the reason this takes place on Titan is that in the case of the
Earth, water, the temperature and pressure of the Earth are such that
water is at triple point. Water can exist as a gas, as a liquid and as a
solid. Okay?

The important thing, at Titan, it's much, much colder. The surface 93
degrees Kelvin, but methane can exist in all three forms. It can exist
as a gas, a liquid, or a solid.

So the methane cycle in that regard is much like the water cycle on the
Earth. That's a short term cycle that takes months - days, months, years
kind of time period.

The another important cycle which we're going to concentrate on today is
another cycle that takes on the order of millions of years to really
cycle through. And that's release of methane into the upper atmosphere.
And if you can look up there we got on the right hand upper corner, you
see sunlight and energetic particles coming in and hitting into in CH4
that causes organic chemistry in the upper atmosphere.

Yes, is there a question?

Okay. Some of it forms (unintelligible) haze, some of it stays in the
gaseous form. The part that forms that (unintelligible) haze - haze
probably ends up precipitating on the surface and forming this organic
dune that I think probably (Larry) spoke about last weekend.

And so this is a much longer cycle. And I'm going to describe this in a
little bit more detail. I'll go through both of them kind of briefly if
you - for your benefit in the couple of slides here.

So let's go on to Slide 15. This is the slide that tells us a little bit
about the interior. And this is actually borrowed from (Larry) so I
would imagine that this is a repeat for you.

There's a rocky core and but there's layers of liquid waterized
surrounding that and liquid and water ice. So there are layers of ices
and liquids, and within this material there's both ammonia and there's
methane that are trapped in the ices and overtime they (heat) out of the
crust either in volcanic way or in other cracks through the surface, and
ammonia and methane are incorporated into the atmosphere in this way. So
we - some probably - something like what we call cryovolcanism is
probably the main source of liquid - excuse me - of methane in the
atmosphere that starts the process.

And this is the next picture six - Slide 15 is a infrared image of a
cryovolcano. You can see the blowup shows this kind of snail like
looking feature which are just layers of material or thought to be
layers of material that have (sneaked) out of this cryovolcano. And so
the material that you actually see is ammonia ice. But there's - with
that came methane that was outgas into the atmosphere as well.

And just to complete this process, of course it goes up and is
incorporated and in Figure 17. There you see a recent image - radar
images of surface where there is a series of lakes at high latitude.
This is the indication of those lakes, the dark pictures are thought to
be the lake.

Dark as I remind you means a very smooth surface, and the brighter
regions are rougher surfaces. So you can see this very - the darkest
pictures you've seen on Titan which are as highly suggestive of liquid
methane in lakes at high latitude.

Okay, so that explains this.

We go back to Slide 18 and that kind of gives you a very brief overview
of what you heard probably a lot about last week which is the
hydrological cycle of methane on the surface. Today, we're going to
concentrate on the other process.

The amount of methane is outgas into the upper atmosphere. Methane is
broken apart as we're going to talk about by sunlight and energetic
particles and converted into these more complex hydrocarbons and nitrile
compounds which then precipitate on to the surface. But when it breaks
apart, the hydrogen escapes \-- and I'll tell you about that a little
bit more in a minute. And when it does, you can't reform the methane
because there's not enough hydrogen around, and so methane is converted
into higher order of hydrocarbons, more complex combine.

And over about 50 million years, the amount of methane that's in the
atmosphere completely disappears unless you keep re-supplying it. That's
why I say this is a cycle that takes tens of millions of years to
complete. If you were to shut off the methane, all of it will disappear
through this cycle in about 50 million years.

Okay, if we go on to the next figure, this is the crux of what we're
going to cover today in some detail. This is a pretty complicated slide,
Slide 19 where we show mass spectra in the upper atmosphere for both the
ions and the neutrals. And we're going to come back and understand it in
some detail.

But you notice that going up to masses of let's say 100 daltons and
daltons are just atomic mass unit divided by the charge on the (DC). So
most molecules that are detected are singly charge, so it would be a
mass of 100 A-M-U is the upper range of ion neutral mass spectrometer
that we're concentrating on today.

And you can see the complexity of these compounds. These compounds are
being built and may extend right out of our mass range. You see very
complex species like benzene, B6H6 at mass 78, very complex compound
that are being formed in both the ion chemistry and the neutral
chemistry, and there's coupled together. And I'm going to discuss this
in gory detail in a bit. So let's go on from that.

I did mention before and I'll mention again that some of the same type
of chemistry is about to take place in interstellar cloud. And this is
just the slide that shows some of the types of compounds that have been
seen in spectra of interstellar clouds, compounds that seem to be quite
similar in most respect to that what we see in the upper atmosphere.

With one exception, there's more oxygen available in this interstellar
cloud than there is in Titan's upper atmosphere. So some of the
oxygen-bearing compounds are depleted in Titan with respect to what we
see in interstellar cloud.

But these are important building blocks that form things like amino
acids and protein, and you can even see an indication of RNA and genetic
material here, but those are biological processes. What we're talking
about today are the precursor organic molecules. We're not talking about
(life).

If you go on to Slide 21, this is a measurement not taken in the upper
atmosphere I showed you before, but this is taken in the middle
atmosphere in that region where these aerosols are forming this smog
that surrounds Titan. Ands there's two things - two pieces of
information here on that region of the atmosphere.

