# Session No. 3

**Course Title: Disaster Response Operations and Management**

**Session Title: Overview of Disaster Response Operations and
Management**

## Time: 50 minutes

**Objectives:**

3.1 Reiterate the nature of disaster and the importance of response with
several case studies.

3.2 Distinguish between agent-generated demands and response-generated
demands and highlight their implications for practitioners.

3.  Indicate the goals of emergency management during disaster response.

3.4 List and briefly discuss the functions that are performed during the
emergency phase of disaster.

**Scope:**

In this session, the professor discusses several case studies to
reiterate the nature of disaster and the need for response operations
and management. The difference between agent- and response-generated
demands is explored along with its attendant implications for
practitioners. The goals of emergency management are mentioned. The
session concludes with an overview of the many functions that have to be
addressed during disaster response.

**Session Requirements:**

1.  Instructor Reading:

> Auf der Heide, Erik. 1987. "Disasters are Different." Pp. 49-78 in
> *Disaster Response: Principles of Preparation and Coordination*.
> [Http://coe.dmha.org/dr/flash/htm](http://coe.dmha.org/dr/flash/htm).
>
> Alexander, David. 2002. *Principles of Emergency Planning and
> Management*. Oxford: New York.
>
> Bradford, Janet and Bev Passerello, John Passerrello. 1988. "The
> Eruption of Mt. St. Helens." Pp. 151-174 in Charles, Michael and John
> Choon K. Kim (eds.) *Crisis Management: A Casebook*. Charles C. Thomas
> Publishers: Springfield, Il.
>
> Campbell, Timothy. 2001. "Case Studies." Pp. 239-258 in Hogan,
> Lawrence J. (ed.). *Terrorism: Defensive Strategies for Individuals,
> Companies and Governments*. Amlex: Frederick, Md.
>
> Hoetmer, Gerard J. 1991. "The Evolution of Emergency Management." Pp.
> 3-29 in Drabek, Thomas E. and Gerard J. Hoetmer, *Emergency
> Management: Principles and Practice for Local Government*.
> International City Management Association: Washington, D.C.
>
> McEntire, David A. 2006. "Knowing What to Expect." *Disaster Response
> and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for Resilience*. New York: Wiley.
>
> Perry, Ronald W. 1991. "Managing Disaster Response Operations." Pp.
> 201-223 in Drabek, Thomas E. and Gerard J. Hoetmer, *Emergency
> Management: Principles and Practice for Local Government*.
> International City Management Association: Washington, D.C.
>
> Pijawka, David and A. Essam Radwan and J.Andy Soesilo. 1988.
> "Emergency Response to a Hazardous-Materials Rail Incident in Casa
> Grande, Arizona." Pp. 151-174 in Charles, Michael and John Choon K.
> Kim (eds.) *Crisis Management: A Casebook*. Charles C. Thomas
> Publishers: Springfield, Il.
>
> Tierney, Kathleen and Michael Lindell, and Ronald Perry. 2001. *Facing
> the Unexpected: Disaster Preparedness and Response in the United
> States*. Joseph Henry Press: Washington, D.C.
>
> Waugh, William L. Jr. 2000. "The Emergency Management Profession and
> Field of Study." Pp. 3-23 in *Living With Hazards, Dealing With
> Disasters: An Introduction to Emergency Management*. M.E. Sharpe: New
> York.
>
> Waugh, William L. Jr. 2000. "Emergency Management in the United
> States." Pp. 24-58 in *Living With Hazards, Dealing With Disasters: An
> Introduction to Emergency Management*. M.E. Sharpe: New York.
>
> Waugh, William L. Jr. 1988. "The Hyatt Skywalk Disaster." Pp. 115-129
> in Charles, Michael and John Choon K. Kim (eds.) *Crisis Management: A
> Casebook*. Charles C. Thomas Publishers: Springfield, Il.

2.  Student Reading:

> Auf der Heide, Erik. 1987. "Disasters are Different." Pp. 49-78 in
> *Disaster Response: Principles of Preparation and Coordination*.
> [Http://coe.dmha.org/dr/flash/htm](http://coe.dmha.org/dr/flash/htm).
>
> McEntire, David A. 2006. "Knowing What to Expect." *Disaster Response
> and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for Resilience*. New York: Wiley.

3\. Handout:

> Agent- and Response-Generated Demands

**Remarks:**

1.  The professor should present the case studies provided in this
    section of the IG to reiterate the points made in the previous
    session and transition to session 3. Or, the professor may wish to
    discuss other disasters based on student interests, location of the
    college/university in relation to specific disasters, and the
    professor's experience and prior research.

2.  Care should be taken to clarify the difference between
    agent-generated demands and response-generated demands as these
    concepts are often difficult for students to understand and
    differentiate. Be sure to provide examples for the students so that
    they understand why this is important for practitioners, and
    question their level of comprehension as needed.

