Number range CHAPTER

Importation of Fresh Pepper Fruit with Stems (*Capsicum annuum* L., *C.
frutescens* L., *C. baccatum* L., *C. pubescens* Ruiz & Pav., and *C.
chinense* Jacq.) from Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and
Nicaragua into the United States

**A Qualitative, Pathway-Initiated Risk Assessment**

**27 October 2004**

United States Department of Agriculture

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Plant Protection and Quarantine

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

1730 Varsity Dr. Suite 300

Raleigh, NC 27606

# Executive Summary

The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the United
States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prepared this qualitative pest
risk assessment to examine plant pest risks associated with the
importation of fresh pepper fruit with stems, specifically the
domesticated species *C. annuum* L., *C. frutescens* L., *C. baccatum*
L., *C. pubescens* Ruiz & Pav., and *C. chinense* Jacq., from Costa
Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua into the United
States.

A list of pests that attack peppers and were present in one or more of
the exporting countries was developed by searching scientific
literature, previous APHIS commodity risk assessments for peppers, U.S.
port interception records, and information provided by the exporting
countries. Two hundred and twenty nine pests were identified in this
document, and 71 of them were determined to be quarantine pests of the
United States. Twelve of the 71 quarantine pests were deemed likely to
follow the pathway, which is any means that allows the entry and spread
of a pest. The twelve pests deemed likely to follow the pathway and
analyzed in this document include two fruit flies (Diptera:
Tephritidae), *Anastrepha ludens* and *Ceratitis capitata*, one weevil
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae), *Faustinus ovatipennis*, one leaf mining
fly (Diptera: Agromyzidae), *Liriomyza huidobrensis*, one snout moth
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), *Neoleucinodes elegantalis*, one fungus moth
(Lepidoptera: Tineidae), *Opogona sacchari*, two mealybugs (Hemiptera:
Pseudococcidae), *Phenacoccus parvus* and *Planococcus minor*, one
thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), *Thrips palmi*, one rust fungus
(Uredinales: Pucciniaceae), *Puccinia pampeana*, one comovirus
(Comoviridae), Andean potato mottle virus and one geminivirus
(Geminiviridae), Tomato yellow mosaic virus.

All of the organisms analyzed in this document pose phytosanitary risks
to American agriculture and/or ecosystems. Pest Risk Potentials, which
are summations of the Consequences of Introduction and Likelihood of
Introduction values, were estimated as High for *Anastrepha ludens*,
*Ceratitis capitata*, *Liriomyza huidobrensis*, *Neoluecinodes
elegantalis*, *Opogona sacchari*, *Phenacoccus parvus*, *Planococcus
minor*, *Thrips palmi* and *Puccinia pampeana*. *Thrips palmi* is
established in the United States and is not under official control, thus
the Pest Risk Potential has been down rated from a High to a Medium in
this document. The remaining pests, *Faustinus ovatipennis*, Andean
potato mottle virus and Tomato yellow mosaic virus were assigned Medium
Pest Risk Potentials. Consequences of Introduction values were estimated
by assessing the climate/host interaction, the host range, the dispersal
potential, the economic impact, and the environmental impact of each
pest. Likelihood of Introduction values were estimated by considering
the quantity of commodity that would be imported annually and the
potential for pest introduction and establishment. Details of the
methods and criteria used to analyze these pests can be found in
*Guidelines for Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessment, version 5.02*
(USDA 2000).

Specific phytosanitary measures may be necessary for pests with Medium
Pest Risk Potentials and are strongly recommended for those with High
Pest Risk Potentials. The choice of appropriate measures to mitigate
risk is part of Risk Management and is not addressed in this document.

# Table of Contents

[Executive Summary 2](#executive-summary)

[Table of Contents 2](#table-of-contents)

[Index of Tables 3](#index-of-tables)

[I. Introduction 4](#i.-introduction)

[II. Risk Assessment 4](#ii.-risk-assessment)

[A. Initiating Event: Proposed Action
4](#a.-initiating-event-proposed-action)

[B. Assessment of the Weed Potential of Peppers, *Capsicum* spp.
5](#b.-assessment-of-the-weed-potential-of-peppers-capsicum-spp.)

[C. Previous Risk Assessments, Current Status and Pest Interceptions
10](#c.-previous-risk-assessments-current-status-and-pest-interceptions)

[D. Pest Categorization 11](#d.-pest-categorization)

[E. Analysis of Quarantine Pests 43](#e.-analysis-of-quarantine-pests)

[Consequences of Introduction---Economic/Environmental Importance
44](#consequences-of-introductioneconomicenvironmental-importance)

[Likelihood of Introduction---Quantity Imported and Pest Opportunity
60](#likelihood-of-introductionquantity-imported-and-pest-opportunity)

[F. Conclusion: Pest Risk Potential
66](#f.-conclusion-pest-risk-potential)

[Appendix 1. Pest interceptions on *Capsicum* spp. from Costa Rica, El
Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua at U.S. ports of entry
between January 1, 1985 and September, 10, 2003.
68](#appendix-1.-pest-interceptions-on-capsicum-spp.-from-costa-rica-el-salvador-guatemala-honduras-and-nicaragua-at-u.s.-ports-of-entry-between-january-1-1985-and-september-10-2003.)

[Appendix II. Weed Evaluations for *Capsicum annuum* L., *C. baccatum*
L., *C. chinense* Jacq., *C. frutescens* L. and *C. pubescens* Ruiz &
Pav.
72](#appendix-ii.-weed-evaluations-for-capsicum-annuum-l.-c.-baccatum-l.-c.-chinense-jacq.-c.-frutescens-l.-and-c.-pubescens-ruiz-pav.)

[III. Authors and Reviewers 81](#iii.-authors-and-reviewers)

[Literature Cited 81](#literature-cited)

# 

# Index of Tables

[Table 1. Assessment of the Weed Potential of *Capsicum annuum* L., *C.
baccatum* L., *C. chinense* Jacq., *C. frutescens* L., and *C.
pubescens* Ruiz & Pav. (Solanaceae). 5](#__RefHeading___Toc66599111)

[Table 2. Pests reported on peppers (*Capsicum* spp.) and reported as
present in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and/or
Nicaragua. 12](#__RefHeading___Toc66599112)

[Table 3. Quarantine pests selected for further analysis.
42](#__RefHeading___Toc66599113)

[Table 4. Risk Rating for Consequences of Introduction.
60](#__RefHeading___Toc66599114)

[Table 5. Estimated volume of *Capsicum* fruit to be exported to the
U.S. for consumption. 62](#__RefHeading___Toc66599115)

[Table 6. Summary of the ratings for the quantity imported annually, the
pest opportunity, and the value for the Likelihood of Introduction.
65](#__RefHeading___Toc66599116)

[Table 7. Pest Risk Potential. 66](#__RefHeading___Toc66599117)

# I. Introduction

The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the United
States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prepared this pest risk
assessment to examine plant pest risks associated with the importation
of fresh pepper fruit with stems (*Capsicum* spp., specifically the
domesticated species *C. annuum* L., *C. frutescens* L., *C. baccatum*
L., *C. pubescens* Ruiz & Pav., and *C. chinense* Jacq.) from Costa
Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua into the United
States. This is a qualitative risk assessment, where estimates of risk
are expressed by the terms "high", "medium" or "low", rather than
probabilities or frequencies. Details of the methods and criteria used
to analyze these pests can be found in the *Guidelines for
Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessments, version 5.02* (USDA 2000).

Regional and international plant protection organizations such as the
North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO) and the
International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) administered by the
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, provide
guidance for conducting pest risk assessments. The methods used to
initiate, conduct and report plant pest risk in this assessment are
consistent with the guidelines provided by FAO and NAPPO. The use of
biological and phytosanitary terms conforms with the Definitions and
Abbreviations (Introduction Section) in *International Standards for
Phytosanitary Measures, Section 1-Import Regulations: Guidelines for
Pest Risk Analysis* (IPPC 1996), and the *Glossary of Phytosanitary
Terms* (IPPC 2001). These guidelines describe three stages of pest risk
analysis: Stage 1 (initiation), Stage 2 (risk assessment) and Stage 3
(risk management). This document satisfies the requirements of FAO
Stages 1 and 2.

Cultivated peppers are indigenous to Latin America, and most botanists
believe that *C*. *annuum* originated in Mexico, while the other four
cultivated species were developed in South America (CABI 2003; Pernezny,
Roberts et al. 2003). Two of the domesticated species, *C*. *annuum* and
*C*. *frutescens*, are grown on every continent; the three remaining
species, *C*. *baccatum*, *C*. *pubescens* and *C*. *chinense*, are
rarely found outside of South America (CABI 2003). Peppers are an
important economic crop in many parts of the world (Pernezny, Roberts et
al. 2003), and world production of fresh pepper fruit was estimated at
14 million metric tons in 1996 (CABI 2003). Asian countries produce the
majority of these peppers, but the United States and Mexico are
principal producers in the Americas (CABI 2003). Peppers are harvested
with their stems intact to prevent bacterial infection (Schooley 2003).
Stems were considered as a potential pathway for the introduction of
exotic pests in this document.

# II. Risk Assessment

## A. Initiating Event: Proposed Action {#a.-initiating-event-proposed-action .Heading2}

This commodity-based, pathway-initiated risk assessment was conducted in
response to a request by the governments of Costa Rica, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua for USDA authorization to allow
importation of fresh fruits of pepper (*Capsicum* spp.). Importation
into the United States of fresh pepper fruits with stems (*Capsicum*
spp.) that were grown in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras
and Nicaragua presents a potential pathway for the introduction of plant
pests. Title 7, Section 319, Part 56 of the U.S. Code of Federal
Regulations (7CFR §319.56) provides regulatory authority for the
importation of fruits and vegetables from foreign sources into the
United States.

## B. Assessment of the Weed Potential of Peppers, *Capsicum* spp.

The potential of the commodity to become a weed after it enters the
United States was examined in this step, and a pest-initiated risk
assessment was not conducted because the analysis did not indicate that
the commodity had significant weed potential (**Table 1**).

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc66599111 .anchor}Table 1. Assessment of the Weed
Potential of *Capsicum annuum* L., *C. baccatum* L., *C. chinense*
Jacq., *C. frutescens* L., and *C. pubescens* Ruiz & Pav. (Solanaceae).

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Table 1a. Process                                                            
  for determining the                                                          
  weed potential of                                                            
  *Capsicum annuum*                                                            
  Linnaeus                                                                     
  (Solanaceae)                                                                 
  ------------------- -------------------------------------------------------- -----
  * *                                                                           

                      Common Names: Bell pepper, sweet pepper, chili pepper,   
                      green pepper, paprika, cayenne pepper, aji, chiltepines. 

                      Synonyms: *Capsicum cordiforme* Mill (USDA-ARS 2004;     
                      USDA-NRCS 2004)                                          

                                                                                

  Phase 1:            Distribution in the USA: *Capsicum annuum* is an         
                      important commodity that is widely cultivated throughout 
                      the world including in the United States (CABI 2003).    
                      Its fruit is used as a condiment in many foods, while    
                      the plants are used decoratively in home landscapes.     

                                                                                

  Phase 2:            Invasive / Weed Status: Listing as weed                   

                                                                                

  [No]{.underline}    (Holm, Plucknett et al. 1977; Reed 1977; Gunn and        
                      Ritchie 1982; Holm, Doll et al. 1997; Swearingen 2003;   
                      Weber 2003; ISSG 2004; Skinner, Smith et al. 2004; USDA  
                      2004; WSSA 2004).                                        

  [Yes]{.underline}   Geographical Atlas of World Weeds (Holm, Pancho et al.   
                      1991).                                                   

  [Yes]{.underline}   A Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall 2002).             

  [Yes]{.underline}   Alien Plant Invaders of Natural Areas (Swearingen 2003)  

                                                                                

  Phase 3:            Summary and Conclusions:                                  

                      Although *C. annuum* has been listed as a weed and a     
                      naturalized species for some countries (Holm, Pancho et  
                      al. 1991; Randall 2002), it does not appear to be        
                      particularly invasive in either natural or agricultural  
                      systems. It is recommended that this species be          
                      considered for import following an appropriate pest risk 
                      assessment for the exporting country. However, because   
                      there is still some taxonomic uncertainty regarding its  
                      species status (Walsh and Hoot 2001) and because wild    
                      populations of *C. annuum* integrate with that of *C.    
                      frutescens* and *C. chinense (Eshbaugh 1993)*, all pest  
                      risk assessments for *C. annuum* should also include *C. 
                      frutescens* and *C. chinense*. Furthermore, because of   
                      the wide overlap of common name usage among all          
                      domesticated *Capsicum* species (Bosland 1996), the      
                      other two cultivated species (*C*. *pubescens* and *C.   
                      baccatum*) should also be included, especially if the    
                      exporting country is in South or Central America where   
                      these species are locally cultivated.                    

                                                                               * *

                      Conclusion: Proceed with the pest risk assessment.       * *
  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Table 1b. Process                                                                        
  for determining the                                                                      
  weediness potential                                                                      
  of *Capsicum                                                                             
  baccatum* L.                                                                             
  (Solanaceae)                                                                             
  ------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------- -----
  * *                                                                                       

                      Common Names: Aji; [Yellow                                           
                      Aji](http://www.chilepepperinstitute.org/Images/Ajilimonrow.JPG);    
                      [Aji                                                                 
                      limon](http://www.chilepepperinstitute.org/Images/ajilimon2.jpg);    
                      [Aji mono](http://www.chilepepperinstitute.org/Images/mono.jpg);     
                      [Aji                                                                 
                      norteno](http://www.chilepepperinstitute.org/Images/norteno.jpg);    
                      [Aji                                                                 
                      ayucllo](http://www.chilepepperinstitute.org/Images/ayucllo.jpg);    
                      Locoto.                                                              

                      Synonyms: None: (USDA-ARS 2004; USDA-NRCS 2004)                       

                                                                                            

  Phase 1:            Distribution in the USA: *Capsicum baccatum* fruits are an important 
                      commodity in South America where they are used as a condiment in     
                      many foods (Eshbaugh 1993). Although, it is not officially grown in  
                      the United States, it may occur in private gardens of Chile-pepper   
                      enthusiasts.                                                         

                                                                                            

  Phase 2:            Invasive / Weed Status: Listing as weed                               

                                                                                            

  [No]{.underline}    (Holm, Plucknett et al. 1977; Reed 1977; Gunn and Ritchie 1982;      
                      Holm, Doll et al. 1997; Swearingen 2003; Weber 2003; ISSG 2004;      
                      Skinner, Smith et al. 2004; USDA 2004; WSSA 2004).                   

  [Yes]{.underline}   Geographical Atlas of World Weeds (Holm, Pancho et al. 1991).        

  [Yes]{.underline}   A Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall 2002).                         

                                                                                            

  Phase 3:            Summary and Conclusions:                                              

                      Although *C. baccatum* has been listed as a weed in two countries    
                      (Holm, Pancho et al. 1991; Randall 2002), it does not appear to be   
                      particularly invasive. It is recommended that this species be        
                      considered for import following completion of this pest risk         
                      assessment for the exporting country. However, because of the wide   
                      overlap of common name usage among all domesticated *Capsicum*       
                      species (Bosland 1996), and because of some similarities in fruit    
                      morphologies among the five domesticated species (Eshbaugh 1993),    
                      all pest risk assessments for *C. baccatum* should also include the  
                      other four domesticated species of *Capsicum* (*C. annuum*, *C.      
                      frutescens*, *C. chinense* and *C. pubescens*).                      

                                                                                           * *

                      Conclusion: Proceed with the pest risk assessment.                   * *
  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Table 1c. Process                                                           
  for determining                                                             
  the weediness                                                               
  potential of                                                                
  *Capsicum                                                                   
  chinense* Jacq.                                                             
  (Solanaceae)                                                                
  ------------------ -------------------------------------------------------- -----
  * *                                                                          

                     Common Names: Bonnet pepper; Datil pepper; Habanero      
                     pepper; Piripiri pepper; Squash pepper; Yellow squash    
                     pepper; Rocotillo                                        

                     Synonyms: (USDA-ARS 2004; USDA-NRCS 2004)                 

                                                                               

  Phase 1:           Distribution in the USA: Native to the American tropics, 
                     *C. chinense* is a popular pepper species that is        
                     cultivated in Brazil and throughout the Caribbean        
                     (Bosland and Votava. 2000). Though not commercially      
                     grown in the United States (USDA-NASS 2003), it is grown 
                     in the private backyards of Chile-pepper enthusiasts     
                     (World Wide Web, personal observation).                  

                                                                               

  Phase 2:           Invasive / Weed Status: Listing as weed                   

                                                                               

  [No]{.underline}   (Holm, Plucknett et al. 1977; Reed 1977; Gunn and        
                     Ritchie 1982; Holm, Pancho et al. 1991; Holm, Doll et    
                     al. 1997; Randall 2002; Swearingen 2003; Weber 2003;     
                     ISSG 2004; Skinner, Smith et al. 2004; USDA 2004; WSSA   
                     2004).                                                   

                                                                               

  Phase 3:           Summary and Conclusions:                                  

                     *Capsicum chinense* has not been listed as a weed or     
                     naturalized species. It is recommended that this species 
                     be considered for import following an appropriate pest   
                     risk assessment for the exporting country. However,      
                     because there is still some taxonomic uncertainty        
                     regarding its species status (Walsh and Hoot 2001) and   
                     because wild populations of *C. chinense* integrate with 
                     that of *C. annuum* and *C. frutescens* (Eshbaugh 1993), 
                     all pest risk assessments for *C. chinense* should also  
                     include *C. annuum* and *C. frutescens*. Furthermore,    
                     because of the wide overlap of common name usage among   
                     all domesticated *Capsicum* species (Bosland 1996), the  
                     other two cultivated species (*C*. *pubescens* and *C.   
                     baccatum*) should also be included, especially if the    
                     exporting country is in South or Central America where   
                     these species are locally cultivated.                    

                                                                              * *

                     Conclusion: Proceed with the pest risk assessment.       * *
  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Table 1d. Process                                                            
  for determining the                                                          
  weediness potential                                                          
  of *Capsicum                                                                 
  frutescens*                                                                  
  Linnaeus                                                                     
  (Solanaceae)                                                                 
  ------------------- -------------------------------------------------------- -----
  * *                                                                           

                      Common Names: Bird pepper; Cayenne pepper; Chili pepper; 
                      Tabasco pepper; Aji; Chile                               

                      Synonyms: *Capsicum fastigiatum* Blume; *Capsicum        
                      annuum* L. var. *frutescens* (L.) Kuntze; *Capsicum      
                      minimum* (USDA-ARS 2004; USDA-NRCS 2004)                 

                                                                                

  Phase 1:            Distribution in the USA: *Capsicum frutescens* fruits    
                      are an important commodity that are used as a condiment  
                      in many foods and have been widely distributed and       
                      cultivated, including in the Untied States (USDA-NASS    
                      2003).                                                   

                                                                                

  Phase 2:            Invasive / Weed Status: Listing as weed                   

                                                                                

  [No]{.underline}    (Holm, Plucknett et al. 1977; Reed 1977; Gunn and        
                      Ritchie 1982; Holm, Doll et al. 1997; Swearingen 2003;   
                      Weber 2003; ISSG 2004; Skinner, Smith et al. 2004; USDA  
                      2004; WSSA 2004)..                                       

  [Yes]{.underline}   Geographical Atlas of World Weeds (Holm, Pancho et al.   
                      1991).                                                   

  [Yes]{.underline}   A Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall 2002).             

                                                                                

  Phase 3:            Summary and Conclusions:                                  

                      Although *Capsicum frutescens* has been listed as a weed 
                      and a naturalized species for about a dozen countries    
                      (Holm, Pancho et al. 1991; Randall 2002), it does not    
                      appear to be particularly invasive in either natural or  
                      agricultural systems. It is recommended that this        
                      species be considered for import following an            
                      appropriate pest risk assessment for the exporting       
                      country. However, because there is still some taxonomic  
                      uncertainty regarding its species status (Walsh and Hoot 
                      2001) and because wild populations of *C. frutescens*    
                      integrate with that of *C. annuum* and *C. chinense*     
                      (Eshbaugh 1993), all pest risk assessments for *C.       
                      frutescens* should also include *C. annuum* and *C.      
                      chinense*. Furthermore, because of the wide overlap of   
                      common name usage among all domesticated *Capsicum*      
                      species (Bosland 1996), the other two cultivated species 
                      (*C*. *pubescens* and *C. baccatum*) should also be      
                      included, especially if the exporting country is in      
                      South or Central America where these species are locally 
                      cultivated.                                              

                                                                               * *

                      Conclusion: Proceed with the pest risk assessment.       * *
  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Table 1e. Process                                                           
  for determining                                                             
  the weediness                                                               
  potential of                                                                
  *Capsicum                                                                   
  pubescens* Ruiz. &                                                          
  Pav (Solanaceae)                                                            
  ------------------ -------------------------------------------------------- -----
  * *                                                                          

                     Common Names: Apple chile; Rocoto; Lacoto; Chile         
                     caballo.                                                 

                     Synonyms: *Brachistus lanceaefolius* Miers; *Capsicum    
                     guatemalense* Bitter; *C. lanceaefolium* (Miers) Kuntze; 
                     *C. violaceum* Kunth. (USDA-ARS 2004; USDA-NRCS 2004)    

                                                                               

  Phase 1:           Distribution in the USA: *Capsicum pubescens* is native  
                     to and cultivated in South America (Bosland and Votava.  
                     2000). It is probably cultivated in U. S. private        
                     gardens by chile-pepper enthusiasts.                     

                                                                               

  Phase 2:           Invasive / Weed Status: Listing as weed                   

                                                                               

  [No]{.underline}   (Holm, Plucknett et al. 1977; Reed 1977; Gunn and        
                     Ritchie 1982; Holm, Pancho et al. 1991; Holm, Doll et    
                     al. 1997; Randall 2002; Swearingen 2003; Weber 2003;     
                     ISSG 2004; Skinner, Smith et al. 2004; USDA 2004; WSSA   
                     2004).                                                   

                                                                               

  Phase 3:           Summary and Conclusions:                                  

                     *Capsicum pubescens* is unlikely to become a problematic 
                     species in the United States. It is recommended that     
                     this species be considered for import following an       
                     appropriate pest risk assessment for the exporting       
                     country. However, because of the wide overlap of common  
                     name usage among all domesticated *Capsicum* species     
                     (Bosland 1996), and because of some similarities in      
                     fruit morphologies among the five domesticated species   
                     (Eshbaugh 1993), all pest risk assessments for *C.       
                     baccatum* should also include the other four             
                     domesticated species of *Capsicum* (*C. annuum*, *C.     
                     frutescens*, *C. chinense* and *C. pubescens*).          

                                                                              * *

                     Conclusion: Proceed with the pest risk assessment.       * *
  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

## C. Previous Risk Assessments, Current Status and Pest Interceptions

> **Previous Risk Assessments**
>
> No pest risk assessments have been completed for *Capsicum* spp. from
> Central America. Below are risk assessments completed on *Capsicum*
> spp. or other Solanaceous species from Central and South America
> (http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/pra/).
>
> 1996 -- Importation of fresh pepper fruit, *Capsicum annuum* from
> Chile into the continental United States. USDA-APHIS-PPQ, Riverdale,
> MD (contacts: Russell D. Stewart, Scott C. Redlin, and Edward V.
> Podleckis)
>
> 1996 -- Importation of *Solanum melongena* (eggplant) fruits for
> consumption from El Salvador and Nicaragua into the United States.
> USDA-APHIS-PPQ, Riverdale MD (contact: John Lightfield)
>
> **Decision History for *Capsicum* spp. from Costa Rica, El Salvador,
> Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua**

**Costa Rica**

1936 -- Approved entry of fresh *Capsicum* spp. into all ports of entry

> 1971 -- Deny entry of *Capsicum* spp. into the ports requested (New
> York ports of\
> entry)
>
> 1994 -- Deny entry of *Capsicum* spp. (no approved treatment for
> *Ceratitis capitata*)

1996 -- Deny entry of *Capsicum* spp. (no approved treatments available)

> 1997 -- Approve entry of *Capsicum* spp. from the Almeria Province
> only,\
> registered/inspect

**El Salvador**

> No decision history reports on file for El Salvador.

