# EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

# 

# A BRIEF OVERVIEW

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**U.S. Department of Education**

**September 2005**

#### U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Margaret Spellings

*Secretary*

First published September 2003. Revised September 2005.

This report is in the public domain. Authorization to reproduce it in
whole or in part is granted. While permission to reprint this
publication is not necessary, the citation should be: U.S. Department of
Education, International Affairs Staff, *Education in the United States:
A Brief Overview*, Washington, D.C., 2005.

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**FOREWORD**

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From its earliest days, the United States of America has valued
education. Our Founding Fathers believed, as do we, that learning
promoted liberty. Pioneer settlers built schools so their children could
become productive citizens. Great expanses of land were set aside to
create one of the finest systems of higher education in the world.

This tradition continues. Today, the U.S. educates 54 million students
from kindergarten to grade 12, and over 17 million in colleges and
universities, many of them foreign-born. As we do, we are constantly at
work to improve the way we teach and learn.

In 2001, faced with stagnant test scores and an "achievement gap"
between rich and poor, President Bush led Congress to pass the *No Child
Left Behind Act*. This revolutionary law committed our nation to
providing every single child with a quality education -- something
that's never been done before in the history of the United States.

A revolution in education is taking place in many other nations as well.
This is a truly hopeful sign. In this Age of Information, a quality
education has never been more valuable or highly sought. It is the key
to unlocking opportunity for an individual, a family or a society.

As the world becomes closer and more competitive, the United States is
eager to learn from other nations and cultures, and to share the lessons
we've learned. That is why we have written this booklet. It details the
history of education in America, and the unique leadership role played
by states and local governments under our Constitution. It explains the
many different types of schools and the great advances being made in
teaching and instruction. It tells you what we are doing to provide a
quality education to all children, regardless of race, ethnicity, family
income or place of birth.

I hope you find this information useful and interesting. We invite you
to visit our country and see for yourself what education means to
Americans. In the end, we want to see all of the world's children
receive a quality education, so that the 21st century is one of hope,
prosperity and peace.

> Margaret Spellings
>
> U.S. Secretary of Education

**CONTENTS**

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FOREWORD................................................................................................\...3

PREFACE................................................................................................\.......5

INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................\...6

*NO CHILD LEFT
BEHIND*.................................................................................7

PART I: ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURE OF U.S.
EDUCATION..........................12

Early Childhood
Education...............................................................................\...14

Elementary and Secondary
Education.....................................................................14

Vocational and Technical
Education...................................................\....................23

Postsecondary
Education.................................................................................\...24

Adult and Continuing
Education........................................................................\...29

PART II: EDUCATION POLICY AND
ADMINISTRATION....................................\...30

The Role of State
Governments............................................................................30

The Role of Local
Governments...........................................................................31

The Role of the Federal
Government......................................................................31

Others Who Influence Education Policy and
Practice................................................\...34

Financing of
Education......................................................................................31

CONCLUSION...............................................................................................39

ADDITIONAL
RESOURCES...........................................................................\...40

NOTES......................................................................................................\...41

FIGURES......................................................................................................\...

Figure 1: Structure of Education in the United
States................................................\...12

Figure 2: Highest Level of Education Attained by Persons 25 Years and
Older....................24

Figure 3: Top 10 Bachelor's
Degrees.....................................................................25

Figure 4: Funding for Elementary and Secondary
Education..........................................36

Figure 5: Funding for Public Postsecondary
Education................................................37

Figure 6: Funding for Private Postsecondary
Education.............................................\...37

TABLES.........................................................................................................

Table 1: U.S. Education System at a
Glance.............................................................13

Table 2: Basic Information on U.S. Public School
Teachers..........................................22

**PREFACE**

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The U.S. Department of Education receives many inquiries each year from
citizens of other countries who wish to better understand education in
the United States. Some of these inquiries are received via
correspondence, while others come from the Department's many
international visitors.

In an effort to address these questions and to provide contextual
information, this publication aims to briefly describe the important
features and general characteristics of education in the United States.
It is important to note that, due to the highly decentralized nature of
U.S. education, policies and practices can vary considerably from state
to state and from school district to school district. This publication
cites national averages and general patterns of education practice.

To learn about specific policies and practices, readers are encouraged
to contact local or state education agencies. Internet addresses have
been inserted throughout the document for additional information on
specific topics.

**INTRODUCTION**

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The United States has a highly decentralized system of education. The
Tenth Amendment (1791) of the U.S. Constitution (1787) states: "The
powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor
prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively,
or to the people." Therefore, the general authority to create and
administer public schools is reserved for the states. There is no
national school system nor are there national framework laws that
prescribe curricula or control most other aspects of education. The
federal government, although playing an important role in education,
does not establish or license schools or govern educational institutions
at any level.[^1]

The decentralized nature of U.S. education has its origins in the early
history of the United States. In the 17th and early 18th centuries, what
was to become the United States began as separate colonies established
by settlers from several European countries. In the 13 British colonies
that formed the original United States, the colonial governments or, in
some colonies, local communities were responsible for education. It was
customary for each locality to establish and support its own school(s)
and to educate its children according to its own priorities, values and
needs. This history helps to explain why state and local governments
today retain primary responsibility for administering elementary and
secondary education in the U.S.

In the pages that follow, you will find a description of the historic
*No Child Left Behind Act of 2001*. Part I contains a general
description of the organization and structure of U.S. education, while
Part II describes the roles played by all three levels of government in
education policy, administration and financing, with an emphasis on
elementary and secondary education.

***NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND*­---THE LAW THAT USHERED IN A NEW ERA**

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The *No Child Left Behind Act of 2001* (*No Child Left Behind*)[^2] is a
landmark in education reform designed to improve student achievement and
change the culture of U.S. schools. The law was passed by Congress with
overwhelming bipartisan support and signed into law by President George
W. Bush on January 8, 2002.

*No Child Left Behind* reauthorized the *Elementary and Secondary
Education Act* (*ESEA*)---the principal federal law affecting education
from kindergarten through high school. In amending *ESEA*, the new law
represents a sweeping overhaul of federal efforts to support elementary
and secondary education in the United States. In exchange for federal
aid for education, states must establish systems of accountability that
ensure that funds are used to improve the quality of education offered
to every child in the state.

WHY *NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND* IS IMPORTANT

From 1965, when Congress first passed the *Elementary and Secondary
Education Act,* through 2005, the federal government has spent almost
\$300 billion to help educate children, particularly those who are
disadvantaged[^3]. Despite this investment, the latest National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in reading showed that less
than one-third of our fourth-graders can read at the proficient or
advanced levels. And while NAEP Long-Term Trend data from 2004 show a
narrowing of achievement gaps between white and minority students, these
gaps remain unacceptably large.

The good news is that some schools in cities and towns across the nation
are achieving strong academic results for all their children, including
those in socioeconomic subgroups that have a history of low performance.
If some schools can do it, then all schools should be able to do it.
That is the purpose of *No Child Left Behind*. The law is built on four
common-sense pillars: accountability for results, an emphasis on doing
what works based on scientific research, expanded parental options, and
increased local control and flexibility.

ACCOUNTABILITY FOR RESULTS

[Identifies Schools and Districts in Need of Improvement]{.smallcaps}

As part of the accountability provisions set forth in the law, *No Child
Left Behind* has set the goal of having every child achieving
proficiency according to state-defined educational standards by the end
of the 2013--14 school year. To reach that goal, every state has
developed benchmarks to measure progress and make sure every child is
learning. States are required to conduct annual assessments in reading
and mathematics for students in grades 3--8, and to report results
disaggregated by various subgroups so that overall averages do not mask
a failure to meet the educational needs of key student groups. Data is
analyzed separately for children of different racial and ethnic groups,
students with disabilities, students from economically disadvantaged
homes, and children who are learning English as a second language. This
analysis enables schools to identify groups of students who need
additional assistance to meet the state\'s academic expectations.

Under *No Child Left Behind*, schools that do not meet the state\'s
definition of \"adequate yearly progress\" for two straight years
(schoolwide or in any major subgroup) are identified as "in need of
improvement," and they are given assistance to improve. Annual
assessment data help schools identify subject areas and teaching methods
that need improvement. For example, if reading scores do not reach the
state\'s benchmark, the school knows it needs to improve its reading
program.

In the past, these schools might not have received the attention and the
help they needed to improve. Through *No Child Left Behind*, every state
has made a commitment that it will no longer ignore when schools are not
meeting the needs of every student in their care.

[Provides Help to Schools in Need of Improvement]{.smallcaps}

Title I of *ESEA: Improving the Academic Achievement of the
Disadvantaged* awards grants to states and local school districts and
schools with the highest concentrations of economically disadvantaged
students to help them improve the education of disadvantaged students,
turn around low-performing schools, improve teacher quality and increase
choices for parents. When a Title I school is found to be \"in need of
improvement,\" school officials are required to work with parents,
school staff, the district and outside experts to develop a plan to
improve the academic achievement of all the students who attend the
school.

