**Synthesis of Livestock Grazing Management Literature Addressing
Grazing Management for Greater Sage-Grouse Habitat in the**

**Wyoming Basin - Southern Rocky Mountains Ecoregions**

**[Table of Contents]{.underline}**

[Introduction 1](#introduction)

[Grazing Management and Greater Sage-Grouse
3](#grazing-management-and-greater-sage-grouse)

[Grazing Effects on Sagebrush 18](#grazing-effects-on-sagebrush)

[Grazing Effects on Greater Sage-Grouse Cover and Food Availability
52](#grazing-effects-on-greater-sage-grouse-cover-and-food-availability)

[Lek Sites 52](#lek-sites)

[Nesting Habitat 69](#nesting-habitat)

[Brood Rearing 99](#brood-rearing)

[Winter Range 125](#winter-range)

[Grazing Management and Migratory Populations
133](#grazing-management-and-migratory-populations)

[Social Science Aspects 135](#social-science-aspects)

[References 147](#references)

# [Introduction]{.underline}

The following tables contain literature addressing grazing management in
Greater Sage-Grouse habitat within the Wyoming Basin - Southern Rocky
Mountains Ecoregions (Figure 1). Information within the tables are
direct citations from the identified sources. There may be two tables
for each subject; the first table includes sources located within the
Wyoming Basin-Southern Rocky Mountains Ecoregions, and the second table
contains references that may be relevant to the Wyoming Basin - Southern
Rocky Mountains ecoregions, but were not conducted within the
ecoregional boundaries. This document is not intended to be an
all-inclusive guide to grazing management in sage-grouse habitat, but
rather an information reference that sage-grouse local working groups
and land managers may utilize as they develop recommended grazing
practices for promoting the conservation of sage-grouse and sagebrush
habitats.

> **Figure 1: Wyoming Basin -- Southern Rocky Mountains Ecoregions**

![](media/image1.jpeg){width="5.992361111111111in"
height="3.952777777777778in"}

# [Grazing Management and Greater Sage-Grouse]{.underline} 

+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| **Source**                        | **Citation**                      |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Deseret Land and Livestock Ranch. | The principle management          |
| No date. Deseret Land and         | technique used on the DLL is time |
|                                   | controlled grazing. This involves |
| Livestock Ranch Livestock Grazing | the use of a few large herds of   |
| and Rangeland Management          | cattle and sheep that             |
|                                   | intermittently graze the          |
| Benefit Greater Sage Grouse.      | pastures. Grazing occurs on the   |
| Western Governor\'s Association,  | pastures for short periods of     |
| U.S.                              | time when forage is rapidly       |
|                                   | growing (May-July), and longer    |
| Department of Agriculture Natural | periods of time when forage is    |
| Resources Conservation Service.   | dormant or slow growing. The      |
|                                   | season of grazing varies between  |
|                                   | years, and pastures receive       |
|                                   | periodic rest for a full growing  |
|                                   | season. This system recognizes    |
|                                   | that plant health is the key to   |
|                                   | having well functioning           |
|                                   | watersheds. The time-controlled   |
|                                   | grazing practices used at         |
|                                   | \[Deseret Land and Livestock      |
|                                   | Ranch\] since 1979 have increased |
|                                   | herbaceous cover on rangelands    |
|                                   | and slowed the rate of sagebrush  |
|                                   | increase.                         |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Rick Danvir of \[Deseret Land and |
|                                   | Livestock Ranch\] said, "The      |
|                                   | grazing and other management      |
|                                   | techniques being used are focused |
|                                   | on providing both forage for an   |
|                                   | economically viable ranching      |
|                                   | operation and improving habitat   |
|                                   | for a variety of wildlife         |
|                                   | species. The key items in our     |
|                                   | management system is the          |
|                                   | rest-rotation grazing system and  |
|                                   | the emphasis we place on          |
|                                   | increasing forbs, including       |
|                                   | inter-seeding forbs into          |
|                                   | crested-wheatgrass dominated      |
|                                   | rangeland."                       |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Greer, R. 1990. Sage Grouse       | At livestock water troughs, bird  |
| Habitat Requirements and          | ramps or hardware cloth should be |
| Development.                      | installed.                        |
|                                   |                                   |
| Wyoming Game and Fish Dept.       |                                   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Holloran, M.J. 2005. Greater      | ...we recommend management        |
| Sage-Grouse (*Centrocercus*       | activities that allow for         |
|                                   | maintenance or restoration of     |
| *urophasianus*) Population        | dense, taller residual grasses    |
| Response to Natural Gas Field     | within suitable sagebrush stands  |
|                                   | to enhance greater sage grouse    |
| Development in Western Wyoming.   | populations                       |
| Ph.D. Dissertation. University    |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| of Wyoming, Laramie.              |                                   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

***The following sources may contain information relevant to the Wyoming
Basin - Southern Rocky Mountains ecoregions, but were not conducted
within the ecoregional boundaries.***