3.  Ask students what the goals of emergency management are and how
    disaster response plays a role in meeting those objectives. A lively
    discussion can be initiated by asking which of the goals of
    emergency management is most important.

4.  Note that some disaster functions may occur before others (e.g.
    warning is often followed by evacuation). Others may take place in
    no particular order (e.g. declaring a disaster before removing
    debris or removing debris before declaring a disaster). In many
    disasters, functions are performed at the same time (e.g. medical
    care is being provided as shelters are being opened; information is
    being given to the public while donations are being managed).

5.  State that future sessions will be dedicated to the issues and
    functions already identified up to this point in the course.

**Objective 3.1 Reiterate the nature of disaster and the importance of
response with several case studies.**

**Requirements:**

Present the case studies as a lecture.

I.  State that the discussion about the nature of disaster in the
    previous session is best typified by **real life examples**.

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A.  **Mount St. Helens Eruption**. As early as December 1978, the U.S.
    Geological Survey predicted that an **eruption of Mt. St. Helens was
    imminent**.

> 1\. With this knowledge the Washington Department of Emergency
> Services **developed an emergency operations plan** and began to work
> closely with the U.S. Forest Service and local governments to enhance
> warning systems and establish an emergency operations center near the
> site.
>
> a\. Because of the increasing threat, Governor Dixy Lee Ray declared a
> **state of emergency** on April 3, 1980.
>
> b\. This gave local communities the authority to **create restricted
> zones** and control access to dangerous areas.
>
> c\. However, many people, including Mr. Harry R. Truman (a manager of
> the Spirit Lake Lodge on the North East side of the mountain),
> **resisted attempts to have them evacuated** from the area.
>
> 2\. Then, on May 18, 1980, **Mt. St. Helens erupted** with the
> equivalent force of 400 megatons of nuclear explosive.
>
> a\. The blast **killed over 60 people** and resulted in a major
> landslide, pyroclastic flows of volcanic rock and lava, and mudflows
> that **destroyed buildings**, **ruined agriculturally productive
> land**, and quickly **filled the capacity** of the Cowlitz and Toutle
> rivers.
>
> b\. The **ash hindered communications and disabled many vehicles**,
> including 75% of the law enforcement fleet.
>
> c\. Thousands of tourists were **sheltered** by the American Red Cross
> in the small community of Ritzville.
>
> 3\. The Forest Service set up a fire **command system** to implement a
> **search and rescue operation** with other organizations while the
> state government worked with local officials to define response
> priorities and obtain resources.
>
> a\. On May 19, 1980, the state of Washington prepared a **disaster
> declaration to seek assistance** from the Federal Emergency Management
> Agency.
>
> b\. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers arrived to **dredge canals and
> assist with the removal of debris**.
>
> c\. **Public health officials** were called upon to encourage those
> who had respiratory problems to stay inside and protect themselves
> from the falling ash.
>
> d\. Other people required **mental health counseling** and disaster
> assistance in the form of **grants and low-interest loans**.
>
> e\. The response involved **several agencies** and **all levels of
> government** (Bradford, Passerello and Passerello 1988).

B.  **Hyatt Skywalk Collapse**. On July 24, 1981, 1,500 people attended
    a **dance** at the Hyatt Hotel in Kansas City, Missouri. Although
    most people danced on the atrium floor, 150 others enjoyed the music
    on the two walkways perched above (which spanned 120 feet and
    weighed 90,000 lbs. each).

> 1\. Due to faulty design and construction, the upper walkway was
> unable to carry the **dynamic (or swaying) load** of the dancers. It
> fell on top of the lower walkway, which in turn **crashed to the
> floor** below.
>
> a\. This structural collapsed **killed 113 people** and **injured
> nearly 200** more.
>
> 2\. The disaster created the need for **medical triage**, **search and
> rescue** operations, and **transportation of large numbers of
> victims** to area hospitals.
>
> a\. The arrival of 250 police officers, 250 fire fighters, and 100
> paramedics led to major **congestion problems** at the scene.
>
> b\. **Heavy equipment** had to be acquired for the purpose of
> extraction, which resulted in a major logistical challenge.
>
> c\. Finally, **taxi cabs, ambulances and care flight helicopters**
> arrived to transfer patients to facilities that could provide better
> emergency care. Unfortunately, these transportation activities were
> **not well-coordinated** which resulted in a skewed distribution of
> casualties.
>
> d\. Emergency responders and communities leaders also had to **take
> calls from families** inquiring about the status of victims, **console
> emergency workers** who were distressed by the event, and **deal with
> abandoned** **cars** owned by the victims.
>
> 3\. Both the **collapse and response posed difficulties** for
> emergency workers and others involved in emergency management (Waugh
> 1988).