The school\'s improvement plan must incorporate strategies, relying on
scientifically based research, that will strengthen the teaching of core
academic subjects, especially in the subject areas that resulted in the
school being designated as in need of improvement. Schools in need of
improvement are also expected to develop strategies to promote effective
parental involvement in the school and to incorporate a
teacher-mentoring program.

[Improves Teaching and Learning by Providing Better Information to
Teachers and Principals]{.smallcaps}

Annual assessments to measure children\'s progress provide teachers with
independent information about each child\'s strengths and weaknesses.
With this knowledge, teachers can develop lessons to meet the academic
needs of each student and meet or exceed the states' approved content
standards and targets. In addition, principals can use the data to
assess where the school should invest resources, such as in professional
development.

[Ensures That Teacher Quality is a High Priority]{.smallcaps}

*No Child Left Behind* outlines the minimum qualifications needed by
teachers and paraprofessionals who work on any facet of classroom
instruction. It requires that states develop plans to ensure that all
teachers of core academic subjects are highly qualified[^4] by the end
of the 2005--06 school year.

[Gives More Resources to Schools]{.smallcaps}

Today, local, state and federal taxpayers spend over \$8,000 per pupil
on average.[^5] States and local school districts are now receiving more
federal funding than ever before for all programs under *No Child Left
Behind*: \$24.4 billion for the 2005--06 school year. This represents an
increase of 46 percent from 2001 to 2005.[^6] Nearly half of these funds
are for grants under Title I of *ESEA: Improving the Academic
Achievement of the Disadvantaged* to ensure that schools in need of
improvement have the funds needed to improve instruction for their
students.

SCIENTIFICALLY BASED RESEARCH

[Focuses on What Works]{.smallcaps}

*No Child Left Behind* puts a special emphasis on implementing
educational programs and practices that have been clearly demonstrated
to be effective through rigorous scientific research. Federal funding is
targeted to support such programs, and schools are expected to use
research and evidence of effectiveness to identify and select
instructional resources, instructional practices and professional
development strategies. For example, the Reading First program makes \$1
billion in federal funds available each year to help reading teachers in
the early grades strengthen old skills and gain new ones in
instruc­tional techniques that scientifically based research has shown to
be effective.

EXPANDED PARENTAL OPTIONS

[Provides More Information for Parents About Their Child\'s
Progress]{.smallcaps}

Under *No Child Left Behind*, each state must measure every public
school student\'s progress in reading and math in each of grades 3
through 8 and at least once during grades 10 through 12. By school year
2007-2008, assessments in science will be added. These assessments must
be aligned with state academic content and achievement standards. They
will provide parents with objective data about their child\'s academic
strengths and weaknesses.

[Alerts Parents to Important Information on the Performance of
their]{.smallcaps}

[Child\'s School]{.smallcaps}

*No Child Left Behind* requires states and school districts to give
parents easy-to-read, detailed report cards on schools and districts,
telling them which ones are succeeding and why, and the progress they
are making. Included in the report cards are student achievement data
disaggregated by race, ethnicity, gender, English language proficiency,
migrant status, disability status and low-income status, as well as
important information about the professional qualifications of teachers.
With these provisions, *No Child Left Behind* ensures that parents have
important, timely information about the performance of the schools their
children attend.

[Gives Parents Whose Children Attend Schools in Need of
Improvement]{.smallcaps}

[New Options]{.smallcaps}

In the first year that a Title I school is identified as in need of
improvement, parents receive the option to transfer their child to
another public school, including a charter school, in the same school
district. Transportation must be provided to the new school, subject to
certain cost limitations. If a Title I school is identified for
improvement for two or more years, it must provide public school choice
and offer students from low-income families who remain in the school the
option of obtaining free supplemental educational services (tutoring).

EXPANDED FLEXIBILITY AND LOCAL CONTROL

[Allows More Flexibility]{.smallcaps}

In exchange for strong accountability, *No Child Left Behind* gives
states and local school districts more flexibility in the use of their
federal funding. As a result, principals and administrators spend less
time filling out forms and have more time to devote to students' needs.
They have more freedom to implement innovations and allocate resources
as policymakers at the state and local levels see fit, thereby giving
local people a greater opportunity to affect decisions regarding their
schools' programs.

[Encourages Teacher Development]{.smallcaps}

*No Child Left Behind* gives states and districts the flexibility to
find innovative ways to improve teacher quality, including alternative
certification, merit pay for master teachers, and bonuses for people who
teach in high-need schools and core subject areas like math and science.

The Improving Teacher Quality State Grants program (from Title II of the
reauthorized *ESEA*) gives states and districts flexibility to choose
the teacher professional development strategies that best meet their
needs to help raise student achievement.

**PART I: ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURE OF EDUCATION**

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The structure of education in the United States provides different paths
to graduation from high school or a postsecondary institution (see
Figure 1 below), and it is common for students to move between different
types of schools, or to leave the system and return later in life.

**Figure 1: Structure of Education in the United States**

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height="5.861111111111111in"}

*Source*: *2003 Digest of Education Statistics*, Figure 1. (Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, NCES, 2004). *Note*: Adult education
programs, while not separately delineated above, may provide instruction
at the elementary, secondary or higher education levels. Chart reflects
typical patterns of progression rather than all possible variations.
Numbers in parentheses represent the number of years spent in elementary
and secondary schools, depending on the path being followed.

**Table 1: U.S. Education System at a Glance**

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  Total elementary and secondary      54 million^a^
  school enrollment                   

  Percentage of population age 6-17   98 percent^b^
  enrolled in school                  

  Number of elementary and secondary  3.4 million^c^
  school teachers (public and         
  private)                            

  Number of public elementary and     96,000^d^
  secondary schools                   

  Number of private elementary and    29,000^e^
  secondary schools                   

  Percentage of elementary and        12percent^g^
  secondary students attending        
  private schools^f^                  

  Average expenditure per pupil in    \$8200^h^
  public elementary/secondary school  

  Number of public school districts   15,000^i^

  Number of higher education students 17 million^j^

  Number of 2-year colleges           1,700^k^

  Number of 4-year colleges and       2,500^l^
  universities                        

  Percentage of adults over age 25    98 percent^m^
  who have completed at least 5 years 
  of elementary school                

  Percentage of adults over age 25    85 percent^n^
  who have completed at least high    
  school                              

  Percentage of adults over age 25    27 percent^o^
  who have completed 4 or more years  
  of college                          
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

*Sources*: Data from: *2004 Digest of Education* Statistics.
(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for
Education Statistics \[NCES\], 2005); *2000 Condition of* Education.
(Washington, D.C.: NCES, 2000); and *Findings from the Condition of
Education: 2002 Private Schools---A Brief Portrait*. (Washington, D.C.:
NCES, 2002). Figures have been slightly rounded.

(a) *Digest*, Table 2

(b) *Condition*, Table 1-1

(c) *Digest*, Table 4 (*2003 Digest*)

(d) *Digest*, Table 5

(e) *Digest*, Table 5

(f) See page 18 for a description of private schools.

(g) *Digest,* Table 2

(h) *Digest*, Table 166

(i) *Digest*, Table 87 (*2003 Digest*)

(j) *Digest*, Table 2

(k) *Digest*, Table 5

(l) *Digest*, Table 5

(m) *Digest*, Table 8

(n) *Digest*, Table 8

(o) *Digest*, Table 8

Early Childhood Education

Early childhood education (preprimary) in the United States comes in a
variety of forms, including nursery school, preschool, day care centers,
prekindergarten and kindergarten. It also includes Head Start, a
federally funded child development program that serves low-income
children. Free Head Start programs are offered for 3- and 4-year-old
children from low-income families. The Early Reading First program
provides federal funds to enhance instructional content in early
childhood education settings, thus helping to ensure that children start
kindergarten with the language and literacy skills needed for later
academic success. Overall, 64 percent of 3- to 5-year-olds are enrolled
in early childhood education and 52 percent of these children attend
full-day programs.[^7]

The majority of 5-year-olds attend free public kindergartens.[^8] Most
public elementary schools offer free kindergarten education, and the
average class size is 20 students.[^9] Almost all public school
kindergartens report that teachers read stories aloud to the children
each day. The majority also arrange for the students to engage each day
in running, climbing and other motor skill activities; language
development, dramatic play, arts, crafts and music; and free play.

For more information on Head Start, see
[www.headstartinfo.org/index.htm](http://www.headstartinfo.org/index.htm).

Elementary and Secondary Education

######### [Basic Information]{.smallcaps}

######### 

######### Elementary (primary) and secondary education spans twelve academic years, or grades. However, the organization of elementary and secondary education varies among school districts and states. Generally students spend from six to eight years in elementary education. Elementary education is followed by four to six years of secondary education. The last four years of secondary school are generally referred to as "high school." Students normally complete high school by age 17 or 18. High school graduates who decide to continue their education may enter a technical or vocational institution, a two-year community or junior college, or a four-year college or university. Each of these educational levels is further described later.