+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| **Source**            | **Citation**          | **Location of Study** |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Crawford, J. A., M.   | Develop programs for  | Oregon                |
| A. Gregg, M. S. Drut, | grazing by domestic   |                       |
| and                   | livestock on Oregon   |                       |
|                       | rangelands to achieve |                       |
| A. K. DeLong. 1992.   | a more favorable      |                       |
| Habitat use by female | ecological balance in |                       |
|                       | the shrub canopy and  |                       |
| Sage Grouse during    | herbaceous            |                       |
| the breeding season   | understory.           |                       |
| in                    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Oregon. BLM Coop.     |                       |                       |
| Res. Unit, Oregon     |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| State Univ.           |                       |                       |
| Corvallis, OR         |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Miller, R.F., and     | ... poor livestock    | Oregon                |
| L.L. Eddleman. 2000.  | grazing practices can |                       |
| Spatial               | have long-term        |                       |
|                       | negative impacts on   |                       |
| and temporal changes  | sage-grouse habitat   |                       |
| of sage grouse        | by degrading          |                       |
| habitat               | sagebrush, meadow and |                       |
|                       | riparian communities. |                       |
| in the sagebrush      |                       |                       |
| biome. Oregon State   | In developing grazing |                       |
| Univ.                 | plans for specific    |                       |
|                       | areas used by sage    |                       |
| Agric Exp Stn.        | grouse, it is         |                       |
| Technical Bulletin    | extremely important   |                       |
| 151.                  | to identify potential |                       |
|                       | conflicts between     |                       |
| Corvallis, OR.        | sage grouse and       |                       |
|                       | livestock, and        |                       |
|                       | spatial and temporal  |                       |
|                       | heterogeneity of the  |                       |
|                       | management unit.      |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Willis, M. J., G. P.  | ...manage grazing at  | Oregon                |
| Keister, Jr., D. A.   | the proper level to   |                       |
| Immell,               | achieve the benefits  |                       |
|                       | without adverse       |                       |
| D. M. Jones, R. M.    | impacts               |                       |
| Powell, and K. R.     |                       |                       |
|                       | ...projects that      |                       |
| Durbin. 1993. Sage    | actively pursue       |                       |
| Grouse in Oregon.     | improvements in       |                       |
|                       | degraded habitats     |                       |
| Oregon Dept. of Fish  | such as monotypic     |                       |
| and Wildlife.         | stands of grass or    |                       |
| Wildlife              | Wyoming big sagebrush |                       |
|                       | would be beneficial.  |                       |
| Research Report No.   |                       |                       |
| 15. Portland, OR.     |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Rowland, M.M. 2004.   | Avoid development of  | Northern Great Plains |
| Effects of management | livestock-watering    | (North Dakota)        |
|                       | structures in         |                       |
| practices on          | sage-grouse habitat   |                       |
| grassland birds:      | (Connelly et al.      |                       |
| Greater Sage-         | 2000). If water       |                       |
|                       | developments are      |                       |
| Grouse. Jamestown, ND | constructed for       |                       |
| Northern Prairie      | sage-grouse or other  |                       |
|                       | wildlife, they should |                       |
| Wildlife Research     | be placed to ensure   |                       |
| Center.               | that water is         |                       |
|                       | available during      |                       |
|                       | movement of           |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse from      |                       |
|                       | spring to summer      |                       |
|                       | ranges (Wakkinen      |                       |
|                       | 1990). Connelly et    |                       |
|                       | al. (2000)            |                       |
|                       | recommended that      |                       |
|                       | pipelines from        |                       |
|                       | springs be built so   |                       |
|                       | that free water is    |                       |
|                       | available to maintain |                       |
|                       | the spring and        |                       |
|                       | associated wet        |                       |
|                       | meadows.              |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Woodward, J.K. 2006.  | Improved livestock    | Montana               |
| Greater sage-grouse   | grazing management is |                       |
|                       | the least expensive   |                       |
| (*Centrocercus        | practice to restore   |                       |
| urophasianus*)        | degraded sagebrush    |                       |
| habitat in            | steppe (Braun 2006)   |                       |
|                       | and the most          |                       |
| central Montana.      | important because it  |                       |
| Animal and Range      | often treats the      |                       |
|                       | cause of degradation. |                       |
| Sciences, Montana     |                       |                       |
| State University.     | Increases in chick    |                       |
|                       | production were       |                       |
| Bozeman, Montana.     | realized in 2005      |                       |
|                       | because of increased  |                       |
|                       | precipitation         |                       |
|                       | resulting in an       |                       |
|                       | increase in           |                       |
|                       | herbaceous cover. If  |                       |
|                       | herbaceous cover      |                       |
|                       | could be increased    |                       |
|                       | through time          |                       |
|                       | regardless of         |                       |
|                       | precipitation,        |                       |
|                       | production could      |                       |
|                       | potentially be        |                       |
|                       | increased markedly.   |                       |
|                       | Practices that        |                       |
|                       | increase the amount   |                       |
|                       | of rest a pasture     |                       |
|                       | receives may be       |                       |
|                       | useful to restore     |                       |
|                       | fair and poor         |                       |
|                       | condition range,      |                       |
|                       | hence, increasing     |                       |
|                       | herbaceous cover for  |                       |
|                       | grouse (Adams et al.  |                       |
|                       | 2004).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Reductions in         |                       |
|                       | stocking rates (or    |                       |
|                       | grazing intensity) in |                       |
|                       | over-grazed areas     |                       |
|                       | have the greatest     |                       |
|                       | potential to increase |                       |
|                       | herbaceous cover.     |                       |
|                       | Braun (2006)          |                       |
|                       | recommends 25-30%     |                       |
|                       | utilization for       |                       |
|                       | livestock on public   |                       |
|                       | land that needs       |                       |
|                       | improvement.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Decreasing intensity  |                       |
|                       | of grazing (stocking  |                       |
|                       | rate) will likely     |                       |
|                       | have the greatest     |                       |
|                       | benefit followed by   |                       |
|                       | changing timing of    |                       |
|                       | grazing, and changing |                       |
|                       | frequency of grazing  |                       |
|                       | (Braun 2006).         |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Authenrieth, R., W.   | Guzzlers can be       | N/A                   |
| Molina, and C. Braun, | installed on sage     |                       |
| eds.                  | grouse summer range   |                       |
|                       | where water is a      |                       |
| 1982\. Sage Grouse    | limiting factor. An   |                       |
| Management Practices. | open trough guzzler   |                       |
|                       | at ground level is    |                       |
| Western States Sage   | the most desirable    |                       |
| Grouse Committee.     |                       |                       |
|                       | All livestock water   |                       |
| Western States Sage   | troughs should have   |                       |
| Grouse Committee      | bird ramps installed. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Technical Bulletin    | It is more desirable  |                       |
| #1. Twin Falls, ID.   | for sage grouse and   |                       |
|                       | other birds and small |                       |
|                       | mammals to develop a  |                       |
|                       | tank overflow system, |                       |
|                       | which provides water  |                       |
|                       | at ground level. The  |                       |
|                       | BLM policy manual     |                       |
|                       | states water systems  |                       |
|                       | used by livestock     |                       |
|                       | will be left on for   |                       |
|                       | wildlife use even     |                       |
|                       | when livestock have   |                       |
|                       | been moved.           |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Beck, J.L, and D.L.   | ...livestock grazing  | Location unknown      |
| Mitchell. 2000.       | should be managed to  |                       |
| Influences            | allow optimum growth  |                       |
|                       | of forbs, grasses,    |                       |
| of livestock grazing  | and sagebrush.        |                       |
| on sage grouse        | Management for a      |                       |
| habitat.              | variety of sagebrush  |                       |
|                       | covers should exist   |                       |
| Wildl Soc Bull. 4:    | with important use    |                       |
| 993-1002.             | areas reflecting the  |                       |
|                       | general preference of |                       |
|                       | sage grouse for       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush cover of    |                       |
|                       | 5-10% in summer or    |                       |
|                       | 20-35% in winter (Eng |                       |
|                       | 1986). Grazing        |                       |
|                       | system, season of     |                       |
|                       | use, grazing          |                       |
|                       | duration, kind of     |                       |
|                       | livestock, and        |                       |
|                       | stocking intensity    |                       |
|                       | should be adjusted to |                       |
|                       | maximize desired      |                       |
|                       | vegetal effects for   |                       |
|                       | sage grouse on ranges |                       |
|                       | on a case-by-case     |                       |
|                       | basis                 |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Connelly, J.W. and    | There is little       | N/A                   |
| C.E. Braun. 1997.     | scientific data       |                       |
| Long-                 | linking grazing       |                       |
|                       | practices to          |                       |
| term changes in sage  | sage-grouse           |                       |
| grouse                | population levels.    |                       |
| (*Centrocercus*       |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| *urophasianus)*       |                       |                       |
| populations in        |                       |                       |
| western North         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| America. Wildlife     |                       |                       |
| Biology 3:229-234.    |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Connelly, J. W., S.   | In a synergistic      | N/A                   |
| T. Knick, M. A.       | feedback mechanism,   |                       |
| Schroeder,            | the interaction of    |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing,    |                       |
| and S. J. Stiver.     | loss of understory    |                       |
| 2004. Conservation    | and altered soil      |                       |
|                       | characteristics, and  |                       |
| Assessment of Greater | reduced fire          |                       |
| Sage-grouse and       | frequency result in   |                       |
|                       | increased shrub cover |                       |
| Sagebrush Habitats.   | and dominance.        |                       |
| Western Association   |                       |                       |
| of                    | Even though           |                       |
|                       | management plans      |                       |
| Fish and Wildlife     | attempt to use        |                       |
| Agencies. Unpublished | rest-rotation or      |                       |
|                       | other forms of        |                       |
| Report. Cheyenne,     | variable grazing      |                       |
| Wyoming.              | intensities to mimic  |                       |
|                       | the previous natural  |                       |
|                       | grazing regimes and   |                       |
|                       | vegetation response,  |                       |
|                       | the plant communities |                       |
|                       | still are not given   |                       |
|                       | the rest from grazing |                       |
|                       | and recycling of      |                       |
|                       | resources is          |                       |
|                       | dissimilar (Bock et   |                       |
|                       | al. 1993, Freilich et |                       |
|                       | al. 2003).            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Livestock grazing can |                       |
|                       | affect soils,         |                       |
|                       | vegetation, and       |                       |
|                       | animal communities    |                       |
|                       | (Jones 2000).         |                       |
|                       | Livestock consume or  |                       |
|                       | alter vegetation,     |                       |
|                       | redistribute          |                       |
|                       | nutrients and plant   |                       |
|                       | seeds, trample soils  |                       |
|                       | and sagebrush plants, |                       |
|                       | and can disrupt       |                       |
|                       | microbiotic crusts    |                       |
|                       | (Miller et al. 1994,  |                       |
|                       | West 1996, Belnap and |                       |
|                       | Lange 2001). The      |                       |
|                       | extent to which these |                       |
|                       | mechanisms influence  |                       |
|                       | habitats depends on   |                       |
|                       | the relationship      |                       |
|                       | between level of      |                       |
|                       | grazing disturbance   |                       |
|                       | and the resiliency of |                       |
|                       | the habitat. At       |                       |
|                       | unsustainable levels  |                       |
|                       | of grazing, these     |                       |
|                       | changes can lead to   |                       |
|                       | loss of vegetative    |                       |
|                       | cover, reduced water  |                       |
|                       | infiltration rates,   |                       |
|                       | and increased soil    |                       |
|                       | erosion (Society for  |                       |
|                       | Range Management      |                       |
|                       | 1995). Indirect       |                       |
|                       | effects of livestock  |                       |
|                       | grazing can amplify   |                       |
|                       | or facilitate other   |                       |
|                       | disturbance. Stocking |                       |
|                       | rates for livestock   |                       |
|                       | are based on          |                       |
|                       | assumptions of an     |                       |
|                       | average set of        |                       |
|                       | conditions, estimates |                       |
|                       | about the size of the |                       |
|                       | area necessary to     |                       |
|                       | produce enough food   |                       |
|                       | to sustain livestock, |                       |
|                       | and the relationship  |                       |
|                       | between the current   |                       |
|                       | vegetation community  |                       |
|                       | and an ideal          |                       |
|                       | condition, seral      |                       |
|                       | stage, or climax      |                       |
|                       | community (Box 1990,  |                       |
|                       | Society for Range     |                       |
|                       | Management 1995,      |                       |
|                       | Holechek et al.       |                       |
|                       | 1998). Actual number  |                       |
|                       | of livestock that may |                       |
|                       | be grazed is          |                       |
|                       | determined by season  |                       |
|                       | of use, the           |                       |
|                       | distribution,         |                       |
|                       | utilization, and      |                       |
|                       | actual use of         |                       |
|                       | available forage, and |                       |
|                       | the class of          |                       |
|                       | livestock. Average    |                       |
|                       | conditions rarely     |                       |
|                       | exist and western     |                       |
|                       | landscapes have       |                       |
|                       | experienced extensive |                       |
|                       | drought periods.      |                       |
|                       | Stocking rates are    |                       |
|                       | based on livestock    |                       |
|                       | production and        |                       |
|                       | financial livelihood  |                       |
|                       | of grazing permittees |                       |
|                       | in addition to        |                       |
|                       | environmental         |                       |
|                       | considerations        |                       |
|                       | (Holechek et al.      |                       |
|                       | 1999). In the natural |                       |
|                       | world, the number of  |                       |
|                       | herbivores is         |                       |
|                       | constrained by food   |                       |
|                       | supply. Because the   |                       |
|                       | relationship between  |                       |
|                       | food supply and       |                       |
|                       | numbers of livestock  |                       |
|                       | is buffered either by |                       |
|                       | administrative,       |                       |
|                       | management, or        |                       |
|                       | economic factors, the |                       |
|                       | time lag in changing  |                       |
|                       | the numbers of        |                       |
|                       | livestock in response |                       |
|                       | to changes in habitat |                       |
|                       | conditions can        |                       |
|                       | increase the effects  |                       |
|                       | of grazing (Thurow    |                       |
|                       | and Taylor 1999).     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | The definition of     |                       |
|                       | "range condition" is  |                       |
|                       | widely debated        |                       |
|                       | (Friedel 1991, Joyce  |                       |
|                       | 1993, Schacht 1993,   |                       |
|                       | Scarnecchia 1995,     |                       |
|                       | Society for Range     |                       |
|                       | Management 1995). The |                       |
|                       | set of environmental  |                       |
|                       | qualities that form   |                       |
|                       | the conceptual        |                       |
|                       | foundation of "range  |                       |
|                       | condition" influence  |                       |
|                       | not only our          |                       |
|                       | understanding of the  |                       |
|                       | effects of grazing    |                       |
|                       | but also our          |                       |
|                       | management actions to |                       |
|                       | manipulate sagebrush  |                       |
|                       | habitats (West 2003). |                       |
|                       | Grazing and           |                       |
|                       | management objectives |                       |
|                       | are based on an       |                       |
|                       | assumed predictable   |                       |
|                       | or linear response to |                       |
|                       | disturbance           |                       |
|                       | (Allen-Diaz and       |                       |
|                       | Bartolome 1998).      |                       |
|                       | Grazing often has     |                       |
|                       | been assumed to       |                       |
|                       | represent a           |                       |
|                       | disturbance that sets |                       |
|                       | a sagebrush community |                       |
|                       | back from a climax    |                       |
|                       | stage; release from   |                       |
|                       | grazing then will     |                       |
|                       | allow the community   |                       |
|                       | to return to a climax |                       |
|                       | stage. Under this     |                       |
|                       | Clementsian viewpoint |                       |
|                       | of successional       |                       |
|                       | stages in vegetation  |                       |
|                       | communities,          |                       |
|                       | potential natural     |                       |
|                       | communities were      |                       |
|                       | considered to be in   |                       |
|                       | excellent condition,  |                       |
|                       | late seral to be good |                       |
|                       | condition, mid-seral  |                       |
|                       | to be fair, and early |                       |
|                       | seral in poor range   |                       |
|                       | condition. Yet, the   |                       |
|                       | dynamics of sagebrush |                       |
|                       | communities are       |                       |
|                       | complex and plant     |                       |
|                       | species response to   |                       |
|                       | grazing may not be    |                       |
|                       | correlated closely    |                       |
|                       | (Milchunas and        |                       |
|                       | Lauenroth 1993, West  |                       |
|                       | and Young 2000). A    |                       |
|                       | wide range of         |                       |
|                       | shrub-grass           |                       |
|                       | compositions can be   |                       |
|                       | stable, length of     |                       |
|                       | time within seral     |                       |
|                       | stages may be         |                       |
|                       | nonlinear, and        |                       |
|                       | transitions among     |                       |
|                       | different states may  |                       |
|                       | be unpredictable      |                       |
|                       | (West et al. 1984,    |                       |
|                       | Westoby et al. 1989,  |                       |
|                       | Laycock 1991). More   |                       |
|                       | important,            |                       |
|                       | transitions among     |                       |
|                       | vegetation            |                       |
|                       | communities may be    |                       |
|                       | irreversible and      |                       |
|                       | return to a previous  |                       |
|                       | state is not possible |                       |
|                       | once it is crossed.   |                       |
|                       | Consequently,         |                       |
|                       | livestock herbivory   |                       |
|                       | can alter vegetation  |                       |
|                       | communities, water    |                       |
|                       | and nutrient          |                       |
|                       | availability, and     |                       |
|                       | soils past thresholds |                       |
|                       | to which the system   |                       |
|                       | can return.           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Stocking rates and    |                       |
|                       | estimates of the      |                       |
|                       | amount of vegetation  |                       |
|                       | that can be removed   |                       |
|                       | based on differences  |                       |
|                       | between a current     |                       |
|                       | vegetation community  |                       |
|                       | and an ideal or       |                       |
|                       | climax seral stage    |                       |
|                       | may not be            |                       |
|                       | sustainable           |                       |
|                       | (Holecheck et al.     |                       |
|                       | 1998). Conversely,    |                       |
|                       | release from grazing  |                       |
|                       | may have no or        |                       |
|                       | unpredictable results |                       |
|                       | (Anderson and Holte   |                       |
|                       | 1981, West et al.     |                       |
|                       | 1984, Stohlgren et    |                       |
|                       | al. 1999, West and    |                       |
|                       | Yorks 2002), may not  |                       |
|                       | return a site to a    |                       |
|                       | previous state        |                       |
|                       | (Holechek and         |                       |
|                       | Stephenson 1983) or,  |                       |
|                       | exacerbate the        |                       |
|                       | influence of exotic   |                       |
|                       | plants such as        |                       |
|                       | cheatgrass (Young and |                       |
|                       | Allen 1997).          |                       |
|                       | Therefore, the        |                       |
|                       | current evolution in  |                       |
|                       | assessments of        |                       |
|                       | habitats and the      |                       |
|                       | effect of grazing is  |                       |
|                       | based on indicators   |                       |
|                       | of soil               |                       |
|                       | characteristics and   |                       |
|                       | erosion, plant        |                       |
|                       | communities, and      |                       |
|                       | underlying processes  |                       |
|                       | to evaluate the       |                       |
|                       | "health" of the       |                       |
|                       | ecosystem (National   |                       |
|                       | Research Council      |                       |
|                       | 1994).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Productivity of       |                       |
|                       | western shrublands    |                       |
|                       | has declined due to   |                       |
|                       | previous grazing      |                       |
|                       | history or drought    |                       |
|                       | (West 1983, Holechek  |                       |
|                       | and Stephenson 1983). |                       |
|                       | The distribution of   |                       |
|                       | livestock also has    |                       |
|                       | changed because water |                       |
|                       | developments have     |                       |
|                       | increased the area    |                       |
|                       | that could be grazed. |                       |
|                       | We cannot conclude    |                       |
|                       | that the effect of    |                       |
|                       | grazing has been      |                       |
|                       | reduced because even  |                       |
|                       | reduced numbers of    |                       |
|                       | livestock may still   |                       |
|                       | exert a larger        |                       |
|                       | influence on those    |                       |
|                       | habitats. Therefore,  |                       |
|                       | the absence of        |                       |
|                       | information on        |                       |
|                       | management coupled    |                       |
|                       | with vegetation       |                       |
|                       | changes (e.g., Yorks  |                       |
|                       | et al. 1992) limits   |                       |
|                       | our understanding of  |                       |
|                       | the effect of         |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing on  |                       |
|                       | long-term dynamics of |                       |
|                       | sagebrush systems.    |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | The primary habitat   |                       |
|                       | treatments on lands   |                       |
|                       | managed by the U.S.   |                       |
|                       | Bureau of Land        |                       |
|                       | Management include    |                       |
|                       | construction of       |                       |
|                       | fences, development   |                       |
|                       | or control of water,  |                       |
|                       | and habitat           |                       |
|                       | modifications\...     |                       |
|                       | More than 1,000 km of |                       |
|                       | fences were           |                       |
|                       | constructed each year |                       |
|                       | from 1996 through     |                       |
|                       | 2002; most fences     |                       |
|                       | were constructed in   |                       |
|                       | Montana, Nevada,      |                       |
|                       | Oregon, and Wyoming.  |                       |
|                       | Linear density of     |                       |
|                       | fences exceeds 2      |                       |
|                       | km/km^2^ in some      |                       |
|                       | regions of the        |                       |
|                       | Conservation          |                       |
|                       | Assessment study      |                       |
|                       | area...In addition to |                       |
|                       | influencing livestock |                       |
|                       | and predator          |                       |
|                       | movements,            |                       |
|                       | facilitating spread   |                       |
|                       | of exotic plants, and |                       |
|                       | providing additional  |                       |
|                       | travel and access for |                       |
|                       | human activities,     |                       |
|                       | fences potentially    |                       |
|                       | increase mortality of |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse due to    |                       |
|                       | direct collisions or  |                       |
|                       | indirectly by         |                       |
|                       | increasing predation  |                       |
|                       | rates by increasing   |                       |
|                       | the number of perches |                       |
|                       | for raptors. Fences   |                       |
|                       | used to control       |                       |
|                       | grazing management    |                       |
|                       | among allotments      |                       |
|                       | further modify the    |                       |
|                       | landscape by creating |                       |
|                       | an artificial mosaic  |                       |
|                       | among separate        |                       |
|                       | pastures (Freilich et |                       |
|                       | al. 2003).            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Water developments    |                       |
|                       | were widespread       |                       |
|                       | throughout public     |                       |
|                       | lands\... Water       |                       |
|                       | developments and      |                       |
|                       | distribution of water |                       |
|                       | sources substantially |                       |
|                       | influence movements   |                       |
|                       | and distribution of   |                       |
|                       | livestock in arid     |                       |
|                       | western habitats      |                       |
|                       | (Valentine 1947,      |                       |
|                       | Freilich et al.       |                       |
|                       | 2003). Consequently,  |                       |
|                       | grazing pressure can  |                       |
|                       | be unevenly           |                       |
|                       | distributed and       |                       |
|                       | influence the         |                       |
|                       | composition and       |                       |
|                       | relative abundance of |                       |
|                       | the plant relative to |                       |
|                       | water sources.        |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Crawford, J.A., R.A.  | Livestock grazing has | Location unknown      |
| Olson, N.E. West,     | been extant in        |                       |
| J.C.                  | sagebrush plant       |                       |
|                       | communities for more  |                       |
| Mosley, M.A.          | than a century.       |                       |
| Shroeder, T.D.        | However, only a few   |                       |
| Whitson, R.F.         | studies have directly |                       |
|                       | addressed the effects |                       |
| Miller, M.A. Gregg,   | of livestock grazing  |                       |
| and C.S. Boyd. 2004.  | on habitat use by     |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse.          |                       |
| Synthesis Paper:      | Consequently,         |                       |
| Ecology and           | rangeland and         |                       |
| management            | wildlife managers     |                       |
|                       | must rely, with       |                       |
| of sage-grouse and    | caution, on indirect  |                       |
| sage-grouse habitat.  | evidence for          |                       |
| J.                    | guidance. Livestock   |                       |
|                       | grazing may affect    |                       |
| Range Manage. 57:     | sage-grouse habitat   |                       |
| 2-19.                 | directly by altering  |                       |
|                       | structural habitat    |                       |
|                       | factors or plant      |                       |
|                       | community             |                       |
|                       | composition, or       |                       |
|                       | indirectly by         |                       |
|                       | altering abiotic      |                       |
|                       | processes (e.g.,      |                       |
|                       | MFRI) and             |                       |
|                       | invasibility of       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush plant       |                       |
|                       | communities. While    |                       |
|                       | the impact of grazing |                       |
|                       | on sagebrush plant    |                       |
|                       | communities varies    |                       |
|                       | with site potential,  |                       |
|                       | ecological condition, |                       |
|                       | and climate           |                       |
|                       | variables, the        |                       |
|                       | aspects of livestock  |                       |
|                       | grazing that are      |                       |
|                       | controlled by         |                       |
|                       | management are,       |                       |
|                       | principally, the      |                       |
|                       | timing and intensity  |                       |
|                       | of defoliation.       |                       |
|                       | Research suggests     |                       |
|                       | that moderate         |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing or  |                       |
|                       | less in mid to late   |                       |
|                       | summer, fall, or      |                       |
|                       | winter is generally   |                       |
|                       | compatible with the   |                       |
|                       | maintenance of        |                       |
|                       | perennial grasses and |                       |
|                       | forbs in sagebrush    |                       |
|                       | habitat (Pechanec and |                       |
|                       | Stewart 1949,         |                       |
|                       | Mueggler 1950,        |                       |
|                       | Laycock and Conrad    |                       |
|                       | 1967, 1981, Gibbens   |                       |
|                       | and Fisser 1975,      |                       |
|                       | Miller et al. 1994,   |                       |
|                       | Bork et al. 1998).    |                       |
|                       | Herbaceous species in |                       |
|                       | sagebrush plant       |                       |
|                       | communities are       |                       |
|                       | predominantly         |                       |
|                       | cool-season (C-3)     |                       |
|                       | plants that are       |                       |
|                       | vulnerable to         |                       |
|                       | defoliation during    |                       |
|                       | late spring and early |                       |
|                       | summer. Heavy grazing |                       |
|                       | (approximately 60% or |                       |
|                       | greater utilization   |                       |
|                       | by weight) during     |                       |
|                       | this time has         |                       |
|                       | predictable           |                       |
|                       | results: 1) the       |                       |
|                       | vigor, yield, and     |                       |
|                       | cover of late-seral   |                       |
|                       | grasses and forbs     |                       |
|                       | decrease; 2)          |                       |
|                       | early-seral species   |                       |
|                       | (including annual     |                       |
|                       | grasses) may          |                       |
|                       | increase; 3)          |                       |
|                       | sagebrush density and |                       |
|                       | canopy cover may      |                       |
|                       | increase (Craddock    |                       |
|                       | and Forsling 1938,    |                       |
|                       | Pechanec and Stewart  |                       |
|                       | 1949, Mueggler 1950,  |                       |
|                       | Laycock 1967, Bork et |                       |
|                       | al. 1998); and 4)     |                       |
|                       | transition of         |                       |
|                       | sagebrush uplands to  |                       |
|                       | higher ecological     |                       |
|                       | status is inhibited   |                       |
|                       | (Mueggler 1950,       |                       |
|                       | Eckert and Spencer    |                       |
|                       | 1986, Laycock         |                       |
|                       | 1987...).             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Moderate use has      |                       |
|                       | traditionally been    |                       |
|                       | defined as occurring  |                       |
|                       | within the range of   |                       |
|                       | 40--60% utilization   |                       |
|                       | by weight, however,   |                       |
|                       | generalizing a        |                       |
|                       | specific level of     |                       |
|                       | utilization that      |                       |
|                       | represents "proper    |                       |
|                       | use" can be difficult |                       |
|                       | (Caldwell 1984).      |                       |
|                       | These difficulties    |                       |
|                       | arise in part due to  |                       |
|                       | lack of consistency   |                       |
|                       | in measurement        |                       |
|                       | technique (Frost et   |                       |
|                       | al. 1994), and the    |                       |
|                       | variable impact of a  |                       |
|                       | given level of        |                       |
|                       | utilization on plant  |                       |
|                       | communities in        |                       |
|                       | accordance with plant |                       |
|                       | species present, site |                       |
|                       | conditions, and       |                       |
|                       | climate variables.    |                       |
|                       | Some perennial        |                       |
|                       | grasses, such as      |                       |
|                       | Indian ricegrass      |                       |
|                       | (Oryzopsis hymenoides |                       |
|                       | (R. & S.) Ricker),    |                       |
|                       | needle-and-thread     |                       |
|                       | (Stipa comata Trin. & |                       |
|                       | Rupr.), Nevada        |                       |
|                       | bluegrass (Poa        |                       |
|                       | nevadensis Vasey ex   |                       |
|                       | Scribn.), and         |                       |
|                       | Sandberg bluegrass,   |                       |
|                       | can withstand severe  |                       |
|                       | grazing               |                       |
|                       | (approximately 80% or |                       |
|                       | greater utilization)  |                       |
|                       | as long as            |                       |
|                       | defoliation does not  |                       |
|                       | occur during the      |                       |
|                       | plants' reproductive  |                       |
|                       | period (Pearson       |                       |
|                       | 1964). Other grasses  |                       |
|                       | such as Idaho fescue, |                       |
|                       | Thurber needlegrass   |                       |
|                       | (Stipa thurberiana    |                       |
|                       | Piper), and           |                       |
|                       | bottlebrush           |                       |
|                       | squirreltail          |                       |
|                       | (Sitanion hystrix     |                       |
|                       | (Nutt.) J.G. Smith)   |                       |
|                       | decrease with heavy   |                       |
|                       | grazing (Rickard et   |                       |
|                       | al. 1975, Eckert and  |                       |
|                       | Spencer 1987).        |                       |
|                       | Restoration of sites  |                       |
|                       | in poor ecological    |                       |
|                       | condition may benefit |                       |
|                       | from reduced          |                       |
|                       | utilization (Holechek |                       |
|                       | et al. 1999) or       |                       |
|                       | rest\...              |                       |
|                       | Additionally, grazing |                       |
|                       | tolerance of          |                       |
|                       | sagebrush- dominated  |                       |
|                       | plant communities can |                       |
|                       | decrease with drought |                       |
|                       | conditions and        |                       |
|                       | increase in periods   |                       |
|                       | of above average      |                       |
|                       | precipitation         |                       |
|                       | (Westoby et al.       |                       |
|                       | 1989). When used in   |                       |
|                       | conjunction with      |                       |
|                       | other information     |                       |
|                       | sources (e.g.,        |                       |
|                       | weather data,         |                       |
|                       | non-livestock sources |                       |
|                       | of herbivory)         |                       |
|                       | utilization data can  |                       |
|                       | be a valuable tool    |                       |
|                       | for helping to        |                       |
|                       | interpret the         |                       |
|                       | influence of          |                       |
|                       | livestock herbivory   |                       |
|                       | on vegetation trend   |                       |
|                       | (Sanders 1998).       |                       |
|                       | However, utilization  |                       |
|                       | data are not a        |                       |
|                       | substitute for        |                       |
|                       | long-term vegetation  |                       |
|                       | monitoring, and       |                       |
|                       | management objectives |                       |
|                       | should be based on    |                       |
|                       | desirable vegetation  |                       |
|                       | composition over      |                       |
|                       | time, not utilization |                       |
|                       | guidelines (Sharp et  |                       |
|                       | al. 1994, Burkhardt   |                       |
|                       | 1997, Sanders 1998).  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Cattle, sheep, and    |                       |
|                       | horses (Equus         |                       |
|                       | caballus) in          |                       |
|                       | sagebrush habitat eat |                       |
|                       | grass-dominated diets |                       |
|                       | in all seasons of the |                       |
|                       | year (Severson et al. |                       |
|                       | 1968, Harrison and    |                       |
|                       | Thatcher 1970, Mackie |                       |
|                       | 1970, Uresk and       |                       |
|                       | Rickard 1976, Olsen   |                       |
|                       | and Hansen 1977,      |                       |
|                       | Reiner and Urness     |                       |
|                       | 1982, Krysl et al.    |                       |
|                       | 1984, Ngugi et al.    |                       |
|                       | 1992, Crane et al.    |                       |
|                       | 1997, Glidewell et    |                       |
|                       | al. 2001) although    |                       |
|                       | sheep may consume a   |                       |
|                       | higher percentage of  |                       |
|                       | their diet as forbs.  |                       |
|                       | Livestock usually     |                       |
|                       | consume little to no  |                       |
|                       | sagebrush (\< 10%)    |                       |
|                       | unless snow depth     |                       |
|                       | exceeds 20 cm         |                       |
|                       | (Harrison and         |                       |
|                       | Thatcher 1970), but   |                       |
|                       | winter sheep use of   |                       |
|                       | low elevation basin   |                       |
|                       | big sagebrush may be  |                       |
|                       | much greater (Cook et |                       |
|                       | al. 1954). Sheep      |                       |
|                       | grazing in fall       |                       |
|                       | favors production of  |                       |
|                       | perennial forbs,      |                       |
|                       | whereas spring        |                       |
|                       | grazing can decrease  |                       |
|                       | forb production (Bork |                       |
|                       | et al. 1998).         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Reduced sagebrush     |                       |
|                       | canopy cover in       |                       |
|                       | fall-grazed pastures  |                       |
|                       | (Mueggler 1950,       |                       |
|                       | Laycock 1967, Bork et |                       |
|                       | al. 1998) is caused   |                       |
|                       | largely by            |                       |
|                       | competition from      |                       |
|                       | healthy grasses and   |                       |
|                       | forbs, rather than    |                       |
|                       | fall livestock        |                       |
|                       | browsing of sagebrush |                       |
|                       | (Wright 1970).        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Sagebrush cover       |                       |
|                       | generally increases   |                       |
|                       | as utilization of the |                       |
|                       | herbaceous understory |                       |
|                       | increases (Wright and |                       |
|                       | Wright 1948, Pechanec |                       |
|                       | and Stewart 1949,     |                       |
|                       | Mueggler 1950,        |                       |
|                       | Laycock 1967, Bork et |                       |
|                       | al. 1998). But, once  |                       |
|                       | sagebrush cover       |                       |
|                       | reaches an upper      |                       |
|                       | threshold, livestock  |                       |
|                       | exclusion may have    |                       |
|                       | little effect on      |                       |
|                       | reversing the         |                       |
|                       | immediate trend       |                       |
|                       | (Johnson and Payne    |                       |
|                       | 1968, Rice and        |                       |
|                       | Westoby 1978, Sanders |                       |
|                       | and Voth 1983,        |                       |
|                       | Wambolt and Payne     |                       |
|                       | 1986). Over long time |                       |
|                       | intervals (40 years   |                       |
|                       | or more), sagebrush   |                       |
|                       | abundance may decline |                       |
|                       | with a concomitant    |                       |
|                       | increase in           |                       |
|                       | understory herbaceous |                       |
|                       | species (Anderson and |                       |
|                       | Inouye 2001). On      |                       |
|                       | Wyoming big sagebrush |                       |
|                       | sites with dense      |                       |
|                       | sagebrush and an      |                       |
|                       | understory of annual  |                       |
|                       | grasses, reductions   |                       |
|                       | in livestock grazing  |                       |
|                       | can hasten further    |                       |
|                       | habitat degradation   |                       |
|                       | if ungrazed fuel      |                       |
|                       | loads promulgate      |                       |
|                       | wildfires that burn   |                       |
|                       | uniformly and kill    |                       |
|                       | sagebrush on vast     |                       |
|                       | areas (Peters and     |                       |
|                       | Bunting 1994, West    |                       |
|                       | 1999).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Timing of grazing     |                       |
|                       | greatly influences    |                       |
|                       | the effects of        |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing in  |                       |
|                       | meadows and riparian  |                       |
|                       | areas. These sites    |                       |
|                       | are particularly      |                       |
|                       | vulnerable in late    |                       |
|                       | summer when excessive |                       |
|                       | grazing and browsing  |                       |
|                       | may damage riparian   |                       |
|                       | shrubs, reduce the    |                       |
|                       | yield and             |                       |
|                       | availability of       |                       |
|                       | succulent herbs       |                       |
|                       | (Kovalchik and Elmore |                       |
|                       | 1992), and cause      |                       |
|                       | deterioration of      |                       |
|                       | riparian function     |                       |
|                       | over time (Klebenow   |                       |
|                       | 1985). However,       |                       |
|                       | moderate utilization  |                       |
|                       | by livestock in       |                       |
|                       | spring, early summer, |                       |
|                       | or winter is          |                       |
|                       | sustainable in        |                       |
|                       | non-degraded meadow   |                       |
|                       | and riparian areas    |                       |
|                       | within sagebrush      |                       |
|                       | habitat (Shaw 1992,   |                       |
|                       | Clary et al. 1996,    |                       |
|                       | Mosley et al. 1997).  |                       |
|                       | Moderate use equates  |                       |
|                       | to a 10- cm residual  |                       |
|                       | stubble height for    |                       |
|                       | most grasses and      |                       |
|                       | sedges and 5-cm for   |                       |
|                       | Kentucky bluegrass    |                       |
|                       | (Mosley et al. 1997,  |                       |
|                       | Clary and Leininger   |                       |
|                       | 2000). Shrub          |                       |
|                       | utilization should    |                       |
|                       | not exceed 50--60%    |                       |
|                       | during the growing    |                       |
|                       | season, and at least  |                       |
|                       | 50% protective ground |                       |
|                       | cover (i.e., plant    |                       |
|                       | basal area + mulch +  |                       |
|                       | rocks + gravel)       |                       |
|                       | should remain after   |                       |
|                       | grazing (Mosley et    |                       |
|                       | al. 1997). While      |                       |
|                       | hydrophytic shrubs    |                       |
|                       | may not directly      |                       |
|                       | serve as sage-grouse  |                       |
|                       | habitat, they do      |                       |
|                       | impact the stability  |                       |
|                       | of riparian and       |                       |
|                       | meadow habitats       |                       |
|                       | important to          |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse (Winward  |                       |
|                       | 2000). The length of  |                       |
|                       | time livestock have   |                       |
|                       | access to meadows may |                       |
|                       | be more important     |                       |
|                       | than the level of     |                       |
|                       | utilization; it has   |                       |
|                       | been suggested that   |                       |
|                       | livestock access be   |                       |
|                       | limited to \< 3 weeks |                       |
|                       | (Myers 1989, Mosley   |                       |
|                       | et al. 1997). In      |                       |
|                       | riparian and meadow   |                       |
|                       | habitat degraded by   |                       |
|                       | heavy livestock       |                       |
|                       | utilization, rest     |                       |
|                       | from grazing may be   |                       |
|                       | necessary for         |                       |
|                       | recovery (Clary and   |                       |
|                       | Webster 1989).        |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Hockett, G.A. 2002.   | Protect sage grouse   | Location unknown      |
| Livestock Impacts on  | spring, summer and    |                       |
| the                   | fall ranges during    |                       |
|                       | periods of drought.   |                       |
| Herbaceous Components | Drought alone has     |                       |
| of Sage Grouse        | been identified as a  |                       |
|                       | major factor          |                       |
| Habitat: A Review.    | contributing to the   |                       |
| Int. Jour. Sci.       | range-wide decline of |                       |
|                       | sage grouse (Connelly |                       |
|                       | and Braun 1997).      |                       |
|                       | Design adaptive       |                       |
|                       | management strategies |                       |
|                       | to protect against    |                       |
|                       | the cumulative        |                       |
|                       | effects of grazing    |                       |
|                       | use on sage grouse    |                       |
|                       | forage and cover      |                       |
|                       | during drought.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Manage 25-33 percent  |                       |
|                       | of the                |                       |
|                       | sagebrush-riparian    |                       |
|                       | landscape for climax  |                       |
|                       | species and processes |                       |
|                       | using concepts        |                       |
|                       | outlined by Bock et   |                       |
|                       | al. (1993). This can  |                       |
|                       | be done while still   |                       |
|                       | providing for         |                       |
|                       | deferred or           |                       |
|                       | rest-rotation grazing |                       |
|                       | over the remaining    |                       |
|                       | 66-75 percent of the  |                       |
|                       | sagebrush landscape.  |                       |
|                       | Target key nesting    |                       |
|                       | and brood rearing     |                       |
|                       | habitat for climax    |                       |
|                       | vegetation to         |                       |
|                       | increase sage grouse  |                       |
|                       | productivity. Sage    |                       |
|                       | grouse nest densities |                       |
|                       | increase along        |                       |
|                       | sagebrush riparian    |                       |
|                       | corridors (Patterson  |                       |
|                       | 1952). Therefore,     |                       |
|                       | manage for climax     |                       |
|                       | vegetative cover and  |                       |
|                       | forage along primary  |                       |
|                       | sagebrush-riparian    |                       |
|                       | interfaces including  |                       |
|                       | ≥0.8 km of sagebrush  |                       |
|                       | habitat type on       |                       |
|                       | either side of        |                       |
|                       | riparian corridors.   |                       |
|                       | Unless local data     |                       |
|                       | indicates additional  |                       |
|                       | protections are       |                       |
|                       | necessary, this       |                       |
|                       | partial climax        |                       |
|                       | conservation strategy |                       |
|                       | on grazed sage grouse |                       |
|                       | habitat offers some   |                       |
|                       | perpetual mitigation  |                       |
|                       | against the           |                       |
|                       | inevitable effects of |                       |
|                       | drought while still   |                       |
|                       | allowing grazing over |                       |
|                       | the majority of       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush landscape.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Avoid livestock water |                       |
|                       | developments and salt |                       |
|                       | grounds in            |                       |
|                       | traditional sage      |                       |
|                       | grouse spring,        |                       |
|                       | summer, and fall      |                       |
|                       | habitats. These       |                       |
|                       | developments          |                       |
|                       | significantly         |                       |
|                       | concentrate livestock |                       |
|                       | and increase forage   |                       |
|                       | use, trailing, and    |                       |
|                       | soil compaction that  |                       |
|                       | fragment sagebrush    |                       |
|                       | habitat (Stoddart et  |                       |
|                       | al. 1975). These      |                       |
|                       | heavy-use areas may   |                       |
|                       | extend up to 0.8 km   |                       |
|                       | away from the site    |                       |
|                       | (Valentine 1947)      |                       |
|                       | providing a niche for |                       |
|                       | noxious weeds and     |                       |
|                       | other undesirable or  |                       |
|                       | unpalatable           |                       |
|                       | vegetation to take    |                       |
|                       | hold. Such            |                       |
|                       | developments should   |                       |
|                       | only be considered if |                       |
|                       | accompanied with      |                       |
|                       | climax management     |                       |
|                       | areas as              |                       |
|                       | outlined...above.     |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+