C.  **Casa Grande Hazardous Materials Rail Incident**. On April 14,
    1983, a **fire started on a train** bound for Casa Grande, Arizona
    (an agriculture/ industrial community 50 miles Southwest of Phoenix)
    (Pijawka, Tadwan and Soesilo 1988).

> 1\. In spite of the fact that the train engineer was aware of the
> fire, the **train proceeded** through the downtown area **and
> stopped** on the West end of the city.
>
> 2\. Because there was no information readily available about the
> content of **the train's cargo**, first responders were initially
> **unsure about how to suppress the fire**.
>
> 3\. Before learning that the train car on fire carried **30 drums of
> white phosphorous**, a large number of curious **people converged** at
> the disaster scene.
>
> a\. The sizable **crowd inhibited** the ability of the **fire
> department** to respond to the incident.
>
> b\. The fire department therefore asked the **police department** to
> **evacuate the area** after recognizing that the fumes from the fire
> posed a threat to the onlookers.
>
> c\. **Inconsistencies in the evacuation** became apparent due to
> **unclear guidelines** provided to the police department.
>
> d\. This illustrates the **importance of a well devised plan** that is
> **understood by each stakeholder**.
>
> 4\. Other weaknesses, such as an **unidentifiable command post** and
> the **lack of communications equipment**, became apparent during the
> response.
>
> 5\. Uncertainty about the nature of the fire resulted in the **delayed
> implementation of mutual aid agreements** with nearby hazardous
> materials teams.
>
> 6\. Although no one was seriously hurt, the event illustrated many of
> the **challenges of hazardous materials incidents**.

D.  **Delta Flight 191 Plane Crash**. Traveling from Ft. Lauderdale,
    Florida, Delta **Flight 191 encountered severe weather** as it
    approached the Dallas-Fort Worth Airport.

> 1\. As it neared the runway, the L1011 airplane carrying over 160
> people was **struck by wind shear**, causing it to slam to the ground
> prematurely.
>
> a\. **The airplane hit a car** on Highway 114 which resulted in the
> instantaneous death of the driver of the vehicle.
>
> b\. The plane then **touched down several times** as it traveled
> hundreds of yards in a field towards the runway.
>
> c\. Finally, the airplane **hit a water tower** head-on, resulting in
> the obliteration of the majority of the fuselage.
>
> 2\. **Police, fire and ambulance personnel arrived** on the scene
> immediately to search for and treat the wounded.
>
> a\. Both the **fire** (from the jet fuel) and **flood waters** (from
> the water tower) slowed down the emergency operation.
>
> b\. In addition, the **crash occurred at the designated staging area**
> which complicated the ability of decision makers to manage the
> response.
>
> 3\. About **30 passengers were transported** by ambulance and care
> flight helicopters to area hospitals.
>
> a\. While most of these victims survived, the **vast majority of the
> passengers and crew** were not so lucky.
>
> b\. Over 125 **bodies and various body parts had to be collected**,
> stored and identified in a temporary morgue at the airport.
>
> c\. **Families had to be notified** of the loss of their loved ones.
>
> 4\. **Investigators arrived** at the scene to determine the cause to
> prevent a similar recurrence in the future.
>
> 5\. The **crash was confined** to a relatively small geographic area,
> but the emergency response **posed as many difficulties** common to
> more diffuse disasters.

E.  **Loma Prieta Earthquake**. At a little past 5:00 p.m. on October
    17, 1989, the Hayward **fault** near San Francisco **ruptured**.

> 1\. The earthquake **lasted only 10 seconds** but registered an
> impressive **7.1 on the Richter scale**.
>
> 2\. The magnitude of the disaster created **formidable demands** on
> emergency workers.
>
> a\. The earthquake initiated **secondary hazards** including
> landslides and fires from broken gas lines.
>
> b\. The **disruption of water lines** hindered the ability of fire
> fighters to extinguish fires.
>
> c\. Furthermore, the incident necessitated a major **damage
> assessment** operation as well as **search and rescue** of people
> trapped in collapsed buildings or in cars under the Cypress Street
> Viaduct.
>
> d\. During the response, **dispatch centers became inoperable** and
> **hospitals became overwhelmed** with victims.
>
> 3\. The **media** at times gave **inaccurate reports** of the number
> of deaths and extent of the devastation.
>
> a\. Nevertheless, the media did play an important role in **educating
> the public** about what to do to prepare for aftershocks.
>
> 4\. The quake **damaged or destroyed** 22,000 residences, 1567
> commercial **buildings**, and 137 public buildings totaling more than
> \$6.8 billion in losses.
>
> 5\. In addition, the earthquake resulted in **60 deaths**, **3757
> injuries** and left **12,000 people homeless**.
>
> a\. The large number of victims created the need for **federal
> disaster assistance** and resulted in the opening of several disaster
> applications centers.
>
> b\. FEMA implemented **creative measures** to speed up the provision
> of disaster relief (e.g. holding mass registration meetings).