One - we called it the stratosphere. And there's both gas in particular
in the stratosphere particular through the smog. You know, the probe
may - determines the composition of the smog to some degree through
pyrolysis burning process.

And in the upper of panel on the right-hand side, you can see the mass
spectrometer of the constituents that were measured or the constituents
that make up these particulars. And you can see they're the same
building blocks that we see in the upper atmosphere.

So, we know that these things are made up of organic materials \--
hydrocarbons and nitrile compounds.

And we also see in the lower spectrum which is an infrared spectrum
showing a whole host of different species of hydrocarbons in the
stratosphere. It's kind of hard to read but you can see C2H. You can see
ethane, methane, you can see ethylene, acetylene, even -
(unintelligible) in this particular spectrum but you can see benzene,
some - all of these compounds we see a higher altitude are seen in the
stratosphere but in much lower concentration.

So what this tells us is that these chemistry is starting in the upper
atmosphere and continuing in the lower atmosphere. And part of the
process involve forming aerosol compounds and part of the process is the
continuation of the gas-based chemistry that's taking place.

Okay. And the consequences finally that some of these (particulate)
material and as you go to Slide 22, forms - particles that precipitate
onto the surface. And what the radar people have been telling us if you
look at the upper image in this particular slide is that these dunes
that they've seen in the radar, these little black line that you're
seeing are dunes. They're fairly - they're about 100 meters high;
they're very large dunes, and their - the patterns are formed by the
prevailing wind patterns on Titan.

Much like in the lower slides, you see the Arabian Desert has similar
types of pattern and then the mid desert has similar types of pattern.
Again, these are prevailing wind patterns, but this is silicon material
on Earth that forms this desert dune, whereas in Titan, we think that
the material that's incorporated in these dunes is organic material. So
it was supplied by being produced in the upper atmosphere.

Okay. And then finally to just help understand why we think that this
material is organic and that there's quite a bit organic material on the
surface, if you'll go onto Slide 23, we show that the (unintelligible)
of the Huygens probe. And probe - when it did land on the surface, it
was never designed to actually land but it did land and it continues to
take off the measurements.

And that was fortunate because if you go on to Slide 24, you see a
spectrum and now another mass spectrum, so this is M over - mass over
charge and the signal and you see quite a few species that we saw in the
upper atmosphere that we've identified in the upper atmosphere. We see
molecular nitrogen that I told you about is the key constituent, methane
which is about 2% in terms of its relative competition to molecular
nitrogen; we see molecular hydrogen, but we also see ethane C2H6. We see
some CO2. We see some C2N2 and we see C6H6 which is benzene.

But these weren't seen just in the atmosphere. Couple of these compounds
\-- the organic, the C2N2 and the C2H6 and the benzene \-- were seen
only after the probe had set on the surface and warmed the surface. The
surface is at 93 degree Kelvin and the probe was about room temperature.

So the probe was warming the surface, and as it warms the surface, these
things were in some kind of icy form on the surface, some kind of solid
form, and they were vaporized and subsequently measured by the probe.

So that's the reason that we think that a lot of this material on the
surface is made up of organic compound.

Okay. So we kind of gone through the methane cycle, at least the two
cycles as an overview of the (science). If you go onto Slide 26, I'm
going to start talking about the details of ion and neutral mass
spectrometer.

But I think this might be a good point to stop for a minute and to let
people ask a few questions so that you make sure that you understand
what we talked about in the first part so that the second part makes
more sense.

(Harold Pozeck): Yes, I have a question to ask. (Harold Pozeck), Solar
System (Ambassadors) (set now) in New York.

Hunter Waite: Uh-huh.

(Harold Pozeck): I was very interested in what you were saying before
about the fact that a lot of the organic precursor molecules are similar
to structure to amino acids and RNA.

Hunter Waite: Well no, I didn't say RNA. I'm just - that's going a
little too far. They're close - they're may be close in structure to
amino acids, but that's about as complicated as we've been able to
measure, I guess.

(Harold Pozeck): Oh, okay. Well, I'm just curious about something now
because from many, many years, IT (unintelligible). I've mentioned to
students the possibility even though it's kind of remote because it goes
back to the days of Carl Sagan's Cosmos of possibly in the future NASA
might be thinking about (feeding) Titan with some sort of an aerobic
microbes.

Based on what you're saying here with the temperature, the organic
molecule, I'm just curious, do you think that that might be more
feasible now in light of the evidence that you're presenting here today?

Hunter Waite: Well the difficulty with life on Titan is the temperature.

(Harold Pozeck): Uh-huh.

Hunter Waite: And the fact that any water that's present is in
completely frozen form. And we don't know any life forms that operate at
that kind of temperature extreme. That doesn't mean they don't exist,
but any kind of life forms that we would take there as (a feed)
population would never be able to exist at a cold temperatures of Titan
surface.

So, although there's a lot of organic material for it to use as food, so
to speak, there's no liquid water to help the processes - metabolic
processes occur.

(Harold Pozeck): Well, well, you're saying that the surface temperatures
will be a limiting faster then. What about the fact that there possibly
would be a liquid water or liquid ammonia below the surface?