# [Grazing Effects on Sagebrush]{.underline}

+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| **Source**                        | **Citation**                      |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Deseret Land and Livestock Ranch. | Grazing exclosure data \[from     |
| No date. Deseret Land and         | Deseret Land and Livestock        |
|                                   | Ranch\] suggest: a. grass         |
| Livestock Ranch Livestock Grazing | production depends on prior-year  |
| and Rangeland Management          | precipitation, and b. excluding   |
|                                   | livestock increases shrub         |
| Benefit Greater Sage Grouse.      | production, reduces forbs and     |
| Western Governor\'s Association,  | fails to increase plant species   |
| U.S.                              | diversity.                        |
|                                   |                                   |
| Department of Agriculture Natural |                                   |
| Resources Conservation Service.   |                                   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Greer, R. 1990. Sage Grouse       | Rangeland improvement programs    |
| Habitat Requirements and          | which reduce sagebrush habitat    |
| Development.                      | generally impair the welfare of   |
|                                   | sage grouse.                      |
| Wyoming Game and Fish Dept.       |                                   |
|                                   | No treatment should be considered |
|                                   | where sagebrush cover is less     |
|                                   | than 20 percent or within 2 miles |
|                                   | of breeding, nesting, or brood    |
|                                   | areas.                            |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Improving sage grouse habitat is  |
|                                   | best approached by minimally      |
|                                   | reducing sagebrush cover while    |
|                                   | increasing the availability of    |
|                                   | favored forbs, thus creating a    |
|                                   | mosaic of sagebrush and openings. |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | In areas with old, decadent       |
|                                   | sagebrush or continuous expanses  |
|                                   | of dense sagebrush, limited       |
|                                   | treatment may be beneficial.      |
|                                   | Sagebrush should be managed using |
|                                   | an irregular treatment pattern of |
|                                   | localized patches or narrow       |
|                                   | strips. Total kill or removal of  |
|                                   | sagebrush should be avoided.      |
|                                   | Treatment of localized patches or |
|                                   | narrow strips over a period of    |
|                                   | several years promotes uneven     |
|                                   | aged stands of sagebrush, thus    |
|                                   | increasing habitat diversity.     |
|                                   | These irregular mosaic treatment  |
|                                   | patterns provide more edge-effect |
|                                   | (and thus more benefits to sage   |
|                                   | grouse) and are much more natural |
|                                   | looking and aesthetically         |
|                                   | pleasing than stripped or         |
|                                   | rectangular treatment blocks. The |
|                                   | widths of treated areas should be |
|                                   | no wider than 30 yards, and       |
|                                   | untreated areas should remain at  |
|                                   | least as wide as treated areas.   |
|                                   | Treated patches may be used as    |
|                                   | feeding areas following forb      |
|                                   | recovery while untreated patches  |
|                                   | may be used for shelter.          |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Herbicides such as 2, 4-D should  |
|                                   | be sprayed as early in spring as  |
|                                   | possible or prior to the          |
|                                   | emergence of forbs. Spray rates   |
|                                   | of 1 to 1.5 pounds of active      |
|                                   | ingredient per 3 gallons of water |
|                                   | per acre are suggested.           |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Chaining is preferred over        |
|                                   | spraying for sagebrush control    |
|                                   | since forbs are not killed and    |
|                                   | all sagebrush is not uprooted.    |
|                                   | Chaining patterns should be in    |
|                                   | random strips, while block        |
|                                   | chaining of large areas should be |
|                                   | avoided.                          |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | When sagebrush cover is too low   |
|                                   | for chaining or burning, plowing  |
|                                   | with a crawler tractor may be     |
|                                   | used to reduce sagebrush. After   |
|                                   | plowing, forb reseeding is        |
|                                   | necessary due to high vegetative  |
|                                   | mortality.                        |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Burning in wintering or nesting   |
|                                   | habitat is undesirable.           |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Burning small patches during late |
|                                   | fall or early spring in brood     |
|                                   | rearing areas will create a       |
|                                   | mosaic of sagebrush and openings. |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Along streams, meadows, or        |
|                                   | secondary drainages, tall dense   |
|                                   | stands of sagebrush may be        |
|                                   | partially controlled and reseeded |
|                                   | with grasses and forbs to promote |
|                                   | feeding habitat. However, a 200   |
|                                   | yard buffer strip of sagebrush    |
|                                   | should generally be reserved      |
|                                   | along these wetland areas.        |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Gibbens, R.P., and H.G. Fisser.   | ...even under complete protection |
| 1975. Influence of Grazing        | from grazing change is slow and   |
|                                   | the existing grazing pressure did |
| Management Systems on Vegetation  | not have a marked effect on grass |
| in the Red Desert Region of       | cover.                            |
|                                   |                                   |
| Wyoming. Univ. of Wyoming         |                                   |
| Agriculture Experiment Station.   |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| Science Monograph 29. Laramie,    |                                   |
| Wyoming                           |                                   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Heath, B. J., R. Straw, S.H.      | Try to eliminate shrub control in |
| Anderson, J. Lawson, and M.       | areas that contain between 25-33% |
| Holloran.                         | total shrub cover within 5 km of  |
|                                   | occupied leks to maintain sage    |
| 1998\. Sage-Grouse Productivity,  | grouse habitat. When it is        |
| Survival, and Seasonal Habitat    | necessary to set back plant       |
| Use                               | succession and increase           |
|                                   | herbaceous vegetation production, |
| Among Three Ranches with          | treatments should occur in        |
| Different Livestock Grazing,      | patterns within the landscape     |
| Predator                          | that maintain a diverse mosaic of |
|                                   | shrub seral stages.               |
| Control, and Harvest Management   |                                   |
| Practices. Wyoming Game and       |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| Fish Dept.                        |                                   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Holloran, M.J., B.J. Heath, A.G.  | To maintain greater sage grouse   |
| Lyon, S.J. Slater, J.L. Kuipers,  | populations, we recommend that    |
| and                               | managers limit strategies that    |
|                                   | negatively affect this type of    |
| S.H. Anderson. 2005. Greater      | habitat (i.e. prescribed fire and |
| sage-grouse nesting habitat       | herbicide application) and        |
| selection                         | protect adequate amounts of       |
|                                   | suitable nesting habitat during   |
| and success in Wyoming. J Wildl   | treatment.                        |
| Manage. 69(2): 638-649.           |                                   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

***The following sources may contain information relevant to the Wyoming
Basin - Southern Rocky Mountains ecoregions, but were not conducted
within the ecoregional boundaries.***