F.  **Hurricane Andrew**. In the summer of 1992, a **low pressure
    weather system** organized off the coast of Africa.

> 1\. Making its way across the Atlantic Ocean towards the United
> States, the tropical storm evolved into a **category IV hurricane**.
>
> a\. In preparation for its arrival, a hurricane **warning was issued**
> by local, state and federal officials which allowed many people to
> **board up windows and evacuate** inland.
>
> 2\. On August 14, Hurricane Andrew hit 35 miles South of Miami with
> **winds clocked between 145 -- 160 mph**.
>
> a\. In Homestead alone, 60-75% of the **homes were destroyed**.
>
> b\. By the time the hurricane had dissipated over land, **30 people
> had died**, **175,000 people were left homeless** and **1.5 million
> were left without power**.
>
> 3\. Although there was some **confusion** as to who would perform the
> **damage assessment**, the President **declared a disaster** and
> **implemented the Federal Response Plan**.
>
> 4\. Among the **many functions** that had to be addressed after the
> disaster, two stood out in importance: **debris removal** and
> **donations management**.
>
> a\. **Thousands of tons** of broken tree limbs, shingles, fiberglass
> insulation, metal, household items and other **debris** had to be
> collected, sorted, transported, stored and disposed of.
>
> b\. An outpouring of **relief** from concerned individuals and
> corporations resulted in the arrival of food, water, medicines, tents
> and other emergency supplies.

-   These donations became a major problem for emergency management as
    they were often **not needed or poorly coordinated**.

-   In fact, much of the clothing that was donated was **dumped** in
    affected neighborhoods by well-meaning drivers and was **left to
    rot** under the sun in the humid environment.

> 5\. Andrew was the **largest response operation** undertaken up until
> this point in United States history.

G.  **World Trade Center Bombing**. After a studious examination of
    floor plans, **a terrorist or group of terrorists** from the Middle
    East placed a **bomb** on the B-2 level of **underground parking
    lot** under one of the **World Trade Center** towers in New York
    City in 1993.

> 1\. The goal was to **collapse one of the towers onto the other** and
> thereby kill over 100,000 people in and around the Trade Center
> complex.
>
> a\. The **bomb** was brought to the site in a rented Ryder Truck, and
> consisted of **nitro-urea and hydrogen** canisters.
>
> b\. The **1,200 pound bomb exploded** at one of the World Trade Center
> Towers on February 26, 1995.
>
> c\. The force **created a 130 foot by 150 foot crater** and damaged 6
> floors below.
>
> d\. Fortunately, the explosion **did not bring down the building**.
>
> 2\. The bombing **did kill six people** and **produced at least 1,000
> injuries**. It led to a massive emergency response.
>
> a\. It is estimated that about **50,000 people evacuated** buildings
> at the Trade Center complex.
>
> b\. However, many **people were trapped in the building** and were
> suffering from various injuries and smoke inhalation.
>
> c\. **Search and rescue operations** had to be undertaken which lasted
> over 10 hours.
>
> d\. In addition to the numerous **floors and rooms that were
> searched**, 111 **elevators had to also be checked**.
>
> 3\. **EMS personnel took the injured** to numerous medical facilities
> in the area.
>
> a\. Many **victims were self-referred** **or taken by friends** to
> hospitals in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut.
>
> 4\. Complicating the matter was **communications** and **public
> information**.
>
> a\. There was **only one portable radio channel** which was used by
> the large number of New York's fire fighters (nearly 45% of the total
> force).
>
> b\. **Runners had to be used** to send messages throughout the
> building which covered 1,200 vertical feet.
>
> c\. Thousands of victims and relatives of victims **called New York's
> 911 system** after the event.
>
> d\. Over 1,000 of these **calls required follow-up** by fire fighters
> at the scene.
>
> e\. **Cell phone systems** were also **overloaded** which added to the
> disaster.
>
> f\. Because the emergency **generators were also damaged**, several
> private **radio systems went down** as the antennas on the towers
> could not transmit.
>
> g\. Although the **media's intentions** were well-meaning, the
> **information** they provided to victims trapped in the building was
> sometimes **inaccurate**.

-   For instance, one on-the-air personality told victims to **throw
    office equipment out the windows** to get fresh air.

-   The falling fax machines and glass **endangered those responding
    below**.

-   The **media also interviewed** many of their own experts on the
    buildings, who often provided **misinformation** about the event and
    subsequent response.

> 5\. When all was said and done, the **fire department utilized** 34
> engine companies, 60 ladder and tower companies, 5 heavy rescue units,
> 26 support companies, and 37 chief officers to respond to the
> incident.
>
> a\. The **Police Department**, as well as **18 other public
> agencies**, participated in the response. The **FBI** became
> increasingly involved in **investigation** efforts as the emergency
> response period ended.
>
> b\. New York recognized the **similar and unique** **aspects** of
> responding to **terrorist events** (Campbell 2001).