######### 

The average public elementary school enrolls 477 pupils.[^10] The grade
levels included in elementary school vary by district, based on
educational philosophy and school building size. The average public
secondary school enrolls 7,18 students.[^11] Secondary education is
usually broken into two parts: middle school (or junior high school) and
high school. Middle school usually encompasses grades 6-8 or 7-8,
depending on the district. High school typically includes grades
9-12.[^12]

All states require students to attend school, but the ages of compulsory
attendance vary by state. Compulsory schooling ends by law at age 16 in
30 states, at age 17 in nine states, and at age 18 in 11 states plus the
District of Columbia. U.S. public schools are tax-supported and free to
students and their families.

######### Students borrow free textbooks from the school for the year, but they must bring their own paper 

and pencils from home. In most public schools, students are allowed to
wear whatever clothing they like within broad guidelines, while a small
but growing number of public schools require uniforms. Boys and girls
generally attend class together, although a small number of public
schools do provide single-sex classes.

######### School Calendar and Daily Routine. In most states, the school year lasts 180 days[^13]. School begins in most districts in late August or early September and continues until June, and most school districts have a two-week break at the end of December and a one-week break in March or April. Generally, the school day runs from about 8 a.m. to 3 p.m.; however, daily schedules vary significantly from school to school. 

Most elementary school students study in the same classroom all day with
one teacher who teaches all subjects. The class may visit the gymnasium
and library once or twice a week. Students have a daily lunch break of
about 30 minutes. Most schools have one or two playground breaks,
although playground time is being reduced or eliminated in a growing
number of schools for a variety of reasons. In most elementary schools,
daily instructional time is not divided into periods; instead, teachers
decide how much time to spend teaching particular subjects based on
students' learning needs and their own expertise.

The secondary school day usually consists of five to six instructional
periods, with short breaks between periods. Each secondary school
student has a unique schedule and set of classes, which is determined by
the parents, school counselor and student, based upon local graduation
requirements and the student's interests, career goals and academic
ability. Middle and secondary school teachers remain in their own
classrooms throughout the day and teach specialized subjects rather than
the whole curriculum. At the end of each period, every student moves to
a different classroom depending on his or her own schedule.

Students generally eat lunch in the school cafeteria. Some students
bring their lunch from home, and others purchase their meals at school.
About a third of U.S. students---those from low-income
families---receive free or reduced-price breakfast and/or lunch each
day, paid for by the federal government.[^14] For more information on
the federal programs that provide school meals, see
[www.fns.usda.gov/cnd](http://www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/).

**Student Transportation.** For students attending schools located
beyond walking distance from their homes, transportation via school bus
is generally provided free of charge by the school district. More than
half of U.S. public elementary and secondary students use this service
to travel to and from school each day.[^15] Many parents drive their
children to school, while many students age 16 and older drive
themselves.

**Extracurricular Activities.** Many schools, especially at the
secondary level, sponsor activities such as sports, clubs, performing
arts and community service opportunities. In some school districts,
prospective graduates are encouraged or required to perform a prescribed
number of hours of community service.

In addition to attending school, many high school students work limited
hours at part-time jobs during the academic year. For example, 68
percent of 12th-grade students work during the academic year, with 77
percent of students working fewer than 20 hours per week.[^16] Food
service, grocery clerk and retail sales are the most common types of
work for high school students.[^17] Persons under the age of 18 are
considered minors under U.S. law, and federal and state child labor laws
strictly govern the types of work minors can perform, how it is
supervised and how long they can work for pay.

**[Curriculum]{.smallcaps}**

States set broad curriculum guidelines for what students should know and
be able to do. School districts or schools generally select textbooks,
adhering to state guidelines. Within these guidelines, schools, and even
individual teachers, are generally expected to determine content details
and the pace of instruction so that it is suited to the characteristics
of students. Elementary schools do not generally assign students to
specific teachers or classes based on their ability. However, within
classes, teachers often set up reading or mathematics groups based on
student achievement levels. Students in different achievement groups may
receive differentiated assignments so that they can progress at an
appropriate pace in mastering the class curriculum.

At the secondary school level, each student's coursework is generally
composed of courses required for graduation---with requirements varying
by district and state---and elective courses. As a statistical average,
public high school students complete the following one-year-long courses
between 9th and 12th grades: four years of English; four years of
history or social studies; three years of mathematics; three years of
science; two years of foreign language; two years of the arts; four
years of vocational, technical or business education; one year of
computer science; and two to three years of other subjects.[^18]

Most students graduate from high school at the age of 17 or 18.[^19]
Some students graduate from school later because they have been retained
in grade. Others drop out and return to school a year or two later, or
drop out and decide to complete the General Educational Development
(GED) certificate program, which is recognized in all states as the
equivalent of a high school diploma.[^20]

#### [Academic Standards and Student Assessment]{.smallcaps}

**Standards.** During the 1990s, most states made significant gains in
the use of standards to define educational inputs and desired outcomes.
By 2001, almost all states, plus the District of Columbia, had developed
and put in place *academic standards* that described what students
should know and be able to do in mathematics, language arts, science and
social studies. Most states also now have *content standards* that
describe the body of knowledge that all students should know, and
*achievement standards* that describe what level of performance is
considered basic, proficient and advanced. (The exact terms used vary by
school system.) Despite significant progress in setting academic
standards, debate often takes place over whether standards are too high,
too low, clear enough or sufficiently relevant.

**Grading.** Students receive classroom grades to describe their
academic performance in each subject area. The grading system used is
generally on a letter scale, with "A" being the highest and "F" being
the lowest and representing failure. Letter grades are often converted
into numeric "grade point averages" ("GPAs")---especially at the
secondary school level---to describe a student's overall performance. In
this case, A=4, B=3, C=2, D=1 and F=0, with a 4.0 grade point average
indicating a perfect grade record. Grading generally assumes a starting
point of 100, or perfect, and subtracts points for mistakes or
poor-quality reasoning, rather than assuming a starting point of zero
and adding points, as in some other grading systems. Typically,
classroom teachers are entirely responsible for determining grades,
basing their decisions on the quality of a student's work, classroom
test scores and level of participation.

**Promotion.** A student's promotion to the next year of schooling is
based primarily on his or her classroom grades. If a student's grades
are poor and the teacher believes that he or she is not ready to be
promoted to the next grade, the student may be retained. Parents also
generally play an important role in making such a decision. Students are
most likely to be retained during the early grades of elementary school.
Some states require students to pass an examination in order to graduate
from secondary school.[^21] These examinations vary in content, format
and rigor.

**Student Achievement Testing.** States administer tests on a regular
basis to assess student performance at designated grade levels. One of
the key factors determining the relevance of a state's testing regimen
is its alignment with the state's academic content and achievement
standards. Achieving this alignment is often challenging due to the time
and expense required. Some states use tests purchased from a commercial
test developer, while others develop original test instruments that are
specifically designed to measure state standards. Another challenge is
how to define and ensure test quality. For example, states must
determine whether tests will primarily contain open-ended essay
questions and mathematical problems, or multiple-choice questions.

The federal *No Child Left Behind Act of 2001* requires states to test
all students in reading and mathematics in grades 3--8 and at least once
in high school. Science assessments will be required at least once
during grades 3--5, 6--9, and 10--12 starting in the 2007--08 school
year. Each state, school district and school is expected to make
adequate yearly progress toward meeting state standards in these subject
areas and to measure this progress for all students. Special focus is
placed on the progress of students who are economically disadvantaged,
are from racial or ethnic minority groups, have disabilities or have
limited English proficiency.

The results of state-level tests do not generally affect an individual
student's grades or promotion but instead are used to assess the
educational quality in a school, a district or the entire state. In many
communities, the media report the results of districts' or schools'
performance on standardized measures.

National-level student assessment takes place through the National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), which includes a random
sample of U.S. schools and is designed to provide the public with
information on the nation's progress in a number of subjects. NAEP does
not provide scores for individual students or schools; instead, it
offers results regarding subject-matter achievement, instructional
experiences and school environment for populations of students (e.g.,
fourth-graders) and subgroups of those populations (e.g., female
students, Hispanic students).

In 1988, the Congress passed legislation enabling NAEP to assess student
performance also at the state level, and in 2002, *NCLB* added a
requirement for state-level NAEP testing as a benchmark for the rigor of
state assessment systems. Many schools also participate in international
assessments to measure how well U.S. students perform in comparison to
students in other countries.

For more information on NAEP, see
<http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/>. For information on such
international assessments, see
<http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/international>.

[School Choice]{.smallcaps}

Public school districts generally assign students to particular schools
based on place of residence, and those schools generally accept all
students assigned to them. Nonetheless, in an effort to provide parents
with more options for their children, many state governments and public
school systems expand school choice through options such as open
enrollment programs, magnet schools, charter schools, virtual schools,
dual enrollment programs, scholarship programs ("vouchers") and tax
credit/deduction programs.