Hunter Waite: Well, that's a different - yes. And in that particular
case, if indeed there is a liquid water layer because of the increased
temperature closer to the center of the body, then there's a possibility
that some of that organic material could be used as feedstock for some
kind of life form.

So that cannot be ruled out if we find liquid and water beneath the
surface. But we don't have any strong evidence for that yet, all we have
is theoretical model that suggests that might be the case.

(Harold Pozeck): Thank you very much.

Hunter Waite: Uh-huh.

Any other questions about what were talked about so far before I go on?

Okay. So I'm going to get into the details.

Just to put this in perspective, the idea that the organic chemistry
that's important from producing all these constituents that we see
ending up on a surface of the planet takes place in the upper atmosphere
helps or suggests that we should focus on the measurements from the ion
neutral mass spectrometer in the upper atmosphere to try to understand
how that chemistry - what their chemistry is, what compounds are formed,
and to get an idea of how the solar system is working as a chemical
factory to produce this organic molecule.

So now we're going to get into the details of ion neutral mass
spectrometer in a bit more detail.

So you we go onto Slide 27, this is a slide that just shows relative to
Titan a couple of different views of where are some of the key orbits
that they've been important for the mass spectrometer have passed which
regards to Titan.

So we - the point being, we pass by is different latitudes. We pass by
at different altitudes. Lower altitudes go deeper into the atmosphere
and atmosphere pressure increases exponentially, so while altitudes
passes are important for us, but covering different regions of the
surface are equally important. So we want multiple flybys to try to
characterize what's going on.

If we go onto Slide 28, this shows you a cartoon of the inside of the
mass spectrometer that we're going to talk about.

So we got neutral gas coming in the upper portion into this antechamber
at 6 kilometers per second because a spacecraft is traveling at 6
kilometers per second which is pretty fast with regard to Titan. And
that atmosphere is (enforced) into this antechamber through this
transferred tube, as in our pictures, these electrons are fired at it,
it's turned into ions and then it's pulled down into the quad - what we
see as the quad lens and then on into the mass spectrometer, mass
analyzer below that.

So all the neutral measurements we make have been made with this thing
we called the closed source which is this upper loop that I just
described.

The lower loop, it says neutral gas are positive ions. Well in this
case, we're going to talk - the positive ions are the ones we're going
to concentrate on today coming in through this source. So it passes
through a series of lenses. The electron guns are turned off because
we're measuring ions that are already ionized materials. The quad lens
turns the particle 90 degrees into the mass analyzer and so the same
mass analyzer detects these particles. And we switch back and forth
between these two as we slide through the upper atmosphere. And we
switch back and forth on - we take mass spectra every 2.3 second.

So it's a pretty fast and we get 68 measurements in that time. Pretty
fast series of measurements that we may go into through the upper
atmosphere.

If you go onto Slide 29, this is a kind of complicated display of what
we see. Time is progressing as you go from left to right, okay. And the
mass spectra laid down next to each other as we across and the intensity
tells you how much we measure in a given mass.

So the Y-axis of this figure is mass per charge that I've shown you
before. The X-axis is time. And you can see right in the center, things
get the brightest and you see the most material, and that's where we're
the closest approach to Titan, when we go deepest into the atmosphere,
we get the maximum signal.

And you can see our - the important (friends) that we talked about
before into which is molecular nitrogen, CH4, which is methane and H2
which is molecular hydrogen. Those are the brighter traces. But we see
constituents in other masses too and we see complicated organic
molecules including benzene in this upper trace. I'll come back to this.

So, if you take a slice of this at a certain time, a certain value of
X-axis, you see what you see in figure - on Slide 30. On Slide 30 I show
a spectrum of the ions that we've talked about coming in and the neutral
gas. Those - these were taken within two or three seconds of each other.

But you can see now the X-axis is mass per charge and the Y-axis is the
number of (counts) or the concentration of the species, the density. And
you can see that throughout the spectrum, all the way up through 100
atomic mass units that it's their material -there's plenty of material.
So - in the spacing, one of the important things to note is there's kind
of a - in the blue - in the turquoise when there's kind of every 12
atomic mass units, there's a different series of peaks. And that's not
an accident because that's about what it takes - 12 to 14 mass units
what is added every time you add on a carbon or a nitrogen. And that's
what's being added to these things to make it more complex molecules.

And that pattern is more evident in the ions. It's repeated and has the
correspondence and peaks that we see in the neutral material as well,
the red.

Okay. Going onto 31, 31 is now showing you a different way of viewing
this. This is - we've taken a certain fingerprint for a given sort of
series of mass peaks or say nitrogen or methane or hydrogen, and now we
(plotted) it versus time and at different times or in different
altitudes so we can get altitude profile.

So this shows us density on Y-axis versus altitude as we go down deeper
into the atmosphere and it's plotted on a (log) scale. So you can see
that there's an exponential increase in the density of the atmosphere
the deeper we go in the atmosphere.

This is true on Earth as well. So we see - and the difference in the
lines, the (unintelligible) of the lines shows you the variability in
the upper atmosphere of Titan. These are several differences (passes),
TAT5, T16, these are things that people like in Cassini know quite well
but they're just different flyby opportunities.

And you can see there's quite a bit of variation from one pass to the
next that has to do with the variability of the upper atmosphere of
Titan. Something that was a bit surprising. We didn't expect it to have
so much variation but it does.