H.  **Columbine School Shooting**. On April 20, 1999, **two students**,
    Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, walked into Columbine High School in
    Jefferson County, Colorado and **began shooting** their fellow peers
    and teachers.

> 1\. The **attack**, which took place during the first-lunch period,
> only **lasted 15 minutes**.
>
> a\. By the time the rampage was over, however, the two gunman had
> **killed 13 and wounded 21 others**.
>
> b\. Luckily, Harris and Klebold's plans to kill more students and
> emergency responders with **bombs failed**.
>
> 2\. The Columbine shooting illustrated **the complexity of
> responding** to mass shooting events at a school or workplace.
>
> a\. Officers from responding departments **did not always know each
> other or have sufficient inter-agency training**.
>
> b\. **Communications** among responding agencies was inadequate.
>
> c\. **Setting up a perimeter** around a building with 25 exits was
> also difficult as police **did not know who the perpetrators were** as
> those committing the acts could have been any of the high school
> students that were evacuating.
>
> d\. **Video footage** taken from media helicopters unintentionally
> **jeopardized the safety of law enforcement personnel**.
>
> e\. Responding agencies had to **search for the perpetrators and
> victims** in a safe but quick manner.
>
> 3\. Other challenges included **providing information** to the
> families of the victims and **controlling the flow of traffic** around
> the high school.
>
> 4\. The Columbine school shootings exhibited both **typical and
> atypical problems** facing response organizations.

I.  **Seattle World Trade Organization Riots**. From November 30 to
    December 3 1999, the **World Trade Organization held meetings** in
    Seattle, Washington.

> 1\. During this period, a large number of **labor and environmental
> groups gathered to protest** WTO policies.
>
> a\. While most of the protestors demonstrated peacefully, **others
> initiated riots** in the city.

b\. The **protestors were well-organized** and large in number.

> c\. **They gathered information** about the crowd control activities
> of the police department (including its tactics and response time)
> when they marched the Sunday before.
>
> d\. **They also took over a building** near the department's West
> Precinct on Virginia Street to better view police activities and the
> staging area.
>
> e\. Using bullhorns and cell phones to direct the protests, the labor
> and environmentalists **blocked entrances** to the convention center,
> **exits** from various hotels and even **police cars** in the streets.
>
> f\. Some **protestors turned violent** which resulted in over \$3
> million in property damage.
>
> 2\. The **city did not have a large enough police force** and had
> difficulty in dealing with the riot behavior and crowd control.
>
> 3\. **Police also lacked the necessary equipment** (e.g. radios,
> pepper spray, tear gas, rubber bullets, etc.) to respond to mass
> protests.
>
> 4\. The city was somewhat ill-prepared for the incident and **did not
> respond in an effective manner**.

Objective 3.2 Distinguish between agent-generated demands and
response-generated demands, and highlight the implications for
practitioners.

**Requirements:**

Present the following information as a lecture.

I. As can be seen from the cases just presented, the occurrence of **an
emergency or disaster presents a wide variety of needs** that must be
addressed by emergency service personnel and the emergency manager.
These needs may be classified into one of two categories:
**agent-generated demands** and **response generated demands** (Perry
1991). Give students handout "Agent- and Response-generated Demands."

A.  **Agent-generated demands are those needs that are made evident by
    the hazard itself**. These are problems that result directly from
    the disaster agent, be it a flood, tornado or earthquake.
    Agent-generated demands become evident when a disaster occurs or
    immediately after a disaster has occurred. For example:

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1.  **A flood may create the need for sandbags** to protect property.

2.  **A tornado may necessitate the opening of shelters** for those
    individuals and families who have lost their homes.

3.  **An earthquake may sever utility lines**, leaving people without
    water or electricity.

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B.  **Response-generated demands are those needs that become apparent as
    individuals, organizations and communities attempt to respond to
    agent-generated demands**. Response-generated demands may be equated
    to the **logistical challenges and operations** of dealing with the
    primary effects of disasters. For example:

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1.  **Sandbags, sand and volunteers will be needed** if sandbags are to
    be used to protect property.

2.  **Shelter sites must be found, cots must be set up and mass kitchens
    must be established** if shelters are to be available for those
    victims who have lost their homes to a tornado.

3.  **Bottled water must be purchased, transported, stored, and
    distributed** while **portable generators must be obtained with
    adequate amounts of fuel** until utility lines can be
    re-established.