-   *Open enrollment programs* allow parents the opportunity to choose
    from among all schools in their district, or even from among schools
    in other districts in their state.

-   *Magnet schools* are public elementary or secondary schools that
    offer a special curriculum capable of attracting substantial numbers
    of students of different racial and socioeconomic backgrounds.

-   *Charter schools* are public schools that provide enhanced parental
    choice and are exempt from many statutory and regulatory
    requirements. In exchange for increased flexibility, charter schools
    are held accountable for improving student academic achievement. The
    objective is to replace rules-based governance with
    performance-based accountability.

-   *Virtual schools* are education organizations that provide online
    learning opportunities offering benefits and access to a broad range
    of students.

-   *Dual enrollment programs* give high school students the opportunity
    to attend college classes and receive both high school and
    postsecondary credit.

-   *Scholarship programs*, also known as "vouchers," direct public
    education funding to parents in order to pay all or part of their
    child's tuition at a school of their choice. Depending on the
    program, parents can choose from private schools---either secular or
    religious---and from public schools.

-   *Tax credit/deduction programs* reimburse education expenses fully
    or partially via tax relief. Tax credits or deductions may be
    available to individual or corporate taxpayers who contribute to
    scholarship-granting organizations, or to parent taxpayers to help
    pay for education-related costs, including private school tuition.

[Public Schools]{.smallcaps}

Public school choice programs provide parents with additional options as
to where to enroll their children. Although such programs have not been
available everywhere, the proportion of public school children attending
a chosen school (rather than the school assigned by their place of
residence) has increased in recent years. In 2003, for example, 15
percent of public school students in grades 1--12 attended a school the
family had chosen, up from 11 percent in 1993.[^22]

With the enactment of the *No Child Left Behind Act* in 2002, public
school choice has taken on a new dimension. Now all children who attend
Title I schools identified by their states as in need of improvement
must be offered the option of transferring to another school in the
district not identified for improvement. (Title I schools are those
schools that receive federal funds under Title I of the *Elementary and
Secondary Education Act \[ESEA\]*: Improving the Academic Achievement of
the Disadvantaged. Title I supports programs to improve the academic
achievement of children of low-income families; and currently about 55
percent of U.S. public schools receive funds under Title I.)

*No Child Left Behind* also provides eligible parents with the option to
enroll their children in free tutoring programs through the supplemental
educational services provisions of Title I. Low-income families whose
children attend Title I schools in year two of improvement or later are
eligible for supplemental educational services, which are extra academic
enrichment services offered outside of the regular school day. The
services must be research-based and aligned with state standards and
local curriculum, and their goal is to help students improve their
academic achievement while also offering parents the option of selecting
the education program that best meets their children's needs.

For additional information on school choice, see
http://www.ed.gov/nclb/choice/index.html.

[Private Schools]{.smallcaps}

Private schools were the original schools in the U.S. and continue to
provide parents a variety of options for educating their children.
Private schools account for about 24 percent of all elementary and
secondary schools, 10 percent of all students and 12 percent of all
teachers in the United States. Seventy-seven percent of all private
schools have a religious affiliation while the remainder are
nonsectarian.[^23] Private schools are owned and governed by entities
that are independent of any government---typically religious bodies or
independent boards of trustees. Choice is a defining characteristic of
private schools as families may choose private education, and private
schools may generally choose which students to accept. Although
nonpublic governance and enrollment choices are features that all
private schools share, there is wide variation within the private sector
on many measures.

Private schools receive funding primarily from nonpublic sources:
tuition payments and other private sources, such as foundations,
religious bodies, alumni or other private donors. Average annual tuition
costs at private elementary and secondary schools are \$4,689 per
pupil,[^24] although tuition rates for individual schools can be less or
significantly more than this average.

In addition, a growing number (about 2 percent) of U.S. students ages
5--17 receive their education through homeschooling. Parents cite
several primary motivations for selecting homeschooling for their
children. These include, among others, concerns about the environment of
other schools (including safety, drugs, and negative peer pressure);
religious and moral beliefs; and dissatisfaction with academic
instruction at other schools.[^25]

For more information on private schools, see
[www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oii/nonpublic/index.html](http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oii/nonpublic/index.html).

[Special Education]{.smallcaps}

A number of federal laws govern the provision of educational services to
students with disabilities and specifically prohibit discrimination on
the basis of disability by public entities or institutions that are
recipients of federal financial assistance. The primary federal
governing legislation for special education is the *Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act*, as amended in 2004.

About 96 percent of students with disabilities attend regular schools,
while only 4 percent attend separate institutions dedicated to education
for students with disabilities.[^26] Among those students attending
local public schools, most are educated in regular classes with
appropriate aids and supports, such as designated periods of time
meeting with a qualified special education teacher. The amount of time
spent outside the regular classroom varies and depends on the needs of
the student. About half of all students with disabilities spend 80
percent or more of their day in regular classrooms.[^27]

For more information about special education, including federal laws
prohibiting discrimination against persons with disabilities, see the
U.S. Department of Education's Office of Special Education Programs Web
site at http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/osep/index.html and
its Office for Civil Rights Web site at
[www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/aboutocr.html](http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/aboutocr.html).

[Gifted and Talented Education]{.smallcaps}

Special services are often also provided for students that are specially
gifted or talented. Gifted and talented students are usually served via
special programs in regular school settings. About 6 percent of U.S.
students benefit from these services.[^28] In some states, special
services for gifted and talented students are included under the state's
special education law.

[Other Important Aspects of Elementary and Secondary
Education]{.smallcaps}

**Religion and Schools.** The U.S. Constitution calls for a separation
between government and religion; therefore, public schools are not
allowed to have a religious affiliation or teach religious doctrine.
(They may, however, teach about religions as part of academic studies
such as history, social studies or literature.) Parents who desire a
religiously oriented education for their children may send them to
private religious schools instead of public schools or may homeschool
their children, as described above.

**Student Diversity.** Students in U.S. schools represent nearly every
ethnic background and nationality in the world. The most diverse school
districts are those in major metropolitan areas such as Los Angeles, New
York, Washington and Chicago, but diverse student populations are
increasingly found even in smaller cities, towns and rural areas. As a
national average, U.S. students in public schools are 60 percent white,
17 percent black, 17 percent Hispanic, 4 percent Asian or Pacific
Islander and 1 percent American Indian or Alaskan Native.[^29] However,
the population characteristics of a given local school or district often
vary from the national average.

In the United States, English is clearly the predominant language for
government, business, society and instruction. English is taught to all
students in U.S. schools, but more than 400 native languages other than
English are represented in these same schools.[^30] In some schools,
especially at the elementary level, students with limited English
proficiency receive content instruction in their native language while
they learn English. More than 9 percent of public school students
(prekindergarten through 12th grade) are considered to have limited
English proficiency. [^31]

For more information, see the Web site for the U.S. Department of
Education's Office of English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement
and Academic Achievement for Limited English Proficient Students at
[*www.ed.gov/offices/OELA*](http://www.ed.gov/offices/OELA/).

**English Language Proficiency.** There are approximately five million
non-English speaking or limited English proficient (LEP) students who
attend U.S. public schools. Although there are over 400 languages spoken
by children throughout the United States, 80 percent of LEP children are
native Spanish speakers. The annual growth rate of the LEP population in
America has hovered at 10 percent over the past five years. To date, it
is the fastest-growing student group in the country. About 52 percent of
the children are born in the U.S., while the other 48 percent come to
U.S. schools from other countries at different times and enter at
different grade levels throughout the year. Currently, one in every nine
students in the classroom is LEP and the numbers are projected to
increase to one in five by the year 2030. According to a descriptive
study titled: *Descriptive Study of Services to LEP Students and LEP
Students with Disabilities* commissioned by the U.S. Department of
Education published September 2003, 43 percent of all teachers in the
nation have at least one non-English speaking student in the
classroom.[^32] Historically, it has been difficult, if not impossible,
to accurately calculate the drop-out rate or the graduation and
completion rates of America's limited English proficient students.

For the first time, with *No Child Left Behind* public education
legislation, specifically addresses the English language proficiency and
academic achievement of limited English proficient students and their
families. *NCLB* Title III annually distributes formula grant funds to
states for limited English proficient students who are identified by the
state through a language assessment and requires the state to develop a
system within the state that focuses on two legislated goals: that all
limited English proficient children learn English and that they achieve
at the same high academic level established by the state for all
students. Currently, states are actively engaged in including LEP
students in the their accountability systems and measuring and reporting
their language acquisition progress and academic success.

**Parental Involvement.** Parents' involvement in the schools and in
their children's education is generally encouraged by principals and
teachers. Most parents attend general school meetings and parent-teacher
conferences each year, and many volunteer at their children's school by
tutoring, presenting special programs of interest, supervising students
on field trips or assisting with special events. [^33] Parents of
children with disabilities must be involved in the development of their
child's specially designed instruction, which is referred to as the
child's Individualized Education Program. There are also
organizations---such as parent-teacher associations---that work to
support schools and increase the involvement of families in the
educational progress of their children.

