+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ## big sagebrush {#big-sagebrush .Title-Header}                       |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| *Artemisia tridentata* Nuttall                                        |
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| Plant Symbol = ARTR2                                                  |
|                                                                       |
| **[Including]{.underline}:**                                          |
|                                                                       |
| **ssp. *parishii* (Gray) Hall & Clements**                            |
|                                                                       |
| Plant Symbol = ARTRP2                                                 |
|                                                                       |
| **ssp. *spiciformis* (Ousterhout) Kartesz & Gandhi**                  |
|                                                                       |
| Plant Symbol = ARTRS2                                                 |
|                                                                       |
| **ssp. *tridentata***                                                 |
|                                                                       |
| Plant Symbol = ARTRT                                                  |
|                                                                       |
| **ssp. *vaseyana* (Rydb.) Beetle**                                    |
|                                                                       |
| Plant Symbol = ARTRV                                                  |
|                                                                       |
| **ssp. *wyomingensis* Beetle & Young**                                |
|                                                                       |
| Plant Symbol = ARTRW8                                                 |
|                                                                       |
| **ssp. *xericensis* Winward ex R. Rosentreter & R. Kelsey**           |
|                                                                       |
| Plant Symbol = ARTRX                                                  |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

Contributed by: USDA NRCS Idaho State Office

![](media/image2.jpeg){width="2.997916666666667in"
height="3.2305555555555556in"}

**Figure 1***.* Basin big sagebrush *(Artemisia tridentata* ssp*.
tridentata).* Photo courtesy of the PLANTS database.

##### Alternate Names  {#alternate-names .Header-3}

*A. tridentata* ssp*. parishii* = Parish's big sagebrush

*A. tridentata* ssp. *spiciformis* = subalpine or spicate big sagebrush

*A. tridentata* ssp. *tridentata* = basin big sagebrush

*A. tridentata* ssp. *vaseyana* = mountain big sagebrush

*A. tridentata* ssp. *wyomingensis* = Wyoming big sagebrush

*A. tridentata* ssp. *xericensis* = xeric or foothills big sagebrush

##### Uses {#uses .Header-3}

*Forage/Wildlife*: Big sagebrush is perhaps the most important shrub on
western rangelands. Evergreen leaves and abundant seed production
provide an excellent winter food source to numerous species of large
mammals including mule deer, black-tailed deer, white-tailed deer, elk,
pronghorn antelope, bighorn sheep and jack rabbits. Nearly 100 bird
species depend on sagebrush ecosystems for their habitat needs.
Additionally, there are several animal species having an obligate
relationship with big sagebrush including sage grouse, sharp tailed
grouse, pygmy rabbits, sage thrashers, sage sparrows and Brewer's
sparrow. Sagebrush also provide habitat and food for hosts of
invertebrates which in turn support birds, reptiles and small mammals.
In addition to the numerous species of animals that depend on sagebrush
for food and cover, there are several plant species having close
relationships with sagebrush as well.

Sagebrush plants maintain high levels of most nutrients including crude
protein (see table 1). This high forage value makes it especially useful
for wildlife, and in some areas livestock, winter grazing. Separate
studies indicated that sagebrush made up 78% of the annual diet for
antelope in Wyoming and 59% of the winter diet of deer and elk near
Gardiner, Montana. Sagebrush also makes up close to 100% of the winter
diet of sage grouse and over 60% of their total annual diet. Use of
sagebrush by livestock is limited and variable.

Animal preference of sagebrush varies with subspecies, populations and
even individual plants due to chemical variation found in the foliage.
Deer and elk tend to prefer mountain big sagebrush followed by Wyoming
big sagebrush and finally basin big sagebrush. Although many range
managers believe that deer and other large mammals prefer to browse
shrubby members of the *Rosaceae* such as mountain mahogany
(*Cercocarpus*), bitterbrush (*Purshia*) and cliffrose (*Cowania*) over
big sagebrush, studies show sagebrush significantly more readily
browsed.

Sagebrush's value as thermal or security cover is also very high for
wildlife. This includes nesting cover and escape cover for sage grouse,
sharp tailed grouse, pheasants, chukar and other upland birds.

  ----------------------- ----------------------- -----------------------
  **Table 1.** Nutritive                          
  values as percent dry                           
  matter and percent                              
  in-vitro dry matter                             
  digestibility (IVDMD).                          

                          Crude Protein           IVDMD

  Spring                  12.6                    58.1

  Summer                  13.2                    \-

  Winter                  11.7                    57.8

  (Adapted from Welch,                            
  2005)                                           
  ----------------------- ----------------------- -----------------------

*Revegetation/reclamation*: Because of its wide range of adaptation and
ease of establishment, big sagebrush can be a very important species for
use in revegetation efforts. Seedlings are able to compete with grasses
and forbs as well as other shrubs allowing it to be used as a component
of a wide range of seed mixes. Seedlings are very easy to establish when
planted correctly (see "Establishment" section) and can be drill seeded
or broadcast with near equal levels of success. Because sagebrush plants
spread readily by seed, it can be seeded at relatively low rates and
allowed to spread by natural recruitment.