**Guatemala**

> 1981 -- Deny entry of fresh *Capsicum* spp. (no acceptable treatment
> available for\
> *Ceratitis capitata*)
>
> 1988 -- Deny entry of fresh *Capsicum* spp. (no acceptable treatment)

**Honduras**

> 1984 -- Deny entry of fresh *Capsicum* spp. (no approved treatment
> available for\
> *Ceratitis capitata* in peppers)

**Nicaragua**

> 1971 -- Deny entry of fresh *Capsicum* spp. (lack of effective
> treatment for *Ceratitis\
> capitata*)
>
> **Decision history for *Capsicum* spp. from neighboring countries:**
>
> **Panama**
>
> 1981 -- Deny entry of fresh *Capsicum* spp. (lack of effective
> treatment for *Ceratitis capitata*)

**Current Status**

Title 7, Section 319, Part 56 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (7
CFR §319.56) does not currently permit importation of fresh fruits of
*Capsicum* spp. from Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and
Nicaragua.

**Appendix 1** lists pest interceptions on peppers from Costa Rica, El
Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua since 1985 (PIN309 query
September 10, 2003).

## D. Pest Categorization

Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ) adheres to the accepted
international definition(s) of a quarantine pest, a pest of potential
economic importance to the area endangered thereby and not yet present
there, or present but not widely distributed and being officially
controlled (IPPC 1996; IPPC 2001). The first step in identifying
quarantine pests is to develop a comprehensive list of pests that are
associated with the parent species of the proposed export and are known
to occur in the country or region from which the commodity is to be
exported. All pests on such a list are considered to be "of potential
economic importance" because they are associated with the plant species
(IPPC 1996).

**Table 2** shows the pest list for *Capsicum* spp. from Costa Rica, El
Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. This list identifies: (1)
the geographic distribution of the pests with respect to the exporting
countries and the United States, (2) the generally affected plant part
or parts, (3) the quarantine status of each pest with respect to the
United States, (4) whether the pest is likely to follow the pathway and
enter the United States on commercially exported *Capsicum* spp. fruit,
and (5) pertinent citations for the distribution and biology of the
pest. Many of the organisms in **Table 2** were eliminated from further
consideration as sources of phytosanitary risk because they do not
satisfy the definition of a quarantine pest and/or they were unlikely to
follow the pathway.

Quarantine pests that were reasonably expected to follow the pathway,
*i.e.*, be included in commercial shipments of *Capsicum* spp. fruit,
were analyzed in detail (USDA 2000). Other plant pests in this
assessment, not chosen for further scrutiny, may be potentially
detrimental to the agricultural production systems and/or ecosystems of
the United States; however, there were a variety of reasons for not
subjecting them to further analysis. For example, they were associated
mainly with plant parts other than the commodity; they may be associated
with the commodity, but it was not considered reasonable to expect these
pests to remain with the commodity during processing; they have been
intercepted as biological contaminants of these commodities during
inspection at ports-of-entry but would not be expected to be present
with every shipment. Pest risk analyses, by necessity, must focus on
organisms for which biological information is available; therefore, none
of the pests listed at the level of genus or higher were selected for
further analyses because specific information was lacking. Lack of
specific information or identification to the specific level does not
indicate that a pest does not pose a serious phytosanitary risk to
agriculture in the United States. It may simply indicate the quality of
the specimen or the limits of current taxonomic knowledge. If pests
identified to higher taxa are intercepted in the future, a reevaluation
of th[]{#__RefHeading___Toc66599112 .anchor}eir risk may occur.

Table 2. Pests reported on peppers (*Capsicum* *annuum, C. baccatum, C.
chinense, C. frutescens, C. pubescens*) and reported as present in Costa
Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and/or Nicaragua.