**Technology.** The use of technology is widespread in U.S. elementary
and secondary schools, as well as in colleges and universities. Students
use computers to write reports, collaborate with classmates, conduct
research on the Internet and engage in many other activities. In fall
2003, nearly 100 percent of public schools had access to the Internet,
while 93 percent of public school instructional rooms had Internet
access. While technology in schools has become increasingly common,
several related challenges have presented themselves. These challenges
include providing adequate training to teachers on how to effectively
integrate technology into the curriculum and ensuring that the benefits
of educational technology are available to students of all socioeconomic
backgrounds. For more information on current activities in applying
technology to U.S. classrooms, see the U.S. Department of Education's
Office of Educational Technology Web site at
[www.ed.gov/Technology/.]{.underline}

[Teachers and Teaching]{.smallcaps}

U.S. elementary and secondary school teachers receive their preservice
training at four-year colleges and universities. Although the
requirements for coursework and practice teaching vary by university and
state, most prospective teachers must complete an undergraduate degree
and pass one or more examinations in order to be licensed. A growing
number of states and some school districts have developed alternative
certification programs or routes to train prospective teachers.

The majority of public school teachers earn master's degrees and
complete additional training during their careers.[^34]. In general,
public school teachers are required to be licensed by the teacher
certification authority of the state in which they teach. The *No Child
Left Behind Act* also addresses the issue of teacher quality and
establishes certain requirements designed to ensure that all students
have high-quality teachers.

###### 

###### 

###### 

###### 

###### Table 2: Basic Information on U.S. Public School Teachers

  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------
  Median age                         44 years

  Gender                             Women 79%, Men 21%

  Highest degree held                Bachelor's 44%, Master's 55%,
                                     Doctorate 1.7%

  Median years of teaching           14 years
  experience                         

  Average hours per week spent on    50 hours
  teaching duties                    

  Average teaching days per year     181 days

  Average annual salary as a         \$43,262
  classroom teacher                  
  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------

Source: *2003 Digest of Education Statistics*, Table 69. (Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, NCES, 2004).

Each state administers its own teacher certification exam. Teachers
certified in one state are not certified to teach in another state,
unless there is a special reciprocity agreement between the states.
Since reciprocity is rare, teachers moving to another state are usually
required to complete additional coursework and another exam. To obtain
employment, prospective teachers apply to and are hired by the public
school district in which they wish to teach or the individual private
school. Most teachers teach the same grade and subject for several
years, and they rarely teach the same students for more than a year. Due
to teacher retirements, attrition, increased student enrollments and
other factors, teacher recruitment and teacher quality are currently
important issues in the United States.

On average, teachers make up 52 percent of the staff in U.S. school
districts.[^35] District-level administrators make up 2 percent;
principals and assistant principals 2 percent; teacher aides 11 percent;
and other staff 33 percent.[^36]

### 

### Vocational and Technical Education

Historically, the purpose of vocational education has been to prepare
students for entry-level jobs in occupations requiring less than an
undergraduate degree. However, this traditional focus has now shifted
toward broader preparation that develops the academic, vocational and
technical skills of students in vocational education programs.
Vocational and technical education is offered at the secondary,
postsecondary and adult education levels.

At the secondary school level, most every public school, and many
private and charter schools, offer one or more vocational education
programs and/or courses. Many states fund area vocational centers where
students can enroll in vocational education programs on a part-time
basis. Some states have well-developed vocational education programs
with apprenticeships or work-based learning opportunities. In these
states, most public high school students in vocational education
programs work in part-time situations jointly supervised by teachers and
employers during their senior year (grade 12) of high school. These work
experiences may be provided by the school or obtained independently by
the student. Different types of work-based learning experiences can be
offered, including internships, apprenticeships and mentoring. U.S.
child labor laws, previously mentioned, limit the level and intensity of
vocational instruction that can be provided to students under 18 years
of age. As a consequence, most occupationally specific vocational
education programs------especially for licensed occupations---are at the
postsecondary level.

At the postsecondary and adult education levels, thousands of
institutions and other providers offer degree and non-degree vocational
and technical training. These institutions include public community
colleges and vocational/technical institutes, as well as private trade
and technical schools, employers, unions, professional associations and
independent training services. Postsecondary vocational education
generally prepares students for occupational fields and terminates in a
certificate, diploma or associate degree. Such fields include the craft
and industrial trades, certain areas of health care, equipment operation
and personal services. Given the need in many career fields for
individuals with some education beyond high school, an increasing number
of vocational education programs are preparing students for entry into
higher education programs. This is generally true for fields such as
nursing and engineering technology, courses which are often available at
both the community college and university levels.

For more information, see *Vocational Education in the United States:
Toward the Year 2000* at
<http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2000029>. Also, see the
Web site for the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Vocational and
Adult Education at
[www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/grntprgm.html](http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/grntprgm.html).

##### **Figure 2: Highest Level of Education Attained by Persons 25 Years and Older**

![](media/image4.wmf)

Source: *2003 Digest of Education Statistics*, Figure 5. (Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, NCES, 2004). Figures have been
slightly rounded. \[GRAPHIC DESIGNER: A couple of the number labels were
revised. Because the number changes were so small, the size of the pie
slices probably didn't change noticeably\]

## 

### Postsecondary Education

Postsecondary education in the United States is widespread and diverse.
There are approximately 9,000 postsecondary institutions in the United
States.[^37] This total includes over 4,000 degree-granting
institutions,[^38] such as colleges, universities[^39] and community
colleges, and over 5,000 non-degree-granting institutions that provide
specific vocational, technical and career training.

[Colleges and Universities]{.smallcaps}

There are more than 600 public and 1,700 private, four-year colleges and
universities in the United States.[^40] The academic titles awarded by
these institutions include undergraduate degrees such as the bachelor's
degree and graduate degrees such as the master's degree and the
doctorate. U.S. degree titles are not governed by national laws;
therefore, colleges and universities exercise wide discretion in the
nomenclature they use for degrees and program requirements for
graduation. Accrediting associations, described below, may exert some
influence on degree titles, as do the labor market and the professional
academic community.

**Undergraduate Degrees.** The basic undergraduate degree in the United
States is the *bachelor's degree*. It generally requires four or more
years of full-time study. The *associate degree*, which is offered at
community colleges, described below, typically requires two years of
full-time study.

**Figure 3: Top 10 Bachelor's Degrees**

![](media/image5.wmf)

*Source*: *2003 Digest of Education Statistics*, Table 252. (Washington,
D.C.: NCES, 2003).

**Graduate Degrees.** The basic graduate degree is the *master's
degree*, which usually requires one to two years of full-time study
beyond the bachelor\'s degree. The research *doctorate degree* (Ph.D. or
equivalent) usually requires a minimum of five to seven years beyond the
bachelor\'s. However, the total time required can vary significantly
depending on the institution, student and field of study.

Education and training for professional occupations can take place at
the undergraduate or graduate level. For example, engineering, the
engineering technology fields, nursing and accounting generally require
an undergraduate degree. Architecture and teacher education require a
bachelor's or a master's degree depending on the entry point, and a
first professional degree following a prior undergraduate degree is
required to become a physician, dentist or attorney.

**Admissions.** Regardless of place of residence, all students are free
to apply for admission to higher education institutions located anywhere
in the country. However, tuition and fees at public universities are
generally higher for out-of-state residents. Although a number of
factors are weighed when institutions consider students for admission,
decisions generally take into account the following:

-   success in appropriate secondary school coursework (e.g., types of
    courses taken and grade point average);

-   scores on standardized tests, which are designed to determine a
    student's aptitude for success in postsecondary education (e.g.,
    Scholastic Aptitude Test \[SAT\]);

-   recommendation letters from teachers and others;

-   student-written essays; and

-   demonstration of leadership potential and participation in
    extracurricular activities (e.g. student government, school
    newspapers, sports teams, clubs, artistic activities and
    volunteering in the community).

For a searchable list of accredited colleges and universities in the
United States, see <http://ope.ed.gov/accreditation/>.

[Community Colleges]{.smallcaps}

The community college system originated in the United States in the
early 20th century. Community colleges (sometimes called junior
colleges) fulfill several key missions: (a) form a transitional academic
link between high school and the university; (b) offer vocational and
technical training; (c) provide adult and community education services;
and (d)

serve the education and training needs of local employers. They
generally offer two-year degree programs leading to the associate
degree, as well as short certificate and diploma programs in a variety
of academic and vocational fields. There are approximately 1,100 public
and 700 private two-year colleges in the United States.[^41]

Many students enroll in the community colleges to acquire or update
specific job skills, attain basic skills and pursue personal interests,
while others complete one or two years of study at a community college
before transferring to a four-year college or university to complete the
remainder of a bachelor's degree program. Most community colleges also
offer GED programs and adult literacy programs. Community colleges
generally attempt to be responsive to the community in which they
operate, offering coursework that addresses the needs of local citizens
and employers.

