## Session No. 3

**Session Title: Networks and Communications Systems**

**Time:** Three Hours

**Objectives:**

> At the conclusion of this session, students should be able to:
>
> 3.1 Explain the concept "networks" and how it affects the emergency
> management process.
>
> 3.2 Identify communication systems that may be used in emergency
> management.

3.3 Define and provide an example of a local area network (LAN).

3.4 Identify several trends in technology that will affect networks.

> 3.5 Identify critical problem areas in implementing technology in
> emergency management.
>
> 3.6 Clarify concerns that the emergency manager may have in
> integrating technology within and between organizations.
>
> 3.7 Explain how the application of technology in communications or
> information management enhances the "synergy" of emergency operations.

**Scope:** This session provides an introduction to communication and
network technologies and their applications to emergency management. A
comparison between wireline and wireless networks will be explored. The
session will examine emerging communication technologies.

**Readings:**

**Instructor**

National Research Council. Computer Science and Telecommunications
Board. *The Unpredictable Certainty: Information Infrastructure through
2000.* Chapter 4 (pp. 115-155) and Chapter 5 (pp. 161-177). Obtain a
copy of these chapters from:
[http://www.nap.edu/readigroom/]{.underline}.

Nellist, John G*., Understanding Telecommunications and Lightwave
Systems: An Entry Level Guide*, Second Edition, New York: The Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., 1996.

**Student**

Alter, Steven. *Information Systems: A Management Perspective.* Menlo
Park, CA: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company: 1996. Pp. 217 -- 220
and 457 -- 492.

National Research Council. Computer Science and Telecommunications
Board. *The Unpredictable Certainty: Information Infrastructure through
2000.* Chapter 4 (pp. 115-155) and Chapter 5 (pp. 161-177). Obtain a
copy of these chapters from:
[http://www.nap.edu/readigroom/]{.underline}.

> **References**

Bates Regis J., Jr. *Disaster Recovery Planing: Networks,
Telecommunications, and Data Communications.* New York: McGraw-Hill,
Inc., 1992.

Bedeian, Arthur G. *Management*. Chicago: Dryden Press, 1994.

Coile, Russell C. "The Role of Amateur Radio in Providing Emergency
Electronic Communication for Disaster Management." Disaster Prevention
and Management; 06:3, 1997; pp. 176-185.

National Research Council, Computer Science and Telecommunications
Board. Steering Committee, Workshop Series on High Performance Computing
and Communications. "Application Needs for Computing and
Communications," *Computing and Communications is the Extreme: Research
for Crisis Management and Other Applications.* Washington, D.C.:
National Academy Press, 1996.

Grinberg, Arkady*, Seamless Networks*, New York: McGraw Hill, 1997.

Grinberg, Arkady, *Computer/Telecom Integration*, New York: McGraw Hill.

Kast, Fremont E. and James E. Rosenzweig. *Management: Systems and
Contingency Approach*. New York: McGraw Hill. 1985.

McCoy, Lois Clark. Satellites and Fiber Optics: Communications for the
Twenty-First Century. Santa Barbara, CA: See
<http://niusr.org/archives/tincan.html>.

NAPA. "Coping with Catastrophe: Building an Emergency Management System
to Meet People's Needs in Natural and Manmade Disasters," Washington,
DC: National Academy of Public Administration. 1993.

National Research Council. *Realizing the Information Future: The
Internet and Beyond*. "Seamless Networks and Telecommunications
Systems." Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994.

National Research Council. *Realizing the Information Future: The
Internet and Beyond,* "Visions of the Information Future: What Might It
Be?" Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994.

Nellist, John G*., Understanding Telecommunications and Lightwave
Systems: An Entry Level Guide*, Second Edition, The Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., 1996, New York.

Pecar, O'Conor, Garbin. The McGraw Hill *Telecommunications Factbook*,
New York: McGraw Hill.

Wood, Mark. *Disaster Communications.* South Daytona: APCO Institute,
Inc. 1996.

**Remarks:**

3.1 Networks: How Do They Fit into the Emergency Management System?

Networks provide a basis for communication between members of the
emergency management community. They are part of the infrastructure and
thus are used by emergency managers in achieving program goals. The
communications infrastructure is part of each function of emergency
management from planning to recovery.