Going onto Slide 32, we've repeated this same type of process where we
show density versus altitude but now for more complex compound such as
the acetylene, ethylene, ethane.

So acetylene is the dark blue. This kind of magenta is the ethylene.
Ethane is the turquoise-looking color. Propene is the red color. And an
organic - well, acetylene polymer or C4H2 is the gray. And then - excuse
me - benzene the C6H6 or the open white squares.

So these are now allowing us to look at the altitude variations of very
complex species as well as the minor constituents.

Now these are not - these are densities and 32 are quite hard to
determine. So these are approximate densities. It's difficult to tell
the difference between acetylene, ethylene and ethane for example. So
we - whether we have exactly the right ratios there is not the point.
The point is we can make the measurement and determine the altitude.

Okay. So now we - let's - that's an introduction to the type of data
that INMS when it goes through the upper atmosphere. And now let's talk
about what the relevance of the INMS observations are to the overall
understanding of the upper atmosphere. And feel free to stop me with
questions at any time.

So, on Slide 33, at list at least two major bullets about of the
relevance of the observations. And I'll go through in a bit - both in a
bit of detail.

One is about the information about the evolution of the atmosphere of
Titan. Excuse me, my computer is talking to me.

So the evolution of the upper atmosphere and that has to do with what we
can learn about the outgassing of the interior and escape of gases from
Titan is another important point.

And then we'll spend a fair amount of time talking out about the
production of organic compounds \-- the ion-neutral photochemistry, and
the role of the magnet or the magnetosphere, the magnetic sphere that
emanates from Saturn that encompasses Titan during most of its orbit.

Okay. So going onto Slide 34, we get another look at a mass spectrum.
And I point out two important features that we've measured the
concentration off. One is the mass 40 isotope of Argon, which comes from
radioactive decay of potassium, and also the mass 36 isotope of Argon
which is a primordial constituent into stable isotope.

So in the case of - and both of these cases, these can tell us
different - give us different types of information.

The Argon 40 tells us how much the volatile material has been outgassed
from the interior. And by looking - so by looking at the concentration
of Argon 40 in the atmosphere and calculating or estimating how much
potassium there should be in the interior and mineral and how much Argon
40 should have been formed over geological time, then we can get an idea
of the degree with which the interiors is outgassed.

And the estimates vary but between 2% and let's say 15% or the estimate,
the variation doesn't have to do with the measurement of Argon 40
because we - the mass spectrometer land on the surface agrees with what
we see. The uncertainty has to do with how much original potassium was
included in the (planet) - or in the body when it was established.

So it tells us that the - there's been a plenty more volatiles that are
trapped in the interior. And by - in that sense, some of them may be
tied up in this liquid oceans that were mentioned earlier. So there's
quite a bit a volatile material that could escape if things were heated
up.

The Argon 36 tells us another piece of information. It tells us about
the form in which nitrogen is - comes about in this atmosphere. And
turns out that since nitrogen is a very volatile material that if it's
to be trapped as a nitrogen molecule, it has to be trapped in an ice
cage. We call it the as the (class rates).

And (ice cage) is a trap. Nitrogen would also trap Argon 36 in their
formation in the very (cold) region of the (unintelligible). So by
looking at Argon 36, we can tell how much into was brought in at
molecular nitrogen. And we find that that's not much.

So we think that most of the nitrogen from Titan came in as ammonia and
then was converted from ammonia into molecular nitrogen by
photochemistry in the atmosphere.

So those are two pieces - important pieces of information about what's
going on in the atmosphere that can be determined from isotopic
measurement.

Now, going onto Slide 35, we get another idea of how isotopic
measurements stabilize isotopes, in this case of nitrogen and of carbon
are important in understanding the atmosphere.

This can - and particularly in the case of nitrogen - so we can measure
then - I've got 14N and 14N written - I'll show you the peak. And
that's - the 14 isotope is normal isotope of nitrogen. And more - the
less abundant isotope is the 15 isotopes.

So, 14N and 14N is just regular molecular nitrogen. And 15N and 14N is a
molecular nitrogen with a mass 15 nitrogen incorporated into it.

And by measuring the ratio of those two, we can get some idea of how
much material has escaped over geological time. I'm going to comeback to
this in just a minute.

And we can also get similar information from the mass - from the Carbon
13 to Carbon 12 ratio. Now this measurement, isotopic measurement is an
important indicator on - of light if you measure very carefully on
Earth. There's no indication though that there is any - there's no
isotopic evidence for life on Titan if you look closer to the surface.
But if you do look at this, you can tell - this ratio, you can tell
something about the escape and the\
re-supply of Methane in the upper atmosphere

Okay. So let's go onto Slide 36 and try to understand how you use those
measurements.

Okay, so in 36, I show isotopic ration of N14 to N15 as a function of
altitude. So while - on the X-axis is altitude going - showing up at
1,000 going up to about 1,600 kilometers. And on the Y-axis is the ratio
of 14 to 15. So that increases the amount light Nitrogen 14 increases.
And the different colors represent the different flybys. So it's lot of
data and you think that same kind of characteristic change.