+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Pest**          | **Geogr | * | **P  | **    | **Li | **Ref     |
|                   | aphic** | * | lant | Quara | kely | erences** |
|                   |         | H | Part | ntine | to   |           |
|                   | **Distr | o | Affe | P     | Fo   |           |
|                   | ibution | s | cted | est** | llow |           |
|                   | ^1^**   | t | ^    |       | P    |           |
|                   |         | ^ | 3^** |       | athw |           |
|                   |         | 2 |      |       | ay** |           |
|                   |         | ^ |      |       |      |           |
|                   |         | * |      |       |      |           |
|                   |         | * |      |       |      |           |
+===================+=========+===+======+=======+======+===========+
| **ARTHROPODS**    |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **ACARI**         |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Eriophyidae**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Aculops          | EL, US  | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Armine   |
| lycopersici*      |         | , | I, L |       |      | and       |
| (Tryon)           |         | F |      |       |      | Stansy    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1994;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Baker,    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Kono et   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 1996; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Tarsonemidae**  |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Phytonemus       | CR, US  | A | I, L | No    | No   | (C        |
| pallidus* (Banks) |         | , |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         | S |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Po               | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Jeppson, |
| lyphagotarsonemus | HO, NI, | , | I,   |       |      | Keifer et |
| latus* Banks      | US      | F | L, S |       |      | al. 1975; |
|                   |         | , |      |       |      | C         |
|                   |         | S |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Tetranychidae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Tetranychus      | CR, US  | S | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Jeppson, |
| cinnabarinus*     |         |   | L, S |       |      | Keifer et |
| (Boisduval)       |         |   |      |       |      | al. 1975; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Tetranychus      | CR, EL, | S | L    | No    | No   | (Jeppson, |
| ludeni* Zacher    | HO, NI, |   |      |       |      | Keifer et |
|                   | US      |   |      |       |      | al. 1975; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Bolland,  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Gutierrex |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1998;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Tetranychus      | CR, HO, | A | L    | No    | No   | (Jeppson, |
| marianae*         | NI, US  |   |      |       |      | Keifer et |
| McGregor          |         |   |      |       |      | al. 1975; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Cole and  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Jackman   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1997;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Bolland,  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Gutierrex |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1998;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Tetranychus      | CR, HO, | A | L    | No    | No   | (Jeppson, |
| neocaledonicus*   | US      |   |      |       |      | Keifer et |
| André             |         |   |      |       |      | al. 1975; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Bolland,  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Gutierrex |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1998;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Tetranychus      | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Jeppson, |
| urticae* Koch     | GU, HO, | , | L, S |       |      | Keifer et |
|                   | US      | S |      |       |      | al. 1975; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Bolland,  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Gutierrex |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1998;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | C         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Tenuipalpidae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Brevipalpus      | CR, US  | S | L, S | No    | Yes  | (Jeppson, |
| obovatus*         |         |   |      |       | ^4^  | Keifer et |
| Donnadieu         |         |   |      |       |      | al. 1975; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | C         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **COLEOPTERA**    |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Anobiidae**     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Lasioderma       | GU, US  | S | L,   | No    | No   | (Padwal   |
| serricorne*       |         |   | R,   |       | ^14^ | Desai,    |
| Fabricius         |         |   | Sd   |       |      | Sharma et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 1987; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Pedersen  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1992;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Bostrichidae**  |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Rhyzopertha      | HO, NI, | F | F,   | No    | No   | (Padwal   |
| dominica*         | US      |   | Sd   |       | ^14^ | Desai,    |
| (Fabricius)       |         |   |      |       |      | Sharma et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 1987; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Chrysomelidae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Cerotoma         | EL      | A | L    | Yes   | No   | (Castillo |
| atrofaciata*      |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| Jacoby            |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Cerotoma         | CR, EL, | A | L    | Yes   | No   | (Bl       |
| ruficornis*       | EU, GU, |   |      |       |      | ackwelder |
| (Olivier)         | HO, NI  |   |      |       |      | 1944;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Hobbs     |
| (= *Andrector     |         |   |      |       |      | 1981;     |
| ruficornis*       |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
| (Olivier))        |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Diabrotica       | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | No   | (         |
| balteata* Leconte | GU, HO, |   | I,   |       | ^5^  | Granardos |
|                   | NI, US  |   | L, R |       |      | 2001;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Diabrotica* sp.  | CR, HO  | S | F,   | Yes   | No   | (         |
|                   |         |   | I,   |       | ^5^  | Granardos |
|                   |         |   | L,   |       |      | 2001;     |
|                   |         |   | R, S |       |      | C         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Diabrotica       | CR      | S | F,   | Yes   | No   | (CABI     |
| speciosa* Germar  |         |   | I,   |       | ^5^  | 2003)     |
|                   |         |   | L,   |       |      |           |
|                   |         |   | R, S |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Diabrotica       | EL, GU, | A | F,   | No    | No   | (         |
| undecimpunctata*  | NI, US  | , | I,   |       | ^5^  | Antonious |
| Mannerheim        |         | S | L,   |       |      | and Byers |
|                   |         |   | R, S |       |      | 1994;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Disonycha        | CR      | A | L, R | Yes   | No   | (Virkki,  |
| eximia* Harold    |         |   | ^7^  |       |      | Sant      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | iago-Blay |
| (= *D*.           |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
| *laevigata*       |         |   |      |       |      | 1991;     |
| (Jacoby))         |         |   |      |       |      | Bechyne   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1997;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Epitrix          | EL, HO, | A | L    | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| cucumeris*        | US      |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
| (Harris)          |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Epitrix* sp.     | CR      | S | L, R | Yes   | No   | (Borror,  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | T         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | riplehorn |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1989;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | C         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Curculionidae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Anthonomus       | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (O\'Brien |
| eugenii* Cano     | GU, HO, | , | I, L |       |      | and       |
|                   | NI, US  | B |      |       |      | Wibmer    |
|                   |         | , |      |       |      | 1982; Mau |
|                   |         | F |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         | , |      |       |      | Kessing   |
|                   |         | S |      |       |      | 1994;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | C         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Diaprepes        | CR, HO, | A | I,   | Yes   | No   | (CABI     |
| abbreviatus*      | US (FL, |   | L, R |       |      | 2003;     |
| (Linnaeus)        | MS)     |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Faustinus        | GU, HO  | S | F,   | Yes   | Yes  | (Bl       |
| ovatipennis*      |         |   | I,   |       | ^8^  | ackwelder |
| (Champion)        |         |   | L, S |       |      | 1944;     |
|                   |         |   | ^8^  |       |      | O\'Brien  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Wibmer    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1982;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | USDA      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Geraeus* sp.     | HO      | A | F    | Yes   | No   | (Caball   |
|                   |         | , |      |       | ^9^  | ero-Munoz |
|                   |         | F |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Toro      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | -Restrepo |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1994;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Nearctica |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Metamasius       | GU, US  | S | R, S | \[    | No   | (Bl       |
| callizona*        | (FL)    |   |      | Yes\] | ^10^ | ackwelder |
| (Chevrolat)       |         |   |      | ^22^  |      | 1944;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Larson    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and Frank |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2000)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Phyrdenus        | CR      | S | L, R | Yes   | No   | (Alcázar  |
| muriceus* Germar  |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Cisneros  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1999;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | C         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Rhynchophorus    | CR, EL, | S | F, S | Yes   | No   | (CABI     |
| palmarum*         | GU, HO, |   |      |       | ^11^ | 2003)     |
| (Linnaeus)        | NI, US  |   |      |       |      |           |
|                   | (CA,    |   |      |       |      |           |
|                   | TX)     |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Elateridae**    |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Aeolus           | EL, US  | A | R,   | No    | No   | (Ingers   |
| mellillus* (Say)  |         |   | Sd   |       |      | on-Mahar, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Huffaker  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1997;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Meloidae**      |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Epicauta         | HO, NI  | A | I, L | Yes   | No   | (Champion |
| carmelita* (Haag) |         | , | ^12^ |       |      | 1892;     |
|                   |         | F |      |       |      | Bl        |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | ackwelder |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1944;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1989;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes and  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Chandler  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1994;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Scarabaeidae**  |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Macrodactylus*   | CR, GU  | S | F,   | Yes   | No   | (Arce and |
| sp.               |         |   | L, R |       | ^6^  | Moron     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2000;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Arnett,   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Thomas et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2002; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | C         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Nearctica |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Phyllophaga      | CR, EL, | A | F,   | Yes   | No   | (King     |
| menetriesii*      | HO, NI  |   | L, R |       | ^6^  | 1984;     |
| (Blanchard)       |         |   |      |       |      | King      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1985;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Abarca    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Quesada   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1997;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Phyllophaga* sp. | CR, GU  | A | F,   | Yes   | No   | (C        |
|                   |         | , | L, R |       | ^6^  | hinchilla |
|                   |         | S |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Nearctica |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Tenebrionidae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Tribolium        | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| castaneum* Herbst | GU, HO, |   | Sd   |       | ^14^ | 2003)     |
|                   | NI, US  |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **DIPTERA**       |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Agromyzidae**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Liriomyza        | CR, EL, | A | F,   | Yes   | Yes  | (Poe      |
| huidobrensis*     | GU, HO, |   | I,   |       |      | 1982;     |
| (Blanchard)       | NI      |   | L, S |       |      | Spencer   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1983;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Spencer   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Steyskal  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1986;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Steck     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1999;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Scheffer  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and Lewis |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2001;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | EPPO      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Liriomyza        | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Spencer  |
| sativae*          | HO, NI, | , | I, L |       |      | 1983;     |
| Blanchard         | US      | S |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Liriomyza* sp.   | CR, HO, | S | F,   | Yes   | No   | (C        |
|                   | NI      |   | I, L |       | ^9^  | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Nearctica |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | USDA      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Liriomyza        | CR, GU, | A | F, L | No    | Yes  | (Spencer  |
| trifolii* Burgess | HO, US  |   |      |       |      | 1983;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | USDA      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Cecidomyiidae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Clinodiplosis    | CR      | S | I,   | Yes   | No   | (Gagne,   |
| capsici* Gagne    |         |   | L, S |       | ^13^ | Blanc     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | o-Metzler |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2000)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Lonchaeidae**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Neosilba certa*  | CR      | S | I    | Yes   | No   | (McAlpine |
| (Walker)          |         |   | (B   |       | ^15^ | and       |
|                   |         |   | ud), |       |      | Steyskal  |
|                   |         |   | F, S |       |      | 1982;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | C         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Neosilba         | CR, EL, | A | I    | Yes   | No   | (McAlpine |
| pendula* (Bezzi)  | GU, HO, |   | (B   |       | ^15^ | and       |
|                   | NI      |   | ud), |       |      | Steyskal  |
| (= *N*.           |         |   | F, S |       |      | 1982;     |
| *glaberrima*      |         |   |      |       |      | Hill      |
| (Wiedemann) and   |         |   |      |       |      | 1983;     |
| *Silba pendula*   |         |   |      |       |      | Silva,    |
| (Bezzi))          |         |   |      |       |      | Uramoto   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1998;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Aguiar    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | -Menezes, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Menezes   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Neosilba* sp.    | CR      | S | I    | Yes   | No   | (C        |
|                   |         |   | (B   |       | ^9,\ | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   | ud), |       |  15^ | and       |
|                   |         |   | F, S |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Muscidae**      |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Atherigona       | EL, US  | A | F,   | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| orientalis*       |         | , | L, S |       | ^16^ | 2003)     |
| Schiner           |         | F |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Tephritidae**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Anastrepha       | CR, EL, | A | F    | Yes   | Yes  | (Norrbom  |
| ludens* (Loew)    | GU, HO, | ^ |      |       |      | and Kim   |
|                   | NI, US  | 2 |      |       |      | 1988;     |
|                   | (TX)    | 7 |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         | ^ |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         | , |      |       |      | Steck     |
|                   |         | P |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Norrbom   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2004)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Anastrepha* sp.  | EL      | S | F    | Yes   | Yes  | (USDA     |
|                   |         |   |      |       | ^9^  | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Ceratitis        | CR, EL, | A | F    | Yes   | Yes  | (Avidov   |
| capitata*         | GU, HO, | , |      |       |      | and       |
| Wiedemann         | NI, US  | F |      |       |      | Harpaz    |
|                   | (HI)    |   |      |       |      | 1969;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Weems     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1981; Mau |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Martin    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1992;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | White and |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Els       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | on-Harris |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1992;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Vera,     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Rodriguez |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **HEMIPTERA**     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Aleyrodidae**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Aleurodicus      | CR, US  | S | L    | Yes   | No   | (CABI     |
| dispersus*        | (FL,    |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| Russell           | HI)     |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Aleurotrachelus  | NI, US  | A | L    | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| trachoides*       |         | , |      |       |      | 2003;     |
| (Back)            |         | S |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | USDA      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Bemisia tabaci*  | CR, EL, | A | L    | No    | No   | (C        |
| (Gennadius)       | GU, HO, |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   | NI, US  |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Bemisia tabaci*  | CR, GU, | A | L    | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| Gennadius         | HO, NI  |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| (Biotype B)       |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Trialeurodes     | CR, US  | A | L    | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| vaporariorum*     |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
| Westwood          |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Trialeurodes*    | CR      | S | L    | Yes   | No   | (C        |
| sp.               |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Aphididae**     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Aphis            | NI, US  | A | L, S | No    | No   | (Saninet  |
| craccivora* Koch  |         | , |      |       | ^17^ | 2002;     |
|                   |         | S |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Aphis gossypii*  | CR, GU, | A | L, S | No    | No   | (Blackman |
| Glover            | HO, NI, | , |      |       | ^17^ | and       |
|                   | US      | F |      |       |      | Eastop    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2000;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | C         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Aphis            | CR, EL, | A | I,   | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| spiraecola* Patch | HO, US  |   | L, S |       | ^17^ | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Aulacorthum      | CR, EL, | A | L, S | No    | No   | (Blackman |
| solani*           | GU, HO, |   |      |       | ^17^ | and       |
| Kaltenbach        | NI, US  |   |      |       |      | Eastop    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2000;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Myzus persicae*  | CR, EL, | A | L, S | No    | No   | (Blackman |
| Sulzer            | GU, HO, | , |      |       | ^17^ | and       |
|                   | US      | S |      |       |      | Eastop    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2000;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | C         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Coccidae**      |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Coccus           | CR, EL, | F | L, S | No    | Yes  | (Quezada, |
| hesperidum*       | GU, HO, | , |      |       | ^4^  | Cornejo   |
| Linnaeus          | NI, US  | S |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1972;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Parasaissetia    | CR, EL, | F | L, S | No    | Yes  | (Quezada, |
| nigra* (Nietner)  | GU, HO, | , |      |       | ^4^  | Cornejo   |
|                   | NI, US  | S |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1972;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pulvinaria       | CR, GU, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Ben-Dov  |
| psidii* Maskell   | US      | , | I,   |       |      | 1993;     |
|                   |         | F | L, S |       |      | Jansen    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1995;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pulvinaria       | NI, US  | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Ben-Dov  |
| urbicola*         |         | , | L, S |       |      | 1993;     |
| Cockerell         |         | F |      |       |      | Halbert   |
|                   |         | , |      |       |      | 1996;     |
|                   |         | S |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Saissetia        | CR, EL, | A | L, S | No    | Yes  | (Quezada, |
| coffeae* (Walker) | GU, HO, | , |      |       | ^4^  | Cornejo   |
|                   | US      | F |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         | , |      |       |      | 1972;     |
|                   |         | S |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Coreidae**      |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Anasa* sp.       | HO      | S | L    | Yes   | No   | (Puerto   |
|                   |         |   |      |       | ^9^  | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Diaspididae**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Aspidiotus       | CR, GU, | S | F,   | No    | Yes  | (CIE      |
| destructor*       | HO, NI, |   | L, S |       |      | 1966;     |
| Signoret          | US      |   |      |       |      | Beardsley |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1969;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Lepidosaphes     | CR, GU, | S | F,   | Yes   | No   | (Scalenet |
| tokionis*         | US (HI) |   | L, S |       | ^18^ | 2003)     |
| (Kuwana)          |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pinnaspis        | EL, HO, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Merrill  |
| strachani*        | US      | , | L, S |       |      | 1953;     |
| (Cooley)          |         | F |      |       |      | Dekle     |
|                   |         | , |      |       |      | 1976;     |
|                   |         | S |      |       |      | Gill      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1997;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pseudaulacaspis  | CR, HO, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| pentagona*        | US      | , | L,   |       |      | 2003;     |
| (Targioni         |         | S | S, R |       |      | Scalenet  |
| Tozzetti)         |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Unaspis citri*   | EL, HO, | S | F,   | No    | Yes  | (CIE      |
| (Comstock)        | US      |   | L, S |       |      | 1962;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | EPPO      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Membracidae**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Antianthe        | CR, GU, | S | S    | No    | No   | (Schuster |
| expansa* (Germar) | HO, NI, |   |      |       | ^20^ | 1981;     |
|                   | US      |   |      |       |      | C         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Miridae**       |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Creontiades* sp. | NI      | S | L, S | Yes   | No   | (Maes     |
|                   |         |   |      |       | ^9^  | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Halticus         | EL, NI, | S | L, S | No    | No   | (Capinera |
| bractatus* (Say)  | US      |   |      |       | ^20^ | 1999;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Ortheziidae**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Orthezia         | CR, EL, | S | I,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| insignis* Browne  | GU, HO, |   | L, S |       | ^4^  | 2003;     |
|                   | US      |   |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Orthezia         | GU, US  | S | L, S | Yes   | No   | (Beingola |
| pseudinsignis*    |         |   |      |       | ^28^ | 1969;     |
| Morrison          |         |   |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Pentatomidae**  |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Acrosternum      | CR, EL, | A | F, I | No    | No   | (R        |
| marginatum*       | GU, HO, |   |      |       | ^19^ | odriguez, |
| (Palisot de       | NI, US  |   |      |       |      | Madrinan  |
| Beauvois)         |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1985;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Hallman,  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Morales   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1992;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Schaefer  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Panizzi   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2000;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Nezara viridula* | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| (Linnaeus)        | GU, HO, |   | I,   |       | ^19^ | 2003;     |
|                   | NI, US  |   | L, S |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Piezodorus       | CR, US  | A | F,   | No    | No   | (C        |
| guildinii*        |         |   | I,   |       | ^19^ | hinchilla |
| (Westwood)        |         |   | L,   |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   | Sd   |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *                 |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| *Pseudococcidae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Dysmicoccus      | CR, EL, | S | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Ben-Dov  |
| brevipes*         | GU, HO, |   | L,   |       |      | 1994;     |
| (Cockerell)       | NI, US  |   | S, R |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Ferrisia         | CR, GU, | S | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Hill     |
| virgata*          | HO, NI, |   | L,   |       |      | 1987;     |
| (Cockerell)       | US      |   | S, P |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Geococcus        | CR, EL, | A | R    | Yes   | No   | (         |
| coffeae* Green    | GU, HO, |   |      |       |      | Hambleton |
|                   | US (FL) |   |      |       |      | 1946;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Williams  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1969;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Williams  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Granara   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | de        |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Willink   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1992;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ben-Dov   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1994;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Paracoccus       | CR, GU, | A | F,   | \[    | No   | (Williams |
| marginatus*       | US (FL, |   | I,   | Yes\] | ^29^ | and       |
| Williams and      | MT)     |   | L, S | ^22^  |      | Granara   |
| Granara de        |         |   |      |       |      | de        |
| Willink           |         |   |      |       |      | Willink   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1992;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Pollard   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1999;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI/EPPO |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2000;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Watson    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Chandler  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2000;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | EPPO      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Phenacoccus      | CR, GU, | A | L, S | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| madeirensis*      | US      |   |      |       | ^4^  | 2003;     |
| Green             |         |   |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Phenacoccus      | CR, NI, | A | L, S | \[    | Yes  | (Williams |
| parvus* Morrison  | US (FL) | , |      | Yes\] | ^4^  | and Cox   |
|                   |         | F |      | ^22^  |      | 1984;     |
|                   |         | , |      |       |      | Williams  |
|                   |         | S |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Granara   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | de        |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Willink   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1992;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ben-Dov   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1994;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Fletcher  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Planococcus      | CR, GU, | A | F,   | Yes   | Yes  | (Williams |
| minor* (Maskell)  | HO, US  | , | I,   |       |      | and Cox   |
|                   | (Virgin | F | R, S |       |      | 1984;     |
|                   | Isls.,  |   |      |       |      | Williams  |
|                   | A       |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   | merican |   |      |       |      | Granara   |
|                   | Samoa)  |   |      |       |      | de        |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Willink   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1992;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ben-Dov   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1994;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Peña,     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Sharp et  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2002; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pseudococcus     | CR, EL, | F | F,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| jackbeardsleyi*   | GU, HO, | , | L, S |       |      | 2003;     |
| Gimpel and Miller | NI, US  | S |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pseudococcus     | CR, GU, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Williams |
| longispinus*      | HO, US  |   | I,   |       |      | and       |
| Targioni Tozzetti |         |   | L, S |       |      | Granara   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | de        |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Willink   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1992;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ben-Dov   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1994;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Scalenet  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Tingidae**      |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Corythucha       | CO, HO, | S | L    | No    | No   | (Peña and |
| gossypii*         | NI, US  |   |      |       |      | Waddill   |
| (Fabricius)       |         |   |      |       |      | 1982;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Mead      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1989;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | C         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **LEPIDOPTERA**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Arctiidae**     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Estigmene        | CR, EL, | S | L    | No    | No   | (Capinera |
| acraea* Drury     | GU, HO, |   |      |       |      | 2001;     |
|                   | NI, US  |   |      |       |      | C         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **                |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| Cosmopterigidae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pyroderces       | EL, HO, | A | F    | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| rileyi*           | US      | , |      |       |      | 2003;     |
| (Walsingham)      |         | S |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Gelechiidae**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Keiferia         | CR, NI, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| lycopersicella*   | US      |   | I, L |       |      | 2003;     |
| Walsingham        |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Phthorimaea      | CR, GU, | A | L, R | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| operculella*      | NI, US  | , |      |       |      | 2003;     |
| (Zeller)          |         | S |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Symmetrischema   | HO, US  | A | I    | No    | No   | (Bennett  |
| capsica* (Bradley |         |   | (B   |       |      | 1995;     |
| and Povolny)      |         |   | uds) |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Lycaenidae**    |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Tmolus echion*   | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| (Linnaeus)        | GU, HO, |   | I, L |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   | NI, US  |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
| (= *Ministrymon   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
| echion*           |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003; |
| (Linnaeus))       |         |   |      |       |      | S         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | truttmann |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Noctuidae**     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Agrotis ipsilon* | HO, US  | A | F,   | No    | No   | (Zhang    |
| (Hufnagel)        |         |   | L, S |       | ^21^ | 1994;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Agrotis          | HO, NI, | A | F,   | No    | No   | (Zhang    |
| malefida* Guenée  | US      |   | L, S |       | ^21^ | 1994;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
| (= *Rhizagrotis   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
| malefida*         |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
| (Guenée))         |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Agrotis repleta* | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | No   | (Zagatti, |
| Walker            | GU, HO, |   | L, S |       | ^21^ | Lalan     |
|                   | NI, US  |   |      |       |      | ne-Cassou |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1995;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Nearctica |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Agrotis* sp.     | CR      | S | F,   | Yes   | No   | (C        |
|                   |         |   | L, S |       | ^9,\ | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |  21^ | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Chrysodeixis     | HO, NI, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Saninet  |
| includens*        | US      |   | I,   |       |      | 2002;     |
| (Walker)          |         |   | L,   |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   | S,   |       |      | 2003)     |
| (= *Pseudoplusia  |         |   | Sd   |       |      |           |
| includens*        |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| (Walker))         |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Feltia           | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | No   | (Navarro  |
| subterranea*      | HO, NI, |   | L, S |       | ^21^ | 2000;     |
| (Fabricius)       | US      |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
| (= *Agrotis       |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
| subterranea*      |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
| (Fabricius))      |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Helicoverpa zea* | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Zhang    |
| (Boddie)          | GU, HO, | , | I,   |       |      | 1994;     |
|                   | NI, US  | S | L,   |       |      | C         |
| (= *Chloridea     |         |   | S,   |       |      | hinchilla |
| obsoleta*         |         |   | Sd   |       |      | and       |
| Fabricius)        |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Heliothis        | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (C        |
| virescens*        | GU, HO, | , | I,   |       |      | hinchilla |
| (Fabricius)       | NI, US  | S | L,   |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   | S,   |       |      | Ujueta    |
| (= *Chloridea     |         |   | Sd   |       |      | 2002;     |
| virescens*        |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
| (Fabricius))      |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Heliothis* sp.   | CR      | S | F,   | Yes   | No   | (C        |
|                   |         |   | I,   |       | ^9^  | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   | L,   |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   | S,   |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   | Sd   |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | USDA      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Mythimna         | CR, GU, | A | L,   | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| unipuncta*        | US      | , | S,   |       | ^21^ | 2003;     |
| Haworth           |         | S | Sd   |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
| (= *Pseudaletia   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
| unipuncta*        |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| (Haworth))        |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Peridroma        | CR, GU, | A | F,   | No    | No   | (Zhang    |
| saucia* (Hübner)  | HO, US  |   | I,   |       | ^21^ | 1994;     |
|                   |         |   | L,   |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   | S,   |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   | Sd   |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Spodoptera       | CR, EL, | A | F, L | No    | No   | (         |
| albula* (Walker)  | HO, NI, |   |      |       | ^21^ | Teixeira, |
|                   | US      |   |      |       |      | Novo et   |
| (=*S*. *sunia*    |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2000; |
| Guenée)           |         |   |      |       |      | C         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Nearctica |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Spodoptera       | CR, HO, | A | F, L | No    | No   | (C        |
| eridania* Stoll   | NI, US  | , |      |       | ^21^ | hinchilla |
|                   |         | F |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | EPPO      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Spodoptera       | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | No   | (C        |
| exigua* (Hübner)  | HO, NI, | , | I,   |       | ^21^ | hinchilla |
|                   | US      | S | L, S |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Spodoptera       | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | No   | (Saninet  |
| frugiperda* J.E.  | GU, HO, | , | I,   |       | ^21^ | 2002;     |
| Smith             | NI, US  | F | L, S |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
| (= *Laphygma      |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
| frugiperda*       |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
| Guenée)           |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Spodoptera       | CR, EL, | A | L, S | No    | No   | (Zagatti, |
| latifascia*       | GU, HO, |   |      |       | ^21^ | Lalan     |
| (Walker)          | NI, US  |   |      |       |      | ne-Cassou |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1995;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | C         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Nearctica |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Spodoptera       | CR, GU, | A | F, L | No    | Yes  | (Zagatti, |
| ornithogalli*     | NI, US  | , |      |       |      | Lalan     |
| (Guenée)          |         | F |      |       |      | ne-Cassou |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
| (= *Prodenia      |         |   |      |       |      | 1995;     |
| ornithogalli*     |         |   |      |       |      | Capinera  |
| Guenée)           |         |   |      |       |      | 2001;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Spodoptera* sp.  | CR      | S | F,   | Yes   | No   | (C        |
|                   |         |   | I,   |       | ^9^  | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   | L, S |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | USDA      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Trichoplusia ni* | CR, HO, | A | L    | No    | No   | (C        |
| (Hübner)          | NI, US  | , |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         | S |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Nymphalidae**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Ithomia celemia* | CR      | S | L    | Yes   | No   | (DeVries  |
| (Hewitson)        |         |   |      |       |      | 1989;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Haber     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2001;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pteronymia       | CR      | S | L    | Yes   | No   | (Young    |
| notilla* Butler   |         |   |      |       |      | 1974;     |
| and Druce         |         |   |      |       |      | Haber     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2001;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Psychidae**     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Oiketicus        | CR      | A | L    | Yes   | No   | (Saninet  |
| kirbyi* Guilding  |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Pyralidae**     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Cadra cautella*  | CR, EL, | S | F,   | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| Walker            | GU, NI, |   | R,   |       | ^14^ | 2003;     |
|                   | HO, US  |   | Sd   |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Elasmopalpus     | CR, EL, | S | L,   | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| lignosellus*      | GU, NI, |   | S, R |       | ^23^ | 2003;     |
| (Zeller)          | US      |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Ephestia         | NI, US  | S | F,   | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| elutella* Hübner  |         |   | Sd   |       | ^14^ | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Ephestia         | CR, EL, | S | F,   | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| kuehniella*       | GU, NI, |   | R,   |       | ^14^ | 2003;     |
| Zeller            | HO, US  |   | Sd   |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Etiella          | EL, HO, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| zinckenella*      | NI, US  |   | Sd   |       |      | 2003;     |
| (Treitschke)      |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Herpetogramma    | NI, US  | F | L    | No    | No   | (Kalita,  |
| bipunctalis*      |         |   |      |       |      | Devroy et |
| (Fabricius)       |         |   |      |       |      | al. 1997; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
| (= *Psara         |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
| bipunctalis*      |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
| (Fabricius))      |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Nearctica |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Lineodes         | NI, US  | A | L    | No    | No   | (Maes     |
| integra* (Zeller) |         | , |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         | S |      |       |      | Nearctica |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Neoleucinodes    | CR, EL, | A | F    | Yes   | Yes  | (McGuire  |
| elegantalis*      | GU, HO, | , |      |       |      | 1967;     |
| (Guenée)          | NI      | S |      |       |      | Marcano   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1991;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Alvaro    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Blackmer  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Eiras and |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Blackmer  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Plodia           | NI, US  | F | F,   | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| interpunctella*   |         | , | Sd   |       | ^14^ | 2003;     |
| (Hübner)          |         | S |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Sphingidae**    |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Manduca sexta*   | CR, GU, | A | L    | No    | No   | (Blackman |
| (Linnaeus)        | HO, NI, |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   | US      |   |      |       |      | Eastop    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2000;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | C         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | hinchilla |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ujueta    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Saninet   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Tineidae**      |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Opogona          | HO, US  | S | I,   | \[    | Yes  | (Davis    |
| sacchari* Bojer   | (FL,    |   | L,   | Yes\] |      | and Pena  |
|                   | HI)     |   | S, R | ^22^  |      | 1990;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI/EPPO |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1999;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Tortricidae**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Lorita           | CR, EL, | S | F    | No    | Yes  | (Pogue    |
| scarificata*      | GU, HO, |   |      |       |      | 1988)     |
| (Meyrick)         | NI, US  |   |      |       |      |           |
|                   | (CA,    |   |      |       |      |           |
|                   | FL, HI) |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Platynota        | GU, HO, | A | L    | No    | No   | (         |
| rostrana* Walker  | NI, US  | , |      |       |      | Rajapakse |
|                   |         | F |      |       |      | 1989;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Nearctica |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Robinson, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Ackery et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2003) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **ORTHOPTERA**    |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Gryllidae**     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Gryllus          | CR, GU, | A | L    | No    | No   | (Saninet  |
| assimilis*        | NI, US  |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
| (Fabricius)       |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
| (= *Acheta        |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
| assimilis*        |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| Fabricius)        |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *                 |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| *Gryllotalpidae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Gryllotalpa      | EL, US  | A | R    | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| gryllotalpa*      |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
| Linnaeus          |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Neocurtilla      | CR, NI, | A | R    | Yes   | No   | (Saninet  |
| hexadactyla*      | US      |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
| (Perty)           |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
| (= *Gryllotalpa   |         |   |      |       |      | Maes      |
| hexadactyla*      |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| Perty)            |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **THYSANOPTERA**  |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Thripidae**     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Frankliniella    | CR, GU, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Shipp,   |
| occidentalis*     | HO, US  |   | I, L |       |      | Binns et  |
| (Pergande)        |         |   |      |       |      | al. 1998; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Thrips palmi*    | GU, US  | A | F,   | \[    | Yes  | (Saninet  |
| Karny             | (FL,    | , | I, L | Yes\] |      | 2002;     |
|                   | HI)     | S |      | ^22^  |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Thrips tabaci*   | CR, US  | S | L, I | No    | No   | (Hill     |
| Lindeman          |         |   |      |       |      | 1987;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **PLANT           |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| PATHOGENS**       |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **BACTERIA**      |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **                |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| Actinomycetales** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Clavibacter      | CR, US  | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| michiganensis*    |         |   | L, S |       |      | 2003)     |
| subsp*.           |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| michiganensis*    |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| Smith and Davis,  |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| et. al            |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **En              |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| terobacteriales** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Erwinia          | CR, HO, | A | L,   | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| carotovora*       | US      |   | S, R |       | ^26^ | 2003)     |
| subsp.            |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| *carotovora*      |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| Jones, Bergey et. |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| al.               |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Erwinia          | CR, GR, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| chrysanthemi*     | HO, US  |   | I,   |       |      | 2003)     |
| (Burkh.) Young et |         |   | L,   |       |      |           |
| al.               |         |   | R, S |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Erwinia          | HO, GU  | A | F,   | Yes   | No   | (Bradbury |
| chrysanthemi* pv. |         |   | I,   |       | ^25^ | 1986;     |
| *paradisiaca*     |         |   | L,   |       |      | CABI      |
| (Victoria &       |         |   | R, S |       |      | 2003;     |
| Barros) Dickey &  |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
| Victoria          |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **                |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| Burkholderiales** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Ralstonia        | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| solanacearum*     | GU, HO, |   | S, R |       |      | 2003)     |
| race 1 (Smith)    | NI, US  |   |      |       |      |           |
| Yabuuchi *et. al* |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Ralstonia        | CR, GU  | A | R,   | Yes   | No   | (U        |
| solanacearum*     |         | , | S, L |       |      | SDA-APHIS |
| race 3 biovar 2   |         | S |      |       |      | -PPQ-PDMP |
| (Smith) Yabuuchi  |         |   |      |       |      | 2004)     |
| *et. al*          |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **                |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| Pseudomonadales** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pseudomonas      | CR, US  | A | L    | No    | No   | (Calderón |
| cichorii*         |         |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
| (Swingle) Stapp   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pseudomonas      | EL, GU, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| syringae* pv*.    | HO, US  |   | I,   |       |      | 2003)     |
| syringae* van     |         |   | L,   |       |      |           |
| Hall              |         |   | R,   |       |      |           |
|                   |         |   | S,   |       |      |           |
|                   |         |   | Sd   |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **                |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| Xanthomonadales** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Xanthomonas      | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| vesicatoria*      | GU, HO, |   | L, S |       |      | and Díaz  |
| (Doidge) Dowson   | NI, US  |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **FUNGI**         |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **ASCOMYCETES**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Erysiphales**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Erysiphe betae*  | CR, US  | A | L    | No    | No   | (Calderón |
| (Vaňha) Weltzien  |         |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
| (syn. *E.         |         |   |      |       |      | 2002)     |
| polygoni*)        |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Leveillula       | CR, HO, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| taurica* (Lév.)   | NI, US  |   | I,   |       |      | and Díaz  |
| G. Arnaud         |         |   | L, S |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   | (sh  |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   | oot) |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Oidium* sp.      | CR, GU  | A | F,   | Yes   | No   | (Farr,    |
|                   |         |   | I,   |       | ^9^  | Bills et  |
|                   |         |   | L, S |       |      | al. 1989; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Calderón  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Incertae        |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| sedis**           |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Glomerella       | CR, GU, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| cingulata*        | HO, NI, |   | I,   |       |      | 2003)     |
| (Stonem.)         | US      |   | L, S |       |      |           |
| Spauld.and        |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| Schrenk           |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Leotiales**     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Botrytis         | CR, EL, | S | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| cinerea* (de      | GU, HO, |   | I,   |       |      | and Díaz  |
| Bary) Whetzel     | NI, US  |   | L, S |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Sclerotinia      | CR, GU, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| sclerotiorum*     | US      | , | I,   |       |      | and Díaz  |
| (Lib.) de Bary    |         | F | L,   |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   | R,   |       |      | Aldana    |
|                   |         |   | S,   |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   | Sd   |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Sa              |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| ccharomycetales** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Geotrichum       | CR, US  | A | F    | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| candidum* Link    |         |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
| (anamorph)        |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Xylariales**    |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Lasiodiplodia    | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| theobromae*       | HO, NI, |   | I,   |       |      | 2003)     |
| (Pat.) Griffiths  | US      |   | L,   |       |      |           |
| & Maubl.          |         |   | R,   |       |      |           |
|                   |         |   | S,   |       |      |           |
|                   |         |   | Sd   |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *                 |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| *BASIDIOMYCETES** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Uredinales**    |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Puccinia         | CR, GU  | A | F,   | Yes   | Yes  | (Watson   |
| pampeana*         |         | , | L, S |       |      | 1971;     |
| \[synonyms =      |         | B |      |       |      | F         |
| *Dicaeoma         |         | , |      |       |      | igueiredo |
| pampeana* (Speg.) |         | F |      |       |      | 2000;     |
| Kuntz., *P.       |         | , |      |       |      | Calderón  |
| araucana* Dietel  |         | S |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
| & Neger, *P.      |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
| capsici* Mayor,   |         |   |      |       |      | Hernandez |
| *P. capsicicola*  |         |   |      |       |      | and       |
| Kern & Thurston,  |         |   |      |       |      | Hennen    |
| *P. gonzalezii*   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| Mayor, *P.        |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| paulensis*        |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| Rangel, *P.       |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| solanina* Speg.\] |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| \[anamorph =      |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| *Endophyllum      |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| pampeanum*        |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| (Speg.) J.C.      |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| Lindquest         |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| (synonyms =       |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| *Aecidium         |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| pampeanum* Speg., |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| *A. capsici* Kern |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| & Whetzel, *A.    |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| solaninum* Speg., |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| *A. solaninum*    |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| var. *laevis*)\]  |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Puccinia psidii* | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| G. Winter         | GU, US  |   | I,   |       |      | 2003)     |
|                   |         |   | L, S |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **C               |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| eratobasidiales** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Thanatephorus    | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| cucumeris*        | HO, US  |   | I,   |       |      | and Díaz  |
| (anam             |         |   | L,   |       |      | 2002;     |
| orph=*Rhizoctonia |         |   | R,   |       |      | CABI      |
| solani*) (Frank)  |         |   | S,   |       |      | 2003;     |
| Donk              |         |   | Sd   |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **MITOSPORIC      |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| FUNGI**           |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Coelomycetes**  |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Colletotrichum   | CR, GU, | A | F, L | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| gloeosporioides*  | HO, NI, |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
| (Penz.) Sacc.     | US      |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
| (teleo            |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| morph=*Glomerella |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| cingulata*)       |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Colletotrichum   | CR, US  | S | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| acutatum*         |         |   | I,   |       |      | and Díaz  |
| Simmonds ex       |         |   | L,   |       |      | 2002;     |
| Simmonds          |         |   | R, S |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| (teleomo          |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| rph=*Glomerella*) |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Colletotrichum   | EL, US  | A | F, L | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| capsici* (Syd.)   |         |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
| E.J. Butler &     |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
| Bisby             |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
| (teleomo          |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
| rph=*Glomerella*) |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Macrophomina     | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| phaseolina*       | HO, US  |   | I,   |       |      | and Díaz  |
| (Tassi) Goid      |         |   | L,   |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   | R, S |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   | (sho |       |      | 2003)     |
|                   |         |   | ot), |       |      |           |
|                   |         |   | Sd   |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pestalotiopsis*  | CR      | A | F    | Yes   | No   | (Calderón |
| sp.               |         |   |      |       | ^9^  | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Phoma            | CR, US  | A | F, L | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| destructiva*      |         |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
| Plowr.            |         |   |      |       |      | 2002)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Phomopsis        | CR, US  | A | F    | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| vexans* Gratz     |         |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Hyphomycetes**  |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Alternaria       | CR, HO, | A | F, L | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| alternata*        | US      |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
| (Fr.:Fr.) Keissl. |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Alternaria       | CR, EL, | A | F, L | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| solani* Sorauer   | GU, HO, |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   | US      |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Aldana    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Aspergillus* sp. | CR      | A | F    | Yes   | No   | (Calderón |
|                   |         |   |      |       | ^9^  | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Cercospora* sp.  | CR      | A | L    | Yes   | No   | (Calderón |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Cercospora       | CR, HO, | A | F, L | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| capsici* Heald    | GU, US  |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
| and Wolf          |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Aldana    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Corynespora      | CR, US  | S | L    | No    | No   | (Calderón |
| casiicola* (Berk. |         |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
| & Curtis) Weir    |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Curvularia       | CR, US  | F | I,   | No    | No   | (Calderón |
| lunata* (Wakker)  |         | , | L,   |       |      | and Díaz  |
| Boedjin           |         | S | Sd   |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
| (teleomo          |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| rph=*Cochliobolus |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| lunatus* R.R.     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| Nelson & Haasis)  |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Fulvia fulva*    | CR, GU, | A | F, L | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| (Cooke) Arx       | HO, NI, |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   | US      |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Fusarium         | CR, US  | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| oxysporum*        |         |   | L, S |       |      | and Díaz  |
| Schlechtendahl    |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Fusarium         | CR, US  | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| oxysporum* f.sp.  |         |   | L, S |       |      | and Díaz  |
| *ra               |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
| dicislycopersici* |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
| Jarvis &          |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| Shoemaker         |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Fusarium         | EL, GU, | A | L,   | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| oxysporum* f.sp.  | NI, US  |   | R, S |       |      | 2003)     |
| *vasinfectum*     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| (G.F. Atk.) W.C.  |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| Snyder & H.N.     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| Hansen            |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Fusarium solani* | wo      | A | R, S | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| (Wollenw.)        | rldwide |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| Gerlach           |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Fusarium* sp.    | CR      | A | F, R | Yes   | No   | (Calderón |
|                   |         |   |      |       | ^9^  | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Penicillium* sp. | CR      | A | F    | Yes   | No   | (Calderón |
|                   |         |   |      |       | ^9^  | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Phaeoramularia   | HO, US  | A | L    | No    | No   | (Deighton |
| capsicicola*      |         |   |      |       |      | 1976;     |
| (Vassilj.)        |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
| Deighton          |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Sclerotium       | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| rolfsii* Sacc.    | US      |   | L,   |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   | R,   |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   | S,   |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   | Sd   |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Stemphylium      | Cosmo   | A | F, L | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| solani* Weber     | politan |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Thielaviopsis    | CR, US  | S | R    | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| basicola* (Berk.  |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| & Broome)         |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| Ferraris          |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Verticillium*    | NI, US  | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| *dahliae* Kleb.   |         |   | I,   |       |      | 2003)     |
|                   |         |   | L,   |       |      |           |
|                   |         |   | R,   |       |      |           |
|                   |         |   | S,   |       |      |           |
|                   |         |   | Sd   |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **OOMYCETES**     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *                 |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| *Peronosporales** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Peronospora      | CR, EL, | A | I,   | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| hyoscyami* f.sp.  | GU, HO, |   | L,   |       |      | and Díaz  |
| *tabacina* (syn.  | NI, US  |   | R, S |       |      | 2002;     |
| *P. tabacina*)    |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
| (D.B. Adam)       |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| Skalicky          |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Pythiales**     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pythium          | CR, US  | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| aphanidermatum*   |         | , | R, S |       |      | and Díaz  |
| (Edson) Fitzp.    |         | S |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Phytophthora     | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| capsici* Leonian  | GU, HO, | , | L,   |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   | US      | F | R, S |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pythium          | CR, US  | A | R    | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| debaryanum* Hesse |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Phytophthora     | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| infestans*        | GU, HO, |   | L,   |       |      | and Díaz  |
| (Mont.) de Bary   | NI, US  |   | R, S |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pythium* sp.     | CR      | A | R    | Yes   | No   | (Calderón |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Phytophthora     | CR, EL, | S | F,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| nicotianae* Breda | GU, HO, |   | L,   |       |      | 2003)     |
| de Haan           | NI, US  |   | R, S |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Phytophthora     | CR, EL, | A | F, S | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| nicotianae* var.  | GU, HO, |   | (sh  |       |      | and Díaz  |
| *parasitica*      | NI, US  |   | oot) |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **ZYGOMYCETES**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Mucorales**     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Rhizopus         | CR, US  | A | F    | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| stolonifer*       |         |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
| (Ehrenb.) Lind    |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **NEMATODES**     |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Aphelenchidae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Aphelenchus* sp. | HO      | A | S, R | Yes   | No   | (         |
| (Bastian)         |         | , |      |       |      | Shurtleff |
|                   |         | F |      |       |      | and       |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Averre    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2000;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *                 |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| *Belonolaimidae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Belonolaimus     | CR, US  | A | R    | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| longicaudatus*    |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| Rau               |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *                 |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| *Criconematinae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Criconemella*    | CR, EL  | A | R    | Yes   | No   | (Solano,  |
| sp. De Grisse &   |         |   |      |       |      | Rojas et  |
| Loof              |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2002; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Hemicycliophora* | CR      | A | R    | Yes   | No   | (Solano,  |
| sp.               |         |   |      |       |      | Rojas et  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2002; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Hoplolaimidae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Helicotylenchus  | CR, EL, | A | R    | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| dihystera* (Cobb) | GU, US  |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| Sher              |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Helicotylenchus* | CR      | A | R    | Yes   | No   | (Solano,  |
| sp.               |         |   |      |       |      | Rojas et  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2002; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Hoplolaimus      | GU      | S | R    | Yes   | No   | (CABI     |
| seinhorsti* Luc   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Rotylenchulus    | HO, US, | A | R    | No    | No   | (Pinochet |
| reniformis*       | EL      |   |      |       |      | and       |
| Linford &         |         |   |      |       |      | Guzmán    |
| Oliveira          |         |   |      |       |      | 1987;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Longidoridae**  |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Longidorus* sp.  | CR      | A | R    | Yes   | No   | (CABI     |
| Micoletzky        |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| (Filipjev)        |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *                 |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| *Meloidogynidae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Meloidogyne      | CR, US  | F | R    | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| arenaria* (Neal)  |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| Chitwood          |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Meloidogyne      | CR, EL, | A | R    | Yes   | No   | (CABI     |
| exigua* Goeldi    | GU, HO, |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
|                   | NI      |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Meloidogyne      | CR, US  | A | R    | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| hapla* Chitwood   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Meloidogyne      | CR, EL, | A | R    | No    | No   | (Solano,  |
| incognita*        | GU, HO, |   |      |       |      | Rojas et  |
| (Kofoid & White)  | NI, US  |   |      |       |      | al. 2002; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Meloidogyne      | CR, EL, | A | R    | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| javanica* (Treub) | GU, HO, |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| Chitwood          | NI, US  |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Meloidogyne* sp. | CR      | A | R    | Yes   | No   | (Solano,  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Rojas et  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2002) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *                 |         |   |      |       |      |           |
| *Pratylenchidae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pratylenchus     | CR, EL, | A | R    | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| penetrans* (Cobb) | US      | , |      |       |      | 2003;     |
| Filipjev &        |         | F |      |       |      | Castillo  |
| Schuurmans        |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
| Stekhoven         |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pratylenchus*    | CR      | A | R    | Yes   | No   | (Solano,  |
| sp.               |         |   |      |       |      | Rojas et  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2002) |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Pratylenchus     | CR, EL, | A | R    | No    | No   | (CABI     |
| zeae* Graham      | US      |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Trichodoridae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Trichodorus* sp. | CR, EL, | A | R    | Yes   | No   | (Solano,  |
|                   | NI      |   |      |       |      | Rojas et  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2002; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Tylenchindae**  |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| *Tylenchus* sp.   | HO      | A | R    | Yes   | No   | (CABI     |
|                   |         | , |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         | F |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **VIRUSES**       |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Bromoviridae**  |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| Cucumber mosaic   | CR, HO, | A | F, L | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| virus             | US      |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Bunyaviridae**  |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| Potato Y          | CR, EL, | A | F    | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| potyvirus         | US      |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| Tomato spotted    | CR, US  | A | F, L | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| wilt virus        |         |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Comoviridae**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| Andean potato     | CR, HO, | A | F,   | Yes   | Yes  | (         |
| mottle virus      | NI      | , | I,   |       |      | Valverde, |
|                   |         | F | L, S |       |      | Black et  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 1995; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI/EPPO |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 1999;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Pernezny, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Roberts   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Geminiviridae** |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| Beet curly top    | CR, US  | A | L,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| virus             |         | , | R, S |       |      | 2003)     |
|                   |         | F |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| Texas pepper      | CR, US  | S | L, R | No    | No   | (Brunt,   |
| geminivirus       |         |   |      |       |      | Crabtree  |
| \[synonym =       |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
| pepper golden     |         |   |      |       |      | 1996      |
| mosaic virus\]    |         |   |      |       |      | (         |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | onwards); |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Lotrakul, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Valverde  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2000;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Pernezny, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Roberts   |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| Tomato yellow     | CR, US  | A | W    | No    | Yes  | (Momol    |
| leaf curl virus   |         |   |      |       |      | 2001;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| Tomato yellow     | EL      | A | F,   | Yes   | Yes  | (Brunt,   |
| mosaic virus      |         |   | L,   |       |      | Crabtree  |
| \[synonym =       |         |   | S, R |       |      | et al.    |
| tomato golden     |         |   |      |       |      | 1996      |
| mosaic            |         |   |      |       |      | (         |
| bigeminivirus,    |         |   |      |       |      | onwards); |
| potato yellow     |         |   |      |       |      | Morales,  |
| mosaic virus\]    |         |   |      |       |      | Lastra et |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | al. 2001; |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Castillo  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Luteoviridae**  |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| Potato leafroll   | CR, US  | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| luteovirus        |         |   | I,   |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   | L,   |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   | S,   |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   | Sd   |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Potexvirus**    |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| Potato X          | CR, US  | A | W    | No    | Yes  | (Brunt,   |
| Potexvirus        |         |   |      |       |      | Crabtree  |
| \[synonyms =      |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
| potato latent     |         |   |      |       |      | 1996      |
| virus, potato     |         |   |      |       |      | (         |
| mild mosaic       |         |   |      |       |      | onwards); |
| virus\]           |         |   |      |       |      | Calderón  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Potyviridae**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| Pepper mottle     | EL, GU, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (V        |
| potyvirus         | US      |   | L, S |       |      | erhoeven, |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Willemen  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | et al.    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| Tobacco etch      | CR, EL, | A | F,   | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| virus             | HO, US  |   | I,   |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   | L,   |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   | R, S |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | Puerto    |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Tobamovirus**   |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| Pepper mild       | HO, US  | A | F, L | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| mottle virus      |         | , |      |       |      | 2003)     |
|                   |         | F |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| Tobacco mosaic    | CR, US  | A | W    | No    | Yes  | (Calderón |
| virus             |         |   |      |       |      | and Díaz  |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2002;     |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | CABI      |
|                   |         |   |      |       |      | 2003)     |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| **Tospovirus**    |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+
| Impatiens         | CR, US  | A | I,   | No    | Yes  | (CABI     |
| necrotic spot     |         |   | L, S |       |      | 2003)     |
| virus             |         |   |      |       |      |           |
+-------------------+---------+---+------+-------+------+-----------+