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C.  Thus, **response-generated demands result from agent-generated
    demands, which in turn result from natural hazards/disaster
    agents**. Other examples of agent- and response-generated demands
    include:

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1.  **Plane crash**

#########  

######### a. **Agent-generated demand** - Dealing with mass fatalities

> b\. **Response-generated demands** - Locating body bags, notifying the
> coroner, and seeking dental records and DNA samples

2.  **Hazardous materials spill**

######### 

######### a. **Agent-generated demand** - Contain hazardous materials

> b\. **Response-generated demands** - Notification of hazardous
> materials teams, verifying the type of chemical involved and the best
> response procedures, and cleaning up the environment afterward.
>
> 3\. **Terrorist bombing**
>
> a\. **Agent-generated demand** - Search of collapsed buildings
>
> b\. **Response-generated demand**s - Mobilizing and transporting the
> urban search and rescue team along with its equipment

D. **Both agent- and response-generated demands are important for the
emergency manager**. While agent-generated demands are typically
apparent, **response-generated demands are not always so obvious**.
Thus, emergency managers **may focus too much attention on the former**
**while inadvertently ignoring the latter**. This can lead to **serious
problems** in the response phase.

> 1\. It is often **easy to acquire sand bags** for flooding.
>
> a\. It may be **more difficult to find and organize a sufficient
> number of people** to fill them.
>
> b\. At other times, there may be **too many volunteers** that will
> have to be trained and assigned work.
>
> c\. This **poses** **organizational challenges** for emergency
> managers.
>
> 2\. **Finding locations to shelter disaster victims** may be done in a
> relatively quick manner.
>
> a\. **Stocking** **the shelter** with adequate personnel, cots,
> blankets, food, toilet paper, trash cans, cleaning materials and
> medical supplies **may be more difficult** (e.g., the Superdome in New
> Orleans after Hurricane Katrina).
>
> b\. Ensuring that the **supplies, equipment and buildings have been
> rotated and maintained** is a constant battle.
>
> c\. **Logistics problems** therefore confront the emergency manager
> when he or she responds to agent-generated demands.
>
> 3\. **Restoring utility lines may take an extended period of time.**
> However, it will be necessary to take care of **immediate concerns**
> and address the **process of utility restoration**.
>
> a\. **Bottled water** must be purchased, transported, stored and
> distributed.
>
> b\. **Generators** must be obtained, allocated and properly fueled.
>
> c\. Restoring utilities will also require significant amounts of
> **coordination with city leaders, police (for traffic control),
> transportation departments, other utility providers**, etc.
>
> d\. **Coordination** among numerous actors **proves to be extremely
> difficult** to achieve in these situations.
>
> 4\. **Identifying the remains** of disaster victims seems to be a
> simple task.
>
> a\. However, **acquiring body bags** and **seeking dental or DNA
> records** will require **signed purchase orders**, careful **record
> keeping**, **follow up** and numerous **phone calls**.
>
> b\. **Finding, training and effectively supervising a large
> secretarial staff is often illusive** in disaster situations.
>
> 5\. Dealing with **hazardous materials incidents necessitates more
> than the dispatching of hazardous materials teams** (often from
> outside the community).
>
> a\. **Experts** with knowledge on how certain chemicals will react
> **must be sought**.
>
> b\. **Cleaning up the environment** must proceed in accordance with
> state and federal **laws**.
>
> c\. All of this involves the establishment of **mutual aid
> agreements**, **contracts for consulting** and the **completion of
> forms** which may pose significant legal liabilities if not done with
> foresight and understanding.
>
> 6\. **Mobilizing a USAR team** is not the only undertaking to begin a
> search and rescue operation.
>
> a\. **Advanced notice** to team members will be necessary.
>
> b\. **Finding replacements** will be required for those who are unable
> to participate.
>
> c\. **Equipment has to be organized, placed on pallets and loaded** on
> planes.
>
> d\. Team members will have to be **briefed on the situation** before
> they can be put to work.
>
> e\. Someone will have to find **food, water and shelter to maintain
> USAR teams** over any given extended period of time.
>
> f\. **Communication** among USAR team members **can often be lacking
> or misinterpreted** when trying to fulfill all of these requirements.

E. **Knowing the difference between agent- and response-generated
demands is imperative** to help emergency personnel and emergency
managers see the bigger picture in the emergency phase of disaster and
respond in an effective manner.

> 1\. **It is one thing to know what demands have been made evident by
> the disaster agent**. **It is quite another thing to ensure that all
> of the issues that go along with the response to those initial demands
> are identified and addressed**.
>
> 2\. **It is not enough to tell someone to respond to the disaster
> situation. Specific details on what this entails and how it is to be
> accomplished must be conveyed**.
>
> 3\. **The major difficulty in emergency management lies not in dealing
> with the effects of the disaster agent itself, but in the logistics of
> responding to the needs made evident by the incident**.
>
> 4\. **What appears to be simple and straight forward may be
> complicated and inconspicuous. The completion of any single task may
> involve scores of individuals and organizations, and may require the
> fulfilling of several preliminary activities before the ultimate goal
> can be achieved**.