And what you se is that it starts off - 14 to 15 start off of around 155
in the lower atmosphere and then the because they are different masses,
the atmosphere is not well mixed up to that point. It's not turbulent
mixing storing it up. It starts separating out by mass. And as you get
to the top of the atmosphere which is represented by about 1500
kilometers, you can see that 14 has become the more predominant
constituents than 15.

And this has to do with just gravitational separation of the two
diffusion processes. Well what that indicates though is that since 14 is
more prevalent than 15 in the upper atmosphere, things that - the
nitrogen that escapes from the upper atmosphere is predominantly Mass
14. So over geological time, more of the Mass 14 escapes than the Mass
15. All right.

So that then allows us to use this information to make inferences about
how much of the atmosphere has been lost every time.

And let's see. Okay, I'm trying to find the right slides for that.

Okay. The next Slide 37 shows us the same pattern for 12 to 13, that
same separation process that has to do with gravity and molecular
diffusion in the upper atmosphere. So that's the latter constituent is
favored to the upper atmosphere relatively heavier constituent.

Now the traces that look kind of funny like turquoise in the red, those
are wrong direction. Ignore those because we had - there's a completely
different explanation for that. And that is that since the mass
spectrometer is very sensitive, that has to do with contamination of the
thrusters that are keeping the spacecraft pointing in the right
direction as we go through the atmosphere.

So here we're seeing our own exhaust gases and that's contaminating your
observations on the outbound portion of these flybys. I left them on
there for completeness, but that's what - that why they didn't follow
the right path.

All right, we go onto Slide 38. Then here's another way that we talk or
that we can study escape with INMS. And we show the nitrogen and methane
and we show its altitude distribution and we set temperature curves to
it. And what see is that if you just assume that it stays to the same
temperature in which it should, then there's more material at high
altitudes above the atmosphere, above where we - where collisions are
taking place and what we called the Exosphere.

There's more into and there's more methane present than there should be.
So there should be meaning that would normally if it was all at the same
temperature. So what it means is that at the very upper reaches the
atmosphere, both nitrogen and methane have been heated. And when they're
heated that means they've been given energy, and that energy allows the
molecules to escape.

All right, so we have escape of nitrogen occurring in the upper
atmosphere as a result of the heating of the upper atmosphere and that
heating comes about from particles (sputtering), heating the upper
atmosphere - particles from the magnetosphere heating the upper
atmosphere moving very fast, heating up material up and causing some of
it to escape the space.

All right, coming back to Slide 39 then we can estimate from looking at
that the escape rate that we would infer from direct measurements of the
upper atmosphere, and unfortunately we find out that the best column -
it was highlighted on the PowerPoint but it lost in this slide set.

If you look at Column 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, there's called (Fi) ESC. That's
(Fi) escape. And those numbers that are indicative of what we infer from
the escape process.

That escape that we measured directly does not seem the match what we
need determine the isotopic ratios. So if you go on to 40, let's talk
about that for just a second.

Here we have a quite a bit of information. It's a little bit hard to
read because the font colors are a bit off. But you can see that the
values for the isotopic ratio of 14 to 15 in the lower part of the
atmosphere, 155, and the terrestrial reference is 215. That means that
over 70% of the atmosphere - the inference would be that over 70% of the
atmosphere has escaped. That's from looking at the nitrogen.

If that has happened over geological time, the escape (flaps) that we
actually see happening is 10,000 times too small to explain the escapes.
So we don't fully understand the escape processes but we see the
indication that over geological time the atmosphere has been transformed
and much of it has been lost.

We see something very different in methane from the C12 to C13 ratio. We
see that the terrestrial reference is very close to the value that's
measured. What this is telling us is that methane is being constantly
re-supplied to this atmosphere and keeping isotopic ratio close to the
terrestrial reference level. So the escapes not affecting the isotopic
ratio for methane, but it does tell us one thing that 50-million-year
timescale where methane is lost in the upper atmosphere is quite active
and methane is being re-supplied in the upper atmosphere. Continually
re-supplied to lead to the isotopic ratio that we actually measure.

Okay, so that kind of goes through the escape process. Now\...

Man: Question.

Hunter Waite: Yes.

Man: Well since these methane re-supplies are similar to what you're
seeing on Earth, if I understand what you said, why do you rule out the
possibility of light being the source of this deep down inside the
planet where the water would be liquid?

Hunter Waite: Well, okay there - I mean I guess - I mean I understand
where you're going. You can't rule it out but it's like - I mean you've
got two kind of conjectures there on top of each other that are a bit
stressed, so the Occam's Razor would attack those to some degree. I mean
we can't explain the methane being present in the early primordial
material, so that we don't light to necessarily explain methane being
tapped in the interior. And we don't yet have any direct evidence that
there's a liquid water ocean underneath the crust.

If they're both - you know, if there is a liquid water beneath the
surface, the possibility exists that the methane is being re-supplied by
light. I don't think - we don't presently think that is needed to
explain the situation that we see.

Does that clarify?

Man: Yup. Thanks.

Hunter Waite: Okay. So just to finish this discussion off a little bit,
we also see another aspects of this. When the methane is destroyed in
the upper atmosphere and forms this more complex organic molecules, the
hydrogen is supposed to escape to space. And we can see that happening.