^1^ CR = Costa Rica; EL = El Salvador; GU = Guatemala; HO = Honduras; NI
= Nicaragua; US = United States (specific states are listed for those
pests that have limited distribution and are considered quarantine
pests: CA = California; FL = Florida; GA = Georgia; HI = Hawaii; LS =
Louisiana; MS = Mississippi; MT = Montana; TX = Texas)

^2^ A = *Capsicum annuum*; B = *Capsicum baccatum*; F = *Capsicum
frutescens*; P = *Capsicum pubesecnes*; S = *Capsicum* sp.

^3^ F = Fruit; I = Inflorescence; L = Leaf; R = Root; S = Stem; Sd =
Seed; W = Systemic

^4^ Species was considered likely to follow the pathway because it feeds
on stems and peppers are harvested with their stems intact to prevent
soft rot (Schooley 2003).

^5^ *Diabrotica* species were considered unlikely to follow the pathway
because adults, which are capable of flight and feed externally on fruit
(MAG 1991; Granardos 2001; CABI 2003; UAQ 2003) are likely to be removed
by minimal processing of the commodity.

^6^ Scarab larvae in the genera *Macrodactylus* and *Phyllophaga* feed
on roots, but the adults feed on foliage and fruit (CABI, 2003; Borer et
al., 1989). Fruit feeding adults are not expected to stay with the
commodity during post-harvest processing because they are capable of
flight (CABI, 2003). Species in these genera were therefore considered
unlikely to follow the pathway on fresh pepper fruits.

^7^ An exhaustive literature search for *Disonycha eximia* yielded no
specific information. The species was therefore assumed to behave
similar to other members of the subfamily Alticinae, which feed on
foliage as adults and roots as larvae (Borror, Triplehorn et al. 1989).

^8^ An exhaustive literature search for *Faustinus ovatipennis* and its
synonyms *Euxenus ovatipennis* and *Collabismodes ornatipennis*
(O\'Brien and Wibmer 1982) yielded no specific information. The species
was therefore assumed to behave similar to other members of the genus
*Faustinus*, which feed externally on flowers, foliage, fruit and stems
as adults and bore into stems and fruit as larvae (Marsh 1982; Davis
1996; Capinera 2002). *Faustinus ovatipennis* was considered likely to
follow the pathway because members of the genus *Faustinus* have been
intercepted 45 times on fresh fruit of *Capsicum* by PPQ officers (USDA
2003).

^9^ Pest not identified to the specific level in this document belong to
genera that are present in the U.S. (CABI 2003; Farr *et al* 1989;
Nearctica 2003). These pests may or may not be quarantine pests. They
were not analyzed because their risk is reasonable encompassed in the
analysis of another pest in the same taxon or there was no evidence of
other pests in the taxon being associated with the commodity in the
region examined. Pest risk analyses, by necessity, must focus on
organisms for which biological information is available. Lack of
specific information or identification to the specific level does not
indicate that a pest is not a phytosanitary risk to U.S. agriculture. It
may simply indicate the quality of the specimen or the limits of current
taxonomic knowledge. If pests identified to higher taxa are intercepted
in the future, APHIS may take action at the port of entry and a
reevaluation of their risk may occur.

^10^ *Metamasius callizona* was considered unlikely to follow the
pathway because they typically attack bromeliads, adults feed on leaves,
and larvae, which bore into stems, are usually found near the base of
the plant (Larson and Frank 2000).

^11^ *Rhynchophorus palmarum* was considered unlikely to follow the
pathway because it is primarily a pest of palms; reports on other hosts
are typically of highly mobile adults feeding on ripe fruit (CABI 2003).

^12^ An exhaustive literature search for *Epicauta carmelita* and its
synonym *Lytta carmelita* (Maes 2003) yielded no specific information.
The species was therefore assumed to behave similar to other members of
the genus *Epicauta*, which feed on foliage and flowers as adults and
bee or grasshopper eggs as larvae (Borror, Triplehorn et al. 1989).

^13^ Although *C*. *capsici* forms galls at the base of flowers (Gagné
et al., 2000), it was considered ulikely to follow the pathway on stems
of pepper fruit because it has never been detected in commercial pepper
plantations (Gagné et al., 2000). Gagné et al. (2000) hypothesized that
insecticides used in commercial pepper plantations for control of the
pepper weevil, *A*. *eugenii*, excludes *C*. *Capsici* from these areas.

^14^ Species was considered unlikely to follow the pathway because it is
a stored product pest that is associated with dry commodities (CABI
2003).

^15^ *Neosilba* species were considered unlikely to follow the pathway
because they are secondary pests that attack hosts previously damaged by
primary invaders, particularly fruit flies (McAlpine and Steyskal 1982;
White and Elson-Harris 1992). If damaged fruit are culled and fruit fly
mitigation is undertaken, then *Neosilba* species are removed from the
commodity (Franco, Bernal et al. 2002).

^16^ *Atherigona orientalis* was considered unlikely to follow the
pathway because no member of the subgenus *Acrotochaeta* is known to be
an obligate phytophage (CABI 2003). Most are saprophages that develop in
rotting or damaged fruit (CABI 2003), which is likely to be culled
during post-harvest treatment.

^17^ Soft bodied insects are not expected to survive minimal post
harvest treatments, so are not expected to follow the pathway.

^18^ *Lepidosaphes tokionis* was considered unlikely to follow the
pathway because its primary host is croton, *Codiaeum* sp. (Nakahara,
1982; Zimmerman, 1948), and it has never been intercepted on *Capsicum*
sp. by PPQ officers (USDA, 2003b).

^19^ Large arthropods that feed externally on stems and fruit were
considered unlikely to follow the pathway because minimal processing of
the commodity would remove these pests prior to shipment.

^20^ Pest is associated with stems but is highly mobile and unlikely to
remain with the commodity during processing.

^21^ Species is unlikely to be associated with the commodity during
harvest because it spends the day below ground and feeds on plant
material at night (Navarro 2000; Teixeira, Novo et al. 2000; CABI 2003).

^22^ Species with a limited distribution in the United States and deemed
actionable by APHIS because it is being considered for an official
control program (personal communication, USDA APHIS National
Identification Services, contact: Paul Courneya, Entomologist).

^23^ *Elasmopalpus lignosellus* was considered unlikely to follow the
pathway because its larvae bore into the stem \"at, or just below, soil
level\" (CABI 2003).

^24^ Pepper was artificially inoculated with *Erwinia chrysanthemi* pv.
*paradisiaca* (Bradbury 1986) and a search of the literature and
databases resulted in no records of the bacteria naturally infecting
pepper.

^25^ *Capsicum annuum* is susceptible to *Erwinia chrysanthemi* pv.
*paradisiaca* when artificially inoculated (Bradbury 1986), however
after a search of the literature and various databases, no confirmed
report was found documenting that this bacterium naturally infects
*Capsicum* sp. *Erwinia chrysanthemi* pv. *paradisiaca* is reported to
occur in Honduras on *Musa* sp., but has not reported on *Capsicum* sp.
(Puerto 2003). This pathogen was excluded from further analysis.

^26^ The pathogen is reported to occur on stems but is not considered to
follow the pathway either because it is not suspected to occur on the
section of stem attached to fruit, or the stem is not important for the
movement of the pathogen.

^27^ *Capsicum annuum* is a host of *A*. *ludens* only under laboratory
conditions (Norrbom and Kim 1988; Norrbom 2004). The only know field
host of *A*. *ludens* is *C*. *pubescens* (Steck 2003).

^28^ The fruit of *Capsicum* species have been imported into the U.S.
from Mexico, a country where *O*. *pseudinsignis* is known to occur
(Morrison 1952; Scalenet 2003), for over 70 years. During this time,
*O*. *pseudinsignis* has only been intercepted once in passenger baggage
(USDA 2003). *Orthezia pseudinsignis* is therefore considered unlikely
to follow the pathway on commercially produced *Capsicum* fruit.

^29^ *Capsicum annuum* is a secondary host of *P*. *marginatus* (CABI
2003). The fruit of *Capsicum* species have been imported into the U.S.
from Mexico, a country where *P*. *marginatus* is known to occur (CABI
2003; Scalenet 2003), for over 70 years. During this time, *O*.
*pseudinsignis* has only been intercepted once in passenger baggage
(USDA 2003). *Paracoccus marginatus* is therefore considered unlikely to
follow the pathway on commercially produced *Capsicum* fruit.

^\\^

Pests listed in **Table 3** were selected for further analyses because
they are quarantine pests with respect to the United States, and they
were considered likely to follow the pathway (*i*.*e*. accompany
shipments of peppers). Justifications for considering these pests as
reasonably likely to follow the pathway are presented below.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc66599113 .anchor}Table 3. Quarantine pests
selected for further analysis.

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
  **Arthropods**

  *Anastrepha ludens* (Tephritidae: Diptera)

  *Faustinus ovatipennis* (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

  *Liriomyza huidobrensis* (Agromyzidae: Diptera)

  *Ceratitis capitata* (Tephritidae: Diptera)

  *Opogona sacchari* (Tineidae: Lepidoptera)

  *Phenacoccus parvus* (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

  *Planococcus minor* (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

  *Neoleucinodes elegantalis* (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera)

  *Thrips palmi* (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

  **Fungi**

  *Puccinia pampeana* (Uredinales: Basidiomycetes)

  **Viruses**

  Andean Potato Mottle Virus (Comoviridae)

  Tomato Yellow Mosaic Virus (Geminiviridae)
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

The fruit flies, *A*. *ludens* and *C*. *capitata*, were considered
likely to follow the pathway because they lay eggs in or on, and can
develop inside fruit (Weems 1981; CABI 2003). Both species have been
intercepted on fresh fruit of *Capsicum* by USDA agriculture inspectors
(USDA 2003).

Although information on the weevil, *F*. *ovatipennis* was scarce, it
was considered likely to follow the pathway because it has been reported
as a pest of *Capsicum* (USDA-APHIS-PPQ 1984), and members of the genus
*Faustinus* have been intercepted 45 times on fresh fruit of *Capsicum*
by USDA agriculture inspectors (USDA 2003).

The leafmining fly, *L*. *huidobrensis*, was considered likely to follow
the pathway because females oviposit in plant tissue, and larvae can
develop inside the mesocarp of fruit (Steck 1999; CABI 2003). Genetic
analysis of North and Latin American flies identified as *L*.
*huidobrensis* has confirmed that the North American flies are a cryptic
species within the *L*. *huidobrensis* complex that should be referred
to as *L*. *langei* Frick (Scheffer and Lewis 2001); therefore, reports
indicating that *L*. *huidobrensis* is established in the United States
are erroneous. *Liriomyza huidobrensis* has been intercepted by USDA
agriculture inspectors on a variety of fresh fruits, and flies
identified only as *Liriomyza* sp. have been intercepted 49 times on
*Capsicum* fruit (USDA 2003).

The tineid moth, *O*. *sacchari*, was considered likely to follow the
payhway because its larvae are stem borers that are know to infest
peduncles, it occasionally attacks peppers, and early instars are
difficult to detect in woody or fleshy stems (CABI/EPPO 1997; CABI
2003).

The mealybugs, *P. parvus* and *P*. *minor*, were considered likely to
follow the pathway because all life stages are minute (Peña, Sharp et
al. 2002), they feed on fruit (Ben-Dov 1994; Peña, Sharp et al. 2002;
USDA 2003), and they have been intercepted by PPQ officers on *Capsicum*
sp. (USDA 2003).

The Pyralid moth, *N*. *elegantalis*, was considered likely to follow
the pathway because it is reported to feed on *Capsicum* (Robinson,
Ackery et al. 2003), its larvae develop inside fruit (Marcano 1991;
Eiras and Blackmer 2003), and it has been intercepted 29 times on fresh
fruit of *Capsicum* by PPQ officers (USDA 2003).

*Thrips* *palmi* was considered likely to follow the pathway because all
life stages are minute, and they can occur on fruit (Lewis 1997; CABI
2003). Lewis (1997) indicated that thrips are a major barrier to
exportation because fruit is often contaminated with eggs, larvae and
adults. This species has been intercepted 79 times on fresh fruit of
*Capsicum* by PPQ officers (USDA 2003), and it was analyzed here because
it is under consideration by APHIS for official control (Payne 2003).

The fungus *P. pampeana* is considered likely to follow the pathway
because it is reported as a disease of *Capsicum* leaves and fruit from
Costa Rica (Calderón and Díaz 2002) and is also reported to occur in
Guatemala (Hernandez and Hennen 2003). Subepidermal hyphae and spores
may be associated with the fruit and stems (Figueiredo, Pimentel et al.
1987; Agrios 1997).

The viruses, Andean potato mottle virus and tomato yellow mosaic virus,
were considered likely to follow the pathway because both can become
systemic (Lastra and Gil 1981; Brunt, Crabtree et al. 1996 (onwards);
CABI 2003; Pernezny, Roberts et al. 2003).

## E. Analysis of Quarantine Pests

The undesirable consequences that may occur from the introduction of
quarantine pests are assessed within this section. For each quarantine
pest, the potential consequences of introduction and likelihood of
introduction are assessed. The pest risk potential is determined by
summing the consequences of introduction and likelihood of introduction
risk values. These ratings are determined using the criteria in the
*Guidelines for Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessments, Version 5.02*
(USDA 2000).

The major sources of uncertainty present in this risk assessment are
similar to those in other risk assessments. They include the use of a
developing or evolving process (Orr, Cohen et al. 1993), the approach
used to combine risk elements (Morgan and Henrion 1990; Bier 1999), and
the evaluation of risk using the list of factors provided in guidelines
(Kaplan 1992; Orr, Cohen et al. 1993). To address this last source of
uncertainty, the list of factors is interpreted as illustrative and not
exhaustive. Additional biological information, even if not explicitly
part of the risk rating criteria, can be used when relevant to the
rating. Other sources of uncertainty are the quality or lack of
biological information. Inherent biological variation within a
population of organisms also introduces uncertainty (Morgan and Henrion
1990).

### Consequences of Introduction---Economic/Environmental Importance {#consequences-of-introductioneconomicenvironmental-importance .Heading3PRA}

The potential consequences of introduction are rated using five risk
elements: climate-host interaction, host range, dispersal potential,
economic impact, and environmental impact. These elements reflect the
biology, host ranges and climatic/geographic distributions of the pests.
For each risk element, pests are assigned a rating of Low (1 point),
Medium (2 points) or High (3 points) (USDA 2000). The following is a
description of how each of these ratings is determined for each risk
element and results are summarized in **Table 4**.

**Risk Element #1: Climate---Host Interaction**

When introduced to new areas, pests can be expected to behave as they do
in their native areas if host plants and climates are similar.
Ecological zonation and the interactions of the pests and their biotic
and abiotic environments are considered in the element. Estimates are
based on the availability of both host material and suitable climate
conditions. To rate this risk element, the U.S. \"Plant Hardiness
Zones\" map (USDA 1990) is used (**Figure 1**). Due to the availability
of both suitable host plants and suitable climate, the risk of a pest to
establish a breeding colony is rated as: Low (1) in a single plant
hardiness zone; Medium (2) in two or three plant hardiness zones; or
High (3) in four or more plant hardiness zones.

**Risk Element #2: Host Range**

The risk posed by a plant pest depends on both its ability to establish
a viable, reproductive population and its potential for causing plant
damage. For arthropods, risk is assumed to be correlated positively with
host range. For pathogens, risk is more complex and is assumed to depend
on host range, aggressiveness, virulence and pathogenicity; for
simplicity, risk is rated as a function of host range and is as follows:
Low (1) when the pest attacks a single species or multiple species
within a single genus; Medium (2) when the pest attacks multiple species
within a single plant family; High (3) when the pest attacks multiple
species among multiple plant families.

**Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**

A pest may disperse after introduction to a new area. The following
items are considered: reproductive patterns of the pest (*e*.*g*.
voltinism, biotic potential); inherent powers of movement; factors
facilitating dispersal, wind, water, presence of vectors, human, *etc*.
Pests are rated as follows: Low (1) when the pest has neither high
reproductive potential nor rapid dispersal capability; Medium (2) when
the pest has either high reproductive potential *OR* the species is
capable of rapid dispersal; or High (3) when the pest has high biotic
potential, *e.g.*, many generations per year, many offspring per
reproduction ("r-selected" species), *AND* evidence exists that the pest
is capable of rapid dispersal, *e.g.*, over 10 km/year under its own
power; via natural forces, wind, water, vectors, *etc*., or
human-assistance.

**Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**

Introduced pests are capable of causing a variety of direct and indirect
economic impacts. These are divided into three primary categories (other
types of impacts may occur): lower yield of the host crop, *e.g.*, by
causing plant mortality, or by acting as a disease vector; lower value
of the commodity, *e.g*., by increasing costs of production, lowering
market price, or a combination; loss of foreign or domestic markets due
to presence of new quarantine pest. The risk ratings are described as
follows: Low (1) when the pest causes any one or none of the above
impacts; Medium (2) when the pest causes any two of the above impacts;
or High (3) when the pest causes all three of the above impacts.

**Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**

The assessment of the potential of each pest to cause environmental
damage (IPPC 1996) proceeds by considering the following factors:
introduction of the pest is expected to cause significant, direct
environmental impacts, *e.g.*, ecological disruptions, reduced
biodiversity. When used within the context of the National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA) (7CFR §372), significance is qualitative and
encompasses both the likelihood and severity of an environmental impact;
pest is expected to have direct impacts on species listed by Federal
Agencies as endangered or threatened (50CFR §17.11 and §17.12), by
infesting/infecting a listed plant. If the pest attacks other species
within the genus or other genera within the family, and preference/no
preference tests have not been conducted with the listed plant and the
pest, then the plant is assumed to be a host; pest is expected to have
indirect impacts on species listed by Federal Agencies as endangered or
threatened by disrupting sensitive, critical habitat; introduction of
the pest would stimulate chemical and/or biological control programs.
The risk ratings are described as follows: Low (1) when none of the
above would occur; it is assumed that introduction of a non-indigenous
pest will have some environmental impact (by definition, introduction of
a non-indigenous species affects biodiversity); Medium (2) when one of
the above would occur; or High (3) when two or more of the above would
occur.