Big sagebrush plants provide many additional benefits to the plant
community. The dense canopy protects understory herbaceous plants from
grazing. Healthy sagebrush communities provide a multi- tiered ecosystem
with high levels of biodiversity. Big sagebrush plants also have a
two-part root system with a deep tap root and a shallow, diffuse root
system. Numerous studies have shown sagebrush plants create "hydraulic
lift" where deep soil moisture is brought to near the soil surface by
the tap root system during the day and then released into the upper soil
at night. This water is then available to the diffuse root system of big
sagebrush as well as to the roots of other understory plants. Sagebrush
plants also increase water retention by trapping and holding windblown
snow.

Big sagebrush subspecies are often useful indicators of soil
characteristics. Generally, a subspecies indicates the soils at a site,
thus proper identification of big sagebrush at a subspecific level can
provide useful information on soils and ecological site characteristics.
In some areas, however, such as those with glacial deposits, a
separation based on soil characteristics is considerably more complex.

##### Status {#status .Header-3}

Consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural
Resources for this plant's current status (e.g. threatened or endangered
species, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).

#####  {#section .Header-3}

**Description**

*General*: Although big sagebrush plants generally have a similar growth
form, the species does have considerable morphological variation with
several subspecies and ecotypes. Big sagebrush are evergreen shrubs
ranging in size from less than 0.6 m (2 ft) tall to as large as 4 m (13
ft) tall. Branches are spreading, arising from numerous main stems in
the lower growing subspecies or from one main trunk in the larger forms.
Leaves are blue-gray to blue-green in color due to dense gray hairs.
They are typically cuneate (wedge-shaped, triangular and gradually
tapering to the base) or flabelliform (bell shaped) depending on
subspecies, and have three lobes at the apex on the majority of the
persistent foliage. Leaves vary in length from 0.5 to 5 cm (0.2 to 2.0
in), and can be 0.2 to 2.0 cm (0.08 to 0.8 in) wide. Leaves are spirally
arranged with internodes short in young vegetative stems making the
leaves very dense. Panicles overtop plants of mountain and spicate big
sagebrush, or can grow throughout the crown in basin and Wyoming big
sagebrush. Floral heads contain from three to 18 perfect (both male and
female parts present) flowers per head. Achenes are typically glabrous
but are hairy in the California endemic Parish's big sagebrush. Big
sagebrush plants are very aromatic with the smell being described as
bitter pungent to pleasant, the odor varying by subspecies. Ploidy
levels often differ among subspecies and may differ among populations.

##### Taxonomy {#taxonomy .Header-3}

Currently there are six subspecies of *Artemisia tridentata* recognized
by the National Plant Data Center: basin (ssp. *tridentata*), Wyoming
(ssp. *wyomingensis* Beetle & Young), mountain (ssp. *vaseyana*
\[Rydb.\] Beetle), subalpine (ssp. *spiciformis* \[Ousterhout\] Kartesz
& Gandhi), xeric (ssp. *xericensis* Winward ex R. Rosentreter & R.
Kelsey) and Parish's (**ssp. *parishii* \[Gray\] Hall & Clements). Each
is highly variable with multiple ecotypes, but can generally be
separated using a number of morphological, geographical and
topographical characters.**

**All chromosome number information was obtained from McArthur and
Sanderson (1999) as updated in McArthur (2005). Appendix 1 contains a
general summary of characteristics useful to separate subspecies. See**
McArthur and Stevens (2004) **for a detailed review of the characters
for the subspecies occurring in the Intermountain West.**

![](media/image3.jpeg){width="3.126388888888889in"
height="2.3541666666666665in"}**Figure 2**. Leafy stem of basin big
sagebrush. Photo courtesy of the PLANTS database.

![](media/image4.jpeg){width="3.0in" height="2.0in"}**Basin big
sagebrush usually occurs at the lowest elevational range of the species,
being most abundant in the valley bottoms to mountain foothills. Plants
typically have a single main trunk and may grow to a height of 4 m (13
ft) under proper conditions, making basin the largest subspecies. Basin
big sagebrush plants are generally uneven-topped with loosely branching
flowering stems distributed throughout the crown (see figure 1). Floral
heads typically contain 3 to 6 small flowers per head. Leaves of the
vegetative stems are narrowly cuneate averaging 2 cm (0.8 in) or more
and can be as long as 5 cm (2 in) being many times longer than wide (see
figure 2). Ultraviolet visible coumarins in leaf extracts are minimal;
leaf UV color is none to light blue in water and a rusty red-brown color
in alcohol.** 2n = 18 or sometimes 36.

**Figure 3**. Wyoming big sagebrush.

Derek Tilley, USDA NRCS Idaho PMC

Wyoming big sagebrush overlaps in range and elevation with basin big
sagebrush. Plants are considerably smaller than those of basin big
sagebrush, usually less than 0.9 m (3 ft) tall, and have main stems
branching from the ground (see figure 3). Flowering stems are not as
widely branching as those of basin, but otherwise closely resemble that
subspecies. Leaves are typically shorter, from 1 to 1.5 cm (0.4 to 0.6
in) long, and flabelliform. UV extract color in water is none to light
blue and rusty in alcohol. 2n = 36.

The vegetative stems of mountain big sagebrush create a characteristic
even topped crown with the panicles rising distinctly and relatively
uniformly above the foliage (see figure 3). Plants are normally smaller
than those of basin big sagebrush, averaging about 0.9 m (3 ft) tall.
Inflorescences are narrow and spicate bearing flower heads containing 4
to 8 flowers per head. Leaves are characteristically wider than those of
basin or Wyoming big sagebrush. In extracts, ultraviolet visible
coumarins are abundant. Leaf extracts fluoresce blue in water and
blue-cream in alcohol. 2n = 18 or sometimes 36.