For additional information on community colleges, see
<http://www.aacc.nche.edu/Template.cfm?section=AboutCommunityColleges>.

[For-Profit Institutions]{.smallcaps}

In addition to public institutions and private nonprofit institutions,
the U.S. higher education sector also includes private for-profit
institutions often referred to as "proprietary schools." Proprietary
schools are especially prevalent at the non-degree level, where they
comprise about 70 percent of such institutions. At the college and
university level, 19 percent[^42] of institutions are for-profit, but
they enroll only about 3 percent[^43] of all college and university
students.

Proprietary vocational schools offer practical training in specific
fields, such as business administration and computer technology, and
degrees in a number of subject areas. Degree-granting proprietary
colleges and universities offer a range of awards---from certificates
that can be earned in a week to undergraduate and graduate degrees.

Most schools offer programs that are available at night or on weekends
so that classes fit into the schedules of working adults, and some
schools offer instruction via distance education. While they also offer
courses designed to strengthen general competencies, proprietary schools
continue to be market-driven institutions that primarily provide
students with career-focused programs of study. A growing number of
proprietary institutions are accredited by recognized accrediting
associations.

[Governance and Finance]{.smallcaps}

All private and most public institutions at the postsecondary level are
chartered or licensed as corporations under U.S. law and are legally
independent and self-governing in terms of academic affairs,
administration, fund-raising, resource allocation and public relations.
Institutions are generally governed by a board of citizens---often
called a "Board of Trustees" or "Board of Regents." This governing board
is the highest authority for institutional policy, although other lesser
boards---such as those composed by faculty or students---also generally
participate in governance to varying degrees. The Board of Trustees (or
Regents) is generally responsible for hiring the institution's chief
executive officer (president).

Administrative staff, including the president or chief executive
officer, deal primarily with non-academic matters and delegate academic
concerns to the academic deans, department chairs and faculty. Oversight
boards have the ultimate responsibility to vote on hiring staff and
faculty, and to approve decisions on hiring, promotion, tenure,
discipline, and the granting of degrees. However, in practice, they
rarely go against the decisions of the faculty and deans unless there is
compelling reason to do so, such as the violation of institutional
regulations or civil rights.

Degree-granting institutions generally depend on the following sources
of income: student tuition and fees, government funding, institutional
investments and holdings, private gifts and grants, and auxiliary
enterprises.[^44] Research institutions also receive money from grants
and contracts with government and the private sector, and teaching
institutions may earn money from providing instructional services to
employers. Almost all institutions, public or private, charge tuition,
with tuition being relatively lower at public institutions than at
private institutions.

###### [Paying for College]{.smallcaps} 

Many college students obtain part-time employment to help pay for their
studies, while others also receive grants, scholarships and loans to
help meet expenses. More than half of all U.S. undergraduate
students---55 percent---receive some form of financial aid to help pay
education costs, as do 60 percent of all graduate students.[^45]
Scholarships and grants are generally awarded by a variety of
nongovernmental organizations, as well as by states. However, the
largest single source of such student financial aid is the federal
government, which provides more than \$73 billion a year in grants,
loans and work-study assistance.[^46]

For more information on student financial aid, see
[www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/fsa/index.html](http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/fsa/index.html).

[Higher Education Accreditation]{.smallcaps}

The United States has no centralized authority exercising national
control over postsecondary educational institutions. The states assume
varying degrees of control over education, but, in general, institutions
of higher education are permitted to operate with considerable
independence and autonomy. As a consequence, U.S. educational
institutions can vary widely in their missions and the quality of their
programs.

In order to ensure a basic level of quality, the practice of voluntary
accreditation arose in the United States as a means of conducting
nongovernmental, peer evaluation of educational institutions and
programs. The entities that conduct accreditation are associations of
higher education institutions and academic specialists. These
associations define procedures for assessing the quality of institutions
and programs and formally recognize those institutions meeting their
standards while withholding or withdrawing recognition from those that
do not. Institutions that have been accredited generally have an
advantage over non-accredited institutions with regard to student
recruitment, receipt of federal and state funds and their general public
image. All recognized accrediting associations are members of the
Council on Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), and a list of those
entities recognized by the U.S. Secretary of Education is published
annually.

For more information on accreditation, see
[www.ed.gov/admins/finaid/accred/index.html](http://www.ed.gov/admins/finaid/accred/index.html)
and [http://wwwchea.org](http://wwwchea.org/).

###### [Study Abroad and International Students]{.smallcaps}

More than 170,000 U.S. college and university students earn academic
credit each year through study at postsecondary institutions in other
countries. The top five destinations for undergraduate students are the
United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, France and Australia, and the most popular
fields of study are the social sciences, business and management, and
the humanities. The number of U.S. students going abroad has more than
doubled in the past decade and continues to rise.[^47]

The United States welcomes more than 550,000 international students to
study at U.S. colleges and universities each year. The top five
countries of origin for undergraduate students are China, India, Japan,
South Korea and Canada, and the most popular fields of study are
business and management, engineering, and math and computer
sciences.[^48]

For further information, refer to <http://opendoors.iienetwork.org/>.

### Adult and Continuing Education

Adult education encompasses a wide variety of educational services for
adult learners and extends across all educational levels, subjects and
purposes. Services are generally oriented to meet the needs of mature
adults who have life, work and family experience but who desire
additional education in order to improve knowledge and skills for
personal or work-related reasons.

*Adult basic education* provides instruction in reading, math, writing
and critical thinking skills at or below the level of secondary school
completion. Adult basic education applies particularly to school
dropouts and to immigrants whose prior educational opportunities were
limited. Many of these foreign-born adults also require basic
instruction in listening, speaking, reading, and writing to improve
English language proficiency.

*Adult secondary education* programs are designed for students, 16 years
and older, who did not complete high school. These credential programs
include the General Educational Development (GED) program, the National
External Diploma Program (EDP) and the Adult High School Credit Diploma
Program.

For additional information, see the Web site for the U.S. Department of
Education's Office of Vocational and Adult Education at
[www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/index.html](http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/index.html).

*Adult continuing education* generally refers to education provided for
adults who have already graduated with a secondary school diploma or a
higher education degree. Continuing education may be at the
undergraduate or graduate levels and usually consists of individual
courses, certificate programs or degree programs for students seeking
improved work-related skills, new skills to change careers or personal
enrichment. In the United States, such programs are provided by
postsecondary education institutions, employers, private training
institutions and adult education centers.

*Continuing professional education (CPE)* is a special type of adult
continuing education provided to professionals working in licensed
occupations. These professions generally require practitioners to
complete refresher courses on a regular basis in order to have their
licenses renewed.

**PART II: EDUCATION POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION**

![](media/image2.png){width="6.489583333333333in"
height="7.291666666666667e-2in"}

The United States is composed of 50 states, five territories and the
District of Columbia. As mentioned earlier in the Introduction,
education in the United States is highly decentralized. Each state has
authority to make and implement education policy within its jurisdiction
so long as such policy does not violate the provisions of the U.S.
Constitution or federal law.

The following pages briefly explain the roles of the three levels of
government in making and implementing education policy, beginning with
the state level and subsequently addressing the local and federal
levels. Part II ends with a short description of the roles played by
nongovernmental organizations and the courts, as well as a brief section
on the financing of education.

## The Role of State Governments

In most states, the topic of education is addressed in the state
constitution, with the state legislature having the ultimate authority
over education matters. This authority includes enacting
education-related legislation and appropriating state funds for
education.

**State Legislatures.** Generally, state legislatures delegate a
significant amount of policy-making authority to the state board of
education. State boards of education are bodies of citizens appointed by
the legislature or governor, or popularly elected, depending on the
state. The state board is responsible for approving statewide
educational policies and determining budget priorities. In some cases
the state board is responsible for all levels of education, including
vocational and postsecondary education, while in many states the board
concentrates on education at the elementary and secondary levels.[^49]

**State Departments of Education.** Most states have a state department
of education that serves as the executive agency for education. A chief
state school officer is generally responsible for overseeing the state
department of education and reporting periodically to the state board of
education, the legislature and the governor. Depending on the state,
this person may be called a superintendent, commissioner, director or
secretary of education. Most chief state school officers are appointed
by the state board of education or the governor, while some are
popularly elected.

In most cases, State Governments are responsible for the following:

-   Developing curriculum guidelines and performance standards;

-   Providing technical assistance to school districts and schools;

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-   Licensing private elementary and secondary schools to operate within
    their jurisdictions;

-   Licensing or certifying school teachers and administrators;

-   Administering statewide student achievement tests;

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-   Developing accountability plans and reporting on student performance
    to the U.S. Department of Education;

-   Defining minimum requirements for high school graduation;

-   Distributing state and federal funding to school districts; and

-   Establishing the minimum number of school days per year.

For information on state education agencies and other state education
authorities, see <http://bcol02.ed.gov/Programs/EROD/org_list.cfm>.