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Anastrepha ludens* (Loew)   | *     |
| (Diptera: Tephritidae)**                                     | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction**                 | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Anastrepha ludens* is a native Mexican fruit fly that       | (2)   |
| migrates annually into the southern tip of Texas (Foote,     |       |
| Blanc et al. 1993). It has been reported from Texas south to |       |
| Costa Rica (Foote, Blanc et al. 1993; CABI 2003). Based on   |       |
| this distribution, it is estimated that *A*. *ludens* could  |       |
| become established in the United States in USDA Hardiness    |       |
| Zones 9-11 (**Figure 1**). One or more of its potential      |       |
| hosts occur in these zones (USDA-NRCS 2003).                 |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 2: Host Range**                               | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Anastrepha ludens* is extremely polyphagous attacking       |       |
| plants in the families Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae,            |       |
| Apocynaceae, Cactaceae, Caricaceae, Clusiaceae,              |       |
| Cucurbitaceae, Ebenaceae, Fabaceae, Juglandaceae, Lauraceae, |       |
| Moraceae, Musaceae, Myrtaceae, Punicaceae, Rosaceae,         |       |
| Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Solanaceae (Norrbom and Kim 1988; Steck |       |
| 2003; Norrbom 2004).                                         |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential**                      | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| Female *A*. *ludens* can mature and deposit up to 1597 eggs  |       |
| during their life, and several overlapping generations occur |       |
| each year (Díaz-Fleisher and Aluja 2003). Adult *A*.         |       |
| *ludens* can fly up to 135km during their life, and larvae   |       |
| can be transported over long distances in infested fruit     |       |
| (CABI 2003).                                                 |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 4: Economic Impact**                          | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| It has been estimated that *A*. *ludens* destroys 25% of the |       |
| citrus, mango and guava crops each year in Mexico (Steck     |       |
| 2003). In addition to reducing yields, *A*. *ludens* lowers  |       |
| crop values by requiring controls, and widespread            |       |
| establishment in the United States would cause foreign and   |       |
| domestic markets to be lost. *Anastrepha ludens* is listed   |       |
| by the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection           |       |
| Organization (EPPO) as an A1 quarantine pest for Europe      |       |
| (CABI/EPPO 1997), and the United States enacted Federal      |       |
| Quarantine Number 64 to prevent shipment of certain fruits   |       |
| from infested areas of Texas to other parts of the country   |       |
| (Weems and Heppner 2001).                                    |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact**                     | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Anastrepha ludens* is extremely polyphagous and could       |       |
| potentially attack plants listed as Threatened or Endangered |       |
| in Title 50, Part 17, Section 12 of the United States Code   |       |
| of Federal Regulations (50 CFR §17.12) (*e*.*g*. *Cucurbita  |       |
| okeechobeensis* ssp. *okeechobeensis* and *Prunus            |       |
| geniculata*). It would undoubtedly initiate chemical or      |       |
| biological control programs if introduced into the United    |       |
| States because it is a pest of numerous economic crops       |       |
| (*e*.*g*. citrus, peach and peppers).                        |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction**: ***Ceratitis capitata*     | *     |
| (Wiedmann) (Diptera: Tephritidae)**                          | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction**                 | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Ceratitis capitata* is widely distributed in the            |       |
| Mediterranean, South and Central America, west Asia (CABI    |       |
| 2003) and northern Australia (Hassan 1977). Based on this    |       |
| distribution and the geographic range predicted by Vera *et  |       |
| al*. (2002), it is estimated that *C*. *capitata* could      |       |
| become established in the United States in USDA Hardiness    |       |
| Zones 8-11. One or more of its potential hosts occur in      |       |
| these Zones (USDA-NRCS 2003).                                |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 2: Host Range**                               | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Ceratitis capitata* has been recorded on hosts from         |       |
| numerous plant families, including Anacardiaceae, Arecaceae, |       |
| Chrysobalanaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Ebanaceae, Longaniaceae,    |       |
| Malpighiaceae, Meliaceae, Moraceae, Myrtaceae, Oleaceae,     |       |
| Podocarpaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Sapotaceae,    |       |
| Solanaceae and Sterculiaceae (Weems 1981; White and          |       |
| Elson-Harris 1992; CABI 2003).                               |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential**                      | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| Female *C*. *capitata* can mature and deposit up to 800 eggs |       |
| during their life (Weems 1981), and several overlapping      |       |
| generations occur each year (Hassan 1977). Adult *C*.        |       |
| *capitata* can fly up to 20km during their two month life,   |       |
| and larvae can be transported over long distances in         |       |
| infested fruit (CABI 2003).                                  |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 4: Economic Impact**                          | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| In some Mediterranean countries, *C*. *capitata* infestation |       |
| of stone fruits hovers near 100% (Weems 1981). In addition   |       |
| to substantial yield reductions, *C*. *capitata* lowers crop |       |
| values by requiring controls, and its presence in the United |       |
| States would cause foreign and domestic markets to be lost   |       |
| (Weems 1981). *Ceratitis capitata* is listed by EPPO as an   |       |
| A2 quarantine pest for Europe (CABI/EPPO 1997).              |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact**                     | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Ceratitis capitata* is extremely polyphagous and could      |       |
| potentially attack plants listed as Threatened or Endangered |       |
| in 50 CFR §17.12 (*e*.*g*. *Opuntia treleasei* and *Prunus   |       |
| geniculata*). It would undoubtedly initiate chemical or      |       |
| biological control programs if introduced into the United    |       |
| States because it is a major pest of numerous economic crops |       |
| (*e*.*g*. apple, citrus, fig and peach).                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Faustinus ovatipennis*      | *     |
| (Champion) (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)**                     | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction**                 | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Faustinus ovatipennis* is a Central American species that   | (2)   |
| occurs in Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico (O\'Brien and       |       |
| Wibmer 1982). Based on this distribution, it is estimated    |       |
| that *F*. *ovatipennis* could become established in the      |       |
| United States in USDA Hardiness Zones 10 and 11 (**Figure    |       |
| 1**). One or more of its potential hosts occur in these      |       |
| zones (USDA-NRCS 2003).                                      |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 2: Host Range**                               | Low   |
|                                                              | (1)   |
| *Faustinus ovatipennis* has only been reported as a pest of  |       |
| *Capsicum* (Solanaceae) (USDA-APHIS-PPQ 1984). Other species |       |
| in the genus *Faustinus* appear to be monophagous or         |       |
| oligophagous on solanaceous plants (Marsh 1982; Gordon,      |       |
| Gonzalez et al. 1988; Giraldo 1993; Davis 1996; CABI 2003)   |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential**                      | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| No information was available on reproductive and dispersal   |       |
| potentials of *F*. *ovatipennis*, or any member of the genus |       |
| *Faustinus*. The genus *Faustinus* is part of the subfamily  |       |
| Cryptorhynchinae (O\'Brien and Wibmer 1982), and most        |       |
| Cryptorhynchinae are apterous (Lyal 1993), which makes them  |       |
| incapable of long distance dispersal under their own power.  |       |
| However, members of the genus can be transported over long   |       |
| distances via anthropogenic activities, as evidenced by 45   |       |
| PPQ interceptions of *Faustinus* sp. on *Capsicum* fruit     |       |
| (USDA 2003). The pest risk potential was estimated as high   |       |
| because of uncertainty in reproductive potential.            |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 4: Economic Impact**                          | Low   |
|                                                              | (1)   |
| Yield losses have not been reported in the literature for    |       |
| *F*. *ovatipennis* and are therefore assumed to be minimal.  |       |
| Establishment of this pest in the United States is however   |       |
| likely to cause foreign and domestic markets to be lost, as  |       |
| *F*. *ovatipennis* has a very limited distribution and would |       |
| be considered a quarantine pest by most governments.         |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact**                     | Low   |
|                                                              | (1)   |
| *Faustinus ovatipennis* does not appear to be a threat to    |       |
| plants listed as Threatened or Endangered in 50 CFR §17.12   |       |
| because it has only been reported as a pest of *Capsicum*    |       |
| (Solanaceae) (USDA-APHIS-PPQ 1984), and no species of        |       |
| *Capsicum* are listed as Threatened or Endangered in the     |       |
| United States. Introduction may stimulate chemical or        |       |
| biological control programs, but this is not certain.        |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Liriomyza huidobrensis*     | *     |
| (Blanchard) (Agromyzidae: Diptera)**                         | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction**                 | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Liriomyza huidobrensis* is more cold-tolerant than other    |       |
| closely related leafmining flies (CABI 2003). It can survive |       |
| an average winter in the Netherlands, and it has been shown  |       |
| to survive freezing at -18.7°C (CABI 2003). *Liriomyza       |       |
| huidobrensis* is presumably a native of Latin America, but   |       |
| it has been widely distributed by trade (Steck 1999; CABI    |       |
| 2003). It now occurs in southwest Africa, southern Asia,     |       |
| Canada, Europe, Hawaii and the Middle East, (Steck 1999;     |       |
| CABI 2003). Based on this information, it is estimated that  |       |
| *L*. *huidobrensis* could become established in the United   |       |
| States in USDA Hardiness Zones 7-11 (**Figure 1**). One or   |       |
| more of its potential hosts occur in these zones (USDA-NRCS  |       |
| 2003).                                                       |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 2: Host Range**                               | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Liriomyza huidobrensis* is extremely polyphagous attacking  |       |
| plants in the families Amaranthaceae, Apiaceae, Asteraceae,  |       |
| Brassicaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Chenopodiaceae,               |       |
| Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae, Liliaceae, Linaceae, Oxalidaceae,   |       |
| Polemoniaceae, Portulacaceae, Solanaceae, Tropaeolaceae,     |       |
| Valerianaceae, Verbenaceae, Violaceae (Steck 1999; CABI      |       |
| 2003).                                                       |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential**                      | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| Female *L*. *huidobrensis* can mature and deposit up to 161  |       |
| eggs during their life, and a generation can be completed in |       |
| 13-26 days, so several generations per year are possible     |       |
| (Steck 1999; CABI 2003). Adult *L*. *huidobrensis* are       |       |
| capable of flight, and they can be transported over long     |       |
| distances in shipments of infested commodities (CABI 2003).  |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 4: Economic Impact**                          | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| Adult *L*. *huidobrensis* puncture plant tissues to feed and |       |
| oviposit, while larvae feed within plant tissues (Steck      |       |
| 1999; CABI 2003). Feeding and oviposition on young plants    |       |
| reduces photosynthesis and can lead to plant mortality,      |       |
| which ultimately reduces yield (Steck 1999; CABI 2003).      |       |
| Plants that are attacked latter in their development do not  |       |
| die, but their value is reduced by unattractive punctures    |       |
| and larval mines (Steck 1999; CABI 2003). Establishment of   |       |
| *L*. *huidobrensis* in the continental United States is      |       |
| likely to cause a loss of foreign and domestic markets, as   |       |
| it is an important quarantine pest (CABI 2003). *Liriomyza   |       |
| huidobrensis* is listed by the European and Mediterranean    |       |
| Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) as an A2 quarantine     |       |
| pest for Europe (CABI/EPPO 1997).                            |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact**                     | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Liriomyza huidobrensis* is extremely polyphagous and could  |       |
| potentially attack plants listed as Threatened or Endangered |       |
| in 50 CFR §17.12 (*e*.*g*. *Allium munzii* and *Cucurbita    |       |
| okeechobeensis* ssp. *okeechobeensis*). Chemical or          |       |
| biological control programs would undoubtedly be initiate if |       |
| introduced into the United States because it is a major pest |       |
| of vegetable and ornamental plants (Steck 1999; CABI 2003).  |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Neoleucinodes elegantalis*  | *     |
| (Guenée) (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera)**                          | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction**                 | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Neoleucinodes elegantalis* is a Latin American species that | (2)   |
| occurs from southern Mexico to northern Argentina (Marcano   |       |
| 1991). Based on this distribution, it is estimated that *N*. |       |
| *elegantalis* could become established in the United States  |       |
| in USDA Hardiness Zones 9-11 (**Figure 1**). One or more of  |       |
| its potential hosts occur in these zones (USDA-NRCS 2003).   |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 2: Host Range**                               | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Neoleucinodes elegantalis* has only been recorded as a pest | (2)   |
| of solanaceous plants, including the economically important  |       |
| species: eggplant (*Solanum melongena*), tomato              |       |
| (*Lycopersicon esculentum*) and peppers (*Capsicum annuum*)  |       |
| (Marcano 1991; CABI 2003; Robinson, Ackery et al. 2003).     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential**                      | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| Female *N*. *elegantalis* can mature and deposit up to 160   |       |
| eggs during their life, and eggs are typically deposited on  |       |
| maturing fruit (Eiras and Blackmer 2003). No information was |       |
| available on voltinism, but a mean generation time of 39.16  |       |
| days was reported by Marcano (1991) on eggplant held at a    |       |
| constant 25ºC, so multiple generations per year are          |       |
| possible. Larvae of *N*. *elegantalis* can be transported    |       |
| over long distances in infested fruit, as evidenced by 29    |       |
| USDA interceptions on *Capsicum* fruit (USDA 2003).          |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 4: Economic Impact**                          | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Neoleucinodes elegantalis* is the principal pest of tomato  |       |
| in Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela (Marcano 1991; Eiras and   |       |
| Blackmer 2003). Picanç*o et* al. (1998) reported that nearly |       |
| 2% of Brazilian tomatoes that were sprayed weekly with an    |       |
| insecticide were still infested by *N*. *elegantalis*. Other |       |
| authors have indicated that even more frequent applications  |       |
| (every 2-3 days) do not offer sufficient control (Marcano,   |       |
| 1991). *Neoleucinodes elegantalis* can have a tremendous     |       |
| impact on tomato production because fruit infested by a      |       |
| single larvae is not marketable (Eiras and Blackmer 2003),   |       |
| and frequent insecticide applications increase production    |       |
| costs, which ultimately lowers the value of the commodity.   |       |
| In addition to reducing yield and lowering the value of the  |       |
| commodity, establishment of *N*. *elegantalis* in the United |       |
| States is likely to cause foreign and domestic markets to be |       |
| lost, as this pest is not widely distributed and would be    |       |
| considered a quarantine pest by most governments.            |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact**                     | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Neoleucinodes elegantalis* could potentially attack plants  |       |
| listed as Threatened or Endangered in 50 CFR §17.12          |       |
| (*e*.*g*. *Solanum incompletum* and *S*. *sandwicense*), and |       |
| chemical or biological control programs would undoubtedly be |       |
| initiated if it were introduced into the United States       |       |
| because it is a major pest of some economically important    |       |
| crops (*e*.*g*. eggplant, peppers and tomato).               |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Opogona sacchari* Bojer     | *     |
| (Lepidoptera: Tineidae)**                                    | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+==============================================================+=======+
| **Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction**                 | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Opogona sacchari* is a native African tineid that has been  |       |
| introduced into the Americas and Europe (CABI/EPPO, 1997).   |       |
| It has been reported as widespread in sub-Saharan Africa and |       |
| Central America, present in Brazil, the Guangdong and Hebei  |       |
| provinces of China, Peru, the Russian Federation and         |       |
| Venezuela, and as having a restricted distribution in Italy, |       |
| the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland and the United |       |
| States (*i*.*e*. present in Florida and Hawaii) (CABI, 2003; |       |
| CABI/EPPO, 1997). Reports from cool temperate regions        |       |
| (*e*.*g*. the Hebei province of China and Switzerland, which |       |
| represent USDA Hardiness Zones 5-7) are believed to be       |       |
| either greenhouse infestations or interception records       |       |
| because *O*. *sacchari* is not known to survive outdoor      |       |
| winter temperatures that occur over most of the EPPO region  |       |
| (CABI/EPPO, 1997). Based on this information, it is          |       |
| estimated that *O*. *sacchari* could potentially establish   |       |
| in the United States in USDA Hardiness Zones 8-11 (**Figure  |       |
| 1**). One or more of its potential hosts occur in these      |       |
| zones (USDA-NRCS 2003).                                      |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 2: Host Range**                               | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Opogona sacchari* has a wide host range that includes both  |       |
| living and dead plant material (CABI/EPPO, 1997). Its        |       |
| primary hosts are in the families Bromeliaceae (*e*.*g*.     |       |
| pineapple), Cactaceae (*e*.*g*. cacti), Musaceae (*e*.*g*.   |       |
| banana), Poaceae (*e*.*g*. bamboo, corn and sugarcane),      |       |
| Liliaceae (*e*.*g*. *Dracaena*) and Agavaceae (*e*.*g*.      |       |
| yucca), but it will attack ornamentals in the families       |       |
| Araceae (*e*.*g*. *Dieffenbachia* and *Philodendron*),       |       |
| Arecaceae (*e*.*g*. *Chamaedorea*), Begoniaceae (*e*.*g*.    |       |
| *Begonia*), Euphorbiaceae (*e*.*g*. poinsettia),             |       |
| Heliconiaceae (*e*.*g*. *Heliconia*), Marantaceae (*e*.*g*.  |       |
| arrowroot), Nyctaginaceae (*e*.*g*. *Bougainvillea*),        |       |
| Zingiberaceae (*e*.*g*. *Alpinia*), and crops in the         |       |
| families Dioscoreaceae (*e*.*g*. yam), Moraceae (*e*.*g*.    |       |
| fig) and Solanaceae (*e*.*g*. eggplant and peppers)          |       |
| (CABI/EPPO, 1997).                                           |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential**                      | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| Female *O*. *sacchari* can mature and deposit up to 200 eggs |       |
| during their life, and up to eight generations per year are  |       |
| possible under favorable conditions (CABI, 2003). The moth   |       |
| can only fly short distances, but larvae can be transported  |       |
| over long distances in shipments of infested commodities     |       |
| (CABI/EPPO, 1997).                                           |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 4: Economic Impact**                          | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Opogona sacchari* mines plant stems causing leaf fall and   |       |
| allowing pathogens to colonize and destroy affected plants   |       |
| (DEFRA, 2002). It is an important pest of banana that causes |       |
| annual average yield losses of 5-10% in the Canary Islands   |       |
| (Perez and Carnero, 1984). It also affects ornamental        |       |
| plants, such as *Dracaena fragrans*, and up to 61% of *D*.   |       |
| *fragrans* grown in Sao Paulo, Brazil may be damaged by *O*. |       |
| *sacchari* (Bergmann et al., 1995). In addition to           |       |
| substantial yield reductions, *O*. *sacchari* lowers crop    |       |
| values by requiring controls, and its wide spread            |       |
| establishment in the United States would cause foreign and   |       |
| domestic markets to be lost, as *O*. *sacchari* is listed by |       |
| EPPO as an A2 quarantine pest for Europe (CABI/EPPO 1997).   |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact**                     | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Opogona sacchari* could potentially attack plants listed as |       |
| Threatened or Endangered in 50 CFR §17.12 (*e*.*g*. *Solanum |       |
| incompletum* and *S*. *sandwicense*), and chemical or        |       |
| biological control programs would undoubtedly be initiated   |       |
| if it were introduced into new areas of the United States    |       |
| because it is a troublesome quarantine pest (CABI/EPPO,      |       |
| 1997).                                                       |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Phenacoccus parvus*         | *     |
| Morrison (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)**                       | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+==============================================================+=======+
| **Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction**                 | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Phenacoccus parvus* reportedly occurs in Africa (*i*.*e*.   |       |
| Congo, Gabon and Senegal), Australia, Central America        |       |
| (*i*.*e*. Belize, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Panama), North   |       |
| America (*i*.*e*. Florida and Mexico) and South America      |       |
| (*i*.*e*. Argentina, Chile, Guyana, Paraguay and Uruguay)    |       |
| (CABI, 2003; Scalenet, 2003). Williams and Granara de        |       |
| Willink (1992) suggested that it may be a common mealybug    |       |
| throughout Cental and South America. Based on this           |       |
| information, it is estimated that *P*. *parvus* could        |       |
| potentially establish in the United States in USDA Hardiness |       |
| Zones 8-11 (**Figure 1**). One or more of its potential      |       |
| hosts occur in these zones (USDA-NRCS 2003).                 |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 2: Host Range**                               | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Phenacoccus parvus* is extremely polyphagous attacking      |       |
| plants in the families Actinidiaceae, Amaranthaceae,         |       |
| Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Compositae, Convolvulaceae,     |       |
| Euphorbiaceae, Gramineae, Lamiaceae, Leguminosae, Malvaceae, |       |
| Musaceae, Myrtaceae, Piperaceae, Solanaceae and Verbenaceae  |       |
| (Scalenet, 2003).                                            |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential**                      | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| Fecundity and generation times vary with host, but *P*.      |       |
| *parvus*, which is facultatively parthenogenetic, can        |       |
| produce an average of 337 crawlers during their life when    |       |
| reared on tomato plants, and generation times generally fall |       |
| within the range of 25-33 days under laboratory conditions   |       |
| (Marohasy, 1997). Based on this information, it is           |       |
| reasonable to assume that *P*. *parvus* has a high biotic    |       |
| potential (*e*.*g*. many offspring per reproduction and many |       |
| generations per year). Although mealybugs have limited       |       |
| powers of natural dispersal, *P*. *parvus* can be            |       |
| transported over long distances in shipments of infested     |       |
| commodities, as evidenced by the 36 PPQ interceptions on a   |       |
| variety of different commodities (USDA, 2003b).              |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 4: Economic Impact**                          | Low   |
|                                                              | (1)   |
| *Phenacoccus parvus* has wrongly been labeled as a pest      |       |
| because it could potentially attack numerous crop species    |       |
| (Marohasy, 1994, 1997). It has never actually caused         |       |
| economic damage to any plant anywhere that it occurs         |       |
| (Marohasy, 1994, 1997). Classifying *P*. *parvus* as a pest  |       |
| has prevented it from being used to control the weed,        |       |
| *Lantana camara*, which it preferentially attacks (Marohasy, |       |
| 1994, 1997).                                                 |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact**                     | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Phenacoccus parvus* could potentially attack plants listed  |       |
| as Threatened or Endangered in 50 CFR §17.12 (*e*.*g*.       |       |
| *Solanum incompletum* and *S*. *sandwicense*). Introduction  |       |
| into new areas of the United States could initiate chemical  |       |
| and/or biological control programs because *P*. *parvus* can |       |
| survive and reproduce on some economically important crops,  |       |
| like peppers and eggplant (Marohasy, 1997).                  |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Planococcus minor*          | *     |
| (Maskell) (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)**                      | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+==============================================================+=======+
| **Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction**                 | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Planococcus minor* is widely distributed in Argentina,      |       |
| Australia, Bangladesh, Barbados, Bermuda, Burma, Borneo,     |       |
| Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Fiji, the      |       |
| Galapagos Islands, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana,   |       |
| Haiti, Honduras, India, Jamaica, Madagascar, Mexico, Papua   |       |
| New Guinea, the Philippines, Singapore, Sumatra, Malaysia,   |       |
| Taiwan, Thailand and the Virgin Islands (Ben-Dov 1994).      |       |
| Based on this distribution, it is estimated that *P*.        |       |
| *minor* could become established in the United States in     |       |
| USDA Hardiness Zones 8-11 (**Figure 1**). One or more of its |       |
| potential hosts occur in these zones (USDA-NRCS 2003).       |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 2: Host Range**                               | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Planococcus minor* is extremely polyphagous attacking       |       |
| plants in the families Acanthaceae, Amaranthaceae,           |       |
| Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae, Apiaceae, Apocynaceae, Araceae,   |       |
| Araliaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Balsaminaceae, Barringtoniaceae, |       |
| Bischofiaceae, Burseraceae, Bromeliaceae, Burseraceae,       |       |
| Cactaceae, Casuarinaceae, Combretaceae, Commelinaceae,       |       |
| Compositae, Convolvulaceae, Corynocarpaceae, Cruciferae,     |       |
| Cucurbitaceae, Cyperaceae, Dioscoreaceae, Euphorbiaceae,     |       |
| Fabaceae, Gramineae, Guttiferae, Heliconiaceae, Iridaceae,   |       |
| Labiatae, Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Loganiaceae, Lythraceae,     |       |
| Magnoliaceae, Malavaceae, Marantaceae, Moraceae, Musaceae,   |       |
| Myristicaceae, Myrtaceae, Onagraceae, Orchidaceae, Palmae,   |       |
| Pandanaceae, Passifloraceae, Piperaceae, Proteaceae,         |       |
| Rhamnaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Sapotaceae,       |       |
| Scrophulariaceae, Solanaceae, Sterculiaceae, Theaceae,       |       |
| Tiliaceae, Urticaceae, Verbenaceae, Vitidaceae and           |       |
| Zingiberaceae (Ben-Dov 1994).                                |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential**                      | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| Female *P*. *minor* are highly fecund depositing up to 800   |       |
| eggs in a 14 day period (Peñ*a et* al. 2002), and they can   |       |
| complete 10 generations in a year, with generation times     |       |
| varying from 28-45 days depending on season (Saho*o* e*t*    |       |
| al. 1999). Although mealybugs have limited powers of natural |       |
| dispersal, they can be transported over long distances in    |       |
| shipments of infested fruits and vegetables (CABI 2003).     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 4: Economic Impact**                          | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| According to Peña *et al*. (2002), *P*. *minor* feeds on     |       |
| inflorescences, stems and fruit; its feeding stunts plant    |       |
| growth, covers foliage with sooty mold, and lowers the       |       |
| quality of fruit. Fruit that has been attacked by *P*.       |       |
| *minor* is not marketable (Peñ*a* e*t* al. 2002). In         |       |
| addition to reducing marketable yield and the value of the   |       |
| commodity by requiring controls, its presence in the United  |       |
| States could cause foreign and domestic markets to be lost.  |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact**                     | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| *Planococcus minor* is extremely polyphagous and could       |       |
| potentially attack plants listed as Threatened or Endangered |       |
| in 50 CFR §17.12 (*e*.*g*. *Cucurbita okeechobeensis* subsp. |       |
| *okeechobeensis*). Its presence in the United States would   |       |
| likely stimulate chemical and/or biological control programs |       |
| because it is a pest of numerous economic crops (*e*.*g*.    |       |
| citrus, potato, peppers and melon).                          |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+
| **Conse |         |         |         |         |         |   | *     |
| quences |         |         |         |         |         |   | *Risk |
| of      |         |         |         |         |         |   | Va    |
| Introd  |         |         |         |         |         |   | lue** |
| uction: |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| *Thrips |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| palmi*  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Karny   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| (Thr    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ipidae: |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| T       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| hysanop |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| tera)** |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+
| **Risk  |         |         |         |         |         |   | M     |
| Element |         |         |         |         |         |   | edium |
| 1:      |         |         |         |         |         |   | (2)   |
| Clima   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| te-Host |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Intera  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ction** |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
|         |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| *Thrips |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| palmi*  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| is a    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| t       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ropical |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| to      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| subt    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ropical |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| species |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| that    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| cannot  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| survive |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| subzero |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| tempe   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ratures |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| for     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| more    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| than a  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| few     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| days    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| (Lewis  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 1997).  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| H       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| owever, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| popu    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| lations |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| exist   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| in      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| te      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| mperate |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| c       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| limates |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| by      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| overwi  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ntering |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| in      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| gree    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| nhouses |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| and     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| i       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| nterior |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| lan     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| dscapes |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| (CABI   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 2003).  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| It is   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| present |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| in      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Africa, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Asia,   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Aus     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| tralia, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| the     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| United  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| States, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Japan,  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Latin   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| A       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| merica, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| the     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Ca      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ribbean |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| and     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Pacific |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Islands |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| (CABI   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 2003).  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| United  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| States  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| popu    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| lations |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| are     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| res     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| tricted |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| to      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| A       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| merican |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Samoa,  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| F       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| lorida, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Guam,   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Hawaii  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| and     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Puerto  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Rico    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| (CABI   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 2003).  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Based   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| on this |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| distri  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| bution, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| it is   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| es      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| timated |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| that    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| *T*.    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| *palmi* |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| could   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| es      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| tablish |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| pe      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| rmanent |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| outside |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| popu    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| lations |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| in the  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| United  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| States  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| in USDA |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Ha      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| rdiness |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Zones   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 9-11    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| (*      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| *Figure |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 1**).   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| One or  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| more of |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| its     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| po      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| tential |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| hosts   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| occur   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| in      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| these   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| zones   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| (US     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| DA-NRCS |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 2003).  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+
| **Risk  |         |         |         |         |         |   | High  |
| Element |         |         |         |         |         |   | (3)   |
| 2: Host |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Range** |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
|         |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| *Thrips |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| palmi*  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| is a    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| poly    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| phagous |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| pest    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| that    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| attacks |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| plants  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| in the  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| f       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| amilies |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Anacard |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| iaceae, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Aste    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| raceae, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Cucurbi |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| taceae, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Fa      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| baceae, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Lau     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| raceae, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Lil     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| iaceae, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Mal     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| vaceae, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Orchi   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| daceae, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Pedal   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| iaceae, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Poaceae |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| and     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Sol     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| anaceae |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| (CABI   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 2003).  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+
| **Risk  |         |         |         |         |         |   | High  |
| Element |         |         |         |         |         |   | (3)   |
| 3:      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Di      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| spersal |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Pote    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ntial** |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
|         |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Female  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| *T*.    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| *palmi* |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| can     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| mature  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| and     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| deposit |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| up to   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 204     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| eggs    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| during  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| their   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| life,   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| and     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| gen     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| eration |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| times   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| range   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| from    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 11.5-20 |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| days    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| de      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| pending |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| on      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| temp    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| erature |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| and     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| host    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| plant   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| (C      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| apinera |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 2000;   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| CABI    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 2003);  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| so      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| several |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| gene    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| rations |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| per     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| year    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| are     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| po      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ssible. |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Adults  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| are     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| capable |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| of      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| flight, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| and     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| their   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| small   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| size    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| and     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| fringed |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| wings   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| allow   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| long    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| d       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| istance |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| di      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| spersal |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| via     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| wind or |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| as      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| pas     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| sengers |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| in      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| com     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| mercial |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| comm    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| odities |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| (Lewis  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 1997).  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+
| **Risk  |         |         |         |         |         |   | High  |
| Element |         |         |         |         |         |   | (3)   |
| 4:      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| E       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| conomic |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| I       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| mpact** |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
|         |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Feeding |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| by *T*. |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| *palmi* |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| may     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| cause   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| leaves  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| to      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| yellow  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| and     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| die,    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| t       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| erminal |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| growth  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| to be   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| a       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| rrested |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| and     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| fruits  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| to be   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| scarred |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| or      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| d       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| eformed |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| (C      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| apinera |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 2000).  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| *Thrips |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| palmi*  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| can     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| s       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| everely |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| reduce  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| tomato  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| yields  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| by      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| sp      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| reading |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| tomato  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| spotted |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| wilt    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| d       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| isease, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| and     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| even    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| low     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| pop     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ulation |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| de      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| nsities |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| (4.5    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| adults  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| per     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| sticky  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| trap    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| per     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| day)    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| may     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| reduce  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| the     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| yield   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| of      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| gre     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| enhouse |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| grown   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| peppers |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| (CABI   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 2003).  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Yield   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| red     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| uctions |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| in      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| excess  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| of 30%  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| have    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| been    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| r       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| eported |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| for     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| n       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| umerous |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| veg     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| etables |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| crops   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| a       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ttacked |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| by *T*. |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| *palmi* |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| (CABI   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 2003).  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| In      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| a       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ddition |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| to      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| subs    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| tantial |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| yield   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| redu    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ctions, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| *T*.    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| *palmi* |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| lowers  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| crop    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| values  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| by      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| re      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| quiring |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| co      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ntrols, |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| and its |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| wide    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| spread  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| establ  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ishment |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| in the  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| United  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| States  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| would   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| cause   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| foreign |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| and     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| d       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| omestic |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| markets |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| to be   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| lost.   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| *Thrips |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| palmi*  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| is      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| listed  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| by EPPO |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| as an   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| A1      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| qua     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| rantine |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| pest    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| for     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Europe  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| (CA     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| BI/EPPO |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| 1997).  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+
| **Risk  |         |         |         |         |         |   | High  |
| Element |         |         |         |         |         |   | (3)   |
| 5:      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Enviro  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| nmental |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| I       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| mpact** |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
|         |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| *Thrips |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| palmi*  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| could   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| pote    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ntially |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| attack  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| plants  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| listed  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| as      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| Thr     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| eatened |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| or      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| End     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| angered |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| in 50   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| CFR     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| §17.12  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| (*      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| e*.*g*. |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| *Allium |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| mu      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| nzii*), |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| and     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| control |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| p       |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| rograms |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| would   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| undo    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| ubtedly |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| be      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| in      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| itiated |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| if it   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| were to |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| be      |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| int     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| roduced |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| into    |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| new     |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| areas   |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| of the  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| United  |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
| States. |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+
|         |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+
|         |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+
|         |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+
|         |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+
|         |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+
|         |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+
|         |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+
|         |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+
|         |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+
|         |         |         |         |         |         |   |       |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---+-------+