In Slide 41, we show profiles of molecular hydrogen in the upper
atmosphere, and we can see that the (unintelligible) escape is depleting
the density even more so than we would calculate from this mechanism
called (dunes) escape which is a theoretical.

So we're getting rid of methane at a very rapid rate, three times faster
than we even anticipated in the upper atmosphere. So this conversion
process, converting methane to high order hydrocarbons that come back to
the surface of the planet is alive and well and we can see direct
evidence of that with the neutral mass spectrometer.

Okay, now let's go on and okay about the formation of complex organics
because we're getting a little bit longer than I anticipated.

Okay, so let's come back to the slide that I showed you before, the
Slide 43. We've got molecular nitrogen and methane in the upper
atmosphere. We've got sunlight as a source of energy. Most importantly,
we've got various ultraviolet wavelengths in the sunlight that provide
very energetic photons as well as energetic particles from the upper
atmosphere of Saturn, both which are acting upon the molecular nitrogen
methane to break it apart.

When it's broken apart - it can either be broken apart or it can be
ionized. When it breaks apart, I'll show you the chemical side in a
little minute, but it forms things like the ethylene, ethane, and ethane
and hydrogen cyanide. These are the organic building blocks that are
present that are formed by this initial process.

Ionization also takes place, and this ionization seems to be important,
at least the indications are, is important in putting together these
building blocks to form these organic molecules.

And part of that speculation comes about because we see this
correspondence that's shown in mass spectra in these two figures between
what we see in the neutral spectrum in the lower panel and the ion
spectrum in the upper panel. There's correspondences in those peaks, and
as I've said before, those peaks are 12 to 14 atomic mass units apart.
So they're adding a carbon or adding a nitrogen each time around to form
a more complex molecule. These smaller organic building blocks are being
put together in a more complex molecule by these processes.

So if we go on to Slide 43 - actually 44, excuse me. This is just a
repeat, so I think I'll skip past that one. It's same information, just
showing that both the neutral chemistry are - neutral material which is
represented in the upper panel and the ion in the lower panel are very
complex.

Okay, in Slide 45, let's get into a little bit of detail on the
chemistry itself, and let's concentrate for a minute on the part, that
circle where those bottom panel - bottom portion of the panel is marked
methane, is bottom left. A very important part of this process is the
fact that ultraviolet light breaks apart the methane to form these
radicals that are shown here. And these radicals then react with
nitrogen and with other methane to form more complex molecule.

Same thing happens to the nitrogen in the upper panel. You can see that
both sunlight, ultraviolet sunlight, and electrons act on molecular
nitrogen, breaking it apart either into ions within 2+ or N+, the ions,
and (in corded) essence of what are different electronic states of the
atomic nitrogen when you make it - molecular nitrogen into atomic
nitrogen, you now have a very reactive species that can attack methane
or other molecules in the upper atmosphere.

Okay. Going on to the next panel, just - this just shows you in a
schematic way how some of that initial chemistry takes place. So, I then
put this in for complexity, well, I put it in to demonstrate the
complexity but not to force you to understand all the details of what's
going on. But again, we're showing the nitrogen and the methane being
broken apart and ionized and forming, well, the one that's shown in the
center, C2H4, is the ethylene, and also an unimportant constituent is
the hydrogen cyanide that's being formed in the upper atmosphere.

And then you can see these blocks are interacting with the ions, the
C2H5+ and the H2CN+ and the CH3+ are ions that are formed in this
process. So there's a very closely interwoven ion and neutral chemistry
that's producing these organic compounds.

So going on to Slide 46, we just show some theoretical models, how
that's evolved and how it changes in time at times. So let's - won't
dwell on this, but we have measurements that we can compare to model to
check this chemistry and we're presently doing that. That's the
importance of adding this slide in.

And then in Slide 48, I show how the second order processes take place
where you're forming more and more complex hydrocarbon species which
form the ethane, it could be acetylene, we start forming - putting
acetylene together to form the polymer to C4H2 which can continue on and
on, and we see the role of, again, the ions in this particular
chemistry.

Okay. So Slide 49, let's just come back to - oops, this one didn't -
somehow the specter got - is missing from this training when they
reproduced it, or at least I can't see it.

Trina Ray: This is on page forty...

Hunter Waite: Nine.

Trina Ray: Nine.

Hunter Waite: There's something - well, anyway, it's not terribly
important. Somehow it's - the PDF file is just showing the
concentrations of species, at least in my portion of it, but there's a
mass spectrum that goes with this.

And this just shows that INMS has measured these neutrals \-- the
methane, acetylene, ethane in the upper atmosphere, and they fit roughly
with the models, but we're starting to try to understand the details of
that, and we've measured propene and propane as well and those are
indicated.

So those are some indicative values. These are the mixing ratios. These
are the number of - the first one is the number of molecules of methane,
the percentage of them, not the percentage, excuse me, but the number
relative to N2 which is the major constituent. Okay?

So they are called mixing ratios. It's the number compared to the number
of the total particles in the volume of the atmosphere.

If we go on to 50, we just get into more and more complex hydrocarbons
and how this whole process builds up. So I'm going to skip past this;
I'm going to jump past 51, 52, which are just details of this chemistry,
and go on to Slide 54 where I want to talk a little - get on through,
you know, some of the importance of the magnetosphere participating in
this process.