## The Role of Local Governments

**Local School Districts.** Although state governments have ultimate
authority over education, most states delegate some decision-making
powers and the operation of public elementary and secondary schools to
local education agencies, or school districts. There are approximately
15,000 school districts in the United States, each overseeing its
jurisdiction's public schools.[^50]

The amount of control exercised by local school districts varies by
state. Most states give districts considerable authority to determine
school budgets and to implement curriculum. In fact, many school
districts further delegate decision-making and budgetary authority to
individual schools, a practice known as site-based (or school-based)
management.

**Local School Boards.** Each school district is governed by a local
school board, whose policies must generally conform to the regulations
of the state school board and the statutes of the state legislature.
School board members are generally elected, although, in some districts,
they may be appointed by other government officials. The school board
selects and hires the district superintendent, who is responsible for
implementing policy and managing the day-to-day operations of the school
district.

In most cases, School Districts are responsible for the following:

-   Determining the budget;

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-   Allocating money to individual schools and programs;

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-   Hiring teachers and other staff;

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-   Preparing and disseminating annual reports on student performance;

-   Setting teacher and administrator salaries;

-   Implementing the curriculum;

-   Planning and administering teacher inservice training;

-   Coordinating the transportation of students on school buses;

-   Constructing and maintaining school buildings; and

-   Purchasing equipment and supplies.

To search for school districts in the United States, see the National
Public School District Locator Web site at
<http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/districtsearch/>.

####### 

####### 

####### 

####### 

####### 

####### 

####### **The Role of the Federal Government**

As described above, education is primarily a state and local
responsibility. Nevertheless, the federal government plays a limited but
important role in affecting education policy and practice at all levels
and throughout the nation.

**U.S. Congress.** The Congress is the supreme lawmaking body of the
country and has passed numerous laws directly and indirectly affecting
education. For example, in late 2001, the Congress passed the *No Child
Left Behind Act*, which reformed the *Elementary and Secondary Education
Act* to reflect key principles promoted by President George W. Bush,
including stronger accountability for results, more choices for students
and parents, greater flexibility and local control, and the use of
research-based instruction.

**U.S. Department of Education.** The federal Department of Education is
the primary agency of the federal government that implements the laws
that the Congress enacts to support education at the federal level. In
doing so, the Department establishes policy for, administers and
coordinates much of the federal financial assistance for education, in
accordance with these laws. In 2005, the Department had over 4,400
employees and a budget of more than \$72.8 billion.[^51] Its stated
mission is "to ensure equal access to education and to promote
educational excellence throughout the nation."

The Department carries out its mission in two major ways. First, the
Secretary and the Department play a leadership role in the ongoing
national dialogue over how to improve education for all students. This
involves such activities as raising national and community awareness of
the education challenges confronting the nation, disseminating the
latest discoveries on what works in teaching and learning and helping
communities work out solutions to difficult educational issues. Second,
the Department pursues its twin goals of access and excellence through
the administration of programs that cover every area of education and
range from preschool education through postdoctoral research.

Specifically, the Department's major activities are the following:

1.  Implementing laws related to federal financial assistance for
    education, administering the distribution of those funds and
    monitoring their use.

> The Department distributes financial assistance to eligible applicants
> throughout the nation for elementary, secondary and college education;
> for the education of individuals with disabilities and individuals who
> are illiterate, disadvantaged or gifted; and for the education of
> immigrants, American Indians and people with limited English
> proficiency.

2.  Collecting data and overseeing research on America\'s schools and
    disseminating this information to educators and the general public.

> The Department oversees research on most aspects of education;
> collects data on trends; and gathers information to help identify
> approaches, ideas and successful teaching techniques. Employees of the
> Department, as well as contractors and grant recipients, conduct the
> research. Research findings and statistics are disseminated to
> educators, policymakers, parents and the general public in the form of
> reports and publications---both printed and online.

3.  Identifying the major issues and problems in education and focusing
    national attention on them.

> The Secretary of Education advises the President and leads the
> Department in implementing the President\'s education policies---from
> the preparation of legislative proposals for Congress to decisions
> about education research priorities. In addition, the Secretary brings
> national attention to education issues through speeches, publications,
> the media and personal appearances. The Department further highlights
> education issues by sponsoring and participating in national
> conferences and other activities.

4\. Enforcing federal laws prohibiting discrimination in programs and
activities that receive federal funds.

The Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights (OCR) enforces
laws that prohibit discrimination on the basis of race, color, national
origin, sex, disability, and age in programs that receive federal
financial assistance from the Department of Education. These laws
include: Title VI of the *Civil Rights Act of 1964* (prohibiting
discrimination based on race, color and national origin); Title IX of
the Education Amendments of 1972 (prohibiting sex discrimination in
education programs); Section 504 of the *Rehabilitation Act of 1973*
(prohibiting disability discrimination); *Age Discrimination Act of
1975* (prohibiting age discrimination); and Title II of the *Americans
with Disabilities Act of 1990* (prohibiting disability discrimination by
public entities, whether or not they receive federal financial
assistance). OCR also enforces the *Boy Scouts of America Equal Access
Act*, enacted in 2002 as part of the *No Child Left Behind Act*. Under
this law, no public elementary school or state or local education agency
that provides an opportunity for one or more outside youth or community
groups to meet on school premises or in school facilities shall deny
equal access or a fair opportunity to meet to, or discriminate against,
any group officially affiliated with the Boy Scouts of America, or any
other youth group listed in Title 36 of the United States Code as a
patriotic society.

OCR\'s primary objectives are to promptly investigate complainants\'
allegations of discrimination, and to accurately determine whether the
civil rights laws and regulations have been violated. OCR also initiates
compliance reviews and other proactive initiatives to focus on specific
civil rights compliance problems in education that are particularly
acute or national in scope. In addition, OCR pursues compliance by
federal fund recipients by promulgating regulations implementing the
civil rights laws, by developing clear policy guidance interpreting
those laws, and by broadly disseminating this information in many
different media, including through the Internet and by direct provision
of technical assistance, to educational institutions, parents, students,
and others.

**Other Federal Agencies.** While the Department of Education is the
lead federal agency in matters of education, a number of other federal
agencies provide funding and other support for educational activities in
areas related to their missions. Among these agencies are the
Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Energy, Health and Human
Services, Homeland Security, Interior, Labor and State; the National
Endowments for the Arts and Humanities; the National Institute of Museum
and Library Services; and the National Science Foundation.

For more information on the federal government's role, see
[www.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html](http://www.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html).
For more information on *No Child Left Behind*, see
<http://www.ed.gov/nclb/landing.jhtml?src=fb>, and to learn more about
U.S. Department of Education programs, see
<http://web99.ed.gov/GTEP/Program2.nsf>. To access the Web site for
Federal Resources for Educational Excellence (FREE), go to
[www.ed.gov/free](http://www.ed.gov/free).

######## **Others Who Influence Education Policy and Practice**

As noted above, legislative bodies, school boards and government
agencies all play important roles with regard to education in the United
States. However, other sectors and entities can also influence education
policy and practice.

**Courts of Law.** The courts---both at the federal and state
level---have historically played a crucial role in providing direction
and settling public policy debates that are directly and indirectly
related to education, including subjects as varied as educational
quality, school funding, equal access and religion in the schools. One
notable example is the U.S. Supreme Court's 1954 decision in the case of
*Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas*, 347 U.S. 483
(1954).[^52] In that case, the court unanimously ruled that racial
segregation in public schools was inherently unequal, thus reversing the
position it had held since 1896. As a result of this ruling, federal
courts succeeded over time in eliminating a system of legalized racial
segregation in southern schools.

**Nongovernmental Organizations.** Many nongovernmental organizations
also play an important role in influencing policy at all three levels of
government and educational practice in the schools. Such organizations
include charitable foundations, teacher unions, parent-teacher
associations and many others interested in education. The missions and
functions of these identities vary considerably and can include
supporting or carrying out research, providing education-related
services, disseminating information or working to influence legislation
and public opinion. Representatives of nongovernmental organizations
often participate on advisory boards that work with policymakers at all
levels of government.

**Business Sector.** The business community is also often involved in
supporting education and influencing education policy in a variety of
ways. Private businesses often donate resources to nearby schools or
encourage employees to volunteer at schools as tutors or in other
capacities. Many business representatives also participate in
education-related conferences and serve on education-related advisory
boards.

**Financing of Education**

The financing of education in the United States is highly decentralized,
and funding sources include the federal, state and local governments, as
well as private and nongovernmental contributors. Of the approximately
\$780 billion spent nationwide on education at all levels,[^53]
approximately 59 percent of total education expenditures occur at the
elementary and secondary levels, while 41 percent are at the
postsecondary level.[^54] These expenditures altogether represent about
8 percent of the U.S. gross domestic product.[^55]

Public elementary and secondary schools receive most of their funding
from state and local governments, although additional funds are provided
by the federal government and, in some cases, through grants or
donations from corporations and foundations and parent- or
student-initiated fundraising activities. State governments are
generally the largest source of education funding. As a national
average, state and local governments contribute about 90 percent of
education funding at this level, while the federal government,
nongovernmental entities, and private contributors together provide
about 10 percent of all funding.[^56]

Figure 4: Funding for Elementary and Secondary Education

![](media/image6.wmf)

*Source*: *2003 Digest of Education Statistics*, Table 157. (Washington,
D.C.: NCES, 2003). Figures have been slightly rounded.