+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| **Source**            | **Citation**          | **Location of Study** |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Poley, B. E. 1969.    | Since sagebrush       | Colorado              |
| Seasonal Movements of | competes with grass   |                       |
|                       | for moisture, it is   |                       |
| Sage Grouse in        | often killed to allow |                       |
| Colorado. Journal of  | ranges to produce     |                       |
|                       | more grass for        |                       |
| Colorado Field        | livestock.            |                       |
| Ornithologists.       |                       |                       |
| 5:1-4.                | When large sagebrush  |                       |
|                       | eradication programs  |                       |
|                       | are carried out on    |                       |
|                       | prime sage grouse     |                       |
|                       | range, the birds are  |                       |
|                       | reduced in numbers    |                       |
|                       | and often             |                       |
|                       | "eradicated".         |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Coggins, K. A. 1998.  | Continued use of      | Oregon                |
| Relationship between  | ranges in a degraded  |                       |
|                       | condition may inhibit |                       |
| habitat changes and   | recovery of           |                       |
| productivity of sage  | herbaceous vegetation |                       |
|                       | and promote sagebrush |                       |
| grouse at Hart        | dominance.            |                       |
| Mountain National     |                       |                       |
| Antelope              |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Refuge, Oregon.       |                       |                       |
| Oregon State Univ.    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Corvallis, Oregon.    |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Rowland, M.M., and    | Grazing by livestock  | Oregon                |
| M.J. Wisdom. 2002.    | has occurred on       |                       |
|                       | virtually the entire  |                       |
| Research Problem      | range of sage grouse  |                       |
| Analysis for Greater  | (Braun 1998), thus    |                       |
|                       | its influence is      |                       |
| Sage Grouse in        | potentially the most  |                       |
| Oregon. Oregon Dept.  | pervasive of any land |                       |
| of                    | management practice.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Fish and Wildlife.    |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Marshall, D.B.,       | As summer progresses  | Oregon                |
| Chilcote, M., and H.  | and forage drys,      |                       |
| Weeks.                | \[sage grouse\] are   |                       |
|                       | moved to high         |                       |
| 1996\. Species at     | elevation meadows,    |                       |
| Risk: Sensitive,      | irrigated meadows in  |                       |
|                       | lowlands, or onto     |                       |
| Threatened, and       | playas from which     |                       |
| Endangered            | water is receding and |                       |
| Vertebrates of        | succulent forage is   |                       |
|                       | emerging.             |                       |
| Oregon. Oregon Dept.  |                       |                       |
| of Fish and Wildlife. | Winter habitat is     |                       |
|                       | comprised of dense    |                       |
| Portland, OR.         | sagebrush stands that |                       |
|                       | are sufficiently free |                       |
|                       | of snow to provide    |                       |
|                       | food, which at that   |                       |
|                       | season consists of    |                       |
|                       | sagebrush.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Sagebrush protection  |                       |
|                       | is needed within at   |                       |
|                       | least a 1.5 mile      |                       |
|                       | radius of leks.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Playas, including     |                       |
|                       | their water supply,   |                       |
|                       | need to be preserved. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Improved coordination |                       |
|                       | is needed between     |                       |
|                       | livestock interests   |                       |
|                       | and species needs in  |                       |
|                       | relation to land      |                       |
|                       | management practices  |                       |
|                       | such as sagebrush     |                       |
|                       | control programs,     |                       |
|                       | fire management,      |                       |
|                       | meadow and water      |                       |
|                       | improvements, and     |                       |
|                       | fencing programs.     |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Call, M.W., and C.    | Fortunately, some     | Great Basin (Oregon)  |
| Maser. 1985. Wildlife | changes resulting     |                       |
|                       | from livestock        |                       |
| Habitats in Managed   | grazing, agricultural |                       |
| Rangelands\--The      | practices, and other  |                       |
|                       | land uses may have    |                       |
| Great Basin of        | benefited sage        |                       |
| Southeastern Oregon.  | grouse. The creation  |                       |
| U.S.                  | of openings in large  |                       |
|                       | sagebrush stands,     |                       |
| Department of         | from whatever causes, |                       |
| Agriculture Forest    | produced feeding and  |                       |
| Service               | brooding areas and    |                       |
|                       | may have benefited    |                       |
| Pacific Northwest     | sage grouse           |                       |
| Forest and Range      | especially where      |                       |
|                       | water is close by.    |                       |
| Experiment Station.   | The creation of       |                       |
| General Technical     | meadows (or           |                       |
|                       | meadowlike areas)     |                       |
| Report PNW-187.       | within sagebrush      |                       |
| Portland, Oregon.     | stands improved the   |                       |
|                       | summer food supply of |                       |
|                       | sage grouse. Where    |                       |
|                       | land use practices    |                       |
|                       | removed large,        |                       |
|                       | decadent sagebrush    |                       |
|                       | stands and permitted  |                       |
|                       | development of new,   |                       |
|                       | young plants, sage    |                       |
|                       | grouse habitat may    |                       |
|                       | have been improved.   |                       |
|                       | But the overall       |                       |
|                       | habitat is generally  |                       |
|                       | better where patches  |                       |
|                       | or strips of tall,    |                       |
|                       | dense sagebrush are   |                       |
|                       | retained for use as   |                       |
|                       | an escape cover or    |                       |
|                       | for roosting.         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In general, good      |                       |
|                       | habitat for sage      |                       |
|                       | grouse should contain |                       |
|                       | openings less than    |                       |
|                       | 274 m (300 yd) in     |                       |
|                       | circumference, some   |                       |
|                       | dense sagebrush       |                       |
|                       | stands, and about     |                       |
|                       | equal amounts of tall |                       |
|                       | and short sagebrush   |                       |
|                       | plants (Rogers 1964). |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | ...association with   |                       |
|                       | dense stands of       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush usually     |                       |
|                       | begins in September   |                       |
|                       | and continues through |                       |
|                       | the breeding and      |                       |
|                       | nesting seasons. In   |                       |
|                       | fact, 15 percent      |                       |
|                       | canopy cover of       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush appears to  |                       |
|                       | be the minimum        |                       |
|                       | acceptable for sage   |                       |
|                       | grouse winter and     |                       |
|                       | nesting habitat       |                       |
|                       | (Wallestad 1971,      |                       |
|                       | 1975; Wallestad and   |                       |
|                       | Schladweiler 1974).   |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Although openings in  |                       |
|                       | sagebrush habitat may |                       |
|                       | be created by killing |                       |
|                       | the shrubs, increased |                       |
|                       | grass density may     |                       |
|                       | prevent the openings  |                       |
|                       | from being used (Carr |                       |
|                       | 1968).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Spring and early      |                       |
|                       | summer grazing by     |                       |
|                       | livestock removes a   |                       |
|                       | high percentage of    |                       |
|                       | grass and forbs at    |                       |
|                       | the time when sage    |                       |
|                       | grouse are turning to |                       |
|                       | forbs as their        |                       |
|                       | primary forage.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | ...manage the         |                       |
|                       | sagebrush for an      |                       |
|                       | average height of 30  |                       |
|                       | to 80 cm (12 to 31    |                       |
|                       | in) and an average    |                       |
|                       | composition of 20 to  |                       |
|                       | 30 percent.           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Good grouse habitat   |                       |
|                       | should have from      |                       |
|                       | 5,000 to 10,000       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush plants per  |                       |
|                       | 0.4 ha (1 acre).      |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Craddock, G.W., and   | Over and above the    | Southern Idaho        |
| C.L. Forsling. 1938.  | influence of climate, |                       |
| The                   | the intensity and     |                       |
|                       | periods of grazing    |                       |
| Influence of Climate  | had a profound effect |                       |
| and Grazing on        | upon the grazing      |                       |
|                       | value of the          |                       |
| Spring-Fall Sheep     | spring-fall range.    |                       |
| Range in Southern     |                       |                       |
| Idaho.                |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| United States Dept.   |                       |                       |
| of Agriculture.       |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Technical Bulletin    |                       |                       |
| No. 600               |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Stinson, D.W., D.W.   | Despite the pervasive | Washington            |
| Hays, and M.          | influence of          |                       |
| Schroeder.            | livestock grazing in  |                       |
|                       | sage grouse range,    |                       |
| 2004\. Washington     | there have been no    |                       |
| State Recovery Plan   | experimental studies  |                       |
| for                   | of the impact on      |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse           |                       |
| the Greater           | populations.          |                       |
| Sage-Grouse.          |                       |                       |
| Washington Dept.      | \[Welch and Criddle   |                       |
|                       | 2003\] concluded that |                       |
| of Fish and Wildlife. | grazing may or may    |                       |
| Olympia, Washington.  | not increase big      |                       |
|                       | sagebrush cover.      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Beck and Mitchell     |                       |
|                       | (2000) reviewed the   |                       |
|                       | effects of grazing on |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse habitat.  |                       |
|                       | They found that       |                       |
|                       | little was known      |                       |
|                       | about the direct      |                       |
|                       | impacts on sage       |                       |
|                       | grouse, but more was  |                       |
|                       | known about indirect  |                       |
|                       | effects. Direct       |                       |
|                       | negative effects      |                       |
|                       | included              |                       |
|                       | deterioration of wet  |                       |
|                       | meadow hydrology and  |                       |
|                       | destruction of        |                       |
|                       | sagebrush in          |                       |
|                       | wintering habitat by  |                       |
|                       | sheep. Positive       |                       |
|                       | effects included an   |                       |
|                       | increase in growth or |                       |
|                       | availability of forbs |                       |
|                       | in dense grassy       |                       |
|                       | meadows. Several      |                       |
|                       | studies indicate that |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse select    |                       |
|                       | meadows grazed by     |                       |
|                       | cattle over ungrazed  |                       |
|                       | meadows in early      |                       |
|                       | spring (Miller and    |                       |
|                       | Eddleman 2000).       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Livestock grazing is  |                       |
|                       | compatible with       |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse where the |                       |
|                       | habitat               |                       |
|                       | characteristics       |                       |
|                       | needed for breeding   |                       |
|                       | and wintering can be  |                       |
|                       | consistently          |                       |
|                       | maintained (Connelly  |                       |
|                       | et al. 2000, Wambolt  |                       |
|                       | et al. 2002, Rowland  |                       |
|                       | and Wisdom 2002, and  |                       |
|                       | Crawford et al.       |                       |
|                       | 2004). Whether this   |                       |
|                       | is possible on any    |                       |
|                       | particular site       |                       |
|                       | probably depends on   |                       |
|                       | many factors          |                       |
|                       | including the grazing |                       |
|                       | history of the site,  |                       |
|                       | site condition,       |                       |
|                       | precipitation zone,   |                       |
|                       | livestock involved,   |                       |
|                       | the season,           |                       |
|                       | intensity, frequency  |                       |
|                       | and duration of       |                       |
|                       | grazing.              |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Sveum, C.M., W.D.     | Management that       | Washington            |
| Edge, and J.A.        | protects the big      |                       |
| Crawford.             | sagebrush/bunchgrass  |                       |
|                       | community is          |                       |
| 1998\. Nesting        | essential for         |                       |
| habitat selection by  | maintaining nesting   |                       |
| sage                  | habitat for sage      |                       |
|                       | grouse.               |                       |
| grouse in             |                       |                       |
| south-central         |                       |                       |
| Washington. J         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Range Manage. 51:     |                       |                       |
| 265-269.              |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Hays, D., M. Tirhi,   | Since most of the     | Washington            |
| and D. Stinson. 1998. | herbaceous species    |                       |
|                       | are more palatable    |                       |
| Washington State      | than sagebrush, the   |                       |
| Status Report for the | former were reduced   |                       |
|                       | while the shrubs      |                       |
| Sage Grouse.          | flourished (Tisdale   |                       |
| Washington Dept. of   | and Hironaka 1981).   |                       |
| Fish and              |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Wildlife. Olympia,    |                       |                       |
| WA.                   |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| U. S. Dept. of        | Heavy, excessive      | Nevada                |
| Interior, Bureau of   | grazing too soon      |                       |
| Land                  | after disturbances    |                       |
|                       | such as fire, may     |                       |
| Management. 2000.     | lead to permanent     |                       |
| Management            | reductions in food    |                       |
|                       | plants and nesting    |                       |
| guidelines for sage   | cover. Current BLM    |                       |
| grouse and sagebrush  | policy provides for a |                       |
|                       | minimum of two        |                       |
| ecosystems in Nevada. | growing seasons for   |                       |
|                       | rest following fire.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Drought can lead to   |                       |
|                       | increased competition |                       |
|                       | between livestock and |                       |
|                       | sage grouse for food  |                       |
|                       | and cover. Drought    |                       |
|                       | will exacerbate the   |                       |
|                       | adverse effects of    |                       |
|                       | heavy, excessive      |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing on  |                       |
|                       | vegetation and soils  |                       |
|                       | (Valentine 1990). In  |                       |
|                       | some instances, the   |                       |
|                       | failure to make       |                       |
|                       | timely adjustments in |                       |
|                       | livestock use during  |                       |
|                       | drought has resulted  |                       |
|                       | in limited plant      |                       |
|                       | regrowth, overuse in  |                       |
|                       | wet meadows and       |                       |
|                       | riparian areas, and   |                       |
|                       | has negated gains in  |                       |
|                       | rangeland conditions  |                       |
|                       | made during           |                       |
|                       | higher-precipitation  |                       |
|                       | years (Thurow and     |                       |
|                       | Taylor 1999).         |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| van Kooten, G.C., R.  | During times of       | Nevada                |
| Thomsen, T.G. Hobby,  | drought, cattle are   |                       |
|                       | attracted to moist    |                       |
| and A.J. Eagle. 2004. | areas. Failure to     |                       |
| Social Dilemmas and   | reduce stocking rates |                       |
|                       | during these periods  |                       |
| Public Range          | may result in greater |                       |
| Management in Nevada. | impact in the form of |                       |
|                       | reduced vegetative    |                       |
|                       | cover (Aldridge,      |                       |
|                       | 1998).                |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Courtois, D.R., B.L.  | The Nevada Plots      | Nevada                |
| Perryman, and H.S.    | exclosure system was  |                       |
|                       | constructed in 1937   |                       |
| Hussein. 2004.        | following passage of  |                       |
| Vegetation Change     | the Taylor Grazing    |                       |
| After 65              | Act to assess         |                       |
|                       | long-term effects of  |                       |
| Years of Grazing and  | livestock grazing on  |                       |
| Grazing Exclusion. J  | Nevada rangelands. A  |                       |
|                       | comparison of         |                       |
| Range Manage.         | vegetation            |                       |
| 57:574-582.           | characteristics       |                       |
|                       | inside and outside    |                       |
|                       | exclosures was        |                       |
|                       | conducted during 2001 |                       |
|                       | and 2002 at 16 sites. |                       |
|                       | Data analysis was     |                       |
|                       | performed with a      |                       |
|                       | paired t test. Out of |                       |
|                       | 238 cover and density |                       |
|                       | comparisons between   |                       |
|                       | inside and outside    |                       |
|                       | exclosures at each    |                       |
|                       | site, 34 (14% of      |                       |
|                       | total) were different |                       |
|                       | (P \< 0.05).          |                       |
|                       | Generally, where      |                       |
|                       | differences occurred, |                       |
|                       | basal and canopy      |                       |
|                       | cover were greater    |                       |
|                       | inside exclosures and |                       |
|                       | density was greater   |                       |
|                       | outside. Shrubs were  |                       |
|                       | taller inside         |                       |
|                       | exclosures at 3 sites |                       |
|                       | grazed by sheep       |                       |
|                       | (*Ovis aries*).       |                       |
|                       | Perennial grasses     |                       |
|                       | showed no vertical    |                       |
|                       | height difference.    |                       |
|                       | Aboveground plant     |                       |
|                       | biomass production    |                       |
|                       | was different at only |                       |
|                       | 1 site. Plant         |                       |
|                       | community diversity   |                       |
|                       | inside and outside    |                       |
|                       | exclosures were equal |                       |
|                       | at 11 of 16 sites.    |                       |
|                       | Species richness was  |                       |
|                       | similar at all sites  |                       |
|                       | and never varied \> 4 |                       |
|                       | species at any site.  |                       |
|                       | Few changes in        |                       |
|                       | species composition,  |                       |
|                       | cover, density, and   |                       |
|                       | production inside and |                       |
|                       | outside exclosures    |                       |
|                       | have occurred in 65   |                       |
|                       | years, indicating     |                       |
|                       | that recovery rates   |                       |
|                       | since pre-Taylor      |                       |
|                       | Grazing Act           |                       |
|                       | conditions were       |                       |
|                       | similar under         |                       |
|                       | moderate grazing and  |                       |
|                       | grazing exclusion on  |                       |
|                       | these exclosure       |                       |
|                       | sites.                |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Swanson, S., D.       | According to Donald   | Nevada                |
| Franzen, and M.       | Klebenow, a wildlife  |                       |
| Manning.              | professor at the      |                       |
|                       | University of Nevada, |                       |
| 1987\. Rodero Creek:  | sage grouse seem to   |                       |
| Rising water on the   | do best with moderate |                       |
|                       | mid-summer cattle     |                       |
| high desert. Journal  | grazing that leaves   |                       |
| of Soil and Water     | unused vegetation in  |                       |
|                       | an irregular pattern  |                       |
| Conservation.         | with clumps of        |                       |
| 405-407.              | partially grazed      |                       |
|                       | plants just big       |                       |
|                       | enough to somewhat    |                       |
|                       | conceal adult birds.  |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Neel, L.A. 1980. Sage | There seems to be     | Nevada                |
| Grouse Response to    | evidence to conclude  |                       |
|                       | that rest-rotation    |                       |
| Grazing Management in | grazing has benefited |                       |
| Nevada. M.S.          | sage grouse habitat   |                       |
|                       | in the Lone Willow    |                       |
| Thesis. Univ. of      | area. Food forb       |                       |
| Nevada, Reno. Reno,   | production is higher  |                       |
|                       | on the ...sites under |                       |
| Nevada.               | rest-rotation...than  |                       |
|                       | on similar sites not  |                       |
|                       | under                 |                       |
|                       | rest-rotation...      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Use \[of meadows\]    |                       |
|                       | seemed to be linked   |                       |
|                       | to availability of    |                       |
|                       | food forbs rather     |                       |
|                       | than structural       |                       |
|                       | parameters. Sage      |                       |
|                       | grouse seemed to show |                       |
|                       | preference for grazed |                       |
|                       | meadows where meadow  |                       |
|                       | conditions were       |                       |
|                       | otherwise equal.      |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Rasmussen, D. I., and | From this study at    | Utah                  |
| L. A. Griner. 1938.   | present it is         |                       |
| Life                  | difficult to see any  |                       |
|                       | direct competition    |                       |
| history and           | with livestock and    |                       |
| management studies of | this bird on areas of |                       |
| the Sage              | highly productive     |                       |
|                       | summer ranges as      |                       |
| Grouse in Utah, with  | concerns their        |                       |
| special reference to  | feeding habitats. It  |                       |
|                       | is, however, logical  |                       |
| nesting and feeding   | to suppose that in    |                       |
| habits. *In*:         | areas where the       |                       |
| Transactions          | entire understory of  |                       |
|                       | weeds and grasses     |                       |
| of the North American | have been destroyed   |                       |
| Wildlife              | that conditions would |                       |
|                       | not be favorable for  |                       |
| Conference. 3:        | the young birds to    |                       |
| 852-864.              | obtain the varied     |                       |
|                       | plant diet they use   |                       |
|                       | during their first    |                       |
|                       | summer.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Some competition is   |                       |
|                       | believed to exist     |                       |
|                       | \[on sagebrush winter |                       |
|                       | ranges\] that is of   |                       |
|                       | extreme importance to |                       |
|                       | the welfare of the    |                       |
|                       | grouse. The use of    |                       |
|                       | the open ridge tops   |                       |
|                       | as bed grounds for    |                       |
|                       | sheep and the         |                       |
|                       | resultant destruction |                       |
|                       | of sagebrush          |                       |
|                       | vegetation from these |                       |
|                       | ridges, which         |                       |
|                       | provides the regular  |                       |
|                       | winter feeding areas  |                       |
|                       | during periods of     |                       |
|                       | deep snows, are       |                       |
|                       | certainly of          |                       |
|                       | importance in the     |                       |
|                       | lives of the sage     |                       |
|                       | grouse.               |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Ellis, K.L., J.R.     | Positive influences   | Northeastern Utah     |
| Murphy, J.R., and     | of controlled grazing |                       |
| G.H.                  | by domestic animals   |                       |
|                       | on rangelands include |                       |
| Richins. 1987.        | the following:        |                       |
| Distribution of       |                       |                       |
| Breeding              | -Loosening of the     |                       |
|                       | soil surface during   |                       |
| Male Sage Grouse in   | dry periods.          |                       |
| Northeastern Utah.    |                       |                       |
|                       | -Removal of excessive |                       |
| Western Birds.        | vegetation that may   |                       |
| 18:117-121.           | negatively affect net |                       |
|                       | carbohydrate fixation |                       |
|                       | and increase water    |                       |
|                       | transpiration losses. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Incorporating mulch  |                       |
|                       | into the soil         |                       |
|                       | profile, which speeds |                       |
|                       | development of humus. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Recycling nutrients  |                       |
|                       | and making some       |                       |
|                       | nutrients more        |                       |
|                       | available.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Maintaining an       |                       |
|                       | optimal leaf area     |                       |
|                       | index of plant        |                       |
|                       | tissue.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Trampling seeds into |                       |
|                       | the ground.           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Reducing excessive   |                       |
|                       | accumulations of      |                       |
|                       | standing dead         |                       |
|                       | vegetation and mulch  |                       |
|                       | that may chemically   |                       |
|                       | and physically        |                       |
|                       | inhibit new growth.   |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Inoculating plant    |                       |
|                       | parts with saliva     |                       |
|                       | that may stimulate    |                       |
|                       | plant regrowth        |                       |
|                       | (Reardon et al.       |                       |
|                       | 1974).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Reducing fire,       |                       |
|                       | insect, and rodent    |                       |
|                       | problems resulting    |                       |
|                       | from accumulations of |                       |
|                       | vegetation.           |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Myers, L.H. 1989.     | Successful \[riparian | Southwestern Montana  |
| Grazing and Riparian  | grazing\] systems had |                       |
|                       | lower average         |                       |
| Management in         | stocking rates (4.9   |                       |
| Southwestern Montana. | hectares/AUM) than    |                       |
| *In:*                 | unsuccessful systems  |                       |
|                       | (3.8 hectares/AUM)    |                       |
| Practical Approaches  | though the difference |                       |
| to Riparian Resource  | was not statistically |                       |
|                       | significant. This 22% |                       |
| Management: An        | difference in         |                       |
| Educational Workshop  | stocking rate would   |                       |
|                       | not be expected to    |                       |
| May 8-11, 1989.       | appreciably influence |                       |
| Montana Chapter       | riparian vegetation   |                       |
|                       | response to a grazing |                       |
| American Fisheries    | system.               |                       |
| Society; U.S. Bureau  |                       |                       |
| of                    | The success or        |                       |
|                       | failure of livestock  |                       |
| Land Management;      | grazing systems in    |                       |
| Western Division      | providing for stream  |                       |
|                       | riparian site         |                       |
| American Fisheries    | recovery is related   |                       |
| Society; U.S. Forest  | to riparian plant     |                       |
|                       | phenology, floodplain |                       |
| Service, Northern     | function, and         |                       |
| Region; Society for   | livestock use         |                       |
|                       | behavior in riparian  |                       |
| Range Management;     | areas.                |                       |
| Montana Riparian      |                       |                       |
|                       | Providing for         |                       |
| Association; U.S.     | herbaceous            |                       |