+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Puccinia pampeana* Mayor   | **Risk |
| (Uredinales: Basidiomycetes)**                              | V      |
|                                                             | alue** |
+=============================================================+========+
| **Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction**                | High   |
|                                                             | (3)    |
| *Puccinia pampeana* has been reported to occur in           |        |
| sub-tropical and tropical regions of the western            |        |
| hemisphere, including Argentina (Figueiredo, Carvalho et    |        |
| al. 1994; Hernandez and Hennen 2003), Bolivia (Hernandez    |        |
| and Hennen 2003), Brazil (Watson 1971; Gomez and            |        |
| Varon-de-Agudelo 1993; Calderón and Díaz 2002; Hernandez    |        |
| and Hennen 2003), Chile (Hernandez and Hennen 2003),        |        |
| Columbia (Watson 1971; Gomez and Varon-de-Agudelo 1993;     |        |
| Calderón and Díaz 2002), Costa Rica (Watson 1971; Gomez and |        |
| Varon-de-Agudelo 1993; Calderón and Díaz 2002), Ecuador     |        |
| (Hernandez and Hennen 2003), Guatemala (Hernandez and       |        |
| Hennen 2003), Mexico (Romero Cova 1990; Hernandez and       |        |
| Hennen 2003), Peru (Hernandez and Hennen 2003), and Uruguay |        |
| (Hernandez and Hennen 2003). Based on its distribution, *P. |        |
| pampeana* would be able to establish populations in USDA    |        |
| Hardiness Zones 8-11 (**Figure 1**) (USDA 1990; Anonymous   |        |
| 2004).                                                      |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element 2: Host Range**                              | Medium |
|                                                             | (2)    |
| Rust fungi are generally host-specific, often causing       |        |
| disease on certain genera or even on certain cultivars      |        |
| (Agrios 1997). *Puccinia pampeana* has been reported on     |        |
| genera in the Solanaceae family, including *Acnistus        |        |
| arborescens* (L.) Schltdl., *A. breviflorus* Sendtn., *A.   |        |
| parviflorus* Griseb., *Acnistus* sp., *Capsicum annuum* L., |        |
| *C. baccatum* L., *C. ciliatum* (Kunth) Kuntze, *C.         |        |
| frutescens* L., *C. microcarpum* DC., *C. pendulum* Willd.  |        |
| (Hernandez and Hennen 2003); *Capsicum* sp. (Watson 1971;   |        |
| Gomez and Varon-de-Agudelo 1993; Calderón and Díaz 2002;    |        |
| Hernandez and Hennen 2003); *Cestrum* sp., *Dunalia         |        |
| breviflora* (Sendtn.) Sleumer, *D. lycioides* Miers,        |        |
| *Salpichroa diffusa* Miers, *S. origanifolia* (Lam.)        |        |
| Baill., *S. rhomboidea* (Hook.) Miers, *Salpichroa* sp.,    |        |
| *Solanum cyrtopodium* Dunal, *S. lycioides* L., *S.         |        |
| valdiviense* Dunal, *Solanum* sp. (Hernandez and Hennen     |        |
| 2003).                                                      |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential**                     | High   |
|                                                             | (3)    |
| *Puccinia pampeana* is autoecious (Figueiredo, Carvalho et  |        |
| al. 1994) and microcyclic (Ono 2002). Aecia/aeciospores and |        |
| uredinia/urediniospores are not seen (Figueiredo 2000;      |        |
| Hernandez and Hennen 2003). The fungus has a dimorphic      |        |
| telial state, producing *Endophyllum*-type and a            |        |
| *Puccinia*-type teliospores, both of which germinate to     |        |
| produce basidiospores (Ono 2002; Hernandez and Hennen       |        |
| 2003). *Endophyllum*-type teliospores germinate without     |        |
| dormancy, forming basidiospores within 4-5 hours and are    |        |
| responsible for rapid dissemination and increase in fungal  |        |
| population (Figueiredo, Pimentel et al. 1987; Figueiredo    |        |
| 2000). Multiple generations can occur in a year. The        |        |
| *Puccinia*-type teliospores become dormant, functioning as  |        |
| over-seasoning spores and may be the source for initial     |        |
| infection in field conditions (Figueiredo, Pimentel et al.  |        |
| 1987; Figueiredo 2000). There was no information regarding  |        |
| spore dispersal potential for this species. Spores of other |        |
| *Puccinia* species have the capability to be dispersed by   |        |
| rain splash, dew run-off, insects, and wind (Alexopoulos,   |        |
| Mims et al. 1996; Agrios 1997), and can disperse long       |        |
| distances in air currents, as seen with basidiospores of a  |        |
| related *Puccinia* sp. that dispersed a few hundred         |        |
| kilometers (Agrios 1997).                                   |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element 4: Economic Impact**                         | High   |
|                                                             | (3)    |
| The economic impact *P. pampeana* is unknown or not         |        |
| reported in the literature. Related *Puccinia* species      |        |
| cause significant reductions in yield and product quality   |        |
| (Wiese 1987; Alexopoulos, Mims et al. 1996; Agrios 1997),   |        |
| and require control through removal of alternate hosts,     |        |
| host resistance and/or chemical control (Agrios 1997). The  |        |
| presence of *P. pampeana* in the United States would most   |        |
| likely require chemical and cultural control, and may       |        |
| result foreign and domestic markets to be lost.             |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| **Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact**                    | High   |
|                                                             | (3)    |
| *Puccinia pampeana* could potentially attack plants listed  |        |
| as Threatened or Endangered in 50 CFR §17.12 (*e*.*g*.      |        |
| plants in the Solanaceae family, including: *Goetzea        |        |
| elegans* (Puerto Rico); *Nothocestrum breviflorum* and *N.  |        |
| peltatum* (Hawaii); *Solanum drymophilum* (Puerto Rico);    |        |
| and *S. incompletum* and *S. sandwicense* (Hawaii)), and    |        |
| control programs would undoubtedly be initiated if it were  |        |
| to be introduced into new areas of the United States,       |        |
| because it is a major pathogen of at least one economically |        |
| important crop (*Capsicum* sp.).                            |        |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+--------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: Andean potato mottle virus   | *     |
| (Comovirus)**                                                | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+==============================================================+=======+
| **Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction**                 | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| Andean potato mottle virus (APMoV) is reported to occur in   |       |
| South and Central America, including Brazil (Avila, Salazar  |       |
| et al. 1984), Bolivia, Costa Rica, Ecuador (CABI 2003),      |       |
| Honduras (Valverde, Black et al. 1995), Nicaragua (CABI      |       |
| 2003) and Peru (Fribourg, Jones et al. 1977). Based on the   |       |
| distribution, APMoV could potentially establish in USDA      |       |
| Hardiness Zones 8-12 (USDA 1990; Anonymous 2004). One or     |       |
| more of its potential hosts lives within this range          |       |
| (USDA-NRCS 2003).                                            |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 2: Host Range**                               | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| The host range of APMoV is restricted to the Solanaceae      | (2)   |
| family including: *Capsicum annuum*, *C*. *frutescens* (CABI |       |
| 2003; Pernezny, Roberts et al. 2003), *Lycopersicon          |       |
| chilense*, *Nicandra physaloides* (Valverde and Fulton       |       |
| 1996), *Nicotiana bigelovii* (Fribourg et al. 1977), *N*.    |       |
| *clevelandii* (Valverde and Fulton 1996), *Solanum           |       |
| melongena*, and *S*. *tuberosum* (CABI 2003; Pernezny et al. |       |
| 2003).                                                       |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential**                      | Low   |
|                                                              | (1)   |
| APMoV is vectored by the polyphageous beetles, *Diabrotica   |       |
| balteata* Leconte and *D. viridula* Fabricius                |       |
| (Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera), found in Central America,       |       |
| Caribbean, Mexico and southern states of the United States   |       |
| (Valverde, Black et al. 1995; Valverde and Fulton 1996).     |       |
| Other species of *Diabrotica* are also suspected to be       |       |
| vectors (Valverde and Fulton 1996). *Diabrotica* sp. would   |       |
| most likely not arrive with the commodity since adults are   |       |
| capable of flight and feed externally on fruit (MAG 1991;    |       |
| Granardos 2001; CABI 2003; UAQ 2003) and are likely to be    |       |
| removed by minimal processing of the commodity, thus         |       |
| populations already present within the United States would   |       |
| be responsible for the movement of the virus into the        |       |
| environment. APMoV is also transmitted through mechanical    |       |
| means and plant-to-plant contact (Fribourg, Jones et al.     |       |
| 1977; Pernezny, Roberts et al. 2003), but not through seed   |       |
| (Brunt, Crabtree et al. 1996 (onwards); CABI 2003; Pernezny, |       |
| Roberts et al. 2003).                                        |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 4: Economic Impact**                          | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| Economic losses caused by APMoV infection in solanaceous     |       |
| crops has not been specifically reported in the literature.  |       |
| APMoV is highly virulent, and is a concern for potato seed   |       |
| production regions (Avila, Salazar et al. 1984). Its         |       |
| presence in the United States may cause foreign and domestic |       |
| markets to be lost.                                          |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact**                     | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| APMoV could potentially attack plants listed as Threatened   |       |
| or Endangered in 50 CFR §17.12 (*e*.*g*. plants in the       |       |
| Solanaceae family, including: *Goetzea elegans* (Puerto      |       |
| Rico); *Nothocestrum breviflorum* and *N. peltatum*          |       |
| (Hawaii); *Solanum drymophilum* (Puerto Rico) and *S.        |       |
| incompletum* and *S. sandwicense* (Hawaii)), and control     |       |
| programs would undoubtedly be initiated if it were to be     |       |
| introduced into new areas of the United States, because it   |       |
| is a major pathogen of several economic crops (*e*.*g*.      |       |
| peppers, potatoes, and tomatoes).                            |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: Tomato yellow mosaic virus   | *     |
| (Geminivirus)**                                              | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+==============================================================+=======+
| **Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction**                 | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| Tomato yellow mosaic virus (ToYMV) has been reported in      |       |
| Venezuela (CABI 2003) and El Salvador (Castillo 2003). Based |       |
| on this distribution, ToYMV could potentially become         |       |
| established in USDA Hardiness Zones 9-13 (USDA 1990). One or |       |
| more of its potential hosts live within this range           |       |
| (USDA-NRCS 2003).                                            |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 2: Host Range**                               | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| Mainly solanaceous crops are infected by the virus:          | (2)   |
| *Lycopersicon esculentum* (CABI 2003), *L. hirsutum*, *L.    |       |
| pimpinellifolium* (Brunt, Crabtree et al. 1996 (onwards)),   |       |
| *Nicotiana glutinosa*, *Nicotiana tabacum* (Lastra and Gil   |       |
| 1981), *Solanum tuberosum* (CABI 2003), and *Solanum         |       |
| quitoense* (CABI 2003) (Solanaceae).                         |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential**                      | Low   |
|                                                              | (1)   |
| ToYMV is transmitted by *Bemisia tabaci* (Gennadius) but is  |       |
| typically not mechanical transmitted (de Uzcátegui and       |       |
| Lastra 1978; Lastra and Gil 1981). The virus is not          |       |
| transmitted by contact between plants, by seed or by pollen  |       |
| (Lastra and Uzcategui 1975; de Uzcátegui and Lastra 1978)    |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 4: Economic Impact**                          | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| ToYMV has caused serious losses, up to 90% in some cases, in |       |
| Venezuela on tomato (de Uzcátegui and Lastra 1978; Piven,    |       |
| Uzcategui et al. 1995). Tomato plants infected in the early  |       |
| stages of development may remain fruitless (Piven, Uzcategui |       |
| et al. 1995). Its presence in the United States could cause  |       |
| foreign and domestic markets to be lost.                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact**                     | High  |
|                                                              | (3)   |
| ToYMV could potentially attack plants listed as Threatened   |       |
| or Endangered in 50 CFR §17.12 (*e*.*g*. plants in the       |       |
| Solanaceae family, including: *Goetzea elegans* (Puerto      |       |
| Rico); *Nothocestrum breviflorum* and *N. peltatum*          |       |
| (Hawaii); *Solanum drymophilum* (Puerto Rico) and *S.        |       |
| incompletum* and *S. sandwicense* (Hawaii)), and control     |       |
| programs would undoubtedly be initiated if it were to be     |       |
| introduced into new areas of the United States, because it   |       |
| is a major pathogen of several economic crops (*e*.*g*.      |       |
| peppers and tomatoes).                                       |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc66599114 .anchor}Table 4. Risk Rating for
Consequences of Introduction.

+------------+--------+------+-------+-------+-----------+---------+
| **Pest**   | **     | **   | *     | **Eco | **Envi    | **Cum   |
|            | Climat | Host | *Disp | nomic | ronmental | ulative |
|            | e-Host | Ran  | ersal | Imp   | Impact**  | Risk    |
|            | I      | ge** | P     | act** |           | Rati    |
|            | nterac |      | otent |       |           | ng^1^** |
|            | tion** |      | ial** |       |           |         |
+------------+--------+------+-------+-------+-----------+---------+
| *          | Medium | High | High  | High  | High (3)  | High    |
| Anastrepha | (2)    | (3)  | (3)   | (3)   |           | (14)    |
| ludens*    |        |      |       |       |           |         |
+------------+--------+------+-------+-------+-----------+---------+
| *Ceratitis | High   | High | High  | High  | Medium    | High    |
| capitata*  | (3)    | (3)  | (3)   | (3)   | (2)       | (14)    |
+------------+--------+------+-------+-------+-----------+---------+
| *Faustinus | Medium | Low  | High  | Low   | Low       | Low (8) |
| ov         |        | (1)  | (3)   | (1)   |           |         |
| atipennis* | \(2\)  |      |       |       | \(1\)     |         |
+------------+--------+------+-------+-------+-----------+---------+
| *Liriomyza | High   | High | High  | High  | High (3)  | High    |
| hui        | (3)    | (3)  | (3)   | (3)   |           | (15)    |
| dobrensis* |        |      |       |       |           |         |
+------------+--------+------+-------+-------+-----------+---------+
| *Neo       | Medium | Me   | High  | High  | High (3)  | High    |
| leucinodes | (2)    | dium | (3)   | (3)   |           | (13)    |
| el         |        |      |       |       |           |         |
| egantalis* |        | \    |       |       |           |         |
|            |        | (2\) |       |       |           |         |
+------------+--------+------+-------+-------+-----------+---------+
| *Opogona   | High   | High | High  | High  | High (3)  | High    |
| sacchai*   | (3)    | (3)  | (3)   | (3)   |           | (15)    |
+------------+--------+------+-------+-------+-----------+---------+
| *P         | High   | High | High  | Low   | High (3)  | High    |
| henacoccus | (3)    | (3)  | (3)   | (1)   |           | (13)    |
| parvus*    |        |      |       |       |           |         |
+------------+--------+------+-------+-------+-----------+---------+
| *P         | High   | High | High  | High  | High (3)  | High    |
| lanococcus |        | (3)  | (3)   |       |           | (15)    |
| minor*     | \(3\)  |      |       | \(3\) |           |         |
+------------+--------+------+-------+-------+-----------+---------+
| *Thrips    | Medium | High | High  | High  | High (3)  | High    |
| palmi*     |        | (3)  | (3)   | (3)   |           | (14)    |
|            | \(2\)  |      |       |       |           |         |
+------------+--------+------+-------+-------+-----------+---------+
| *Puccinia  | High   | Me   | High  | High  | High (3)  | High    |
| pampeana*  | (3)    | dium | (3)   | (3)   |           | (14)    |
|            |        | (2)  |       |       |           |         |
+------------+--------+------+-------+-------+-----------+---------+
| Andean     | High   | Me   | Low   | High  | High (3)  | Medium  |
| potato     | (3)    | dium | (1)   | (3)   |           | (12)    |
| mottle     |        | (2)  |       |       |           |         |
| virus      |        |      |       |       |           |         |
+------------+--------+------+-------+-------+-----------+---------+
| Tomato     | High   | Me   | Low   | High  | High (3)  | Medium  |
| Yellow     | (3)    | dium | (1)   | (3)   |           | (12)    |
| Mosaic     |        | (2)  |       |       |           |         |
| Virus      |        |      |       |       |           |         |
+------------+--------+------+-------+-------+-----------+---------+

^1^Cumulative risk rating value is defined as Low (5-8 points); Medium
(9-12 points); or High (13-15 points) (USDA 2000).