![](media/image5.jpeg){width="3.0in" height="3.71875in"}**Figure 4**.
Even topped mountain big sagebrush*.*

Derek Tilley, USDA NRCS Idaho PMC

Originally considered a xeric form of mountain big sagebrush, xeric big
sagebrush shares similarities with both basin and mountain big sagebrush
and may be the result of hybridization between the two subspecies. Xeric
big sagebrush plants are large and have an uneven topped crown like
those of basin big sagebrush, but in leaf UV color and cytological
characters it resembles mountain big sagebrush. Ultraviolet visible
coumarins are blue in water, blue-cream in alcohol. 2n = 36.

A new variation of big sagebrush being recognized by some is Bonneville
big sagebrush. This as yet undescribed taxon may represent hybridization
between Wyoming and mountain big sagebrush. It is reported to have the
general growth form of Wyoming plants but bears the leaves and
fluorescing characteristics of the mountain subspecies. It has been
reported from the bench areas of Lake Bonneville and other ancient lakes
of the Intermountain West in Utah and Nevada. Reports of Bonneville big
sagebrush have also come from western Wyoming and western Colorado. Of
particular importance is this sagebrush's reported high palatability to
wild ungulates and sage grouse.

Subalpine, or spicate big sagebrush, is believed to be a stabilized
hybrid between mountain big sagebrush and silver sagebrush (*Artemisia
cana* Pursh ssp. *viscidula* \[Osterhout\] Beetle). Plants are similar
to those of mountain big sagebrush except that leaves and floral heads
are larger, the floral heads having 10 to 18 flowers per head.
Ultraviolet visible coumarins in leaf extracts fluoresce blue in water
and blue-cream in alcohol. 2n = 18 or 36.

Parish's big sagebrush is an uncommon taxon restricted to dry, sandy
soils in the hills of southern California. It is nearest in appearance
and relationship to basin big sagebrush, but differs from basin in
having drooping flowering branches and the achenes are hairy. 2n = 36.

One additional taxon that should be mentioned is Lahontan sagebrush
(*Artemisia arbuscula* ssp. *longicaulis* Winward and McArthur). It is
thought to be a stable hybrid between low sagebrush (*A. arbuscula*) and
Wyoming big sagebrush. It bears the flowers of low sagebrush but has the
vegetative characteristics of its big sagebrush parent. This subspecies
forms dominant communities in northwestern Nevada and adjacent portions
of California and Oregon in shallow or clayey soils above and around the
shoreline of the Pleistocene Lake Lahontan.

The following key should provide some assistance in separating the
subspecies of big sagebrush.

1\. plants larger, usually \>0.9 m (3 ft) tall, with a

single main trunk; crown uneven with floral stems

throughout

2\. achenes hairy; floral stems drooping; plants

endemic to sandy soils in southern

California........................\...\...ssp. *parishii*

2\. achenes glabrous; floral stems erect; plants

widely distributed throughout western U.S,

including southern California

3\. plants occurring in valley bottoms and low

foothills, occupying deep fertile soils; leaves

narrowly cuneate, 2-5 cm (0.8-2.0 in) long,

UV leaf color in water=none, in alcohol=red

to brown ......\...\...\...\...\...\.......\...ssp. *tridentata*

3\. UV in water=blue, in alcohol=blue-cream;

> plants restricted to well-drained basaltic soils in western
> Idaho...\...\...\...ssp. *xericensis*

1\. plants smaller, averaging 0.9 m (3 ft) or less, with

trunks branching at or near ground level; crowns

various

4\. crowns uneven-topped, plants of low

valleys and foothills;

5\. UV color in water=none, in alcohol=rust

................................ssp. *wyomingensis*

5\. UV color in water=blue, in alcohol=blue-

cream................................(Bonneville)

4\. crowns even-topped, floral stems rising

uniformly above the vegetative stems; plants of

higher elevations

6\. flowers 4 to 8; leaf tips lobed

........................................ssp. *vaseyana*

6\. flowers 10 to 18; leaf tips often pointed

......................\.................ssp. *spiciformis*

Additional taxonomic information can be found in the Flora of North
America, Volume 19 (FNA Editorial Committee 2006) and the Intermountain
Flora, Volume 5 (Cronquist et al. 1994).

**Distribution**

Fossil records and records from early pioneers indicate that sagebrush
was widespread and existed in nearly the same general distribution for
the past several thousand years as it does in the present day. Densities
of sagebrush communities, however, have been reduced historically due to
range management practices. Big sagebrush presently covers a vast
ecological range from British Columbia to Baja California eastward to
the Dakotas. Mahalovich and McArthur (2004) provide distribution as well
as seed and plant transfer guidelines for *Artemisia* subgenus
*Tridentatae*. For current distribution for each subspecies, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

**Habitat**

The big sagebrush complex is adapted to a wide range of precipitation
zones and soil conditions. Plants are well adapted to the arid plains,
valleys, foothills and mountains of the West where annual precipitation
ranges from as little as 200 to as much as 750 or more mm (8 to 30 in).
It is often found growing in loamy to sandy loam soils, but plants are
found on all 12 soil textural classes in five soil orders: Alfisols,
Aridisols, Entisols, Inceptisols and Mollisols. Tolerance to alkalinity
or acidity varies by subspecies. In general big sagebrush will grow in
soils with a pH of 5.9 to 10.0 and with organic matter content of 0.62
to 4.14 percent.