So in Slide 55, there's an indication of the complexity of the
interaction of Saturn's magnetosphere. There's charged particles in
Saturn's magnetosphere that come from the out-gassing of the - of
Enceladus, for instance, will produce water that could get ionized and
picked up and tighten itself, giving off material that it gets
accelerated and then we reencounter it as we come - as Titan move
through the atmosphere.

And the magnetic field or the magnetosphere is moving at near the
corotational rate of Saturn which is pretty rapid relative to Titan
which is taking 16 days to go in its orbit around Saturn. So Titan is
sitting still and this magnetosphere is just moving - slamming into it
at 100 of kilometers per second.

And those materials of energetic particles bombard the upper atmosphere
and a part of this process that leads to its escape and part of the
process that leads to creating this very rich organic soup in the upper
atmosphere.

So it's not just solar radiation, it's particles from the magnetosphere
that are doing this.

And an indication of this is in Slide 56 where we come back to spectra
I've shown you before, but this was on the outbound portion of the T5
flyby, the geometry shown to you. You can see the magnetosphere flow
ramming in to the nose of Titan.

And you can see that the sun, when we took this measurement, was behind
the planet, so we were in the dark. We were completely in the dark and
these particles, these ions, only have lifetimes of a few hours. So,
there shouldn't have been any there if it wasn't for the fact that the
magnetosphere is producing a very rich and abundant upper ionosphere
that we see. And you can see the complexity of this ionosphere and
that's all coming about as a result of energetic particles, not as a
result of sunlight. Okay?

Fifty-seven just gives you an altitude profiles of different
constituents, but at least my version of this, the labels - oh no, it
finally pops up, it takes a minute or two. You can see the different
constituents that we've measured and how they change with altitude \--
very rich complex ionosphere.

And I'm not - I'm going to skip through a little bit of - in a fast way
through some of these complex chemistry, but in 58, you see what are -
what we thought was happening in the upper atmosphere from the ion
chemistry point - ion neutral chemistry point of view is illustrated in
this (unintelligible) model flowchart. You can kind of follow through
that and understand how the more complex compounds are being built up.

But what we found out was if there were - when we looked at the mass
spectrum in detail, there were several missing masses. And this
indicates on Slide 59 that some of those were 18 and 30 and 42 and 50.
So certain mass numbers were missing, were not explained by the model.

And some group - some of our group then came up with a new chemistry, or
some addition to that chemistry, that showed the importance of nitrogen
constituents in the upper atmosphere, forming what we call nitrile
compound, carbon nitrogen compounds in the upper atmosphere that are
very important in this overall ion-neutral chemistry. And that's
illustrated in Slide 60 where some of these new species are identified.

And in 61, that's how they modified the chemistry to account for the
existence of these nitrile compound.

Okay. So in 62, we're going to just close up, we're talking about the
ultimate state of complex organics and try to do a bit of a summary and
then we'll be done and you can ask questions.

Okay. So in Slide 63, we have some species indicated. We have CH4, we
have molecular nitrogen, we have acetylene, ethylene, ethane, and
propene. And we've get the values that INMS has measured in the upper
atmosphere and then we have the measured values from the infrared
measurements by the CIRS, that's the Composite InfraRed Spectrometer is
what CIRS stand for, but that's measuring remotely what the values are
in the stratosphere.

And you can see that methane is about the same for the two because it's
well mixed throughout the atmosphere and has a fairly long lifetime. But
all the rest is - well, and hydrogen is - falls into the same category.

But if you look at the complex organics, you can see that ethylene,
acetylene, all these more complex organics, in every case the value of
the mixing ratio which is what is represented here, the number of
particles relative to the total number of particles in a given volume of
air is much larger, several orders of magnitude larger than the upper
atmosphere than it is in the lower and in the stratosphere.

So this suggests - this strongly suggests to us that it's the upper
atmosphere that's the source of these organic compounds and then they're
defusing back through the atmosphere forming aerosols and being seen in
the stratosphere as gas as well.

But that - this is an important way of helping us establish that it's
the upper atmosphere where this production is largely taking place.

And if we go on to 64, just a reminder of the slide we saw before which
reiterates this point \-- looking in the lower atmosphere, we can see,
we can look at the composition of the aerosols, we can see this fall
aerosol particles start forming and precipitate - that may eventually
precipitate out under the surface, and we can see this very complex
organic chemistry persisting through the stratosphere.

Finally in 65, we see another picture - radar picture of these dunes
that I've told you about which are made of organic materials. And we're
working very hard to establish the connection of these organic dunes
with these aerosol particulates in the precipitation of these aerosol
particulates from the upper - from the atmosphere, from the stratosphere
back on to the surface.

All right. So, let's see, 66 is just the acknowledgement and so I'll
stop there and entertain any further questions that you might have.

Trina Ray: Are there any questions?

Coordinator: Mute off.

(Kenneth): Yeah, this is (Kenneth) in North Carolina, I've got one.

How do I explain to six graders the similarity in the nitrogen in
Titan's atmospherics with the nitrogen in our atmosphere?

Hunter Waite: Well, the surface - I guess, I mean the molecule itself is
exactly the same, okay? But it's going to be much colder there, you
could tell them that it's colder than any place on Earth.