### Likelihood of Introduction---Quantity Imported and Pest Opportunity {#likelihood-of-introductionquantity-imported-and-pest-opportunity .Heading3PRA}

Each pest is rated with respect to likelihood of introduction, which is
a function of the quantity to be imported and the pest opportunity
(**Table 6**). First, an estimate is made concerning the amount of
commodity likely to be imported. Second, pest opportunity is estimated
using five biological features: ability of the pest to survive post
harvest treatment; ability of the pest to survive shipment; ability of
the pest to be detected at the port of entry; ability of the pest to
move to an area with an environment suitable for survival, and the
chance that the pest would come in contact with host material (USDA
2000). The biological features should be considered as a series of
independent events that must all take place before a pest outbreak can
occur, *i.e.*, the estimates for one element should not affect estimates
for other elements. The following scale is used to interpret the
summation between the amount to be imported and pest opportunity: Low is
6-9 points, Medium is 10-14 points, and High is 15-18 points.

**Quantity of commodity imported annually**

The government of Costa Rica estimates that the export volume of fresh
pepper fruit for consumption to the United States would average 6,000
metric tons per year (Gonzalez 2003), which equates to 300 40-ft.
containers based on the conversion factor of 20 metric tons per 40-foot
shipping container (**Table 5**) (Cargo Systems 2001).

The government of El Salvador estimates that the export of pepper fruit
(*C. annuum*) for consumption to the United States would total 450
metric tons/month, or 5,400 metric tons/year (**Table 5**) (Castillo
2003). This translates into 270 40-foot shipping containers per year
based on a conversion factor of 20 metric tons per 40-foot shipping
container (Cargo Systems 2001).

The government of Guatemala estimates that the export of peppers (*C.
annuum*, *C. frutescens*, and *Capsicum* spp. with sepals, peduncles and
shafts) to the United States for consumption would total 11,240 metric
tons per year packed in cardboard boxes or wooden crates (**Table 5**)
(Aldana 2003). This converts into a predicted volume of approximately
562 standard 40-foot shipping containers per year based on the above
conversion factor.

The government of Honduras estimates that the export of peppers (*C.
annuum*) to the United States for consumption would total 3,000 metric
tons per year (250 metric tons/month) packed in cardboard boxes (**Table
5**) (Puerto 2003). This converts into a predicted volume of
approximately 150 standard 40-foot shipping containers per year (12.5
containers/month) based on the above conversion factor.

The government of Nicaragua estimates that the export of peppers (about
88% as *Capsicum annuum* and 12% as *C. frutescens*) for consumption to
the United States would total 5,400 metric tons per year (450 metric
tons/month) packed in cardboard boxes enclosed with at least a 17 net
mesh (**Table 5**) (Fonseca 2003; Fonseca 2003). This translates into a
predicted volume of approximately 270 standard 40-foot shipping
containers a year based on the above conversion.

The cumulative total for the quantity to be imported from these Central
American countries was assigned a risk rating of High in accordance with
the template document, *Guidelines for Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk
Assessment*, *Version 5*.*02* (USDA 2000).

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc66599115 .anchor}Table 5. Estimated volume of
*Capsicum* fruit to be exported to the U.S. for consumption.

  -------------- ------------ ---------- ------------ ------------ ---------------
  **Country**    **Volume per **Volume   **40-ft      **40-ft      **Reference**
                 month        per year   shipping     shipping     
                 (metric      (metric    containers   containers   
                 tons) ^6,^   tons)      per month    per year     
                 ^7^**        ^6^**      ^6,\ 7^**    ^6^**        

  Costa Rica^1^  500          6,000      25           300          (Gonzalez 2003)

  El Salvador^2^ 450          5,400      22.5         270          (Castillo 2003)

  Guatemala^3^   936          11,240     46.8         562          (Aldana 2003)

  Honduras^4^    250          3,000      12.5         150          (Puerto 2003)

  Nicaragua^5^   450          5,400      22.5         270          (Fonseca 2003)

  Total          2,586        31,040     129          1552         
  -------------- ------------ ---------- ------------ ------------ ---------------

^1^ Costa Rica provided the estimated metric tons to be exported per
year.

^2^ El Salvador provided the estimated monthly weight to be exported.

^3^ Guatemala provided an estimate of the number of boxes (a box holds
12.8 kg of pepper, except for the Holandés-type pepper where a box holds
5 kg) to be exported per year for 4 types of pepper. These volumes were
summed and converted to metric tons.

^4^ Honduras provided the monthy weight to be exported.

^5^ Nicaragua provided a monthly weight to be exported.

^6^ The following formulas were used to convert volume per month to
volume per year and vice versa; and to convert volume to the number of
40-ft. shipping containers. Metric tons per month = (metric tons per
year / 12 months per year); Metric tons per year = (metric tons per
month \* 12 months per year); Shipping containers per month = (metric
tons per month / 20 metric tons per 40 ft. shipping container) (Cargo
Systems 2001); Shipping containers per year = (metric tons per year / 20
metric tons per 40-ft. shipping container) (Cargo Systems 2001).

^7^ The monthly volume is an estimate since production volume will have
seasonal fluctuations.

**Survive post-harvest treatment:** For this sub-element, post-harvest
treatment refers to any manipulation, handling or specific phytosanitary
treatment to which the commodity is subjected. Examples of post-harvest
treatments include culling, washing, chemical treatment, cold storage,
etc.

Arthropods that feed internally were expected to survive minimal
post-harvest treatments, such as washing and culling. The flies, *A.
ludens*, *C*. *capitata* and *L*. *huidobrensis*, the moths, *N*.
*elegantalis* and *O. sacchari,*, and the weevil, *F*. *ovatipennis*,
were therefore rated High for this sub-element.

External feeding arthropods would have a lower probability of surviving
postharvest treatment than internal feeding arthropods. However, minute
arthropods like mealybugs and thrips may survive post-harvest treatment
by hiding in recesses on the fruit (*e*.*g*. the calyx) (Lewis 1997;
CABI 2003). For these reasons, the mealybugs, *P. parvus* and *P*.
*minor*, and the thrips, *T*. *palmi*, were given a risk rating of
Medium.

*Puccinia pampeana* produces subepidermal fungal structures (Figueiredo,
Pimentel et al. 1987; Figueiredo 2000) which are expected to survival
minimal post-harvest treatments. The *Puccinia*-type teliospores can
remain viable for a long time (Figueiredo, Pimentel et al. 1987). While
washing or other debris removal may occur, there is no evidence
suggesting that this will eliminate latent infection. *Puccinia
pampeana* was given a risk rating of High for this sub-element.

Both the APMoV and ToYMV cause systemic infection (Lastra and Gil 1981;
CABI 2003) and would survive post-harvest treatments on the commodity
(Matthews 1992; Agrios 1997). Both viruses were given a risk rating of
High.

**Survive shipment:** Fresh peppers are typically stored at 4ºC and 95%
relative humidity (CABI 2003). If these conditions were maintained while
transporting the commodity via a modern cargo ship, which should take
about 2.5 days to travel from Costa Rica to Miami, Florida, assuming
fair weather, a distance of 1,118 miles and a constant speed of 16
knots, some individuals of each pest would likely survive. For example,
the USDA currently recommends that fruit be stored at 0ºC for 12 days to
kill all *C*. *capitata* larvae (USDA 2002). The fungal pathogen *P.
pampeana* and the two viruses APMoV and ToYMV can be found in the
sub-epidermal layers or become systemic (Lastra and Gil 1981;
Figueiredo, Pimentel et al. 1987; Hernandez and Hennen 2003; Pernezny,
Roberts et al. 2003), surviving shipment within the tissue of pepper
fruit and stems. In addition, *Puccinia*-type teliospores of *P.
pampeana* may survive shipping conditions in a dormant state (Figueiredo
2000). All species were therefore assigned a High risk rating for this
sub-element.

**Not be detected at the port of entry:** The probability that an
arthropod pest is detected at the port of entry is a function of their
size and degree of concealment. Because internal feeders are well
concealed, they have a high probability of escaping detection.
*Anastrepha ludens*, *C. capitata*, *F*. *ovatipennis*, *L*.
*huidobrensis* and *N*. *elegantalis* and *O. sacchari* were therefore
given high risk ratings for this sub-element. Although external feeders
are more likely to be detected at the port of entry than internal
feeders, minute pests, especially if hidden in the calyx of fruit or in
packing material, are unlikely to be noticed. *Planococcus minor*, *P*.
*parvus* and *T*. *palmi* were therefore also given a pest risk rating
of High.

Infection sites with signs of sporulation, leaf and stem lesions and
rotting fruit are easily identified (Agrios, 1997) at the port of entry,
but latent infections and the presence of spores adhering to the fruit
or packing materials are likely to go undetected. The spores of *P.
pampeana*, if present, are likely to remain viable, and the
*Puccinia*-type teliospores can remain dormant (Figueiredo, Pimentel et
al. 1987; Figueiredo 2000). Under the circumstances, the rating for this
risk element is Medium.

APMoV and ToYMV symptoms vary depending on the host and cultivar
infected (Piven, Uzcategui et al. 1995; Pernezny, Roberts et al. 2003).
On pepper, APMoV causes mottling (CABI 2003; Pernezny, Roberts et al.
2003), and ToYMV causes mosaic-type symptoms on several hosts (de
Uzcátegui and Lastra 1978; Roberts, Buck et al. 1986). APMoV can reach a
high titer in the plant which can remain symptomless (Pernezny, Roberts
et al. 2003). ToYMV can also be present in a symptomless plant (Piven,
Uzcategui et al. 1995). Symptoms can sometimes be mistaken for abiotic
problems, such as natural genetic variation, nutritional deficiency,
temperature or other environmental factor. Diagnosis can be confirmed
through serological testing (Matthews 1992; Agrios 1997; Pernezny,
Roberts et al. 2003). Both viruses were given a risk rating of Medium.

**Imported or moved subsequently to an area with an environment suitable
for survival:**

Peppers have widespread acceptance among consumers in the United States,
which means that markets exist in all parts of the United States, and
infested or infected fruits are likely to arrive in areas that are
suitable for pest survival. Risk ratings for this sub-element were
therefore based on the area of the United States in which each pest
could potentially establish.

*Liriomyza huidobrensis* was rated High because it could potentially
establish in USDA Hardiness Zones 7-11, which represents an estimated
50% of the United States. *Anastrepha ludens*, *C. capitata*, *N.
elegantalis*, *O*. *sacchari*, *P*. *minor*, *P*. *parvus* and *T*.
*palmi* were rated Medium because they could potentially establish in
USDA Hardiness Zones 8-11 or 9-11, which represent less than an
estimated 33% of the United States. *Faustinus ovatipennis* was rated
Low because it could potentially establish in USDA Hardiness Zones
10-11, which represent an estimated 10% of the United States.

*Puccinia pampeana* could potentially survive in US Plant Hardiness
Zones 8-11 (USDA 1990), which represents less than an estimated 33% of
the US. Under these circumstances the rating for this risk element is
Medium.

The viruses APMoV and ToYMV were rated Medium because they could
potentially establish in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 8-12 and 9-13,
respectively, which represents less than an estimated 33% of the US.

**Come into contact with host material suitable for reproduction:** Even
if the final destination of infested commodities is conducive for pest
survival, suitable hosts must be available in order for the pest to
survive.

Polyphagous pests or those that utilize very common hosts and were
capable of long distance aerial dispersal (*i*.*e*. *A. ludens*, *C*.
*capitata*, *L*. *huidobrensis*, *N*. *elegantalis*, *O*. *sacchari* and
*T*. *palmi*) were considered likely to come into contact with suitable
hosts and were assigned a pest risk rating of High for this sub-element.
The remaining pests (*i*.*e*. *F*. *ovatipennis*, *P*. *parvus* and *P*.
*minor*) were given pest risk ratings of Medium because they were not
capable of long distance aerial dispersal.

The dispersal potential for *P. pampeana* is not known, however related
*Puccinia* species are capable of long distance aerial dispersal
(Alexopoulos, Mims et al. 1996; Agrios 1997). Rust fungi are generally
host-specific, causing disease which is limited to certain host genera,
species or even cultivars (Agrios 1997). *Puccinia pampeana* is reported
to occur on 6 genera and 17 species within the Solanaceae family. Four
of the host species occur in the United States, two limited to the
southern tier states (*S. origanifolia* and *S. rhomboidea*), one found
in Puerto Rico and Hawaii (*A. arborescens*) and one that is widespread
(*C. annuum*) (USDA 2004). The fungus was given a risk rating of Medium
under these circumstances.

APMoV is vectored by species of *Diabrotica* and is mechanically
transmitted but is not transmitted by seed (Pernezny, Roberts et al.
2003). *Diabrotica* spp. would have to come in contact with infected
fruit when it arrives in the United States (since it would most likely
not arrive with the commodity), acquire the virus by feeding on infected
fruit and then disperse to a host in the environment (CABI 2003;
Pernezny, Roberts et al. 2003). ToYMV is vector transmitted (*Bemisia
tabaci*), not easily mechanically transmitted and is not transmitted
through seed (de Uzcátegui and Lastra 1978; Piven, Uzcategui et al.
1995). Both viruses have a limited host range, affecting mostly plants
within the Solanaceae family. These viruses were given a risk rating of
Low.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc66599116 .anchor}Table 6. Summary of the ratings
for the quantity imported annually, the pest opportunity, and the value
for the Likelihood of Introduction.

  ---------------- ---------- -------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- --------------
  Pest             Quantity   Ratings for                                                Likelihood of
                   Imported   Pest                                                       Introduction
                   Annually   Opportunity                                                Value

                              Survive        Survive    Not        Moved to   Contact    
                              Post-harvest   Shipment   Detected   Suitable   with Host  
                              Treatment                 at Port of Habitat    Material   
                                                        Entry                            

  *Anastrepha      High (3)   High (3)       High (3)   High (3)   Medium (2) High (3)   High (17)
  ludens*                                                                                

  *Ceratitis       High (3)   High (3)       High (3)   High (3)   Medium (2) High (3)   High (17)
  capitata*                                                                              

  *Faustinus       High (3)   High (3)       High (3)   High (3)   Low (1)    Medium (2) High (15)
  ovatipennis*                                                                           

  *Liriomyza       High (3)   High (3)       High (3)   High (3)   High (3)   High (3)   High (18)
  huidobrensis*                                                                          

  *Neoleucinodes   High (3)   High (3)       High (3)   High (3)   Medium (2) High (3)   High (17)
  elegantalis*                                                                           

  *Opogona         High (3)   High (3)       High (3)   High (3)   Medium (2) High (3)   High (17)
  sacchari*                                                                              

  *Phenacoccus     High (3)   Medium (2)     High (3)   High (3)   Medium (2) Medium (2) High (15)
  parvus*                                                                                

  *Planococcus     High (3)   Medium (2)     High (3)   High (3)   Medium (2) Medium (2) High (15)
  minor*                                                                                 

  *Thrips palmi*   High (3)   Medium (2)     High (3)   High (3)   Medium (2) High (3)   High (16)

  *Puccinia        High (3)   High (3)       High (3)   Medium (2) Medium (2) Medium (2) High (15)
  pampeana*                                                                              

  Andean Potato    High (3)   High (3)       High (3)   Medium (2) Medium (2) Low (1)    Medium (14)
  Mottle Virus                                                                           

  Tomato Yellow    High (3)   High (3)       High (3)   Medium (2) Medium (2) Low (1)    Medium (14)
  Mosaic Virus                                                                           
  ---------------- ---------- -------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- --------------

## F. Conclusion: Pest Risk Potential 

Pest Risk Potentials, which are summations of the Consequences of
Introduction and Likelihood of Introduction values, are recorded in
**Table 7**. Pest Risk Potential is an estimation of the risk associated
with importation of the commodity in the absence of any mitigative
measures. The summation results in the following Pest Risk Potential
ratings: Low (11-18 points); Medium (19-26 points); and High (27-33
points). According to the template document, *Guidelines for
Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessments, Version 5*.*02* (USDA 2000),
port of entry inspection provides sufficient phytosanitary security for
pests assigned low pest risk potentials, while specific phytosanitary
measures may be necessary for pests assigned medium pest risk potentials
and are strongly recommended for pests assigned high pest risk
potentials.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc66599117 .anchor}

Table 7. Pest Risk Potential.

  ----------------- ----------------- ----------------- -----------------
  **Pest**          **Consequences of **Likelihood of   **Pest Risk
                    Introduction**    Introduction**    Potential^1^**

  *Anastrepha       High (14)         High (17)         High (31)
  ludens*                                               

  *Ceratitis        High (15)         High (17)         High (32)
  capitata*                                             

  *Faustinus        Low (8)           High (15)         Medium (23)
  ovatipennis*                                          

  *Liriomyza        High (15)         High (18)         High (33)
  huidobrensis*                                         

  *Neoleucinodes    High (13)         High (17)         High (30)
  elegantalis*                                          

  *Opogona          High (15)         High (17)         High (32)
  sacchari*                                             

  *Phenacoccus      High (13)         High (15)         High (28)
  parvus*                                               

  *Planococcus      High (15)         High (15)         High (30)
  minor*                                                

  *Thrips palmi*    High (14)         High (16)         High (30)
  ^2^                                                   

  *Puccinia         High (14)         High (15)         High (29)
  pampeana*                                             

  Andean potato     Medium (12)       Medium (14)       Medium (26)
  mottle virus                                          

  Tomato yellow     Medium (12)       Medium (14)       Medium (26)
  mosaic virus                                          
  ----------------- ----------------- ----------------- -----------------

^1^ Pest Risk Potential rating is defined as Low (11-18 points); Medium
(19-26 points); or High (27-33 points) (USDA 2000).

^2^ *Thrips palmi* is established in the United States and is not under
official control, thus the Pest Risk Potential has been down rated from
a High to a Medium in this document

The choice of appropriate measures to mitigate risks is part of the Risk
Management within APHIS and is not addressed in this document. However,
mitigation should only be developed for *Anastrepha ludens* on *Capsicum
pubescens* because records of *A*. *ludens* using the fruit of other
*Capsicum* species as hosts are artificial (*i.e.* forced laboratory
infestations).

**Figure 1: Climatic Zones Map (USDA 1990).**

![](media/image1.png){width="5.301968503937008in"
height="4.116535433070866in"}

# Appendix 1. Pest interceptions on *Capsicum* spp. from Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua at U.S. ports of entry between January 1, 1985 and September, 10, 2003.

  ----------------------- -------------------- ---------------- ---------------
  **Organism**            **Host (plant part   **Location of    **Number of
                          affected)**          interception**   interceptions
                                                                ^1^**

  **Costa Rica**                                                

  Agromyzidae, species of *Capsicum annuum*    Stores           1

  Anthomyiidae, species   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  *Anthonomus* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          4
                          (fruit)                               

  *Anthonomus* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Stores           1
                          (fruit)                               

  Coleoptera, species of  *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Curculionidae, species  *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  Gelechiidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Lonchaeidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          3
                          (fruit)                               

  *Neoleucinodes          *Capsicum* sp.       Stores           1
  elegantalis*            (fruit)                               

  Olethreutinae, species  *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                                                            

  Pentatomidae, species   *Capsicum* sp.       Permit cargo     1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  Pseudococcidae, species *Capsicum* sp.       Permit cargo     1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  *Solenopsis* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  **El Salvador**                                               

  Agromyzidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          2
                          (leaf)                                

  *Amorbia* sp.           *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Anastrepha* sp.        *Capsicum annuum*    Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Anthonomus* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          7
                          (fruit)                               

  *Anthonomus* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1

  Aphididae, species of   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Aphididae, species of   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Asphondylia* sp.       *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Ceratitis capitata*    *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Contarinia* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1

  Curculionidae, species  *Capsicum annuum*    Stores           1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  Curculionidae, species  *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          3
  of                      (fruit)                               

  Curculionidae, species  *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                                                            

  Diptera, species of     *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          5
                          (fruit)                               

  Diptera, species of     *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1

  *Ecdytolopha* sp.       *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Gelechiidae, species of *Capsicum annuum*    Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Gelechiidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          3
                          (fruit)                               

  Gelechiidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Stores           1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Gnorimoschema* sp.     *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Gracillariidae, species *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  Insecta, species of     *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (leaf)                                

  Lepidoptera, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Lonchaeidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          2
                          (fruit)                               

  Membracidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1

  *Neoleucinodes          *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  elegantalis*            (leaf)                                

  Noctuidae, species of   *Capsicum annuum*    Baggage          1

  Noctuidae, species of   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1

  Phlaeothripidae,        *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  species of              (leaf)                                

  Pseudococcidae, species *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  Pseudococcidae, species *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                                                            

  *Schizomyia* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (leaf)                                

  Tephritidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Thripidae, species of   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          3
                          (fruit)                               

  Tortricidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1

  **Guatemala**                                                 

  *Altica* sp.            *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Amorbia* sp.           *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Anastrepha* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1

  *Anastrepha* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1

  *Anthonomus* sp.        *Capsicum annuum*    Stores           1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Anthonomus* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          24
                          (fruit)                               

  *Anthonomus* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Stores           2
                          (fruit)                               

  *Anthonomus* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Stores           1

  Aphididae, species of   *Capsicum pubescens* Baggage          1

  Aphididae, species of   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          4
                          (fruit)                               

  Aphididae, species of   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Aphididae, species of   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          2

  *Asphondylia* sp.       *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          3
                          (fruit)                               

  *Atherigona* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1

  Cecidomyiidae, species  *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  Cicadellidae, species   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  *Cladosporium* sp.      *Capsicum annuum*    Baggage          2

  Coccidae, species of    *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Contarinia* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          2
                          (fruit)                               

  *Copitarsia* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Stores           1
                          (fruit)                               

  Curculionidae, species  *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          8
  of                      (fruit)                               

  *Dasineura* sp.         *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Diaspididae,species of  *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Diptera, species of     *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          2
                          (fruit)                               

  *Ecdytolopha* sp.       *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Eurytoma* sp.          *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Frankliniella* sp.     *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Gelechiidae, species of *Capsicum annuum*    Baggage          2

  Gelechiidae, species of *Capsicum            Baggage          1
                          frutescens* (fruit)                   

  Gelechiidae, species of *Capsicum            Baggage          1
                          frutescens*                           

  Gelechiidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          26
                          (fruit)                               

  Gelechiidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1

  *Gnorimoschema* sp.     *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          4
                          (fruit)                               

  Heteroptera, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1

  Lepidoptera, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          2
                          (fruit)                               

  *Leucinodes orbonalis*  *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1

  Lonchaeidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          19
                          (fruit)                               

  Lonchaeidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Stores           1
                          (fruit)                               

  Miridae, species of     *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Neoleucinodes          *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  elegantalis*            (fruit)                               

  *Neoleucinodes          *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  elegantalis*                                                  

  Noctuidae, species of   *Capsicum annuum*    Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Noctuidae, species of   *Capsicum* sp.       Stores           1
                          (fruit)                               

  Oecophoridae, species   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                                                            

  *Orphulella punctata*   *Capsicum* sp.       General cargo    1
                          (fruit)                               

  Pentatomidae, species   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  Pentatomidae, species   *Capsicum* sp.       Permit cargo     1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  Phycitinae, species of  *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Pseudococcidae, species *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  Pyralidae, species of   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          2
                          (fruit)                               

  Pyralidae, species of   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Pyraustinae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Pyraustinae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1

  *Symmetrischema* sp.    *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1

  Tettigoniidae, species  *Capsicum* sp.       Permit cargo     1
  of                      (leaf)                                

  Tortricidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          2
                          (fruit)                               

  Tortricidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1

  Tortricidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          2
                          (fruit)                               

  **Honduras**                                                  

  *Anthonomus* sp.        *Capsicum annuum*    Baggage          2
                          (fruit)                               

  *Anthonomus* sp.        *Capsicum annuum*    Stores           1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Anthonomus* sp.        *Capsicum            Stores           2
                          frutescens* (fruit)                   

  *Anthonomus* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          2
                          (fruit)                               

  *Anthonomus* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Stores           3
                          (fruit)                               

  *Anthonomus* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Stores           1

  Aphididae, species of   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (leaf)                                

  *Blapstinus* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Permit cargo     1
                          (fruit)                               

  Cecidomyiidae, species  *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  *Conocephalus* sp.      *Capsicum* sp.       Permit cargo     1

  Curculionidae, species  *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  Curculionidae, species  *Capsicum* sp.       Stores           1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  Diptera, species of     *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          4
                          (fruit)                               

  Gelechiidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Geometridae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Geometridae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Permit cargo     1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Ips* sp.               *Capsicum* sp.       General cargo    1
                          (crating)                             

  *Listronotus* sp.       *Capsicum* sp.       General cargo    1

  Lonchaeidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          2
                          (fruit)                               

  Noctuidae, species of   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Noctuidae, species of   *Capsicum* sp.       Stores           1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Pulvinaria* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Pyralidae, species of   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Tetranychus* sp.       *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Tortricidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  **Nicaragua**                                                 

  Anthomyiidae, species   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  *Anthonomus* sp.        *Capsicum annuum*    Stores           1
                          (fruit)                               

  *Anthonomus* sp.        *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Chrysomelidae, species  *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  Diptera, species of     *Capsicum annuum*    Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Gelechiidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Lonchaeidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
                          (fruit)                               

  Lonchaeidae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1

  *Neoleucinodes          *Capsicum annuum*    Baggage          1
  elegantalis*            (fruit)                               

  Pentatomidae, species   *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  Pterophoridae, species  *Capsicum* sp.       Baggage          1
  of                      (fruit)                               

  Pyraustinae, species of *Capsicum* sp.       Permit cargo     1
  ----------------------- -------------------- ---------------- ---------------

> ^1^ Interception records obtained from the PIN309 Data System (USDA
> 2003)

# Appendix II. Weed Evaluations for *Capsicum annuum* L., *C. baccatum* L., *C. chinense* Jacq., *C. frutescens* L. and *C. pubescens* Ruiz & Pav. 