Basin big sagebrush is commonly found at low to mid elevations from 600
to 2,100 m (1,900 to 6,900 ft) in valleys and mountain foothills,
occupying sites with deep fertile loamy to sandy soil, 0.9 m (3 ft) or
deeper. It is often the dominant shrub species of the plant community,
but is also found in association with juniper, piñon pine and
rabbitbrush communities. Basin big sagebrush has a deep penetrating root
system that allows it to occupy deeper soils in areas receiving little
precipitation. Plants are often found growing in valleys, plains,
alluvial fans and in seasonal or perennial stream channels. Basin big
sagebrush prefers soils which are non-alkaline, non-saline and
non-calcareous. The deep root system does not allow plants to grow in
soils with a soil depth limiting hardpan or caliche layer. Depending on
soil infiltration and water storage capacity, plants will grow in areas
receiving less than 200 to more than 400 mm (8 to 16 in) annual
precipitation. This subspecies also does not tolerate soils saturated
for more than a few weeks in a season.

Wyoming big sagebrush grows at low to intermediate elevations between
basin and mountain big sagebrush, but also commonly overlaps in range
with the other two subspecies. When found in proximity with basin big
sagebrush, Wyoming sagebrush will occupy the shallower, better-drained
soils. Like basin big sagebrush, Wyoming is typically found in large
stands covering many acres. Plants are also found in juniper,
rabbitbrush, bitterbrush and mountain mahogany communities. At lower
precipitation areas it is sometimes intermixed with shadscale and other
*Atriplex* species. Wyoming big sagebrush commonly occurs from 800 to
2,200 m (2600 to 7,200 ft) in elevation. Wyoming big sagebrush is the
most drought tolerant of the big sagebrush subspecies and is commonly
found growing on low valley slopes and foothills receiving between 200
and 300 mm (8 to 12 in) annual precipitation. It occupies loamy soils
with high clay content and a depth of 25 to 75 cm (10 to 30 in). Soils
may be quite rocky or gravelly, but in these cases plants will be
smaller. Wyoming big sagebrush will be found growing in soils underlain
by a caliche or silica layer if the available soil is deep enough.
Plants are typically found in soils with a low water holding capacity
where excess water may run off into channels more suitable to basin big
sagebrush.

Mountain big sagebrush grows in mountain and mountain foothill plant
communities such as rabbitbrush, piñon pine, juniper, mountain shrub,
aspen, Douglas fir, ponderosa pine and spruce-fir habitats from 800 to
3,100 m (2,600 to 10,000 ft). Plants prefer moderately deep to deep,
well-drained soils providing summer moisture. Mountain big sagebrush
occurs at higher elevations and in higher annual precipitation zones
than either Wyoming big sagebrush or basin big sagebrush. Soils are
typically 45 to 90 centimeters (18 to 36 in) deep or more, and are most
often loamy to gravelly but can contain greater amounts of clay. Plants
commonly grow in areas receiving over 350 mm (14 in) annual
precipitation, but may be found in lower elevations and precipitation
zones under certain conditions such as snow drift accumulation areas and
shaded north facing slopes.

Xeric big sagebrush is limited to basaltic and granitic soils of western
and west central Idaho and is often associated with bluebunch
wheatgrass. Plants grow in the foothills from 800 to 1,500 meters (2,600
to 4,900 ft). Precipitation ranges from 300 to 400 mm (12 to 16 in)
annually.

Spicate big sagebrush grows at high elevation ridge lines and snow
accumulation areas from 2,000 to 3,300 m (6,500 to 10,800 ft) in annual
precipitation zones of over 750 mm (30 in). It is normally found near
Douglas fir, spruce-fir, and aspen communities.

**Figure 5**. Adaptation of Intermountain big sagebrush subspecies based
on elevational and moisture gradients (Mahalovich and McArthur, 2004).

Parish's big sagebrush is adapted to the dry sandy soils of California's
Inner South Coast Ranges, South Coast, Western Transverse Ranges, White
and Inyo Mountains and the desert mountains of the Mojave Desert.

##### Establishment {#establishment .Header-3}

Seed of big sagebrush are best adapted to germinate in habitats with
ecological conditions approximating those of the seed collection site.
Seed source and subspecies should always be seriously considered prior
to seeding. It may be necessary to use seed from more than one
subspecies in a given revegetation project to ensure adequate
establishment in all habitats.

Seed should be sown in the late fall or early winter and allowed to
naturally stratify. It should be noted that big sagebrush seed has
special seed storage requirements (See "Seed and Plant Production"
section). If stored in conditions with relative humidity above 30
percent, seeds lose vigor and germinability after two or three years. To
ensure a greater chance of establishment success, check the viability of
seed lots before planting.

Seed should be planted into a firm, weed-free seedbed at a depth of no
more than 1/8 inch. Seed covered too deeply with soil will generally
fail to establish. Best results come from surface broadcast seed that
has been pressed into the soil to provide for good seed-soil contact.
Seed can also be broadcast directly onto snow with good results.
Pressing broadcast seed into the soil surface with a land imprinter has
provided very good establishment success. Land imprinters create good
contact between the seed and soil as well as provide microhabitats that
optimize temperature and water requirements. Broadcast seeding has also
yielded good results when followed by a cultipacker or drag chain.