### 

### Question for the Class: What is a network? Identify examples of telecommunication networks used by emergency management organizations. See Alter 1996, pp. 458 -- 491, for an excellent description of the elements of wire line and wireless telecommunications systems.

> *A* network *is a collection of elements necessary to provide
> telecommunications services. These elements vary depending on the type
> and size of networks but generally include switches, transmission
> equipment, operations systems, adjuncts, and databases. Access is the
> ability to connect to networks, to receive services from networks.
> When a user wants to be served, the user indicates this desire to a
> network and receives an indication that this service can be provided.
> Access occurs over an access transmission line or "local loop." If the
> local loop is a wire of any type (copper, fiber), the network access
> is wire line. If a local loop consists of radio transmission
> equipment, the local loop is wireless.*
>
> **Question for the Class:** How does the network and communications
> system affect the emergency management process?

-   *Networking allows increases in production (access to information
    and methods for communication of work products to other staff).*

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-   *Networking enhances interoffice communication between staff.*

-   *Networking provides a means of communication with external members
    of the emergency management community who are linked to emergency
    management by a wide area network.*

-   *Networking provides a basis for communicating with the public.*

-   *Networking provides management with a means of monitoring databases
    and critical information.*

A network connects together geographically distributed users by means of
links and switches as well as control software (i.e., sets of rules that
govern the way messages travel among users). A digital communications
network communicates information between users in fractions of a second
using digital transmission technology.

One of the more significant recent developments in communications is
*fiber-optics* technology. The technology allows a greater number of
connections in a more efficient manner. A second significant development
is the design of very fast digital switches (i.e., very large-scale
integrated circuit chips). These, in turn, allow the transmission of
large databases across our networks. We thus have more connections
transmitting more information efficiently.

***Types of Networks***

Whether the network is local or wide area, satellite, landline, or
undersea, fiber, copper, or wireless, it provides connectivity among the
community of users and host computers.

Today several important networks are being used by emergency management.
The *telephone network* is the most mature component of our
communications infrastructure, and the service it currently provides is
stable and well understood. A more recent network is the infrastructure
for dissemination of *television and radio* programming, which started
with the broadcast networks and has more recently spawned the cable TV
industry. The providers of both the telephone network and the cable TV
networks have substantial plans to evolve both the technology of the
infrastructure and the range of services provided over those networks.

The Internet is emblematic of a newer and different kind of network. The
purpose of the *Internet* is to provide a very general communication
infrastructure targeted not to one application, such as telephone or
delivery of TV, but rather to a wide range of computer-based services,
such as electronic mail (e-mail), information retrieval, and
teleconferencing.

**Wire line networks** serve users through a series of network elements
and lines interconnecting them. A user is connected to a network via a
hard wire over which all necessary communications between the user and
the network take place. The number of services and their complexity grew
over time, requiring networks to adapt to these new services through
technological innovations. Services such a call forwarding call waiting
require sophisticated switches to support the user's needs. With the
computerization of switches and digitization of transmission switches,
switches became faster and smarter. Computers now control the
sophisticated services such as call forwarding. A limitation of this
type of process is that it is very expensive to design new switches for
services and program the switches. Wire line networks have the following
characteristics:

-   Used for telephone or fax machines

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-   Limited interference with electromagnet waves traveling over wires.
    High costs of labor for installation and maintenance

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-   Inflexible (not movable)

> **Question for the Class:** Alter 1996 (pp. 217-220) identifies
> several communication systems that may be used in emergency management
> including teleconferencing (audio-conferencing and
> computer-conferencing), electronic mail, and fax. Alter suggests that
> these communications systems present the following issues to the
> organization.

-   Danger of misinterpretation

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-   Power of relationships

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-   Privacy and confidentiality

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-   Electronic junk mail

#### Information overload

1\. How can the emergency manager address these issues?

> 2\. Technology and the use of these electronic communications tools
> facilitate integration of organizations. Do members of the class
> believe that the technology and the integration of the organization
> are worth the costs noted above?
>
> 3\. What do students consider to be the strengths and weaknesses of
> the wire line system?