***Capsicum annuum*** Linnaeus

**Pepper**

[]{.mark}

**Taxonomy**

Class: Dicotyledonae

Order: Solanales

Family: Solanaceae

Species: *Capsicum annuum* Linnaeus

**Introduction**

*C. annuum* is an important commodity that is widely cultivated
throughout the world including in the United States (CABI 2003). Its
fruit is used as a condiment in many foods, while the plants are used
decoratively in home landscapes. Because of *C. annuum*'s long history
of domestication (Eshbaugh 1993), many different varieties, with varying
pod shape, pod size, fruit color and pungency have been developed,
including pungent and nonpungent types. Several ancestral or wild type
varieties also occur throughout its native range in the western
hemisphere (Tewksbury, Nabhan et al. 1999).

Of the five domesticated species of *Capsicum* (*C. annuum*, *C.
frutescens*, *C. chinense*, *C. baccatum* and *C. pubescens*), *C.
annuum* is the most widely cultivated species. Together, production of
all five species exceeds that of any other spice (Pernezny, Roberts et
al. 2003). After his discovery of *C. annuum* on his first voyage,
Columbus distributed it around the world where it was rapidly
incorporated into local foods (Bosland 1996). The genus *Capsicum* is
named after the compound capsaicin which gives the plants their
peppery--spicy taste. This compound has been used as a pain reliever
(Bosland and Votava. 2000; Frerick, Keitel et al. 2003) and an
antibiotic (Chichewicz and Thorpe 1996).

**Weed Status and Invasiveness**

*C. annuum* is native to Central and South America, as well as the
southern portions of the United States. In Florida, the native variety
is *C. annuum* var. *glabriusculum* (bird pepper), while in Arizona it
is *C. annuum* var. *aviculare* (bird pepper, chiltepines). Due to their
increasing rarity in Arizona, wild populations have been designated as a
species of special status (Tewksbury, Nabhan et al. 1999). *Capsicum
annuum* has been reported as a weed and naturalized species in
Australia, India, Indonesia, Finland and New Zealand (Holm, Pancho et
al. 1991; Randall 2002). It is believed that it may have been introduced
to Puerto Rico by Indians prior to Columbus' discovery of the New World
(Francis No Date). The only report of *C. annuum* potentially being a
significant weed is from Puerto Rico where it is reported as "common but
scattered in early secondary forests" and occasionally forming small
thickets (Francis No Date). Nevertheless, aside from this single report,
nonnative cultivated populations of *C. annuum* may still represent a
significant threat to native wild populations through introgression and
hybridization. Conservation of local genetic diversity is not only
important to maintain the adaptive fitness of local populations, but is
also important for genetic improvement of domesticated forms of crops
(Tewksbury, Nabhan et al. 1999). Two other species in the genus
*Capsicum* have been described as weedy species (Randall 2002).

**Relevant Biology / Ecology**

There are a plethora of varieties of *C. annuum*. Flowers range from
greenish-white or yellowish-white, with blue, violate or yellow anthers
(Francis No Date). Fruits vary tremendously in size, color and shape.
Birds, which are insensitive to the pungent chemicals of *Capsicum* will
readily eat the fruits and disperse the seeds, of at least the wild
(Francis No Date) and perhaps some of the small fruited cultivated
forms. In the arid southwestern U.S., birds are important in directed
dispersal of seeds to favorable recruitment sites underneath nurse
plants (Tewksbury, Nabhan et al. 1999).

Many taxonomic issues plague the genus *Capsicum*, including concerns
regarding species delineation (Walsh and Hoot 2001). Muddling these
issues even further is that five species have been domesticated to a
lesser or greater extent and then moved about Central and South America.
Cultivars of different species have been selected for similar traits
within regions, but different traits among regions (Eshbaugh 1993).
Furthermore, multiple common names are shared among the different
cultivars and species (Bosland 1996). Previous studies have established
that of the five domesticated species, two of them are clearly distinct
species: *C. baccatum* and *C. pubescens*. However the other three
species, *C. frutescens*, *C. annuum* and *C. chinense* may or may not
be distinct species. The cultivars of these three taxa are easily
distinguished, but the wild ancestral populations are similar and
hybridize (Eshbaugh 1993). The ease with which these species hybridize
has been confirmed with plant crossing trials (Eshbaugh 1993). A recent
phylogenetic study using DNA sequences established that these three taxa
can be distinguished based on molecular markers and warrant species
status (Walsh and Hoot 2001).

**Current and Potential Distribution in the United States**

*C. annuum* is a tropical species of the American tropics that is
intolerant of freezing temperatures (Francis No Date). Non-domesticated
forms of *C. annuum* are native to the southern U.S., including Florida
and Arizona. Escapees of cultivated forms of *C. annuum* from private
gardens and commercial plantings have likely increased the species'
overall distribution in the U.S. *Capsicum annuum* is unlikely to
establish and persist in most of the U.S., unless it starts behaving as
an annual species with an over wintering seed bank.

**Potential Impact of Importation**

Associated with the importation of commodities and products, there is
some risk of simultaneously importing pests and pathogens with those
commodities. These pests and pathogens may pose a threat to closely
related native species or to U.S. agriculture, forestry and/or
environment if similar or suitable hosts occur in the U.S. As of
February 2004, there were no species of *Capsicum* listed as federally
endangered or threatened, listed as candidate species or proposed for
listing (USFWS 2004). The following sources are good sources for
information on the pests and pathogens of *C. annuum*: (Peet 2003;
Pernezny, Roberts et al. 2003).

The genetic composition of native populations and varieties of *C.
annuum* may be altered if imported *C. annuum* establishes near native
populations and interbreeds with native plants. Introgression of foreign
genes (*i*.*e*., genetic invasion) has the potential to disrupt locally
adapted gene complexes of native populations of *C. annuum* and lead to
a loss of local fitness. Introgression and hybridization associated with
biological invasions have been recognized as a significant threat to
native species (Rhymer and Simberloff 1996; Sakai, Allendorf et al.
2001).

Anthony L. Koop

USDA, Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

1730 Varsity Drive, Third Floor, #387S

Raleigh, N.C. 27606

Last updated: March 1, 2004

***Capsicum baccatum***

**Aji**

**Taxonomy**

Class: Dicotyledonae

Order: Solanales

Family: Solanaceae

Species: *Capsicum baccatum* L.

**Introduction**

*Capsicum baccatum* is an important commodity in South America,
especially in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and Chile. Ranging from coast to
coast, its center of diversity appears to be in Bolivia (Eshbaugh 1993).
The cultivated variety, *C. baccatum* var. *pendulum* is very similar to
its wild type *C. baccatum* var. *baccatum*. Although *C. baccatum* may
have as many different pod types and flavors as the more common *C.
annuum*, it probably never reached global popularity as *C. annuum* due
to the latter's earlier distribution by the Spanish (Eshbaugh 1993). Of
the approximately 20-27 species in the *Capsicum* genus (Walsh and Hoot
2001), five have been domesticated: *C. frutescens*, *C. annuum*, *C.
chinense*, *C. baccatum* and *C. pubescens* (CABI 2003). *Capsicum
baccatum* can be distinguished from other *Capsicum* species by its
creamed colored flowers that have gold, green or tan corolla markings.

The genus *Capsicum* is named after the compound capsaicin which gives
the plants their peppery--spicy taste. This compound has been used as a
pain reliever (Bosland and Votava. 2000; Frerick, Keitel et al. 2003)
and an antibiotic (Chichewicz and Thorpe 1996). It is also the main
ingredient in mace pepper sprays (Francis No Date). Together, the five
cultivated species of *Capsicum* represent an important agricultural
commodity (CABI 2003), with production exceeding that of any other spice
(Pernezny, Roberts et al. 2003).

**Weed Status and Invasiveness**

Although *C. baccatum* is listed as a weed in Trinidad and Brazil (Holm,
Pancho et al. 1991; Randall 2002) and present in natural areas of the
Galapagos Islands, it has not been reported as an aggressive invader of
either natural- or agroecosystems. Two other species in the genus
*Capsicum* have been described as weedy species (Randall 2002).

**Relevant Biology / Ecology**

Many taxonomic issues plague the genus *Capsicum*, including concerns
regarding species delineation (Walsh and Hoot 2001). Muddling these
issues even further is that five species have been domesticated to a
lesser or greater extent and then moved about Central and South America.
Cultivars of different species have been selected for similar traits
within regions, but different traits among regions (Eshbaugh 1993).
Furthermore, multiple common names are shared among the different
cultivars and species (Bosland 1996). Previous studies have established
that of the five domesticated species, two of them are clearly distinct
species: *C. baccatum* and *C. pubescens*. However the other three
species, *C. frutescens*, *C. annuum* and *C. chinense* may or may not
be distinct species.

**Current and Potential Distribution in the United States**

*C. baccatum* is a lowland to mid-elevational species of the South
American tropics and is intolerant of freezing temperatures. It can be
grown as a warm season crop in colder regions. *Capsicum baccatum* is
unlikely to become a weed in most of the U.S because of its cold
sensitivity. Potential areas where it could establish include Florida,
the extreme southwest, Hawaii and Puerto Rico.

**Potential Impact of Importation**

Associated with the importation of commodities and products, there is
some risk of simultaneously importing pests and pathogens with those
commodities. These pests and pathogens may pose a threat to closely
related native species or to U.S. agriculture, forestry and/or
environment if similar or suitable hosts occur in the U.S. As of
February 2004, there were no species of *Capsicum* listed as federally
endangered or threatened, listed as candidate species or proposed for
listing (USFWS 2004). The following sources are good sources for
information on the pests and pathogens of *C. baccatum*: (Pernezny,
Roberts et al. 2003).

Anthony L. Koop

USDA, Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

1730 Varsity Drive, Third Floor, #387S

Raleigh, N.C. 27606

Last updated: March 1, 2004

***Capsicum chinense***

**Pepper**

[]{.mark}

**Taxonomy**

Class: Dicotyledonae

Order: Solanales

Family: Solanaceae

Species: *Capsicum chinense* Jacq.

**Introduction**

*Capsicum chinense* is one of the five commonly cultivated species of
*Capsicum*: *C. frutescens*, *C. annuum*, *C. chinense*, *C. baccatum*
and *C. pubescens* (CABI 2003). The genus *Capsicum* is named after the
compound capsaicin which gives the plants their peppery--spicy taste.
This compound has been used as a pain reliever (Bosland and Votava.
2000; Frerick, Keitel et al. 2003) and an antibiotic (Chichewicz and
Thorpe 1996). It is also the main ingredient in mace pepper sprays
(Francis No Date). Together, production of all five species exceeds that
of any other spice (Pernezny, Roberts et al. 2003).

Native to and domesticated in South America, *C. chinense* is popular in
many tropical areas, especially in Brazil and the Caribbean. A popular
cultivar of this species is the Habenero pepper which is particularly
hot (Bosland and Votava. 2000).

**Weed Status and Invasiveness**

*C. chinense* has not been listed as a weed by any authority (see
**Table 1**). However, three other species of *Capsicum* have been
described as weedy species: *C. frutescens*, *C. baccatum* and *C.
annuum* (Randall 2002).

**Relevant Biology / Ecology**

Many taxonomic issues plague the genus *Capsicum*, including concerns
regarding species delineation (Walsh and Hoot 2001). Muddling these
issues even further is that five species have been domesticated to a
lesser or greater extent and then moved about Central and South America.
Cultivars of different species have been selected for similar traits
within regions, but different traits among regions (Eshbaugh 1993).
Furthermore, multiple common names are shared among the different
cultivars and species (Bosland 1996). Previous studies have established
that of the five domesticated species, two of them are clearly distinct
species: *C. baccatum* and *C. pubescens*. However the other three
species, *C. frutescens*, *C. annuum* and *C. chinense* may or may not
be distinct species. The cultivars of these three taxa are easily
distinguished, but the wild ancestral populations are similar and
hybridize (Eshbaugh 1993). The ease with which these species hybridize
has been confirmed with plant crossing trials (Eshbaugh 1993). A recent
phylogenetic study using DNA sequences established that these three taxa
can be distinguished based on molecular markers, and therefore, warrant
species status (Walsh and Hoot 2001).

**Current and Potential Distribution in the United States**

The distribution of *C. chinense* in the United States is unknown,
however it is grown by Chile-pepper enthusiasts in private gardens (see
World Wide Web). *C. chinense* is a lowland- to mid-elevational species
of South America that is intolerant of freezing temperatures. It can
only be grown in colder areas as a warm season crop. It is unlikely to
establish in most of the U.S. due to sensitivity to cold temperature.
Potential areas of establishment include Florida, the extreme southwest,
Hawaii and Puerto Rico.

**Potential Impact of Importation**

Associated with the importation of commodities and products, there is
some risk of simultaneously importing pests and pathogens with those
commodities. These pests and pathogens may pose a threat to closely
related native species or to U.S. agriculture and forestry if similar or
suitable hosts occur in the U.S. As of February 2004, there were no
species of *Capsicum* listed as federally endangered or threatened,
listed as candidate species or proposed for listing (USFWS 2004). Native
and ornamental populations of *Capsicum* in the southern U.S. may serve
as a reservoir for pests and pathogens of agricultural forms of
*Capsicum*. The following source is a good reference for information on
the pests and pathogens of *Capsicum* species: (Pernezny, Roberts et al.
2003).

Anthony L. Koop

USDA, Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

1730 Varsity Drive, Third Floor, #387S

Raleigh, N.C. 27606

Last updated: March 1, 2004

***Capsicum frutescens*** Linnaeus

**Cayenne pepper**

[]{.mark}

**Taxonomy**

Class: Dicotyledonae

Order: Solanales

Family: Solanaceae

Species: *Capsicum frutescens* Linnaeus

**Introduction**

*Capsicum frutescens* Linnaeus is a widely cultivated species of pepper
that is native to South and Central America. Of the approximately 20-27
species in the genus (Walsh and Hoot 2001), five have been domesticated:
*C. frutescens*, *C. annuum*, *C. chinense*, *C. baccatum* and *C.
pubescens* (CABI 2003). The genus *Capsicum* is named after the compound
capsaicin which gives the plants their peppery--spicy taste. This
compound has been used as a pain reliever (Bosland and Votava. 2000;
Frerick, Keitel et al. 2003) and an antibiotic (Chichewicz and Thorpe
1996). It is also the main ingredient in mace pepper sprays (Francis No
Date). Together, the five cultivated species of *Capsicum* represent an
important agricultural commodity (CABI 2003), with production exceeding
that of any other spice (Pernezny, Roberts et al. 2003). *Capsicum
frutescens* is the main ingredient in Tabasco sauce.

**Weed Status and Invasiveness**

*Capsicum frutescens* is a short-lived shrub that can grow as high as
1.5 meters (Francis No Date). Because of its importance as a condiment
it has been distributed around the world and has naturalized in several
areas (Bosland and Votava. 2000). *Capsicum frutescens* is listed as a
weed in India, Jamaica, West Polynesia, Trinidad, (Holm, Pancho et al.
1991) and as a naturalized species in the Galapagos (Tye No Date). The
Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall 2002) also lists it as a weed in
Japan, South Africa, Micronesia and Puerto Rico. However, despite these
multiple occurrences, none of the sources describe *C. frutescens* as an
aggressive invader of either natural- or agroecosystems. Two other
species in the genus *Capsicum* have been described as weedy species
(Randall 2002).

**Relevant Biology / Ecology**

There are relatively few varieties of *C. frutescens*. Flowers are
greenish-white, while fruits start out green and mature to orange / red.
Fruits are relatively elongate, measuring approximately 1 x 5 cm (CABI
2003). Birds, which eat the fruits and disperse the seeds, are not
sensitive to the pungent chemicals of *Capsicum* (Francis No Date).

Many taxonomic issues plague the genus *Capsicum*, including concerns
regarding species delineation (Walsh and Hoot 2001). Muddling these
issues even further is that five species have been domesticated to a
lesser or greater extent and then moved about Central and South America.
Cultivars of different species have been selected for similar traits
within regions, but different traits among regions (Eshbaugh 1993).
Furthermore, multiple common names are shared among the different
cultivars and species (Bosland 1996). Previous studies have established
that of the five domesticated species, two of them are clearly distinct
species: *C. baccatum* and *C. pubescens*. However the other three
species, *C. frutescens*, *C. annuum* and *C. chinense* may or may not
be distinct species. The cultivars of these three taxa are easily
distinguished, but the wild ancestral populations are similar and
hybridize (Eshbaugh 1993). The ease with which these species hybridize
has been confirmed with plant crossing trials (Eshbaugh 1993). A recent
phylogenetic study using DNA sequences established that these three taxa
can be distinguished based on molecular markers, and therefore, warrant
species status (Walsh and Hoot 2001).

**Current and Potential Distribution in the United States**

*C. frutescens* is a lowland to mid-elevational species of the American
tropics that is intolerant of freezing temperatures. In other areas, it
can be grown as a warm season crop. Specific data on its worldwide
distribution is not readily available and is obscured through the use of
common names. However, peppers (*C. frutescens* and *C. annuum*) are
widely cultivated in the U.S., especially in the southeast and southwest
(USDA-NASS 2003). *Capsicum frutescens* is unlikely to become a weed in
most of the U.S since it is sensitive to cold temperatures. Potential
weedy areas include Florida, the extreme southwest, Hawaii and Puerto
Rico. It has been reported to have established in southern Florida
(Gann, Bradley et al. 2001; Fairchild Tropical Garden 2003), but it
seems that some of those records may have been in error (Gann, Bradley
et al. 2001).

**Potential Impact of Importation**

Associated with the importation of commodities and products, there is
some risk of simultaneously importing pests and pathogens with those
commodities. These pests and pathogens may pose a threat to closely
related native species or to U.S. agriculture and forestry if similar or
suitable hosts occur in the U.S. As of February 2004, there were no
species of *Capsicum* listed as federally endangered or threatened,
listed as candidate species or proposed for listing (USFWS 2004). The
following sources are good sources for information on the pests and
pathogens of *Capsicum*: (Pernezny, Roberts et al. 2003)

Prepared by:

Anthony L. Koop

USDA, Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

1730 Varsity Drive, Third Floor, #387S

Raleigh, N.C. 27606

Last updated: March 1, 2004

***Capsicum pubescens*** Ruiz. & Pav

**Chile**

**Taxonomy**

Class: Dicotyledonae

Order: Solanales

Family: Solanaceae

Species: *Capsicum pubescens* Ruiz. & Pav

**Introduction**

*Capsicum pubescens* Ruiz & Pav is one of five species of peppers that
have been domesticated: *C. frutescens*, *C. annuum*, *C. chinense*, *C.
baccatum* and *C. pubescens* (CPC 2003). The genus *Capsicum* is named
after the compound capsaicin which gives the plants their peppery--spicy
taste. This compound has been used as a pain reliever (Bosland and
Votava. 2000; Frerick, Keitel et al. 2003) and an antibiotic (Chichewicz
and Thorpe 1996). It is also the main ingredient in mace pepper sprays
(Francis No Date). Together, the five cultivated species of *Capsicum*
represent an important agricultural commodity (CABI 2003), with
production exceeding that of any other spice (Pernezny, Roberts et al.
2003). *Capsicum pubescens* is readily distinguished from the other four
domesticated pepper species by its purple flowers (vs. white) and brown
/ black seeds (Bosland and Votava. 2000). Of the five domesticated
species, it is probably the least known.

**Weed Status and Invasiveness**

*Capsicum pubescens* is native to Boliva, Ecuador and Peru. It was
probably domesticated in Bolivia, after which it was distributed to
other regions. Currently it is grown from Mexico to Peru in highland
areas (Bosland and Votava. 2000). It has not been listed as a weed by
any authority. Three species in the genus *Capsicum* have been described
as weedy species (Randall 2002): *C. frutescens*, *C. baccatum* and *C.
annuum*.

**Relevant Biology / Ecology**

Many taxonomic issues plague the genus *Capsicum*, including concerns
regarding species delineation (Walsh and Hoot 2001). Muddling these
issues even further is that five species have been domesticated to a
lesser or greater extent and then moved about Central and South America.
Cultivars of different species have been selected for similar traits
within regions, but different traits among regions (Eshbaugh 1993).
Furthermore, multiple common names are shared among the different
cultivars and species (Bosland 1996). Previous studies have established
that of the five domesticated species, two of them are clearly distinct
species: *C. baccatum* and *C. pubescens*. However the other three
species, *C. frutescens*, *C. annuum* and *C. chinense* may or may not
be distinct species.

**Current and Potential Distribution in the United States**

*Capsicum pubescens* is a mid-elevational species of the American
tropics that is intolerant of freezing temperatures. It can be grown in
other areas as a warm season crop. Outside of South and Central America
it is grown on a very limited basis (Bosland and Votava. 2000). Specific
data on its worldwide distribution is not readily available. It is
likely being grown in the U.S. by Chile-pepper enthusiasts. *Capsicum
pubescens* is unlikely to establish in most areas of the U.S. due to
sensitivity to cold temperatures.

**Potential Impact of Importation**

Associated with the importation of commodities and products, there is
some risk of simultaneously importing pests and pathogens with those
commodities. These pests and pathogens may pose a threat to closely
related native species or to U.S. agriculture and forestry if similar or
suitable hosts occur in the U.S. As of February 2004, there were no
species of *Capsicum* listed as federally endangered or threatened,
listed as candidate species or proposed for listing (USFWS 2004). The
following reference is a good source for information on the pests and
pathogens of *Capsicum*: (Pernezny, Roberts et al. 2003).

Anthony L. Koop

USDA, Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

1730 Varsity Drive, Third Floor, #387S

Raleigh, N.C. 27606

Last updated: March 1, 2004

# III. Authors and Reviewers 

Authors:

Andrea Lemay, Plant Pathologist, USDA/APHIS/PPQ, Center for Plant Health
Science and Technology (CPHST), Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis
Laboratory (PERAL), Raleigh, NC

Keith Colpetzer, Entomologist, USDA/APHIS/PPQ/CPHST/PERAL, Raleigh, NC

Dr. Anthony Koop, Botanist and Research Associate,
USDA/APHIS/PPQ/CPHST/PERAL, Raleigh, NC

Reviewers:

Leah Millar, Entomologist, USDA/APHIS/PPQ/CPHST/PERAL, Raleigh, NC

Scott Redlin, Plant Pathologist, USDA/APHIS/PPQ/CPHST/PERAL, Raleigh, NC

Heather Hartzog, Plant Pathologist, USDA/APHIS/PPQ/CPHST/PERAL, Raleigh,
NC

# 

# Literature Cited

Zimmerman, E.W. 1948. Insects of Hawaii, Vol. 5: Homoptera:
Sternoryncha. University of Hawaii. Honolulu, Hawaii.