Drill seeding can be successful, but strict attention must be paid to
seeding depth. Optimal drilling depth is 0 to 1/8 inch.

Sagebrush seed lots range in purity from approximately 8 to 30 percent
or greater pure seed. Seed lots with high purity levels (20 percent or
greater) can be difficult to seed due to limitations of the seeding
equipment. Because sagebrush seed is very small and is metered through
seeding equipment with difficulty, seed can be diluted with rice hulls
or another inert carrier to improve flow.

Post-fire aerial seeding of big sagebrush has been done with limited
success. Studies suggest that best results come from aerial seeding
followed by land imprinting, cultipacking or chaining, or after allowing
native perennial grasses to establish for a season following fire. It is
believed that native grasses would suppress exotic annual grass species
while allowing the establishment of sagebrush. Further study of this
option is indicated.

Big sagebrush is not recommended for pure seedings. Seed should be a
small component of a seed mix. Drill seeding 0.025 lbs PLS per acre
(approximately 1 viable seed/ft²) provides approximately 400 plants per
acre for optimal wildlife habitat. For broadcast seeding increase to
0.05 to 0.075 lbs PLS (approximately 2-3 viable seeds/ft²). With
adequate soil moisture seedlings develop quickly and compete well with
other shrubs and most herbaceous plants. However, to enhance
establishment, sagebrush should not be sown in the same drill row with
more aggressive forbs and grasses.

Sagebrush seedlings require sufficient soil moisture to germinate and
survive. Young plants do not do well in open, unprotected locations.
Best establishment results occur in sites where soil moisture is at or
near field capacity, or in areas where snow accumulates. Existing
shrubs, downed trees and litter can create microhabitats which also
provide very good germination conditions.

Containerized stock or bareroot seedlings can also be used with high
establishment success (50% or greater). This method, however, is quite
costly, and is rarely used except in small critical area plantings.
Plants can be taken from nursery stock or field harvested wildings.
Wildings should be collected and transplanted during dormancy in fall or
very early spring when soil moisture conditions are best. For best cost
efficiency, "mother plants" should be placed in key locations throughout
the revegetation site to allow for natural seed dispersal and
recruitment over time.

##### Management {#management .Header-3}

Historically, sagebrush communities have been poorly managed, mostly in
attempts to reduce or eliminate sagebrush stands to increase forage
production for livestock. Recently, however, the value of sagebrush to
the western rangelands is being recognized, and practices are evolving
to better manage healthy and productive sagebrush communities.

Contrary to long standing beliefs, studies show that complete sagebrush
removal negatively affects biodiversity and has little long term affect
on perennial grass production. Indeed, several studies indicate that
forage production may actually decline when sagebrush is completely
removed or controlled.

Overgrazing of the understory decreases plant biodiversity, especially
the forb component of the plant community and increases the density of
weeds. Annual weeds, such as cheatgrass (*Bromus tectorum* L.) and
medusahead (*Taeniatherum* *caput-medusae* \[L.\] Nevski) often
out-compete young sagebrush seedlings and create undesirable
monocultures. Annual weed infestations also increase the frequency of
wildfires which result in eliminating sagebrush stands therefore not
allowing stand re-establishment.

Despite the many valuable benefits of sagebrush to rangelands, there may
be cases when it is desirable to thin and rejuvenate sagebrush stands.
In these instances it is not necessary to remove the entire stand, and
control treatments in mosaic patterns are recommended. Several methods
exist for partial removal of the shrubby over story.

Herbicide use is an effective means of thinning sagebrush stands.
Contact your local agricultural extension specialist or county weed
specialist to determine what works best in your area and how to use it
safely.

Probably the simplest and most cost effective means of stand reduction
is through prescribed burning. If there is sufficient fuel, a burn can
completely eliminate a sagebrush community. For this reason niche
burning is recommended when possible. In situations where cheatgrass is
a dominant part of the understory, burning should take place when ripe
cheatgrass seeds are still on the plants and will be consumed in the
fire.

Methods of mechanical removal for sagebrush include anchor chaining,
pipe harrowing, land imprinting offset disking and brush beating with
brush hogs or mowers. Of these, chaining and land imprinting are the
least expensive and do an excellent job of reducing sagebrush stands
while still leaving enough plants for diversity and browsing. Brush
beating does a good job, but it is expensive. Disking and harrowing also
do a good job of shrub removal, but are more expensive and more
destructive to under-story plant populations.

##### Pests and Potential Problems {#pests-and-potential-problems .Header-3}

Perhaps the greatest danger to sagebrush stands comes from fire. Big
sagebrush plants have no fire resistance and many acres are destroyed
annually because of increased fire frequency resulting from infestations
of exotic annual weeds such as cheatgrass and medusahead.

Another minor cause of sagebrush mortality is winter injury. This occurs
when temperatures drop quickly below freezing before plants have entered
dormancy, or when a warm spell promotes winter growth followed by a
return to typical winter temperatures. Extended periods of winter and
summer drought (normally more than 2 years) can also cause dehydration
and death.