| Fish and Wildlife     | \[riparian\] regrowth |                       |
|                       | may also extend the   |                       |
| Service.              | growing season rest   |                       |
|                       | needed to sustain     |                       |
|                       | plant vigor.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Grazing systems must  |                       |
|                       | accommodate           |                       |
|                       | \[restoration of      |                       |
|                       | major stream banks\]  |                       |
|                       | by providing residual |                       |
|                       | cover for sediment    |                       |
|                       | filtering and good    |                       |
|                       | vegetative vigor for  |                       |
|                       | stability. Residual   |                       |
|                       | cover is a function   |                       |
|                       | of both utilization   |                       |
|                       | level and for         |                       |
|                       | herbaceous species,   |                       |
|                       | post-grazing          |                       |
|                       | regrowth. Removing    |                       |
|                       | livestock by early    |                       |
|                       | August to accommodate |                       |
|                       | at least 30 d of      |                       |
|                       | regrowth probably     |                       |
|                       | meets floodplain      |                       |
|                       | function needs on the |                       |
|                       | study area, though    |                       |
|                       | more data are needed. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | On the study area,    |                       |
|                       | successful grazing    |                       |
|                       | systems were found to |                       |
|                       | provide for more      |                       |
|                       | (p=0.05) post-grazing |                       |
|                       | herbaceous regrowth   |                       |
|                       | (34.9 d), compared to |                       |
|                       | only 20.8 d in        |                       |
|                       | unsuccessful systems. |                       |
|                       | Also, through a       |                       |
|                       | combination of both   |                       |
|                       | regrowth and rest     |                       |
|                       | treatments,           |                       |
|                       | successful systems    |                       |
|                       | provided post-growing |                       |
|                       | season residual       |                       |
|                       | riparian cover 75% of |                       |
|                       | the years, as         |                       |
|                       | compared to only 38%  |                       |
|                       | of the years in       |                       |
|                       | unsuccessful systems. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | On the study area,    |                       |
|                       | successful grazing    |                       |
|                       | systems were found to |                       |
|                       | have significantly    |                       |
|                       | (p=0.01) less grazing |                       |
|                       | during the "hot       |                       |
|                       | season" \[July        |                       |
|                       | through early         |                       |
|                       | September\] (12.5 d)  |                       |
|                       | than unsuccessful     |                       |
|                       | systems with 33.4 d.  |                       |
|                       | Likewise, the         |                       |
|                       | duration of all       |                       |
|                       | livestock treatments  |                       |
|                       | was significantly     |                       |
|                       | (p=0.001) shorter in  |                       |
|                       | successful systems    |                       |
|                       | (28.2 d) compared to  |                       |
|                       | 59.3 d in             |                       |
|                       | unsuccessful systems. |                       |
|                       | Given the reluctance  |                       |
|                       | of cattle to disperse |                       |
|                       | from riparian areas,  |                       |
|                       | the duration of       |                       |
|                       | grazing treatments    |                       |
|                       | becomes a key factor  |                       |
|                       | in determining the    |                       |
|                       | severity of impacts   |                       |
|                       | such as trampling and |                       |
|                       | mechanical damage,    |                       |
|                       | soil compaction, and  |                       |
|                       | utilization. In a     |                       |
|                       | rest-rotation system  |                       |
|                       | Platts (1981) noted   |                       |
|                       | significant riparian  |                       |
|                       | habitat alterations   |                       |
|                       | at 65% utilization    |                       |
|                       | levels, but no        |                       |
|                       | detectable impacts at |                       |
|                       | 25% utilization.      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | A combination of      |                       |
|                       | longer duration and   |                       |
|                       | more frequent fall    |                       |
|                       | grazing deteriorated  |                       |
|                       | woody species vigor   |                       |
|                       | and regeneration,     |                       |
|                       | contributing to       |                       |
|                       | diminished floodplain |                       |
|                       | function and reduced  |                       |
|                       | riparian dependent    |                       |
|                       | values.               |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Wambolt, C.A., and    | Rest alone resulted   | Southwestern Montana  |
| G.F. Payne. 1986. An  | in a 29% reduction in |                       |
| 18-                   | sagebrush canopy      |                       |
|                       | during the study      |                       |
| year comparison of    | period \[1963-1981\]. |                       |
| control methods for   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Wyoming Big Sagebrush |                       |                       |
| in southwestern       |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Montana. J Range      |                       |                       |
| Manage. 39(4):        |                       |                       |
| 314-319.              |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Adams, B.W., J.       | Heavy grazing can     | Alberta, Canada       |
| Carlson, D. Milner,   | lead to an expansion  |                       |
| T. Hood,              | in big sagebrush      |                       |
|                       | shrub canopy cover as |                       |
| B. Cairns and P.      | the shrub acts as an  |                       |
| Herzog. 2004.         | increaser due grazing |                       |
| Beneficial            | pressure. Managed     |                       |
|                       | grazing can be used   |                       |
| grazing management    | in a prescriptive way |                       |
| practices for Sage-   | create more           |                       |
|                       | patchiness within     |                       |
| Grouse (*Centrocercus | otherwise continuous  |                       |
| urophasianus*) and    | sage canopies (Beck   |                       |
|                       | and Mitchell 2000).   |                       |
| ecology of silver     |                       |                       |
| sagebrush             | The grazing response  |                       |
| (*Artemisia*          | of silver sagebrush   |                       |
|                       | seems much different  |                       |
| *cana*) in            | from that of big      |                       |
| southeastern Alberta. | sagebrush. Silver     |                       |
| Public Lands          | sagebrush does not    |                       |
|                       | establish the same    |                       |
| and Forests Division, | height or cover       |                       |
| Alberta Sustainable   | characteristics as    |                       |
|                       | big sagebrush and     |                       |
| Resource Development. | occupies a lesser     |                       |
| Pub. No. T /049.      | prominence on Alberta |                       |
|                       | Sage-Grouse ranges.   |                       |
|                       | It also appears that  |                       |
|                       | silver sagebrush      |                       |
|                       | behaves more like a   |                       |
|                       | decreaser species in  |                       |
|                       | response to grazing,  |                       |
|                       | trampling and         |                       |
|                       | drought, although it  |                       |
|                       | has a strong          |                       |
|                       | potential to resprout |                       |
|                       | and regenerate in     |                       |
|                       | favorable periods of  |                       |
|                       | moisture and rest.    |                       |
|                       | Being lower in        |                       |
|                       | stature, silver       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush is likely   |                       |
|                       | more vulnerable to    |                       |
|                       | trampling by          |                       |
|                       | livestock, especially |                       |
|                       | vegetative sprouts    |                       |
|                       | and juvenile plants.  |                       |
|                       | Trampling may be the  |                       |
|                       | principal cause of    |                       |
|                       | silver sagebrush      |                       |
|                       | decline on livestock  |                       |
|                       | wintering sites.      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | A number of sources   |                       |
|                       | (Neel 1980, Klebenow  |                       |
|                       | 1982, Evans 1986)     |                       |
|                       | suggest that          |                       |
|                       | appropriate grazing   |                       |
|                       | management can be     |                       |
|                       | used to stimulate the |                       |
|                       | productivity of forbs |                       |
|                       | important as          |                       |
|                       | Sage-Grouse food.     |                       |
|                       | This will be          |                       |
|                       | particularly          |                       |
|                       | important on          |                       |
|                       | rangelands with a     |                       |
|                       | history of light      |                       |
|                       | grazing where forb    |                       |
|                       | cover has become      |                       |
|                       | reduced by graminoid  |                       |
|                       | competition, a common |                       |
|                       | feature of dry mixed  |                       |
|                       | grass prairie plant   |                       |
|                       | communities.          |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Aldridge, C.L. 1998.  | The removal of cover  | Alberta, Canada       |
| Status of the Sage    | by cattle can impact  |                       |
| Grouse                | sage grouse           |                       |
|                       | populations either by |                       |
| (*Centrocercus        | reducing habitat      |                       |
| urophasianus          | suitability, or by    |                       |
| urophasianus*)        | increasing the        |                       |
|                       | exposure of birds to  |                       |
| in Alberta. Alberta   | predators and extreme |                       |
| Environmental         | weather.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Protection, Wildlife  |                       |                       |
| Management Division,  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| and Alberta           |                       |                       |
| Conservation          |                       |                       |
| Association.          |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Wildlife Status       |                       |                       |
| Report No. 13.        |                       |                       |
| Edmonton,             |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Alberta, Canada.      |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Anderson, J.E., and   | Plots having higher   | Location unknown      |
| R.S. Inouye. 2001.    | species richness      |                       |
|                       | tended to maintain    |                       |
| Landscape-scale       | higher levels of      |                       |
| changes in plant      | cover and to vary     |                       |
| species               | less in cover         |                       |
|                       | relative to their     |                       |
| abundance and         | mean level,           |                       |
| biodiversity of a     | indicating links      |                       |
| sagebrush             | between species       |                       |
|                       | richness and          |                       |
| steppe over 45 years. | function. Abundance   |                       |
| Ecological            | of nonnative species  |                       |
|                       | was negatively        |                       |
| Monographs. 71(4):    | correlated with       |                       |
| 531-556.              | cover, but not with   |                       |
|                       | richness of native    |                       |
|                       | species. Thus,        |                       |
|                       | adequate cover of     |                       |
|                       | native species can    |                       |
|                       | render these semiarid |                       |
|                       | communities more      |                       |
|                       | resistant to          |                       |
|                       | invasion.             |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Beck, J.L, and D.L.   | Over time, sheep      | Location unknown      |
| Mitchell. 2000.       | grazing can shift     |                       |
| Influences            | ranges toward grass   |                       |
|                       | dominance, whereas    |                       |
| of livestock grazing  | cattle grazing can    |                       |
| on sage grouse        | cause rangeland to be |                       |
| habitat.              | composed of more      |                       |
|                       | forbs.                |                       |
| Wildl Soc Bull. 4:    |                       |                       |
| 993-1002.             |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Blaisdell, J.P., R.B. | Bluebunch wheatgrass  | Location unknown      |
| Murray, and E.D.      | (*Agropyron           |                       |
|                       | spicatum*), an        |                       |
| McArthur. 1982.       | important forage      |                       |
| Managing              | plant on many western |                       |
| Intermountain         | ranges, has received  |                       |
|                       | considerable          |                       |
| Range                 | attention. Hanson and |                       |
| lands-Sagebrush-Grass | Stoddart (1940)       |                       |
| Ranges. U.S.          | observed that heavily |                       |
|                       | grazed plants of      |                       |
| Department of         | bluebunch wheatgrass  |                       |
| Agriculture Forest    | were smaller,         |                       |
| Service               | produced fewer seeds, |                       |
|                       | and had a markedly    |                       |
| Intermountain Forest  | reduced root system.  |                       |
| and Range             |                       |                       |
|                       | Ellison (1960)        |                       |
| Experiment Station    | concluded that the    |                       |
| Gen. Tech. Report     | usual effect of       |                       |
| INT-                  | grazing certain       |                       |
|                       | species in a          |                       |
| 134\. Ogden, UT.      | community is to       |                       |
|                       | handicap them while   |                       |
|                       | encouraging others.   |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Some studies suggest  |                       |
|                       | that forage plants    |                       |
|                       | respond as well under |                       |
|                       | light grazing as no   |                       |
|                       | grazing. However,     |                       |
|                       | other studies show    |                       |
|                       | injurious effects     |                       |
|                       | even at light         |                       |
|                       | intensities (Johnson  |                       |
|                       | 1956).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Cattle tend to graze  |                       |
|                       | the grasses most      |                       |
|                       | heavily, whereas      |                       |
|                       | sheep exhibit a       |                       |
|                       | preference for forbs. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Rotation of use       |                       |
|                       | between cattle and    |                       |
|                       | sheep can prove       |                       |
|                       | beneficial,           |                       |
|                       | especially to fair    |                       |
|                       | and good condition    |                       |
|                       | sagebrush-grass       |                       |
|                       | ranges.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | ...controlling        |                       |
|                       | \[tall, dense         |                       |
|                       | sagebrush with little |                       |
|                       | understory\] and      |                       |
|                       | allowing native forbs |                       |
|                       | and grasses to        |                       |
|                       | recover their former  |                       |
|                       | productivity would    |                       |
|                       | greatly improve the   |                       |
|                       | habitat of sage       |                       |
|                       | grouse (Klebenow      |                       |
|                       | 1969).                |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Connelly, J.W., M.A.  | In Wyoming big        | N/A                   |
| Schroeder, A.R. Sands | sagebrush habitats,   |                       |
|                       | resting areas from    |                       |
| and C.E. Braun. 2000. | livestock grazing may |                       |
| Guidelines to         | improve understory    |                       |
|                       | production as well as |                       |
| manage sage grouse    | decrease sagebrush    |                       |
| populations and their | cover (Wambolt and    |                       |
|                       | Payne 1986).          |                       |
| habitats. Wildl Soc   |                       |                       |
| Bull. 28(4):967-985.  | Manage breeding       |                       |
|                       | habitats to support   |                       |
|                       | 15-25% canopy cover   |                       |
|                       | of sagebrush,         |                       |
|                       | perennial herbaceous  |                       |
|                       | cover averaging ≥ 18  |                       |
|                       | cm in height with ≥   |                       |
|                       | 15% canopy cover for  |                       |
|                       | grasses and ≥ 10% for |                       |
|                       | forbs and a diversity |                       |
|                       | of forbs (Barnett and |                       |
|                       | Crawford 1994, Drut   |                       |
|                       | et al. 1994, Apa      |                       |
|                       | 1998) during spring.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | For nonmigratory      |                       |
|                       | grouse occupying      |                       |
|                       | habitats that are     |                       |
|                       | distributed           |                       |
|                       | uniformly...protect   |                       |
|                       | (i.e. do not          |                       |
|                       | manipulate) sagebrush |                       |
|                       | and herbaceous        |                       |
|                       | understory within 3.2 |                       |
|                       | km of all occupied    |                       |
|                       | leks.                 |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | For nonmigratory      |                       |
|                       | grouse occupying      |                       |
|                       | habitats that are not |                       |
|                       | distributed           |                       |
|                       | uniformly...protect   |                       |
|                       | suitable habitats for |                       |
|                       | ≤ 5 km from all       |                       |
|                       | occupied leks.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | For migratory         |                       |
|                       | populations, identify |                       |
|                       | and protect breeding  |                       |
|                       | habitats within 18 km |                       |
|                       | of leks...            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In areas of           |                       |
|                       | large-scale habitat   |                       |
|                       | loss (≥ 40% of        |                       |
|                       | original breeding     |                       |
|                       | habitat), protect all |                       |
|                       | remaining habitats    |                       |
|                       | from additional loss  |                       |
|                       | or degradation.       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Connelly, J.W., S.T.  | Dominant trends       | N/A                   |
| Knick, M.A.           | emerged along a       |                       |
| Schroeder,            | complex gradient of   |                       |
|                       | shrubland disturbance |                       |
| and S.J. Stiver.      | regimes following     |                       |
| 2004. Conservation    | intensive grazing     |                       |
|                       | pressure and drought  |                       |
| Assessment of Greater | (West and Young       |                       |
| Sage-Grouse and       | 2000). In northern,   |                       |
|                       | eastern, and more     |                       |
| Sagebrush Habitats.   | mesic regions of the  |                       |
| Unpublished Report.   | sagebrush biome, fire |                       |
|                       | was not an important  |                       |
| Western Association   | disturbance necessary |                       |
| of Fish and Wildlife  | to maintain perennial |                       |
|                       | grasses and forbs.    |                       |
| Agencies. Cheyenne,   | Rather, grazing by    |                       |
| Wyoming.              | buffalo was the       |                       |
|                       | primary agent of      |                       |
|                       | grazing disturbance.  |                       |
|                       | In those regions,     |                       |
|                       | introduction of       |                       |
|                       | domestic livestock    |                       |
|                       | increased the         |                       |
|                       | site-specific         |                       |
|                       | frequency of grazing  |                       |
|                       | (Mack and Thompson    |                       |
|                       | 1982). Improper       |                       |
|                       | grazing that depleted |                       |
|                       | the grass and forb    |                       |
|                       | understory            |                       |
|                       | facilitated invasions |                       |
|                       | by exotic plants      |                       |
|                       | species because of    |                       |
|                       | loss of understory,   |                       |
|                       | altered soils, or     |                       |
|                       | loss of microbiotic   |                       |
|                       | crusts in these       |                       |
|                       | systems (Mack and     |                       |
|                       | Thompson 1982). In    |                       |
|                       | more xeric and        |                       |
|                       | southern sagebrush    |                       |
|                       | regions, possible     |                       |
|                       | increases in shrub    |                       |
|                       | cover that resulted   |                       |
|                       | from grazing further  |                       |
|                       | reduced the low cover |                       |
|                       | of native perennials  |                       |
|                       | and created a system  |                       |
|                       | largely resistant to  |                       |
|                       | recolonization by the |                       |
|                       | native flora but      |                       |
|                       | increasingly          |                       |
|                       | vulnerable to         |                       |
|                       | invasion by exotic    |                       |
|                       | plants (Young and     |                       |
|                       | Sparks 2002).         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Livestock grazing can |                       |
|                       | affect soils,         |                       |
|                       | vegetation, and       |                       |
|                       | animal communities    |                       |
|                       | (Jones 2000).         |                       |
|                       | Livestock consume or  |                       |
|                       | alter vegetation,     |                       |
|                       | redistribute          |                       |
|                       | nutrients and plant   |                       |
|                       | seeds, trample soils  |                       |
|                       | and sagebrush plants, |                       |
|                       | and can disrupt       |                       |
|                       | microbiotic crusts    |                       |
|                       | (Miller et al. 1994,  |                       |
|                       | West 1996, Belnap and |                       |
|                       | Lange 2001). The      |                       |
|                       | extent to which these |                       |
|                       | mechanisms influence  |                       |
|                       | habitats depends on   |                       |
|                       | the relationship      |                       |
|                       | between level of      |                       |
|                       | grazing disturbance   |                       |
|                       | and the resiliency of |                       |
|                       | the habitat. At       |                       |
|                       | unsustainable levels  |                       |
|                       | of grazing, these     |                       |
|                       | changes can lead to   |                       |
|                       | loss of vegetative    |                       |
|                       | cover, reduced water  |                       |
|                       | infiltration rates,   |                       |
|                       | and increased soil    |                       |
|                       | erosion (Society for  |                       |
|                       | Range Management      |                       |
|                       | 1995). Indirect       |                       |
|                       | effects of livestock  |                       |
|                       | grazing can amplify   |                       |
|                       | or facilitate other   |                       |
|                       | disturbance. For      |                       |
|                       | example, landscapes   |                       |
|                       | in southwestern Idaho |                       |
|                       | in which grazing      |                       |
|                       | combined with other   |                       |
|                       | disturbances          |                       |
|                       | experienced the       |                       |
|                       | greatest rate of      |                       |
|                       | shrub loss and        |                       |
|                       | increase in           |                       |
|                       | cheatgrass compared   |                       |
|                       | to landscapes having  |                       |
|                       | a single source of    |                       |
|                       | disturbance (Knick    |                       |
|                       | and Rotenberry 1997). |                       |
|                       | In shrublands         |                       |
|                       | dominated by          |                       |
|                       | cheatgrass, grazing   |                       |
|                       | can reduce further    |                       |
|                       | the remaining         |                       |
|                       | perennial grasses or  |                       |
|                       | permit excessive      |                       |
|                       | growth of cheatgrass  |                       |
|                       | if left ungrazed      |                       |
|                       | (Young and Allen      |                       |
|                       | 1997).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In sagebrush          |                       |
|                       | grasslands, herbivory |                       |
|                       | of herbaceous plants  |                       |
|                       | during the growing    |                       |
|                       | season tends to favor |                       |
|                       | sagebrush growth      |                       |
|                       | until sagebrush       |                       |
|                       | becomes so dense that |                       |
|                       | the competition of    |                       |
|                       | sagebrush restricts   |                       |
|                       | recovery of           |                       |
|                       | herbaceous plants     |                       |
|                       | (Reichenberger and    |                       |
|                       | Pyke 1990).           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Adjustments to        |                       |
|                       | grazing seasons or    |                       |
|                       | reductions in numbers |                       |
|                       | of livestock will     |                       |
|                       | only show             |                       |
|                       | improvements in       |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse habitat   |                       |
|                       | quality if the        |                       |
|                       | vegetation community  |                       |
|                       | is a sagebrush        |                       |
|                       | grassland mix before  |                       |
|                       | grazing changes are   |                       |
|                       | implemented. This     |                       |
|                       | community retains     |                       |
|                       | both the sagebrush    |                       |
|                       | and the tall          |                       |
|                       | bunchgrass necessary  |                       |
|                       | for quality habitat.  |                       |
|                       | The release from      |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing     |                       |
|                       | should allow the full |                       |
|                       | expression of         |                       |
|                       | vegetation height for |                       |
|                       | hiding cover and nest |                       |
|                       | protection.           |                       |
|                       | Improvements could be |                       |
|                       | expressed in the next |                       |
|                       | growing season, but   |                       |
|                       | might take 3 to 5     |                       |
|                       | years for             |                       |
|                       | pre-existing plants   |                       |
|                       | to fully express      |                       |
|                       | themselves and 10 to  |                       |
|                       | 15 years for seed     |                       |
|                       | production and new    |                       |
|                       | plant recruitment to  |                       |
|                       | occur assuming the    |                       |
|                       | site is not fully     |                       |
|                       | occupied by other     |                       |
|                       | species. Any other    |                       |
|                       | community whether in  |                       |
|                       | this vegetation state |                       |
|                       | or in another state   |                       |
|                       | will require either   |                       |
|                       | additional            |                       |
|                       | manipulations to the  |                       |
|                       | community to adjust   |                       |
|                       | the vegetation        |                       |
|                       | composition, or may   |                       |
|                       | require additions of  |                       |
|                       | life forms through    |                       |
|                       | revegetation to       |                       |
|                       | improve the habitat.  |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Crawford, J.A., R.A.  | Livestock grazing may | N/A                   |
| Olson, N.E. West,     | affect sage-grouse    |                       |
| J.C.                  | habitat directly by   |                       |
|                       | altering structural   |                       |
| Mosley, M.A.          | habitat factors or    |                       |
| Shroeder, T.D.        | plant community       |                       |
| Whitson, R.F.         | composition, or       |                       |
|                       | indirectly by         |                       |
| Miller, M.A. Gregg,   | altering abiotic      |                       |
| and C.S. Boyd. 2004.  | processes (e.g.,      |                       |
|                       | MFRI) and             |                       |
| Synthesis Paper:      | invasibility of       |                       |
| Ecology and           | sagebrush plant       |                       |
| management            | communities.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| of sage-grouse and    | While the impact of   |                       |
| sage-grouse habitat.  | grazing on sagebrush  |                       |
| J.                    | plant communities     |                       |
|                       | varies with site      |                       |
| Range Manage. 57:     | potential, ecological |                       |
| 2-19.                 | condition, and        |                       |
|                       | climate variables,    |                       |
|                       | the aspects of        |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing     |                       |
|                       | that are controlled   |                       |
|                       | by management are,    |                       |
|                       | principally, the      |                       |
|                       | timing and intensity  |                       |
|                       | of defoliation.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Research suggests     |                       |