**Wireless networks** are cellular networks. That is, they operate on a
frequency of about 800 MHz. A new form of wireless communications is in
service in the United States. The current wireless environment, PCS
(Personal Communications Services), can be characterized as being based
on the modern switching and transmission techniques, migrating toward
intelligent networks, increasing in competition, and being an unstable
state of affairs in the wireless industry. Wireless technology has the
following characteristics:

-   Uses radio technology to establish contact with a network

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-   Supports mobile users

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-   Quicker

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-   Simpler installations and maintenance

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-   Must deal with greater interference than hard wires.

> **Question for the Class:** What do you consider to be the strengths
> and weaknesses of the wireless network system? *(Supports mobile
> users; quicker; simpler installations and maintenance; must deal with
> hard wires.)*

### 3.2 Communication Systems

### 

### *The Telephone System*

The telephone system is evolving from an analog network to a broadband,
integrated services digital network where the simultaneous transmission
of voice, data and video will be possible. New digital switching
machines, digital microwave systems and digital light wave systems can
all handle digitized voice and data.

*Analog transmission services* use continuous waves or signals (such as
the human voice) for which conventional telephone lines are designed.

***Digital Transmission Services***

The description of the binary (off/on) output of computer or terminal.
Modems convert the digital signals into analog waves for transmission
over conventional analog telephone lines.

***Microwave Radio Services***

Microwave radio has been the backbone transmission system of the long
distance telephone network in the United States and Canada for the past
35 years. Until the mid-1970s, nearly all radio systems were analog,
transmitting analog multiplexed signals originating from analog
telephone systems. Although such networks provide good voice telephone
service, they are currently less than satisfactory for data transmission
at high speed and low error rates. Digital transmission systems,
however, detect and reshape the transmitted pulses. The latest
development in microwave radio systems expands the bandwidth to match
the land-based optical fiber systems.

***Satellite Communications***

**Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO):** Geostationary satellites orbit at
an altitude of 36,000 kilometers (km) above the Equator. A geostationary
satellite maintains an orbit that allows it to maintain a fixed position
in relation to the Earth. At this height, communications through a GEO
travels at the speed of light, entailing a round trip transmission
latency of about one-half second. This means that GEO technology can
never provide fiber-like services. This is the source of the delay in
many intercontinental phone calls, impeding understanding and distorting
the personal nuances of speech.

Networks on the ground have evolved from centralized systems built
around a single mainframe computer to distributed networks of
interconnected systems. Space-based satellite networks are evolving from
centralized networks relying on a single geostationary satellite to
distributed networks of interconnected low Earth orbit satellites. In
geostationary systems, any single satellite loss or failure is
catastrophic to the system.

***Developing Systems***

**The Teledesic Network:** Using several hundred low earth orbit
satellites, a global, broadband "Internet in the sky," Teledesic will
provide access to fiber like telecommunications capability anywhere in
the world. Local service providers may extend their networks in both
scope of services and geographic reach. It is a global network.
Teledesic provides two-way, broad band connections for applications such
as voice, data, video conferencing and high performance Internet access.
Teledesic was founded in 1990 by Craig O. McCaw and William H. Gates II.
McCaw is the founder of McCaw Cellular Communications, which merged with
AT&T. Service will begin in 2002 by providing access to the network
through local companies.

**Celestri Network by Motorola** \[Description provided by Motorola\]:
The Celestri™ System is a communications network formed from an
integrated family of advanced communications satellites, ground stations
and terrestrial equipment that will be capable of providing a broad
range of multimedia, video and data services to communications carriers,
multinational corporations, and small- and medium-sized business, as
well as telecommuters and other consumers throughout the world.

Once completed and operational, the Celestri System will combine
geosynchronous (GEO) high-earth orbit satellites and low-earth orbit
(LEO) satellites with earth-based control equipment and interfaces. The
GEO satellites, commonly known for providing broadcast services such as
television, are fixed in a high altitude (22,300 miles). A constellation
of 63 LEO satellites, orbiting at 900 miles above the earth, would
provide telecommunications carriers, businesses and consumer customers
instant access to a broadband network infrastructure and true
bandwidth-on-demand. Additional LEO satellite capabilities would be
integrated with the Celestri System to provide interactive
communications to include high-speed, large-volume data trunking and
backhaul services.