Big sagebrush is occasionally susceptible to limited outbreaks of the
sagebrush defoliator moth, or webworm, (*Aroga websteri*). Although the
moths can cause extensive damage, they too are subject to insect
predators, and it is rare that entire stands will be lost.

Additionally, there are a number of other microbial and fungal pathogens
known to attack big sagebrush. Although these may inflict serious damage
locally, they have not been viewed as a great threat to sagebrush
populations.

**Seed and Plant Production**

The vast majority of big sagebrush seed used in revegetation is wildland
collected material. Seed collection occurs in late fall to early winter
(early October through the end of December) depending on the subspecies.
Collections are commonly made by hand stripping, beating or clipping
seed heads into containers or by using a reel type harvester. Seed can
be cleaned with a hammermill, debearder, air-screen or gravity table
with varying results. Most sagebrush seed lots used for rangeland
seeding are only cleaned to a purity of 15 to 20 percent due to the
small nature of the seeds (achenes). This practice requires less time
for cleaning and also allows for easier seed flow and metering in
seeding equipment. Pure seed yields approximately 1.7 to 2.5 million
seeds per pound. The NRCS Plant Materials Center in Bridger, MT reported
four hours collecting time and 5.5 hours cleaning yielded 200g (0.45 lb)
cleaned material, or 21g (0.04 lb) per hour.

Sagebrush seed that has been dried to a minimum of 9 percent moisture
content will remain viable for many years when stored under cool, dry
conditions. Welch et al (1996) reported seed viabilities above 90% for
seed stored at 10 ºC (50 ºF) and relative humidity (RH) of 20 percent
after nine years of storage. Seed stored at higher RH levels are
susceptible to germination or damage by insects or microorganisms.

Because sagebrush seed can readily be collected from wild stands,
sagebrush is rarely grown in commercial production fields. However, in
very droughty periods, very little sagebrush seed can be collected from
wild stands. Increasing seed demands and decreasing sagebrush stands
lost to weeds and fire are growing concerns. Recent studies suggest
protecting wildland seed-producing stands for optimum harvesting. The
greatest factor in seed production for sagebrush is protection against
grazing animals. Surrounding plants with a wire fence has shown an
increase in seed stalk number of as much as 3 to 5 times the amount of
unprotected plants. Studies also show significantly higher seed yields
from plants grown on reclaimed mine lands when compared with those on
adjacent non-mined areas. The reason for this correlation is unclear,
but it may be a result of increased available soil moisture due to lower
competing plant frequencies on the mined lands.

Seed production varies greatly between years and between stands due to
differences in climate, stand density and maturity, soil and genetics.
It has been estimated that an average stand of big sagebrush could
potentially produce 100 to 300 lbs PLS per acre annually. Seed
production declines as plants and stands mature creating larger amounts
of woody biomass. Greater seed yields can be achieved by thinning
decadent stands to encourage new flower stalk production

For nursery plantings, pre-stratified seed can be planted in greenhouse
conditions, or seed can be allowed to naturally stratify after being
planted in containers outdoors. Keep soil medium slightly moist during
germination. Greenhouse sprayers or misters are commonly used during
daylight hours at a rate of 10 seconds every 15 minutes. Uniform
germination occurs after two weeks of temperatures over 20º C (70º F).
Seedlings are ready for field transplanting approximately 5 months after
germination.

**Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)**

*'***Hobble Creek***'* mountain big sagebrush was released by the Utah
Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah State University and the USDA
Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station in 1987. Seed was
originally collected in 1968 by A. Perry Plummer at the Hobble Creek
drainage east of Springville, UT. 'Hobble Creek' was chosen for its high
vegetative production and for its high palatability to mule deer and
wintering domestic sheep. It is adapted to sites with deep, well-drained
soils receiving more than 350 mm (14 in) of annual precipitation and
having a growing season of 90 days or longer. Soils should be no finer
than a clay loam, containing 40% or less clay and have a pH between 6.6
and 8.6. Breeder seed is maintained at a breeder block at the USDA
Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station, Shrub Sciences
Laboratory, Provo, UT.

'**Gordon Creek***'* Wyoming big sagebrush was originally collected near
Helper, Carbon County, UT. It was released in 1992 by the USDA Forest
Service Rocky Mountain Research Station to fill the need for a low
precipitation ecotype of big sagebrush to improve winter diets of mule
deer and sage grouse and for rangeland restoration. Gordon Creek was
chosen for its high growth rate, nutrient levels and mule deer
preference. It is widely adapted to dry regions of the west receiving
250 or more mm (10 in) mean annual precipitation. It prefers deep to
shallow, well-drained soils with up to 55% clay content with a pH of 6.6
to 8.8.

Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information. Look in the phone
book under "United States Government." The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the subheading "Department of
Agriculture."

**References**

Booth, D.T. 2005. Wyoming big sagebrush seed orchards on reclaimed mined
land. Native Plants Journal. 6(3): 247-253.

Booth, D.T., Y. Bai and E.E. Roos. 2004. Cultural methods for enhancing
Wyoming big sagebrush seed production. USDA Forest Service Proceedings
RMRS-P-31: 95-99.

Butler, J, C. Frieswyk. 2002. Propagation protocol for production of
*Artemisia tridentata* seeds; Rocky Mountain National Park. In: Native
Plant Network. URL:
[http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org](http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org/)
(accessed 25 March 2005). Moscow (ID): University of Idaho, College of
Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery.