But it's - and on the surface, the pressure is about let's say 30% to
40% higher than it would be on Earth. So it's - the pressure's a little
higher than on Earth, but largely, it's the same. There's, you know,
it's colder and it's more dense, but that's the only difference.

Would that help?

Trina Ray: Does it come from the same...

(Kenneth): A little bit. I think what I mostly want to know is
(unintelligible) for how we got some oxygen here on Earth or on Titan?

Hunter Waite: Well, yeah. I mean - that's a very good question. I mean
the nitrogen on Titan seems to come in as ammonia and then through
subsequent chemistry was turned into molecular nitrogen (unintelligible)
chemistry in the upper atmosphere. At least that's the way we think it
happens now.

We think similar processes must have occurred on the - in the case of
the Earth. Now, so, it didn't, you know, it didn't come in as molecular
nitrogen because that's a very volatile compound, you have to get it to
77 degrees Kelvin, even colder than the surface of Titan, to freeze the
stuff.

(Kenneth): All right.

Hunter Waite: So.

(Kenneth): But I guess the follow would be, why does it not happen on
the other planetary bodies that have atmospheres?

Hunter Waite: Oh, okay. Well, in all cases, we do see nitrogen. I mean,
we see molecular nitrogen in Mars...

(Kenneth): Right.

Hunter Waite: ...and to some - but not at the level. Much of Mars'
atmosphere is escaped, so it's been tremendously modified by the escape
process. And one of the strong indicators that escape has occurred is
the nitrogen isotopic ratios on Mars. So much of the nitrogen escaped on
Mars from the previous time period where was probably a denser
atmosphere.

And in the case of Venus, you've got a very dense atmosphere, and most
of it, CO2. Well, in the case of the Earth, there would be a lot of CO2
if it hadn't formed a bunch of rocks, limestone sediments have, in the
presence of liquid water, you can form limestone solid compound, so the
CO2 is precipitated out. And that's why the atmosphere of Venus is much
more dense than the Earth, that - and the reason why Earth is different
is that we have those CO2 compounds tied up in the rocks and the
sediments and so forth.

(Kenneth): Thank you.

Hunter Waite: Uh-huh. Any other questions?

Trina Ray: Any other questions? No other questions? Shocking.

Well, I guess then I have a question. What was sort of the biggest
surprise that you've learned in the first, you know, 17 or 18 Titan
flybys, the thing that sort of strike you as the thing that was most
surprising?

Hunter Waite: The complexity of the organic chemistry in the upper
atmosphere. We thought the organic chemistry throughout the atmosphere,
you know, organic chemistry throughout the atmosphere would be of
importance for determining the overall composition of the atmosphere but
we were surprised and happy to find that most of the action seems to be
occurring up high in the atmosphere in terms of formation.

Trina Ray: And what would you say you're looking forward to the most
with the remaining Titan flybys? Just figuring it out?

Hunter Waite: Yes, and, you know, repeated spectra that keeps telling us
the same things are telling us slightly different things at different
latitudes are important part of putting the puzzle together.

For instance, if we're going to determine the importance of the
magnetosphere for producing these complex organics versus the importance
of solar ultraviolet light, then we need to be looking in the dark and
we need to be looking at - in lighted regions of the atmosphere to sort
out the relative importance of those two. That's a very important
question to answer.

Trina Ray: And finally, I guess I'll ask you one of the questions I
asked (Harry Soderbrum) last month, what is your predict or when do you
think the next mission to Titan will happen?

Hunter Waite: Well, I think that it's proving to be one of the most
interesting bodies that we've ever visited in the solar system, and I
would hope that within the next 50 years, we go back. But I, you know,
things move pretty slow...

Trina Ray: Next 50?

Hunter Waite: Well, I mean if you start planning now, you've got, you
know, you've got a travel time of seven years, you've got a build time
of seven years, and to get it together takes another few years. So, 25
would be the fastest if we started today probably.

Trina Ray: Oh, man, I plan on retiring on the next mission to Titan.

Hunter Waite: Well, let's hope you're - it's at a faster time scale than
I think.

Trina Ray: Do we have any other questions?

Okay. Well, I want to thank Dr. Waite today for joining us, we really
enjoyed the talk.

Our October CHARM telecon will be on Halloween, October 31, and we'll be
joined by (Roger Clark), he is a member of the VIMS Team, that's the
Visual Infrared Mapping Spectrometer, and he'll be telling us a bit
about the IC satellites of Saturn and what are some of the surface
compositions that he's been able to figure out from his datasets. And we
expect a fantastic talk there.

We don't have our November talk lined up, although we're beating the
bushes, and of course we don't have a CHARM telecon in December.

And with that, we'll let everybody go. Have a great week.

Hunter Waite: (Trina), well let me just add one thing.

Trina Ray: Sure.

Hunter Waite: If people do want - come up with questions later that they
want to ask me, they're welcome to send me an email and - does that - do
they know my email?

Trina Ray: If they don't know your email, they're welcome to send an
email to the CHARM Leads and we will forward it on. Again the CHARM
Leads is charm_leads_01@cdfa.jpl.nasa.gov.

Hunter Waite: All right, thank you.

Trina Ray: Thanks, Hunter.

Hunter Waite: Okay, bye.

Man: Bye, thank you.

Man: Thank you.

Man: Thank you.

END