By networking LEO satellites with GEO satellites, the Celestri System
would provide regional broadcast capabilities with real-time
interactivity. Earth-based control equipment would include
terrestrial-based network interfaces to telecommunications
infrastructures, the Internet, corporate and personal networks,
entertainment networks and residences. This equipment will seamlessly
interface to existing computers, television, high-definition television
(HDTV), and local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WAS). By
uniquely combining high capacity, high-speed networking with on-demand
multimedia applications and real-time interactivity, the Celestri System
could provide the most effective communication channel to each
application at the lowest user price. For more information on Celestri
see: <http://www.mot.com/gss/sstg/projects/celestri>.

**3.3 Local Area Network (LAN)**

A LAN is a type of communication network that is usually owned and
operated by the business customer. A LAN enables many independent
peripheral devices, such as terminals, to be linked to a network through
which they can share expensive central processing units. These devices
communicate over distances of up to 2 km, for example, within an office
building.

Local networks can be categorized according to their transmission
bandwidth, either baseband or broadband. In baseband LANs, the entire
bandwidth is used to transmit a single digital signal. In broadband
networks, the capacity of the cable is divided into many channels, which
can transmit higher speed signals. In the past, broadband networks have
typically operated over coaxial cables.

One of the most popular LANs in use today is Ethernet. Developed by
Xerox, it operates at 10 Mb/s over coaxial cable. Unshielded twisted
pair wiring is used, allowing an unlimited number of devices to be
connected (in reality up to 200).

An emergency manager may be interested in connecting a computer to an
office network. Fiber optic cables will initially cost more than coaxial
cable; however, the fiber optic cable allows faster communication and in
the long run may be more cost effective.

> **Question for the Class:** What advantages could an emergency manager
> gain by connecting to a city's network?
>
> *Greater access to agency data sets and sharing resources such as
> printers, plotters, scanners, and storage devices.*

**3.4 Trends in Technology Affecting Networks**

**Remote access to information:** Critical information is now more
available to emergency managers as a result of our expanding networks.
For example, the U.S. Geological Survey has installed a system of stream
monitoring gages to provide timely information on water levels in
streams and rivers. These sensors are installed in the streams and
rivers and send available information over networks to the emergency
manager in a remote location. More widespread use of sensors by means of
a phone or Internet network may be used to generate valuable input in a
crisis.

**Information overload:** With the increasing attention to technology,
we may inadvertently cause information overload. If a communication
system is highly centralized, even a limited emergency can result in
communication bottlenecks. Sub-networks may need to be created to divert
communication from the operations center. By examining elements of the
emergency management system, emergency managers can design a plan for
distributing computing capability. Who needs to communicate directly and
frequently with whom?

**Data integration:** Many organizations have been struggling to cope
with increasing demands for timely and accurate data to support
continuous decision making. As a result, large centralized systems have
been adapted to more distributed databases. Maintaining linkages and
integration of the data is critical in times of crisis. In the future,
data will include more databases (relational), but also digital
libraries and multimedia databases maintained in a distributed
environment. Documentation on the source of data and on data types will
be critical to ensuring that information is used for its intended
purpose. What barriers hinder agency data integration efforts?

**Real time response data:** In a disaster, complex computing may not be
possible for those directly involved in the response. As in other
disaster management situations, a rear support team can be organized to
carry out high performance modeling and analysis. Dependable networks
should be designed to allow detailed analysis to occur even during very
stressful events. Linkages between support staff and operations units
must be maintained in a secure environment.

**3.5 Critical Problems in Networks and Communications: Capabilities and
Compatibility**

*Computing and Communications in the Extreme: Research for Crisis
Management and Other Applications*, published by the Computer Science
and Telecommunications Board, outlines several problem areas that could
dramatically affect emergency management.

> **Questions for the class:** Do you agree that the following are the
> most critical problem areas in implementing technology in emergency
> management? Explain. What steps could the emergency manager take to
> address these problems in networks and communications?