Cronquist, A. et al. 1994. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the
Intermountain West, U.S.A., Volume Five: Asterales. The New York
Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York. Pages: 146-160.

Flora of North America Editorial Committee. 2006. Flora of North America
North of Mexico. Volume 19: Magnoliophyta: Asteridae, part 6:
Asteraceae, part 1. Oxford University Press, New York, New York. Pages:
503-518.

Francis, John K. ed. 2004. Wildland shrubs of the United States and its
Territories: thamnic descriptions: volume 1. Gen. Tech. Rep.
IITF-GTR-26. San Juan, PR: USDA, Forest Service, International Institute
of Tropical Forestry, and Fort Collins, CO: USDA, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station. 830 p.

Hickman, J.C., ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: higher plants of California.
Berkeley: University of California Press. 1400 p.

Jensen, K. H. Horton, R. Reed, R. Whitesides and USDA-ARS-FRRL. 2001.
Intermountain planting guide. Utah State University. AG 510.

Luna, T., J. Evans and D. Wick. 2004. Propagation protocol for
production of container *Artemisia tridentata*; Glacier National Park.
In: Native Plant Network. URL:
[http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org](http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org/)
(accessed 25 March 2005). Moscow (ID): University of Idaho, College of
Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery.

Lysne, C.R. and M. Pellant. 2004. Establishment of aerially seeded big
sagebrush following southern Idaho wildfires. USDI, BLM. Technical
Bulletin no. 2004-01.

Mahalovich, M.F. and E.D. McArthur. 2004. Sagebrush (*Artemisia* spp.)
Seed and Plant Transfer Guidelines. Native Plants. Fall 2004: 141-148.

McArthur, E.D. 2005. Sagebrush, common and uncommon, palatable and
unpalatable. Rangelands. 27(4): 47-51.

#####  {#section-1 .Header-3}

##### McArthur, E.D. and S.C. Sanderson. 1999. Cytogeography and chromosome evolution of subgenus *Tridentatae* of *Artemisia*. American Journal of Botany 86: 1754-1775. {#mcarthur-e.d.-and-s.c.-sanderson.-1999.-cytogeography-and-chromosome-evolution-of-subgenus-tridentatae-of-artemisia.-american-journal-of-botany-86-1754-1775. .Header-3}

#####  {#section-2 .Header-3}

##### McArthur, E.D. and R. Stevens. 2004. Composite shrubs. In: S.B. Monsen, R. Stevens, and N.L. Shaw \[compilers\]. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. Fort Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-136-vol-2. p. 493-537. {#mcarthur-e.d.-and-r.-stevens.-2004.-composite-shrubs.-in-s.b.-monsen-r.-stevens-and-n.l.-shaw-compilers.-restoring-western-ranges-and-wildlands.-fort-collins-co-usda-forest-service-rocky-mountain-research-station.-general-technical-report-rmrs-gtr-136-vol-2.-p.-493-537. .Header-3}

Ogle, D.G., L. St. John, M. Stannard and L. Holzworth. 2003. Technical
Note 24: Grass, grass-like, forb, legume, and woody species for the
intermountain west. USDA-NRCS, Boise, ID. ID-TN 24. 41p.

Peterson, J.G.1995. Sagebrush: ecological implications of sagebrush
manipulation. Wildlife Management Division, Montana Fish, Wildlife and
Parks. 50p.

Rosentreter, R. and R.G. Kelsey. 1991. Xeric big sagebrush, a new
subspecies in the *Artemisia* *tridentata* complex. Journal of Range
Management 44(4): 330-335.

Schultz, B. and K. McAdoo. 2002. Common sagebrush in Nevada. University
of Nevada, Reno. Special Publication SP-02-02. 9p.

Stevens, R. K.R. Jorgensen, S.A. Young and S.B. Monsen. 1996. Forb and
shrub seed production guide for Utah. Utah State University Extension.
51p.

USDA, NRCS. 2004. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5
[(http://plants.usda.gov)](http://plants.usda.gov/). [National Plant
Data Center](http://npdc.usda.gov/npdc/index.html) (accessed 28 March,
2005), Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

Van Dersal, W.R. 1938. Native Woody Plants of the United States: Their
Erosion-Control and Wildlife Values. USDA Miscellaneous Publication No.
303.

Wambolt, C.L. 1996. Mule deer and elk foraging preference for 4
sagebrush taxa. Journal of Range Management 49(6): 499-503.

Welch, B.L. 2005. Big sagebrush: a sea fragmented into lakes, ponds, and
puddles. General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-144. USDA, Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station. Fort Collins, CO. 210 p.

Welch, B.L., S.F. Briggs and J.H. Johansen. 1996. Big sagebrush seed
storage. Res. Note INT-RN-430. Ogden, UT: US Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 3p.

Welch, B.L. and C. Criddle. 2003. Countering Misinformation Concerning
Big Sagebrush. Research Paper RMRS-RP-40. Ogden, UT: US Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 28 p.

Welch, B.L., E. D. McArthur, D.L. Nelson, J.C. Pederson and J.N. Davis.
1986. \'Hobble Creek\'- a superior selection of low elevation mountain
big sagebrush. Research Paper INT-370. USDA, Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, UT.

Welch, B.L., Nelson, E.E., Young, S.A., Sands, A.R., Wagstaff, F.J., and
D.L. Nelson. 1992. \'Gordon Creek\'- a superior, tested germplasm of
Wyoming big sagebrush. Research Paper INT-461. USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, UT.