|                       | that moderate         |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing or  |                       |
|                       | less in mid to late   |                       |
|                       | summer, fall, or      |                       |
|                       | winter is generally   |                       |
|                       | compatible with the   |                       |
|                       | maintenance of        |                       |
|                       | perennial grasses and |                       |
|                       | forbs in sagebrush    |                       |
|                       | habitat (Pechanec and |                       |
|                       | Stewart 1949,         |                       |
|                       | Mueggler 1950,        |                       |
|                       | Laycock and Conrad    |                       |
|                       | 1967, 1981, Gibbens   |                       |
|                       | and Fisser 1975,      |                       |
|                       | Miller et al. 1994,   |                       |
|                       | Bork et al. 1998)     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Herbaceous species in |                       |
|                       | sagebrush plant       |                       |
|                       | communities are       |                       |
|                       | predominantly         |                       |
|                       | cool-season (C-3)     |                       |
|                       | plants that are       |                       |
|                       | vulnerable to         |                       |
|                       | defoliation during    |                       |
|                       | late spring and early |                       |
|                       | summer.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Heavy grazing         |                       |
|                       | (approximately 60% or |                       |
|                       | greater utilization   |                       |
|                       | by weight) during     |                       |
|                       | this time has         |                       |
|                       | predictable           |                       |
|                       | results: 1) the       |                       |
|                       | vigor, yield, and     |                       |
|                       | cover of late-seral   |                       |
|                       | grasses and forbs     |                       |
|                       | decrease; 2)          |                       |
|                       | early-seral species   |                       |
|                       | (including annual     |                       |
|                       | grasses) may          |                       |
|                       | increase; 3)          |                       |
|                       | sagebrush density and |                       |
|                       | canopy cover may      |                       |
|                       | increase (Craddock    |                       |
|                       | and Forsling 1938,    |                       |
|                       | Pechanec and Stewart  |                       |
|                       | 1949, Mueggler 1950,  |                       |
|                       | Laycock 1967, Bork et |                       |
|                       | al. 1998); and 4)     |                       |
|                       | transition of         |                       |
|                       | sagebrush uplands to  |                       |
|                       | higher ecological     |                       |
|                       | status is inhibited   |                       |
|                       | (Mueggler 1950,       |                       |
|                       | Eckert and Spencer    |                       |
|                       | 1986, Laycock 1987).  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Cattle, sheep, and    |                       |
|                       | horses (*Equus        |                       |
|                       | caballus*) in         |                       |
|                       | sagebrush habitat eat |                       |
|                       | grass-dominated diets |                       |
|                       | in all seasons of the |                       |
|                       | year (Severson et al. |                       |
|                       | 1968, Harrison and    |                       |
|                       | Thatcher 1970, Mackie |                       |
|                       | 1970, Uresk and       |                       |
|                       | Rickard 1976, Olsen   |                       |
|                       | and Hansen 1977,      |                       |
|                       | Reiner and Urness     |                       |
|                       | 1982, Krysl et al.    |                       |
|                       | 1984, Ngugi et al.    |                       |
|                       | 1992, Crane et al.    |                       |
|                       | 1997, Glidewell et    |                       |
|                       | al. 2001) although    |                       |
|                       | sheep may consume a   |                       |
|                       | higher percentage of  |                       |
|                       | their diet as forbs.  |                       |
|                       | Livestock usually     |                       |
|                       | consume little to no  |                       |
|                       | sagebrush (\< 10%)    |                       |
|                       | unless snow depth     |                       |
|                       | exceeds 20 cm         |                       |
|                       | (Harrison and         |                       |
|                       | Thatcher 1970), but   |                       |
|                       | winter sheep use of   |                       |
|                       | low elevation basin   |                       |
|                       | big sagebrush may be  |                       |
|                       | much greater (Cook et |                       |
|                       | al. 1954).            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Shrub utilization     |                       |
|                       | should not exceed     |                       |
|                       | 50--60% during the    |                       |
|                       | growing season, and   |                       |
|                       | at least 50%          |                       |
|                       | protective ground     |                       |
|                       | cover (i.e., plant    |                       |
|                       | basal area + mulch +  |                       |
|                       | rocks + gravel)       |                       |
|                       | should remain after   |                       |
|                       | grazing (Mosley et    |                       |
|                       | al. 1997).            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | While hydrophytic     |                       |
|                       | shrubs may not        |                       |
|                       | directly serve as     |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse habitat,  |                       |
|                       | they do impact the    |                       |
|                       | stability of riparian |                       |
|                       | and meadow habitats   |                       |
|                       | important to          |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse (Winward  |                       |
|                       | 2000).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | A recent modeling     |                       |
|                       | exercise (Wisdom et   |                       |
|                       | al. 2002)             |                       |
|                       | incorporated 50 and   |                       |
|                       | 100% reductions in    |                       |
|                       | the detrimental       |                       |
|                       | effects of livestock  |                       |
|                       | grazing into a        |                       |
|                       | population level      |                       |
|                       | model for sage grouse |                       |
|                       | in the Interior       |                       |
|                       | Columbia Basin. The   |                       |
|                       | model predicted       |                       |
|                       | improved performance  |                       |
|                       | of sage grouse        |                       |
|                       | populations with a    |                       |
|                       | combination of active |                       |
|                       | habitat restoration   |                       |
|                       | and reduced livestock |                       |
|                       | stocking rate, and    |                       |
|                       | equated reductions in |                       |
|                       | livestock stocking    |                       |
|                       | rate to decreased     |                       |
|                       | detrimental effects   |                       |
|                       | of livestock on sage  |                       |
|                       | grouse habitat at a 1 |                       |
|                       | to 1 ratio. While     |                       |
|                       | this approach may     |                       |
|                       | appear empirically    |                       |
|                       | appealing in that it  |                       |
|                       | allows "what if"      |                       |
|                       | scenario modeling,    |                       |
|                       | caution is merited    |                       |
|                       | when assuming that    |                       |
|                       | reductions in         |                       |
|                       | livestock stocking    |                       |
|                       | rate are in a         |                       |
|                       | constant 1 to 1 ratio |                       |
|                       | with changes in sage  |                       |
|                       | grouse habitat        |                       |
|                       | quality, given that   |                       |
|                       | the exact slope of    |                       |
|                       | this relationship is  |                       |
|                       | unknown (it may be    |                       |
|                       | substantially greater |                       |
|                       | or less than 1) and   |                       |
|                       | is variable in        |                       |
|                       | accordance with       |                       |
|                       | timing and intensity  |                       |
|                       | of livestock grazing, |                       |
|                       | environmental         |                       |
|                       | factors, and specific |                       |
|                       | type of sage grouse   |                       |
|                       | habitat (e.g.,        |                       |
|                       | nesting,              |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing, etc.). |                       |
|                       | Given the complexity  |                       |
|                       | of the successional   |                       |
|                       | dynamics of sagebrush |                       |
|                       | plant communities,    |                       |
|                       | combined with the     |                       |
|                       | multivariate nature   |                       |
|                       | of the effects of     |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing on  |                       |
|                       | these plant           |                       |
|                       | communities, it       |                       |
|                       | remains difficult to  |                       |
|                       | draw large-scale      |                       |
|                       | (time and space)      |                       |
|                       | conclusions regarding |                       |
|                       | the impact of current |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing     |                       |
|                       | practices on sage     |                       |
|                       | grouse populations.   |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | But, once sagebrush   |                       |
|                       | cover reaches an      |                       |
|                       | upper threshold,      |                       |
|                       | livestock exclusion   |                       |
|                       | may have little       |                       |
|                       | effect on reversing   |                       |
|                       | the immediate trend   |                       |
|                       | (Johnson and Payne    |                       |
|                       | 1968, Rice and        |                       |
|                       | Westoby 1978, Sanders |                       |
|                       | and Voth 1983,        |                       |
|                       | Wambolt and Payne     |                       |
|                       | 1986).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Over long time        |                       |
|                       | intervals (40 years   |                       |
|                       | or more), sagebrush   |                       |
|                       | abundance may decline |                       |
|                       | with a concomitant    |                       |
|                       | increase in           |                       |
|                       | understory herbaceous |                       |
|                       | species (Anderson and |                       |
|                       | Inouye 2001). On      |                       |
|                       | Wyoming big sagebrush |                       |
|                       | sites with dense      |                       |
|                       | sagebrush and an      |                       |
|                       | understory of annual  |                       |
|                       | grasses, reductions   |                       |
|                       | in livestock grazing  |                       |
|                       | can hasten further    |                       |
|                       | habitat degradation   |                       |
|                       | if ungrazed fuel      |                       |
|                       | loads promulgate      |                       |
|                       | wildfires that burn   |                       |
|                       | uniformly and kill    |                       |
|                       | sagebrush on vast     |                       |
|                       | areas (Peters and     |                       |
|                       | Bunting 1994, West    |                       |
|                       | 1999).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Timing of grazing     |                       |
|                       | greatly influences    |                       |
|                       | the effects of        |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing in  |                       |
|                       | meadows and riparian  |                       |
|                       | areas. These sites    |                       |
|                       | are particularly      |                       |
|                       | vulnerable in late    |                       |
|                       | summer when excessive |                       |
|                       | grazing and browsing  |                       |
|                       | may damage riparian   |                       |
|                       | shrubs, reduce the    |                       |
|                       | yield and             |                       |
|                       | availability of       |                       |
|                       | succulent herbs       |                       |
|                       | (Kovalchik and Elmore |                       |
|                       | 1992), and cause      |                       |
|                       | deterioration of      |                       |
|                       | riparian function     |                       |
|                       | over time (Klebenow   |                       |
|                       | 1985). However,       |                       |
|                       | moderate utilization  |                       |
|                       | by livestock in       |                       |
|                       | spring, early summer, |                       |
|                       | or winter is          |                       |
|                       | sustainable in        |                       |
|                       | non-degraded meadow   |                       |
|                       | and riparian areas    |                       |
|                       | within sagebrush      |                       |
|                       | habitat (Shaw 1992,   |                       |
|                       | Clary et al. 1996,    |                       |
|                       | Mosley et al. 1997).  |                       |
|                       | Moderate use equates  |                       |
|                       | to a 10-cm residual   |                       |
|                       | stubble height for    |                       |
|                       | most grasses and      |                       |
|                       | sedges and 5-cm for   |                       |
|                       | Kentucky bluegrass    |                       |
|                       | (Mosley et al. 1997,  |                       |
|                       | Clary and Leininger   |                       |
|                       | 2000).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | The length of time    |                       |
|                       | livestock have access |                       |
|                       | to meadows may be     |                       |
|                       | more important than   |                       |
|                       | the level of          |                       |
|                       | utilization; it has   |                       |
|                       | been suggested that   |                       |
|                       | livestock access be   |                       |
|                       | limited to \< 3 weeks |                       |
|                       | (Myers 1989, Mosley   |                       |
|                       | et al. 1997).         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In riparian and       |                       |
|                       | meadow habitat        |                       |
|                       | degraded by heavy     |                       |
|                       | livestock             |                       |
|                       | utilization, rest     |                       |
|                       | from grazing may be   |                       |
|                       | necessary for         |                       |
|                       | recovery (Clary and   |                       |
|                       | Webster 1989).        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Some perennial        |                       |
|                       | grasses, such as      |                       |
|                       | Indian ricegrass      |                       |
|                       | (*Oryzopsis           |                       |
|                       | hymenoides* (R. & S.) |                       |
|                       | Ricker),              |                       |
|                       | needle-and-thread     |                       |
|                       | (*Stipa comata* Trin. |                       |
|                       | & Rupr.), Nevada      |                       |
|                       | bluegrass (*Poa       |                       |
|                       | nevadensis* Vasey ex  |                       |
|                       | Scribn.), and         |                       |
|                       | Sandberg bluegrass,   |                       |
|                       | can withstand severe  |                       |
|                       | grazing               |                       |
|                       | (approximately 80% or |                       |
|                       | greater utilization)  |                       |
|                       | as long as            |                       |
|                       | defoliation does not  |                       |
|                       | occur during the      |                       |
|                       | plants' reproductive  |                       |
|                       | period (Pearson       |                       |
|                       | 1964). Other grasses  |                       |
|                       | such as Idaho fescue, |                       |
|                       | Thurber needlegrass   |                       |
|                       | (*Stipa thurberiana*  |                       |
|                       | Piper), and           |                       |
|                       | bottlebrush           |                       |
|                       | squirreltail          |                       |
|                       | (*Sitanion hystrix*   |                       |
|                       | (Nutt.) J.G. Smith)   |                       |
|                       | decrease with heavy   |                       |
|                       | grazing (Rickard et   |                       |
|                       | al. 1975, Eckert and  |                       |
|                       | Spencer 1987).        |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| DeLong, A.K., J.A.    | In Wyoming big        | Location unknown      |
| Crawford, and D.C.    | sagebrush (*A.t*.     |                       |
|                       | *wyomingensis*)       |                       |
| DeLong, Jr. 1995.     | stands with shrub     |                       |
| Relationships between | cover \>20% and       |                       |
|                       | mountain big          |                       |
| vegetational          | sagebrush stands with |                       |
| structure and         | shrub cover \>30%,    |                       |
| predation of          | herbaceous            |                       |
|                       | understories are      |                       |
| artificial sage       | often depleted and    |                       |
| grouse nests. J Wildl | would require         |                       |
| Manage.               | sagebrush thinning to |                       |
|                       | reestablish the       |                       |
| 59(1):88-92.          | herbaceous component  |                       |
|                       | (Winward 1991).       |                       |
|                       | Prescribed fires,     |                       |
|                       | herbicides, and       |                       |
|                       | mechanical treatments |                       |
|                       | would reduce shrub    |                       |
|                       | cover and may         |                       |
|                       | increase herbaceous   |                       |
|                       | cover. Sagebrush      |                       |
|                       | reduction, however,   |                       |
|                       | may negatively affect |                       |
|                       | sage grouse nesting   |                       |
|                       | habitat in the short  |                       |
|                       | term (Connelly et al. |                       |
|                       | 1991), and therefore  |                       |
|                       | should be implemented |                       |
|                       | only in areas where   |                       |
|                       | other suitable        |                       |
|                       | nesting habitat       |                       |
|                       | exists nearby. In the |                       |
|                       | long term, once       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush             |                       |
|                       | reestablishes in      |                       |
|                       | treatment areas, sage |                       |
|                       | grouse nesting        |                       |
|                       | habitat may be        |                       |
|                       | enhanced by an        |                       |
|                       | improved balance of   |                       |
|                       | shrub and grass       |                       |
|                       | components available  |                       |
|                       | to sage grouse. We    |                       |
|                       | recommend land        |                       |
|                       | management practices  |                       |
|                       | that increase cover   |                       |
|                       | and height of native  |                       |
|                       | grasses in sagebrush  |                       |
|                       | communities with      |                       |
|                       | medium-height shrubs  |                       |
|                       | as a means to enhance |                       |
|                       | sage grouse nesting   |                       |
|                       | success and           |                       |
|                       | productivity.         |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Glidewell, B.C., J.C. | Grazing sheep and     | N/A                   |
| Mosley, and J.W.      | cattle together (i.e. |                       |
|                       | common use or         |                       |
| Walker. 2001. Sheep   | multispecies grazing) |                       |
| and cattle response   | may increase          |                       |
|                       | livestock production  |                       |
| when grazed together  | on sagebrush-grass    |                       |
| on sagebrush-grass    | rangeland.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| rangeland. Western    |                       |                       |
| Section, American     |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Society of Animal     |                       |                       |
| Science. American     |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Society of Animal     |                       |                       |
| Science 52.           |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Holechek, J.L., H.    | The best explanation  | N/A                   |
| Gomez, F. Molinar,    | \[of heavy, moderate, |                       |
| and D.                | and light grazing\]   |                       |
|                       | we've found was       |                       |
| Galt. 1999. Grazing   | provided by Klipple   |                       |
| studies: What we\'ve  | and Bement (1961).    |                       |
|                       | They define heavy     |                       |
| learned. Rangelands.  | grazing as a degree   |                       |
| 21(2):12-16.          | of herbage            |                       |
|                       | utilization that does |                       |
|                       | not permit desirable  |                       |
|                       | forage species to     |                       |
|                       | maintain themselves.  |                       |
|                       | Moderate grazing      |                       |
|                       | means a degree of     |                       |
|                       | herbage utilization   |                       |
|                       | that allows the       |                       |
|                       | palatable species to  |                       |
|                       | maintain themselves   |                       |
|                       | but usually does not  |                       |
|                       | permit them to        |                       |
|                       | improve in herbage    |                       |
|                       | producing ability.    |                       |
|                       | Light grazing means a |                       |
|                       | degree of herbage     |                       |
|                       | production that       |                       |
|                       | allows palatable      |                       |
|                       | species to maximize   |                       |
|                       | their herbage         |                       |
|                       | producing ability.    |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In the semi-arid and  |                       |
|                       | desert range types,   |                       |
|                       | rotation grazing      |                       |
|                       | systems generally     |                       |
|                       | showed no advantage   |                       |
|                       | over continuous or    |                       |
|                       | season-long grazing.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In mountainous areas  |                       |
|                       | rotation grazing      |                       |
|                       | systems give          |                       |
|                       | convenient areas      |                       |
|                       | (riparian zones)      |                       |
|                       | opportunity for       |                       |
|                       | recovery, and can be  |                       |
|                       | advantageous over     |                       |
|                       | season-long grazing.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In most studies,      |                       |
|                       | continuous or         |                       |
|                       | season-long grazing   |                       |
|                       | has given higher calf |                       |
|                       | crops and animal      |                       |
|                       | weight gains than     |                       |
|                       | rotation grazing when |                       |
|                       | stocking rates were   |                       |
|                       | the same.             |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Jones, A. 2000.       | Eleven of 16 analyses | Location unknown      |
| Effects of cattle     | \[of the effects of   |                       |
| grazing on            | cattle grazing in     |                       |
|                       | arid systems of 16    |                       |
| North American arid   | response variables    |                       |
| ecosystems: a         | ranging from soil     |                       |
|                       | bulk density to total |                       |
| quantitative review.  | vegetative cover to   |                       |
| Western North         | rodent species        |                       |
|                       | diversity\] (69%)     |                       |
| American Naturalist.  | revealed significant  |                       |
| 60(2):155-164.        | detrimental effects   |                       |
|                       | of cattle grazing,    |                       |
|                       | suggesting that       |                       |
|                       | cattle can have a     |                       |
|                       | negative impact on    |                       |
|                       | North American xeric  |                       |
|                       | ecosystems.           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Livestock grazing had |                       |
|                       | significant effects   |                       |
|                       | on vascular plants    |                       |
|                       | for 4 of 8 vegetation |                       |
|                       | response variables    |                       |
|                       | analyzed. Cover of    |                       |
|                       | grasses and shrubs,   |                       |
|                       | as well as total      |                       |
|                       | vegetation biomass,   |                       |
|                       | was reduced           |                       |
|                       | significantly by      |                       |
|                       | grazing.              |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Knick, S.T., D.S.     | Alternatively,        | Location unknown      |
| Dobkin, J.T.          | changes in water and  |                       |
| Rotenberry,           | nutrient cycling      |                       |
|                       | caused by grazing can |                       |
| M.A. Schroeder, W.M.  | promote the spread of |                       |
| VanderHagen, and      | invasive species,     |                       |
|                       | which then degrade    |                       |
| C. VanRiper. 2003.    | native bird habitats  |                       |
| Teetering on the Edge | by altering fire and  |                       |
|                       | disturbance regimes   |                       |
| or Too Late?          | (Rotenberry 1998).    |                       |
| Conservation and      |                       |                       |
| Research              |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Issues for Avifauna   |                       |                       |
| of Sagebrush          |                       |                       |
| Habitats.             |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| The Condor. 105:      |                       |                       |
| 611-634.              |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Laycock, W.A. 1994.   | West et al. (1984)    | Location unknown      |
| Implications of       | found no significant  |                       |
| Grazing               | vegetative changes in |                       |
|                       | a big sagebrush type  |                       |
| vs. No Grazing on     | in Utah after 14      |                       |
| Today\'s Rangelands.  | years of livestock    |                       |
| *in*:                 | exclusion.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Vavra, M.; Laycock,   | Tisdale et al. (1969) |                       |
| W.A.; and R.D.        | stated that vigorous  |                       |
|                       | stands of sagebrush   |                       |
| Pieper, eds. 1994.    | in Idaho may          |                       |
| Ecological            | indefinitely delay    |                       |
| Implications          | the recovery of the   |                       |
|                       | herbaceous understory |                       |
| of Livestock          | even after 20-25      |                       |
| Herbivory in the      | years of protection   |                       |
| West. Society         | from grazing.         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| for Range Management. | Sanders and Voth      |                       |
| Denver, CO.           | (1983) found no       |                       |
|                       | improvement over a    |                       |
|                       | 45-year period in     |                       |
|                       | three exclosures      |                       |
|                       | dominated by big      |                       |
|                       | sagebrush in          |                       |
|                       | southwestern Idaho.   |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In southeastern       |                       |
|                       | Idaho, Anderson and   |                       |
|                       | Holte (1981) found    |                       |
|                       | that both big         |                       |
|                       | sagebrush and grasses |                       |
|                       | increased             |                       |
|                       | substantially when    |                       |
|                       | protected from        |                       |
|                       | grazing for 25 years. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In northern New       |                       |
|                       | Mexico, exclusion of  |                       |
|                       | cattle grazing for 22 |                       |
|                       | years had little      |                       |
|                       | effect on sagebrush   |                       |
|                       | or understory species |                       |
|                       | in either an upland   |                       |
|                       | or a lowland site     |                       |
|                       | (Holechek and         |                       |
|                       | Stephenson 1983).     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Potter and Krenetsky  |                       |
|                       | (1967) found that     |                       |
|                       | ground cover of       |                       |
|                       | grass, forbs, and     |                       |
|                       | browse decreased in   |                       |
|                       | both protected and    |                       |
|                       | grazed sagebrush      |                       |
|                       | plots in New Mexico,  |                       |
|                       | and stated that       |                       |
|                       | grazing management    |                       |
|                       | alone had "poor       |                       |
|                       | possibilities" for    |                       |
|                       | improvement of dense  |                       |
|                       | sagebrush stands.     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Turner (1971) found   |                       |
|                       | that exclusion of     |                       |
|                       | livestock for 10      |                       |
|                       | years had little      |                       |
|                       | effect on shrub       |                       |
|                       | communities dominated |                       |
|                       | by big sagebrush,     |                       |
|                       | shadscale and Nuttall |                       |
|                       | saltbush in western   |                       |
|                       | Colorado.             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Whisenant and         |                       |
|                       | Wagstaff (1991)       |                       |
|                       | concluded that season |                       |
|                       | of grazing had more   |                       |
|                       | effect on vegetation  |                       |
|                       | composition than      |                       |
|                       | intensity of grazing  |                       |
|                       | and that spring       |                       |
|                       | grazing was           |                       |
|                       | particularly          |                       |