(1) System flexibility

(2) Interoperable systems

(3) Security

(4) Lack of current relevant information on technology (infrastructure
    and applications)

(5) Financial constraints

> \(6\) Collaboration with other agencies---the most critical problem
> area in implementing technology in emergency management
>
> ***System flexibility---**As responders increasingly rely on
> technology for support in decision-making and operations, networks
> will quickly become overloaded. Procedures for managing the system and
> establishing priorities must be created that do not interfere with
> ongoing operations of units of the system. Response organizations
> should participate in exercises that overextend their communication
> capacity, forcing the system to adjust.*
>
> ***Interoperable systems---**Most industry efforts are targeted to the
> commercial market and focused on providing a communications
> infrastructure whose underlying organization is static (placement of
> routers and sites as hosts). Current systems are designed to carry
> anticipated loads and provide security. However, communication
> patterns in times of crisis may be unpredictable. It may be impossible
> to establish and maintain a static routing structure, since the host
> and units are inherently unstable. A "self-organizing" system may need
> to be designed.*
>
> ***Security---**Many local officials are concerned with the security
> of their system, including concerns with volunteers.*
>
> ***Lack of current relevant information on
> technology---**(Infrastructure and Applications). Many databases are
> not updated on a regular basis. Use of computer programs often
> encourages users to assume that the computer is correct when, in fact,
> faulty assumptions lead the user to an incorrect conclusion.*

#### 

#### ***Financial constraints---**For many years, microcomputers were expensive and often beyond the reach of local governments and especially those employees who do not have a strong technology background.*

#### ***Collaboration with other agencies---**In times of crisis, agencies benefit from the assistance provided by other organizations. The interdependence of organizations must be recognized and nurtured to ensure that collaboration occurs in a disaster.*

**3.6 Using Technology to Create Synergy**

The combined and coordinated actions of the parts of the system achieve
more than the actions of all of the parts acting independently. The
systems approach also suggests, though, that if the performance of an
enterprise is a product of the interaction rather than sum of its parts,
it is entirely possible for the action of two or more parts to achieve
an effect of which either is individually incapable. The notion of the
whole being greater than the sum of its parts is called *synergy.* It
explains why the performance of a system as a whole depends more on how
its parts relate than on how well each part operates. Indeed, the
inter-dependence of the parts is such that even if each part
independently performs as efficiently as possible, the system as a whole
may not. Synergy is an important concept for managers in that it
emphasizes the need for individuals as well as departments to work
together in a cooperative fashion.

> **Question for the Class:** How does the application of technology in
> communications enhance the "synergy" of emergency management? Does the
> application of "technology" in emergency management tend to foster
> "entropy"?
>
> *Entropy is a term that originated in thermodynamics and is applicable
> to all physical systems. It is the tendency for any closed system to
> move toward a chaotic or random state in which there is no further
> potential for energy transformation or work. The disorder,
> disorganization, lack of patterning, or randomness of the organization
> of a system is known as its entropy. A closed system tends to increase
> in entropy over time, to move toward greater disorder and randomness.*

***Case Example: A New Network---FEMA Mobile Emergency Response Support
Detachment***

Disasters may cause a major disruption in the communication network.
FEMA provides an answer to the loss of communications in a disaster area
by deploying a mobile communications center. The communications provided
by this unit include restoring telephone power (up to 48 circuits or 144
shared telephone extensions), video teleconferencing and full broadcast
video, high frequency long distance radio, local radio, and integrated
radio and wire communication. In addition to the communications support,
the unit provides a wide variety of generators, heating and air
conditioning units, water purification units, and tractor-trailer
support units.

> **Question for the Class:** Using Motorola's LEO satellites with GEO
> satellites, the Celestri™ System will provide regional broadcast
> capabilities with real-time interaction. Earth-based control equipment
> would include terrestrial-based network interfaces to
> telecommunications infrastructures, the Internet, corporate and
> personal networks, entertainment networks and residences. This
> equipment will seamlessly interface existing computers, television,
> high-definition television (HDTV), and the high-capacity, high-speed
> networking of local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs)
> with on-demand multimedia applications and real-time interactivity.
> Check out the system: <http://www.mot.com/gss/sstg/projects/celestri>.
>
> Explain how you see that this system will influence the emergency
> management community.

Class Activity

Divide the class into groups of three members each and ask the groups to
make a list of agencies that should collaborate in a local emergency. By
what means do these agencies currently communicate in a disaster? How
could their communication be enhanced by the use of networks and
emerging communication technology?