**Objective 3.3 Indicate the goals of emergency management during
disaster response.**

**Requirements:**

Present the following information as a lecture and discussion.

I.  As emergency service personnel and emergency managers react to
    agent- and response-generated demands, they are attempting to
    fulfill **three overriding goals of emergency management**. These
    include: **protecting life, protecting property and protecting the
    environment**. Each of these will be discussed in turn.

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A.  **Protecting Life**. A major concern of emergency management is to
    protect life.

> 1\. In seeking to reach this goal, fire fighters may **rescue stranded
> motorists** from flash flood waters.
>
> 2\. Police may **keep on-lookers and the media away** from the
> dangerous scene of an incident.
>
> 3\. Or, emergency managers **may issue a request for evacuation** due
> to the impending arrival of a hurricane.
>
> 4\. Protecting life is therefore pursued to **keep people from getting
> injured or out of harms way**.

B.  **Protecting property**. Another objective of emergency management
    is to protect property (e.g. cars, buildings, computers, clothing,
    manufacturing equipment, etc.).

> 1\. This may include **spraying water on a fire** to prevent it from
> spreading to other apartments or homes, **closing down a highway** if
> the bridge has been washed out to prevent car accidents, or **boarding
> up windows** if a hurricane warning has been issued.
>
> 2\. This goal has the purpose of **limiting financial and material
> losses**.

C.  **Protecting the environment**. A final goal is to protect the
    environment.

> 1\. This may involve **stopping the spread of a hazardous materials**
> spill and **cleaning up contaminated air, water or soil**.
>
> 2\. This goal **may also have bearing upon mitigation and long-term
> efforts** to reduce the quantity and quality of disaster.

II. Ask students to discuss their feelings about the **relative
    importance** of each of these goals. The following points should be
    emphasized:

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A.  **Protecting life has been and remains the most important goal** of
    emergency management.

1\. **Property can be replaced**.

2\. The **environment can be cleaned up**.

3\. However, **life cannot be restored**.

B.  The **financial losses** associated with disasters **are rising**.

> 1\. More **effort needs to be given to reducing the amount of property
> being destroyed** from hazards and disasters.

C.  There is now a very **strong movement to protect the environment**.

> 1\. We are now recognizing that **our lives are totally dependent upon
> a clean environment** and sufficient resources to sustain life in the
> future.
>
> 2\. Indeed, the continued **degradation of the environment and the
> depletion of natural resources may unfold catastrophes** like never
> before experienced.
>
> 3\. Thus, **this objective is regarded by many to be more important**
> than its counterparts.

Objective 3.4 List and briefly discuss the functions that are performed
during the emergency phase of disaster.

**Requirements:**

Present the following information as a lecture.

I.  In the attempt to meet agent- and response-generated demands, and in
    order to fulfill the goals of emergency management, **many functions
    are performed when disaster strikes**. Functions being addressed
    during disaster response may include the following:

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A.  **Implementing the Emergency Operations Plan**. If a hazard is
    impending or a disaster has occurred, emergency management personnel
    need to be notified and the emergency operations plan must be
    initiated.

B.  **Issuing a Warning**. The community will need to be warned if
    hazard is likely to strike and what to do to protect themselves
    after one has occurred.

C.  **Evacuating a Threatened Population**. People may need to be
    removed out of harms way. This may involve getting people out of a
    burning building or helping them leave in an organized fashion if a
    hurricane is approaching.

D.  **Providing Shelter and Mass Care**. As apartments and homes may be
    destroyed or uninhabitable, there may be a need to temporarily house
    and shelter those affected. Food and bathing facilities must also be
    provided.

E.  **Performing Search and Rescue**. If buildings have collapsed,
    victims inside must be found and extracted.

F.  **Providing Emergency Medical Care to Mass Casualties**. A disaster
    will always generate injuries to large numbers of people. The
    practice of triage must be performed to care for the wounded.

G.  **Dealing With Mass Fatalities**. Large numbers of people may be
    killed in disasters. Procedures must be followed to store, identify
    and process the remains of the deceased.

H.  **Providing Information to the Media/Public**. As noted before,
    information is generally lacking in a disaster. The emergency
    manager must therefore work with the media to ensure that the public
    is aware of what has happened and what they should do to respond.

I.  **Managing Donations and Volunteers**. Disasters unleash generosity
    from well-intentioned individuals and groups that provide relief
    assistance. Nonetheless, the arrival of supplies and goods may pose
    significant logistical challenges for the emergency manager.

J.  **Assessing Damages**. After a disaster occurs, it is necessary to
    determine the extent of the destruction. Damage assessment is
    undertaken to gain an understanding of what happened, identify
    immediate needs, and decide what must be done to respond and
    recover.

K.  **Declaring a Disaster**. A community will declare a disaster to
    notify its citizens and others that it is experiencing an emergency
    situation. Declaring a disaster is also a necessary step in
    obtaining federal disaster assistance.