Welch, B.L. and F.J. Wagstaff. 'Hobble Creek' big sagebrush vs. antelope
bitterbrush as a winter forage. Journal of Range Management. 45(2):
140-142.

Welsh, S. L., N. D. Atwood, S. Goodrich and L. C. Higgins. 1993. *A Utah
Flora*. Brigham Young University Press, Provo, Utah.

Winward, A.H. 2004. Sagebrush of Colorado: taxonomy, distribution,
ecology and management. Colorado Division of Wildlife. Denver, CO. 46 p.

Winward, A.H. and E.D. McArthur. 1995. Lahontan sagebrush (*Artemisia
arbuscula* ssp. *longicaulis*): a new taxon. Great Basin Naturalist
55(2): 151-157.

#####  {#section-3 .Header-3}

##### Prepared By:  {#prepared-by .Header-3}

*Derek J. Tilley*, Range Conservationist, USDA NRCS Plant Materials
Center, Aberdeen, Idaho

*Dan Ogle*, Plant Materials Specialist, USDA NRCS Idaho State Office,
Boise, Idaho

*Loren St. John*, Manager, USDA NRCS Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen,
Idaho

*Brock Benson*, Area Range Conservationist, USDA NRCS, Ogden, Utah

**Acknowledgements:**

The authors would like to thank the following people for reviewing this
manuscript and providing their thoughtful input:

*Stephen C. Bunting*, Professor of Rangeland Ecology, University of
Idaho. Moscow, Idaho.

*Jim Cornwell,* State Range Conservationist, USDA NRCS, Idaho State
Office, Boise, Idaho

*Dave Franzen*, Intermountain Rangeland Consultants, LLC. Wilder, Idaho

*Jacy Gibbs*, Intermountain Rangeland Consultants, LLC. Wilder, Idaho

*E. Durant McArthur*, Project Leader, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Rocky
Mountain Research Station. USDA Forest Service. Provo, Utah

*Carl L. Wambolt*, Professor of Range Science, Montana State University.
Bozeman, Montana.

*Bruce L. Welch*, Plant Physiologist, Rocky Mountain Research Station.
USDA Forest Service. Provo, Utah. (Retired)

##### Species Coordinator:  {#species-coordinator .Header-3}

*Dan Ogle*, Plant Materials Specialist, USDA NRCS Idaho State Office,
Boise, Idaho

##### Edited: dgo010406; lsj052005; edm060105; scb060105; df061805; jg061805; blw070105; clw071505; djt122105; 061214 jsp; 081008 jsp {#edited-dgo010406-lsj052005-edm060105-scb060105-df061805-jg061805-blw070105-clw071505-djt122105-061214-jsp-081008-jsp .Header-4}

For more information about this and other plants, please contact your
local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the PLANTS
Web site\<[http://plants.usda.gov](http://plants.usda.gov/)\> or the
Plant Materials Program Web site
\<[http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov](http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov/)\>

*The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in
all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national
origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status,
familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic
information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or a part of an
individual\'s income is derived from any public assistance program. (Not
all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program information
(Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA\'s TARGET
Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD).*

*To file a complaint of discrimination write to USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, D.C.
20250-9410 or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA
is an equal opportunity provider and employer.\"*

*Read about [Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Conservation
Service](http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/about/civilrights/).*

+--------+-----------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+--------+
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| subsp  |           |        |           |       |        |        |
| ecies. |           |        |           |       |        |        |
+--------+-----------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+--------+
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| ight** | (13)      | 3'     |           | 6'    | 5'     | basin  |
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|        |           | above  |           | above | above  |        |
|        |           | ground |           | g     | ground |        |
|        |           |        |           | round |        |        |
+--------+-----------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+--------+
| **Eve  | Narrowly  | ![]    | Cuneate,  |       | Cu     | See    |
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| tems** | than wide | 666666 | Wyoming   |       | p      |        |
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|        |           | ca. 3X |           |       |        |        |
|        |           | longer |           |       |        |        |
|        |           | than   |           |       |        |        |
|        |           | wide   |           |       |        |        |
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+--------+-----------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+--------+
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| *Eleva |           | -2200m |           | 1500m | 3000+m |        |
| tional |           |        |           |       |        |        |
| r      |           |        |           |       |        |        |
| ange** |           |        |           |       |        |        |
+--------+-----------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+--------+
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|        | deep &    | silt   | loam;     | or    |        | d      |
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|        | (36"+)    | often  | gravelly  | anite |        |        |
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|        |           | s      |           | 22")  |        |        |
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|        |           | po     |           |       |        |        |
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| chemi  | alkaline, | mildly | alkaline, |       |        |        |
| stry** | n         | al     | n         |       |        |        |
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|        | and       |        | and       |       |        |        |
|        | non-c     |        | non-c     |       |        |        |
|        | alcareous |        | alcareous |       |        |        |
+--------+-----------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+--------+
| **P    | 8 to 16"+ | 8 to   | 14"+      | 12 to | 30"+   |        |
| recipi |           | 12"    |           | 16"   |        |        |
| tation |           |        |           |       |        |        |
| r      |           |        |           |       |        |        |
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+--------+-----------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+--------+
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|        |           |        |           | crops |        |        |
+--------+-----------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+--------+