While state and local governments together provide most funding, the
proportion of funding coming from each of these two levels of government
can vary significantly by state. In general, state governments generate
the revenue necessary for educational expenditures from income taxes,
corporate taxes and sales taxes, while local school districts rely
heavily on property taxes. Due to this reliance on property tax revenue,
the amount of funding available for education at the local level can
vary considerably depending on a community's property values. To
mitigate the funding inequalities that may result, some states have
"equalization of funding" laws that require them to ensure that all
schools have a specified amount of funds available per student. The
federal government likewise provides supplemental funding to schools
with limited resources through compensatory education programs such as
Title I, described earlier.

Most postsecondary institutions rely on a variety of sources to generate
revenue. These resources typically include student tuition and fees,
with private institutions generally charging more than public
institutions. Other revenue sources often include government funds,
sales and services, private donations, grants and contracts, and
endowment income.[^57] Sources of funding can differ significantly when
comparing public and private institutions, and even among individual
institutions of the same category.

Figure 5: Funding for Public Postsecondary Education

![](media/image7.wmf)

*Source*: *2003 Digest of Education Statistics*, Table 33. (Washington,
D.C.: NCES, 2003). Figures have been slightly rounded.

Figure 6: Funding for Private Postsecondary Education

![](media/image8.wmf)

*Source*: *2003 Digest of Education Statistics*, Table 341. (Washington,
D.C.: NCES, 2004). Figures have been slightly rounded. \[GRAPHIC
DESIGNER: This graph has been modified, including the number labels and
pie slices.\]

For additional information on federal expenditures for education, see
<http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/digest2001/ch4.asp>.

**CONCLUSION**

![](media/image2.png){width="6.489583333333333in"
height="7.291666666666667e-2in"}

As you can see, education in the United States relies on many people at
many levels of government. But it is designed to lead to one outcome: a
quality education for every single child.

Achieving that goal is no simple matter. It depends on highly qualified
teachers holding students to high standards. It depends on regular
assessment to see what's working and what isn't. It depends on involved
parents armed with choices and information. And, it depends on us.

In 1983, the landmark American study *A Nation at Risk* was published.
It concluded that the U.S. education system was unprepared for the
demands of an increasingly competitive global economy. It took us years
to agree on what to do on a national level. Today, we are seeing a
renewed commitment to excellence sparked by the *No Child Left Behind
Act.*

Of course, there are new challenges. Student interest in science and
technology is waning as other nations look to fill the gap. But for the
first time in a long time, America is holding itself accountable for
results.

With significant reforms at the federal level and innovations at the
state and local levels, education in the United States is continually
evolving and growing. We are committed to helping our children reach
their highest potential as individuals and citizens in a world where
freedom is on the march.

**ADDITIONAL RESOURCES**

![](media/image2.png){width="6.489583333333333in"
height="7.291666666666667e-2in"}

U.S. Department of Education

[www.ed.gov/index.jhtml](http://www.ed.gov/index.jhtml)

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)

[http://nces.ed.gov](http://nces.ed.gov/)

*Digest of Education Statistics*

<http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/>

*The Condition of Education*

[http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe](http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/)

*Findings from the Condition of Education 2002: Private Schools---A
Brief Portrait*

<http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2002013>

What Works Clearinghouse

[http://w-w-c.org](http://w-w-c.org/)

Information on Public Schools and School Districts

<http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/quickfacts.html>

U.S. Network for Education Information
[www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/edlite-index.html](http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/edlite-index.html)

State Education Agencies (State Departments of Education)

<http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/ccseas.asp>

A number of additional Web sites also appear throughout this document.

**NOTES**

![](media/image2.png){width="6.489583333333333in"
height="7.291666666666667e-2in"}

[^1]: The only exceptions are the following: schools which serve the
    children of military personnel stationed overseas, operated by the
    Department of Defense; and the five service academies of the Army,
    Air Force, Navy, Coast Guard and Merchant Marine.

[^2]: The *No Child Left Behind Act of 2001* (*NCLB* or *No Child Left
    Behind*) is the name of the statute that reauthorized the
    *Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965* (*ESEA*). For the
    purposes of this document, the law is referred to as *No Child Left
    Behind.*

[^3]: U.S. Department of Education: Budget Service.

[^4]: Under *NCLB*, "highly qualified" is defined as holding a minimum
    of a bachelor's degree, possessing full state certification or
    licensure, and demonstrating subject area competence in each of the
    academic subjects that the teacher teaches.

[^5]: U.S. Department of Education, NCES, *Digest of Education
    Statistics, 2004,* (Washington, D.C.: NCES, 2005), Table 166.

[^6]: U.S. Department of Education: Budget Service.

[^7]: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education
    Statistics (NCES), *2003 Digest of Education Statistics*, Table 43.

[^8]: NCES, *2004 Digest*, Table 43.

[^9]: U.S. Department of Education, NCES, *2000 Condition of Education*,
    p. 67. (Washington, D.C.: NCES, 2000).

[^10]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 94.

[^11]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 94.

[^12]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 98.

[^13]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 126.

[^14]: U.S. Department of Education, NCES, *Schools and Staffing Survey,
    1999-2000*, Table 1.07. (Washington, D.C.: NCES, 2000).

[^15]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 167.

[^16]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 381.

[^17]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 381.

[^18]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 137.

[^19]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 102.

[^20]: Higher Education Act, Title IV, Parts A & B, Section 418A (Title
    20, Chapter 28, United States Code).

[^21]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 154.

[^22]: U.S. Department of Education, NCES, *2004 Condition of
    Education*, Indicator 25. (Washington, D.C.: NCES, 2004)

[^23]: U.S. Department of Education, NCES, *Characteristics of Private
    School in the United States: Results from the 2001-2002 Private
    School Universe Survey* (Washington, D.C: NCES, 2004).

[^24]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 60.

[^25]: U.S. Department of Education, NCES, *1.1 Million Homeschooled
    Students in the United States* (Washington, D.C.: NCES, 2004.

[^26]:
    ###  **U.S. Department of Education, *Twenty-third Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2001)***, Table III-1. (Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 2001). 

[^27]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 53.

[^28]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 55.

[^29]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 42.

[^30]: U.S. Department of Education, *Survey of the States' Limited
    English Proficient Students and Available Educational Programs and
    Services, 2000-2001 Summary Report*. (Washington, D.C.: U.S.
    Department of Education, 2002).

[^31]: U.S. Department of Education, *Survey of the States' Limited
    English Proficient Students*.

[^32]: Descriptive Study of Services to LEP Students and LEP Students
    with Disabilities, Washington: U.S. Department of Education,
    September 2003.

[^33]: [NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 25.]{.mark}

[^34]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 69.

[^35]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 79.

[^36]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 79.

[^37]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 5.

[^38]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 5.

[^39]: The terms "college" and "university" are used interchangeably, as
    are sometimes the terms "academy," "institute," "school," and
    "conservatory." U.S. law and practice does not protect these terms
    or distinguish among types of institutions at the postsecondary
    level. Instead, the level of an institution is indicated by the
    highest degree it awards and the type is indicated by the variety of
    subjects offered for study. The most commonly used classification of
    U.S. higher education institutions is the Carnegie Classification.
    (See <http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/Classification/>).

[^40]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 247.

[^41]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 5.

[^42]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 5.

[^43]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 174.

[^44]: NCES, 2003 *Digest*, Tables 335 and 341.

[^45]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Tables 319, 328 and 329.

[^46]: U.S. Department of Education: Budget Service.

[^47]: Institute of International Education, *Open Doors 2004*.
    (Washington, D.C.: Institute of International Education, 2002).
    Available at http://opendoors.iienetwork.org.

[^48]: Institute of International Education, *Open Doors 2004*.
    (Washington, D.C.: Institute of International Education, 2002).
    Available at http://opendoors.iienetwork.org.

[^49]: States do not generally regulate postsecondary education as
    closely as they do elementary and secondary education. Although
    states exercise some control over higher education institutions
    through specialized boards or commissions, the autonomy of such
    entities is generally recognized in law and policy. Vocational and
    technical education, special education and adult education are often
    associated with both the secondary and postsecondary levels of
    education and are sometimes administered by specialized state
    agencies. Professional education and training for licensed
    occupations is usually overseen by the state's postsecondary
    education authorities, its agencies responsible for professional
    services, and/or specially appointed licensure boards.

[^50]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 86.

[^51]: U.S. Department of Education: Budget Service.

[^52]: Volume 347, p. 483, *United States Reports* (Supreme Court
    decisions)

[^53]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 29.

[^54]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 29.

[^55]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 29.

[^56]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 157.

[^57]: NCES, *2003 Digest*, Table 333.