|                       | damaging.             |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Miller, R. F., T.J.   | Under lower levels of | Location unknown      |
| Svejcar, and N.E.     | use, Holechek et al.  |                       |
| West.                 | (1989) concluded      |                       |
|                       | rest-rotation was a   |                       |
| 1994\. Implications   | good system to        |                       |
| of Livestock Grazing  | consider in rugged    |                       |
| in                    | terrain.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| the Intermountain     | \[In eastern Idaho    |                       |
| Sagebrush Region:     | (Mueggler 1950,       |                       |
| Plant                 | Laycock 1967)\] both  |                       |
|                       | fall grazing and      |                       |
| Composition. Society  | total protection      |                       |
| for Range             | maintained plant      |                       |
|                       | communities in good   |                       |
| Management. Denver,   | ecological condition  |                       |
| CO.                   | while heavy spring    |                       |
|                       | use allowed sagebrush |                       |
|                       | to increase and       |                       |
|                       | perennial grasses and |                       |
|                       | forbs to decline.     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In general, where     |                       |
|                       | proper grazing        |                       |
|                       | management was        |                       |
|                       | applied, desirable    |                       |
|                       | perennial herbaceous  |                       |
|                       | vegetation increased  |                       |
|                       | both with and without |                       |
|                       | grazing (Gibbens and  |                       |
|                       | Fisser 1975, Sneva et |                       |
|                       | al. 1984, Kindschy    |                       |
|                       | 1987). However, on    |                       |
|                       | sites where           |                       |
|                       | competition from      |                       |
|                       | woody plants or       |                       |
|                       | exotic annuals        |                       |
|                       | limited the           |                       |
|                       | reestablishment of    |                       |
|                       | desirable plant       |                       |
|                       | species, little       |                       |
|                       | change or a decline   |                       |
|                       | in desirable species  |                       |
|                       | occurred both inside  |                       |
|                       | and outside the       |                       |
|                       | exclosure (Hughes     |                       |
|                       | 1980, Anderson and    |                       |
|                       | Holte 1981, Sanders   |                       |
|                       | and Voth 1983, West   |                       |
|                       | et al. 1984).         |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Miller, R.F., and     | In the absence of     | Location unknown      |
| L.L. Eddleman. 2000.  | fire, changes that    |                       |
| Spatial               | usually occur with    |                       |
|                       | excessive grazing in  |                       |
| and temporal changes  | the different         |                       |
| of sage grouse        | sagebrush types are   |                       |
| habitat               | an increase in        |                       |
|                       | density and cover of  |                       |
| in the sagebrush      | shrubs, annuals       |                       |
| biome. Oregon State   | forbs, and annual     |                       |
| Univ.                 | grasses (especially   |                       |
|                       | introduced species),  |                       |
| Agric Exp Stn.        | and a decrease in     |                       |
| Technical Bulletin    | perennial forbs and   |                       |
| 151.                  | grasses (Branson      |                       |
|                       | 1985, Tisdale 1994).  |                       |
| Corvallis, OR         |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Severson, K.E., and   | ...sage grouse        | Location unknown      |
| P.J. Urness. 1994.    | (*Centrocercus        |                       |
|                       | urophasianus*) are    |                       |
| Livestock Grazing: A  | affected by           |                       |
| Tool to Improve       | broad-scale attempts  |                       |
|                       | to reduce sagebrush   |                       |
| Wildlife Habitat      | to favor grass        |                       |
| *in*: Vavra, M.;      | production via        |                       |
| Laycock,              | herbicides,           |                       |
|                       | prescribed fire,      |                       |
| W.A.; and R.D.        | mechanical            |                       |
| Pieper, eds. 1994.    | treatments, etc.      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Ecological            | The implication here  |                       |
| Implications of       | is that if past       |                       |
| Livestock             | sagebrush control     |                       |
|                       | operations have       |                       |
| Herbivory in the      | negatively affected   |                       |
| West. Society for     | sage grouse or        |                       |
| Range                 | pronghorn             |                       |
|                       | populations,          |                       |
| Management. Denver,   | sagebrush could be    |                       |
| CO.                   | reestablished by      |                       |
|                       | judicious use of      |                       |
|                       | spring grazing by     |                       |
|                       | livestock.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Hanley and Page       |                       |
|                       | (1982) reported a     |                       |
|                       | situation where       |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing     |                       |
|                       | decreased plant       |                       |
|                       | structural diversity  |                       |
|                       | on xeric sites and    |                       |
|                       | increased it on more  |                       |
|                       | mesic sites.          |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Shaw, N.L. 1991.      | Density of Pacific    | N/A                   |
| Recruitment and       | willow seedlings did  |                       |
| growth of             | not vary among        |                       |
|                       | treatments or years.  |                       |
| Pacific will and      | Increase in sandbar   |                       |
| sandbar willow        | willow seedling       |                       |
| seedlings in          | density over time was |                       |
|                       | similar for the       |                       |
| response to season    | spring grazing, fall  |                       |
| and intensity of      | grazing, and          |                       |
| cattle                | protected treatments, |                       |
|                       | but declined over     |                       |
| grazing. *In*:        | time in control       |                       |
| Symposium on Ecology  | pastures. Within      |                       |
| and                   | species, seedling     |                       |
|                       | growth was similar in |                       |
| Management of         | spring, fall, and     |                       |
| Riparian Shrub        | protected pastures,   |                       |
|                       | exceeding that of     |                       |
| Communities May       | controls.             |                       |
| 29-31, 1991. Sun      |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Valley, ID.           |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| U. S. Dept. of        | Excessive, or poorly  | N/A                   |
| Interior, Bureau of   | managed livestock     |                       |
| Land                  | grazing, such as too  |                       |
|                       | high a stocking rate  |                       |
| Management. 2002.     | over the grazing      |                       |
| Management            | period, or            |                       |
|                       | uncontrolled or       |                       |
| Considerations for    | poorly timed grazing, |                       |
| Sagebrush             | causes degradation of |                       |
| (*Artemisia*) in      | sagebrush ecosystems. |                       |
|                       | Improper livestock    |                       |
| the Western United    | grazing practices     |                       |
| States: a selective   | change the proportion |                       |
|                       | of shrubs, grasses,   |                       |
| summary of current    | and forbs, increase   |                       |
| information about the | the opportunity for   |                       |
|                       | invasion and          |                       |
| ecology and biology   | dominance by exotic   |                       |
| of woody North        | annual grasses and    |                       |
|                       | forbs, shorten the    |                       |
| American sagebrush    | growing season, and   |                       |
| taxa. Washington,     | can cause an overall  |                       |
|                       | decline in site       |                       |
| D.C.                  | potential through     |                       |
|                       | loss of topsoil. This |                       |
|                       | decline in site       |                       |
|                       | potential often       |                       |
|                       | decreases the ability |                       |
|                       | of soils to capture,  |                       |
|                       | store, and release    |                       |
|                       | water, causing        |                       |
|                       | sagebrush ecosystems  |                       |
|                       | to become more arid,  |                       |
|                       | which in turn         |                       |
|                       | provides less green   |                       |
|                       | plant material for    |                       |
|                       | shorter periods of    |                       |
|                       | time (Miller and      |                       |
|                       | Eddleman 2000).       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | It is well            |                       |
|                       | established that      |                       |
|                       | excessive livestock   |                       |
|                       | grazing increases the |                       |
|                       | cover of Artemisia in |                       |
|                       | many systems by       |                       |
|                       | reducing the          |                       |
|                       | competition from      |                       |
|                       | other plants          |                       |
|                       | (Whisenant 1990,      |                       |
|                       | Daddy 1988). Very     |                       |
|                       | often it is these     |                       |
|                       | other plants,         |                       |
|                       | especially native     |                       |
|                       | bunchgrasses and      |                       |
|                       | forbs, that are far   |                       |
|                       | below healthy levels  |                       |
|                       | in the ecosystem and  |                       |
|                       | that are the first to |                       |
|                       | be eliminated under   |                       |
|                       | excessive livestock   |                       |
|                       | grazing (Watts and    |                       |
|                       | Wambolt 1996, West    |                       |
|                       | and Young 2000).      |                       |
|                       | While sagebrush       |                       |
|                       | densities could be    |                       |
|                       | increased in this     |                       |
|                       | way, it would likely  |                       |
|                       | be incompatible with  |                       |
|                       | attainment of BLM's   |                       |
|                       | Standards for Healthy |                       |
|                       | Rangelands.           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Archer and Smeins     |                       |
|                       | (1991, in Hann et al. |                       |
|                       | 1997) proposed that   |                       |
|                       | some traditional      |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing     |                       |
|                       | management practices  |                       |
|                       | are not compatible    |                       |
|                       | with native plant     |                       |
|                       | communities. They     |                       |
|                       | identified several    |                       |
|                       | examples of poor      |                       |
|                       | compatibility that    |                       |
|                       | are applicable to the |                       |
|                       | sagebrush biome: (1)  |                       |
|                       | Traditionally,        |                       |
|                       | livestock are         |                       |
|                       | concentrated at       |                       |
|                       | artificially high     |                       |
|                       | levels. In contrast,  |                       |
|                       | densities of native   |                       |
|                       | herbivores varied     |                       |
|                       | seasonally and        |                       |
|                       | annually; (2) Fences  |                       |
|                       | prevent livestock     |                       |
|                       | from moving to new    |                       |
|                       | areas when the        |                       |
|                       | abundance of desired  |                       |
|                       | forages decreases.    |                       |
|                       | Consequently,         |                       |
|                       | traditional grazing   |                       |
|                       | practices result in   |                       |
|                       | higher frequencies    |                       |
|                       | and intensities of    |                       |
|                       | defoliation than      |                       |
|                       | would have occurred   |                       |
|                       | with                  |                       |
|                       | pre-Euro-American     |                       |
|                       | settlement grazing    |                       |
|                       | regimes; (3)          |                       |
|                       | Mortality of native   |                       |
|                       | herbivores was a      |                       |
|                       | feedback loop that    |                       |
|                       | reduced grazing       |                       |
|                       | pressure, permitting  |                       |
|                       | recovery of native    |                       |
|                       | vegetation after      |                       |
|                       | periods of forage     |                       |
|                       | overuse. Supplemental |                       |
|                       | feeding precludes     |                       |
|                       | mortality of          |                       |
|                       | livestock and thus    |                       |
|                       | maintains grazing     |                       |
|                       | over a greater        |                       |
|                       | portion of the year   |                       |
|                       | and over a higher     |                       |
|                       | frequency of years,   |                       |
|                       | compared with grazing |                       |
|                       | that was exerted by   |                       |
|                       | native herbivores;    |                       |
|                       | and (4) Prolonged     |                       |
|                       | grazing in the        |                       |
|                       | sagebrush biome has   |                       |
|                       | decreased the         |                       |
|                       | capacity of grasses   |                       |
|                       | to competitively      |                       |
|                       | exclude woody plants, |                       |
|                       | such as sagebrush.    |                       |
|                       | Therefore, sagebrush  |                       |
|                       | density and canopy    |                       |
|                       | cover increases at a  |                       |
|                       | faster rate compared  |                       |
|                       | with no grazing.      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Under specific        |                       |
|                       | circumstances,        |                       |
|                       | rest-rotation,        |                       |
|                       | deferred, deferred    |                       |
|                       | rotational, and       |                       |
|                       | seasonal grazing      |                       |
|                       | methods have all been |                       |
|                       | demonstrated to       |                       |
|                       | sustain rangeland     |                       |
|                       | plant communities     |                       |
|                       | within the sagebrush  |                       |
|                       | biome (Vallentine     |                       |
|                       | 1990, in Hann et al.  |                       |
|                       | 1997). However, none  |                       |
|                       | of these grazing      |                       |
|                       | methods have been     |                       |
|                       | conclusively more     |                       |
|                       | effective than light  |                       |
|                       | to moderate stocking  |                       |
|                       | rates under           |                       |
|                       | continuous seasonal   |                       |
|                       | grazing (Hart and     |                       |
|                       | Norton 1988, Heady    |                       |
|                       | 1975, Stoddart et al. |                       |
|                       | 1975, Vallentine      |                       |
|                       | 1990, in Hann et al.  |                       |
|                       | 1997). Despite the    |                       |
|                       | array of grazing      |                       |
|                       | methods conceived and |                       |
|                       | promoted since 1950   |                       |
|                       | in the United States, |                       |
|                       | there has been, and   |                       |
|                       | continues to be,      |                       |
|                       | considerable debate   |                       |
|                       | over compatibility    |                       |
|                       | with native plant     |                       |
|                       | communities. In       |                       |
|                       | addition, all of the  |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing     |                       |
|                       | recommendations for   |                       |
|                       | the sagebrush biome   |                       |
|                       | summarized in this    |                       |
|                       | section are based     |                       |
|                       | upon either           |                       |
|                       | short-term studies or |                       |
|                       | short to long-term    |                       |
|                       | observations, rather  |                       |
|                       | than long-term        |                       |
|                       | studies.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Grazing methods, and  |                       |
|                       | no grazing, are       |                       |
|                       | unlikely to elevate   |                       |
|                       | many plant            |                       |
|                       | communities that are  |                       |
|                       | in a low successional |                       |
|                       | steady state to a     |                       |
|                       | higher successional   |                       |
|                       | state (Archer and     |                       |
|                       | Smeins 1991, in Hann  |                       |
|                       | et al. 1997).         |                       |
|                       | Sustainable grazing   |                       |
|                       | management relies on  |                       |
|                       | knowledge of critical |                       |
|                       | thresholds and        |                       |
|                       | manipulation of       |                       |
|                       | livestock so these    |                       |
|                       | critical thresholds   |                       |
|                       | are not exceeded.     |                       |
|                       | Continued stocking at |                       |
|                       | near-normal levels    |                       |
|                       | during periods of     |                       |
|                       | moderate to severe    |                       |
|                       | drought is probably   |                       |
|                       | the greatest cause of |                       |
|                       | rangeland             |                       |
|                       | deterioration         |                       |
|                       | (Vallentine 1990, in  |                       |
|                       | Hann et al. 1997).    |                       |
|                       | Reduced stocking      |                       |
|                       | rates during drought, |                       |
|                       | and for some time     |                       |
|                       | after drought, are    |                       |
|                       | necessary to minimize |                       |
|                       | damage and hasten     |                       |
|                       | recovery of perennial |                       |
|                       | vegetation            |                       |
|                       | (Vallentine 1990, in  |                       |
|                       | Hann et al. 1997;     |                       |
|                       | Holechek et al.       |                       |
|                       | 1999).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Holechek et al.       |                       |
|                       | (1999) report that    |                       |
|                       | improvement in        |                       |
|                       | rangeland vegetation  |                       |
|                       | can be achieved       |                       |
|                       | through changes in    |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing     |                       |
|                       | methods, and through  |                       |
|                       | changes in livestock  |                       |
|                       | stocking rates. They  |                       |
|                       | present two science   |                       |
|                       | findings that are     |                       |
|                       | very important to the |                       |
|                       | sagebrush biome: (1)  |                       |
|                       | rotation livestock    |                       |
|                       | grazing methods in    |                       |
|                       | semi-arid and desert  |                       |
|                       | areas, which includes |                       |
|                       | the sagebrush biome,  |                       |
|                       | show no advantage     |                       |
|                       | compared with         |                       |
|                       | continuous or         |                       |
|                       | season-long grazing   |                       |
|                       | methods; and (2)      |                       |
|                       | research shows that   |                       |
|                       | stocking rate         |                       |
|                       | reductions, from      |                       |
|                       | heavy down to         |                       |
|                       | conservative (35% or  |                       |
|                       | less forage use) have |                       |
|                       | much greater          |                       |
|                       | probability of        |                       |
|                       | improvement in        |                       |
|                       | rangeland vegetation, |                       |
|                       | compared with         |                       |
|                       | rotation livestock    |                       |
|                       | grazing methods. The  |                       |
|                       | greatest benefit      |                       |
|                       | accruing to light or  |                       |
|                       | conservative stocking |                       |
|                       | (35% or less forage   |                       |
|                       | use on palatable      |                       |
|                       | forage species) in    |                       |
|                       | terms of forage       |                       |
|                       | production occurred   |                       |
|                       | in dry years.         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Where invasive exotic |                       |
|                       | annual plants, such   |                       |
|                       | as cheatgrass and     |                       |
|                       | mustards, have        |                       |
|                       | produced an           |                       |
|                       | unnaturally high      |                       |
|                       | density of fine fuels |                       |
|                       | that make sites much  |                       |
|                       | more susceptible to   |                       |
|                       | fire, grazing can     |                       |
|                       | reduce these fuels    |                       |
|                       | and lessen the        |                       |
|                       | likelihood of         |                       |
|                       | wildfire (Vallentine  |                       |
|                       | and Stevens 1994).    |                       |
|                       | However the timing of |                       |
|                       | the livestock grazing |                       |
|                       | is critical. It has   |                       |
|                       | to be judiciously     |                       |
|                       | applied within a very |                       |
|                       | short window of time  |                       |
|                       | in early spring,      |                       |
|                       | before remnant native |                       |
|                       | perennial species are |                       |
|                       | growing, or else the  |                       |
|                       | livestock will        |                       |
|                       | consume the remnant   |                       |
|                       | native species along  |                       |
|                       | with the exotics.     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Late autumn browsing  |                       |
|                       | by sheep can reduce   |                       |
|                       | sagebrush cover. When |                       |
|                       | suitable alternative  |                       |
|                       | forage is lacking,    |                       |
|                       | animals are           |                       |
|                       | essentially forced to |                       |
|                       | browse sagebrush      |                       |
|                       | because herbaceous    |                       |
|                       | growth is dried,      |                       |
|                       | reduced and less      |                       |
|                       | palatable (Laycock    |                       |
|                       | 1967). Very heavy     |                       |
|                       | browsing by cattle    |                       |
|                       | also can reduce cover |                       |
|                       | of *A. t.             |                       |
|                       | wyomingensis* purely  |                       |
|                       | through mechanical    |                       |
|                       | damage (Watts and     |                       |
|                       | Wambolt 1996). If     |                       |
|                       | these extreme         |                       |
|                       | stocking levels are   |                       |
|                       | repeated through      |                       |
|                       | time, rather than     |                       |
|                       | during a one-time     |                       |
|                       | event, the understory |                       |
|                       | grasses and forbs can |                       |
|                       | be extirpated from    |                       |
|                       | the site.             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In Oregon, domestic   |                       |
|                       | sheep showed highest  |                       |
|                       | preference for low    |                       |
|                       | sagebrush (*A.        |                       |
|                       | arbuscula* spp.       |                       |
|                       | *arbuscula*) and      |                       |
|                       | medium preference for |                       |
|                       | black sagebrush (*A.  |                       |
|                       | nova*). Sheep         |                       |
|                       | utilized, but did not |                       |
|                       | prefer, Bolander      |                       |
|                       | silver sagebrush      |                       |
|                       | (*A*. *cana* spp.     |                       |
|                       | *bolanderi*) and      |                       |
|                       | mountain and foothill |                       |
|                       | big sagebrush. They   |                       |
|                       | showed least          |                       |
|                       | preference for        |                       |
|                       | Wyoming and basin big |                       |
|                       | sagebrush (Sheehy and |                       |
|                       | Winward 1981).        |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Vallentine, J.F.      | Heavy grazing in the  | N/A                   |
| 1990. Grazing         | short term, implying  |                       |
| Management.           | overgrazing if        |                       |
|                       | continued over time,  |                       |
| Academic Press, Inc.  | may have the          |                       |
| San Diego,            | following apparent    |                       |
| California.           | advantages:           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Result in more       |                       |
|                       | uniform grazing       |                       |
|                       | pressure on all       |                       |
|                       | species, especially   |                       |
|                       | the less palatable    |                       |
|                       | species.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Increase efficiency  |                       |
|                       | of forage consumption |                       |
|                       | (but decrease forage  |                       |
|                       | availability and      |                       |
|                       | intake at very high   |                       |
|                       | stocking levels).     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -May effectively      |                       |
|                       | delay seedstalk       |                       |
|                       | formation and induce  |                       |
|                       | vegetative regrowth   |                       |
|                       | during active plant   |                       |
|                       | growth period (but    |                       |
|                       | only under ideal      |                       |
|                       | conditions of         |                       |
|                       | temperature, soil     |                       |
|                       | moisture, and soil    |                       |
|                       | fertility).           |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Wambolt, C.L., A.J.   | ...grazing            | Location unknown      |
| Harp, B.L. Welch, N.  | considerations will   |                       |
|                       | always be important   |                       |
| Shaw, J.W. Connelly,  | to maintain habitat   |                       |
| K.P. Reese, C.E.      | quality, but, do not  |                       |
|                       | appear as important   |                       |
| Braun, D.A. Klebenow, | in the next three to  |                       |
| E.D. McArthur,        | five years for the    |                       |
|                       | recovery of           |                       |
| J.G. Thompson, L.A.   | sage-grouse as are    |                       |
| Torell, and J.A.      | fire, habitat loss,   |                       |
|                       | invasive species and  |                       |
| Tanaka. 2002.         | the other             |                       |
| Conservation of       | alternatives\...      |                       |
| Greater               |                       |                       |
|                       | ...public land        |                       |
| Sage-Grouse on Public | grazing lessees and   |                       |
| Lands in the          | others contend that   |                       |
|                       | current grazing       |                       |
| Western U.S.:         | regimes should not be |                       |
| Implications of       | seriously altered     |                       |
| Recovery              | until several other   |                       |
|                       | things happen. First, |                       |
| and Management        | other activities that |                       |
| Policies. Policy      | clearly have a        |                       |
| Analysis              | negative effect on    |                       |
|                       | the grouse should be  |                       |
| Center for Western    | addressed. These      |                       |
| Public Lands. PACWPL  | include fire in the   |                       |
|                       | sagebrush ecosystem;  |                       |
| Policy Paper          | landscape             |                       |
| SG-02-02. Caldwell,   | fragmentation from    |                       |
| ID.                   | energy development,   |                       |
|                       | subdivisions and      |                       |
|                       | utility corridors;    |                       |
|                       | and outright removal  |                       |
|                       | of sagebrush for      |                       |
|                       | farming and other     |                       |
|                       | uses. Many grazing    |                       |
|                       | lessees are adamant   |                       |
|                       | that the negative     |                       |
|                       | impacts from these    |                       |
|                       | other activities are  |                       |
|                       | better understood and |                       |
|                       | should be considered  |                       |
|                       | before grazing plans  |                       |
|                       | are seriously         |                       |
|                       | altered. Second,      |                       |
|                       | research on the       |                       |
|                       | specific              |                       |
|                       | relationships between |                       |
|                       | grazing and grouse    |                       |
|                       | needs should be       |                       |
|                       | conducted to          |                       |
|                       | explicitly understand |                       |
|                       | how to best change    |                       |
|                       | grazing patterns to   |                       |
|                       | benefit grouse.       |                       |
|                       | Changes to grazing    |                       |
|                       | would then be based   |                       |
|                       | on locally specific   |                       |
|                       | research.             |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+