L.  **Removing Debris**. Powerful hazard agents may destroy cars, homes,
    buildings and personal property/belongings. Steps must be taken to
    remove, transport and dispose of the debris created in a disaster.

M.  **Providing Individual Assistance**. The federal government provides
    assistance to individuals, families and businesses. The state and
    local governments play a vital role in distributing financial
    assistance and other disaster services.

N.  **Providing Public Assistance**. In addition to providing individual
    assistance, the federal government provides resources to public
    entities. This may include recovery assistance for a school or
    mitigation assistance for a flooded government building.

> O. **Providing Critical Incident Stress Counseling**. Because of the
> death, damage and destruction, emergencies and disasters take an
> emotional toll for both victims and responders. Counseling must be
> given to help people cope with loss and overcome disturbing images and
> situations.

II\. **Other important issues** to be addressed during disaster response
operations include:

A.  **Dealing with the challenges of specific hazards**. Different
    hazards pose different problems for emergency responders and
    emergency managers. Personnel involved in response must be aware of
    what to expect from each type of hazard. For instance, because the
    site of an emergency or disaster is dangerous, care must be taken to
    protect the well being of workers. In addition, steps must be taken
    to keep unauthorized personnel away from the disaster site.

B.  **Meeting the needs of special populations**. Women, children, the
    elderly, disabled, minority groups and the poor all suffer
    disproportionately from disaster. Attention should therefore be
    given to help these individuals and groups during the response phase
    of emergency management.

C.  **Making correct decisions and overcoming political conflicts**.
    Disasters present difficult choices and often result in political
    conflict about response priorities. Decisions must be carefully made
    and political turmoil must be prevented.

D.  **Maintaining effective communication and ensuring sufficient
    coordination**. Communication and coordination are likely to be
    major problems in any disaster. Special equipment and methods are
    needed to relay information and encourage collaboration.

E.  **Keeping track of expenses and documenting lessons learned**. The
    costs of disasters and response operations cannot be reimbursed
    unless expenses have been documented. Future responses to disaster
    cannot be improved unless we learn from the mistakes of the past.

F.  **Overcoming legal issues**. The best way to avoid a lawsuit is to
    avert making mistakes that produce them in the first place. Care
    must be given to reduce the liability of the government and response
    personnel during any emergency or disaster.

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III. There are many tools to facilitate effective disaster response
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A.  **The Incident Command System**. The incident command system is an
    organizational structure and process that aids the management of
    response activities. It is utilized to facilitate an effective,
    efficient and coordinated response in the field.

B.  **The Emergency Operations Center**. The emergency operations center
    is the designated location in the community where the response
    operation is managed. The EOC takes a macro view of the disaster and
    includes representatives from many departments.

C.  **National Incident Management System**. Disasters, by their very
    nature, stretch the capacity of individual departments and the
    community as a whole. Agencies from outside the affected area can be
    enlisted to help respond to the disaster and do so in a standardized
    fashion.

D.  **The Use of Technology in Response**. Technology such as
    cell-phones, satellites and computers facilitate the storage or
    transfer of information. Geographic information systems and other
    software programs also help leaders make strategic and tactical
    choices to best deal with the disaster.

E.  **Preparedness and Improvisation**. Responses to disaster are likely
    to be ineffective if there has not been pre-event planning and
    preparedness. At the same time, being flexible in response
    operations is necessary to deal with the unique circumstances of any
    event.

Questions to be asked:

1.  What problems were evident in the case studies that were discussed?

2.  What is the difference between an agent-generated demand and a
    response-generated demand? Can you give an example of each?

3.  What are the goals of emergency management? Are these goals equal in
    importance or is one more vital than another?

4.  What functions are performed in during disaster response to reach
    the goals of protecting life, property and the environment?

5.  What are some other major things to consider about response
    operations and management?

6.  What tools are used by emergency personnel and responders to improve
    the response?

##### Agent- and Response-Generated Demands

####### [Agent-Generated Demands]{.underline} [Response-Generated Demands]{.underline}

######## 

######## Definition Agent-generated demands are the Response-generated demands are the

######## needs made evident by the hazard needs that are made evident as

######## (e.g. problems resulting directly individuals, organizations and

######## from the disaster agent itself) communities attempt to meet agent-

########  generated demands (e.g. logistics)

**Sequence of Immediately after a disaster Once the response to
agent-generated**

**Appearance demands begin**

########  

######## Examples Sandbags to fight flooding Acquiring sandbags, sand and

**volunteers to fill them**

**Shelters to care for victims who Finding suitable shelter sites,
setting up**

**lost homes in a tornado cots, establishing a mass kitchen unit**

**Water and electricity due to Purchasing bottled water and obtaining**

> **severed utility lines from an portable generators; coordinating
> the**
>
> **earthquake schedule for utility restoration**