# [Grazing Effects on Greater Sage-Grouse Cover and Food Availability]{.underline}

## [Lek Sites]{.underline}

+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| **Source**                        | **Citation**                      |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Patterson, R. L. 1952. The Sage   | Displaying male sage-grouse       |
| Grouse in Wyoming. Wyoming Game   | require relatively open areas     |
|                                   | during the breeding season.       |
| and Fish Comm. and Sage Books,    |                                   |
| Inc. Denver, Colorado.            | Lek sites are typically adjacent  |
|                                   | to sagebrush with adequate cover  |
|                                   | for nesting hens as well as       |
|                                   | protection from avian predators,  |
|                                   | and support low, sparse           |
|                                   | vegetation, if any at all. Flat   |
|                                   | or gently sloping terrain is a    |
|                                   | common characteristic of leks as  |
|                                   | is their location in valley       |
|                                   | bottoms or draws.                 |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Leks have been found on           |
|                                   | airstrips, firing ranges, gravel  |
|                                   | pits, sheep bedding grounds,      |
|                                   | cultivated fields, recently       |
|                                   | burned sagebrush, plowed fields,  |
|                                   | cleared roadsides or roadbeds,    |
|                                   | and actively occupied ant mounds. |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | For two leks, interlek distance   |
|                                   | was 0.8 km, and for eight others, |
|                                   | 2.4 km. In Wyoming, lek density   |
|                                   | of 29 leks within a               |
|                                   | water-reclamation project area    |
|                                   | averaged 6.8 leks per 100 km^2^,  |
|                                   | compared with 8.4 leks per 100    |
|                                   | km^2^ for 18 leks in nearby,      |
|                                   | undeveloped sagebrush habitats.   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Greer, R. 1990. Sage Grouse       | No treatment should be considered |
| Habitat Requirements and          | where sagebrush cover is less     |
| Development.                      | than 20 percent or within 2 miles |
|                                   | of breeding, nesting, or brood    |
| Wyoming Game and Fish Dept.       | areas.                            |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Heath, B. J., R. Straw, S.H.      | Try to eliminate shrub control in |
| Anderson, J. Lawson, and M.       | areas that contain between 25-33% |
| Holloran.                         | total shrub cover within 5 km of  |
|                                   | occupied leks to maintain sage    |
| 1998\. Sage-Grouse Productivity,  | grouse habitat. When it is        |
| Survival, and Seasonal Habitat    | necessary to set back plant       |
| Use                               | succession and increase           |
|                                   | herbaceous vegetation production, |
| Among Three Ranches with          | treatments should occur in        |
| Different Livestock Grazing,      | patterns within the landscape     |
| Predator                          | that maintain a diverse mosaic of |
|                                   | shrub seral stages.               |
| Control, and Harvest Management   |                                   |
| Practices. Wyoming Game and       |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| Fish Dept.                        |                                   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Rothenmaier, D. 1979. Sage grouse | Mean height of sagebrush at 10    |
| reproductive ecology: breeding    | leks was 28 cm, mean cover was    |
|                                   | 22%; 90% of sample points had     |
| season movements, strutting       | sagebrush \<43 cm; percentage of  |
| ground attendance and site        | sagebrush cover at 6 nest sites   |
|                                   | ranged from 12 to 29% (mean =     |
| characteristics and nesting. M.S. | 21.6%).                           |
| thesis. University of Wyoming,    |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| Laramie, Wyoming.                 |                                   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Petersen, B. E. 1980. Breeding    | In North Park, Colorado, mating   |
| and nesting ecology of female     | areas (arenas) within leks had an |
| Sage                              | average canopy cover of only 7.3% |
|                                   | and a mean vegetation height of   |
| Grouse in North Park, Colorado.   | 5.3 cm; sagebrush species present |
| M.S. thesis. Colorado State       | included big sagebrush, alkali    |
|                                   | sagebrush (*A. arbuscula          |
| University, Fort Collins,         | longiloba*), and black sagebrush  |
| Colorado. 86 pages.               |                                   |
|                                   | Lek sites are typically adjacent  |
|                                   | to sagebrush with adequate cover  |
|                                   | for nesting hens as well as       |
|                                   | protection from avian predators,  |
|                                   | and support low, sparse           |
|                                   | vegetation, if any at all. Flat   |
|                                   | or gently sloping terrain is a    |
|                                   | common characteristic of leks as  |
|                                   | is their location in valley       |
|                                   | bottoms or draws.                 |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

***The following sources may contain information relevant to the Wyoming
Basin - Southern Rocky Mountains ecoregions, but were not conducted
within the ecoregional boundaries.***

+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| **Source**            | **Citation**          | **Location of Study** |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Eng. R. L., and R. J. | Sharptails did not    | Montana               |
| Mackie. 1982.         | alter their           |                       |
| Integrating           | distribution or       |                       |
|                       | habitat use when a    |                       |
| grazing-range         | major segment of      |                       |
| management practices  | their home range was  |                       |
| with                  | subjected to          |                       |
|                       | intensive grazing     |                       |
| management of major   | following a rest      |                       |
| wildlife species on   | period                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| rangeland in          |                       |                       |
| northcentral Montana. |                       |                       |
| Proc.                 |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| West. Assoc. Fish and |                       |                       |
| Wildl. Agencies.      |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Montana Agric Exp     |                       |                       |
| Stn. 62:112-119.      |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Gibson, R. M. 1996. A | Of 10 leks surveyed   | Mono County,          |
| re-evaluation of      | in Mono County,       | California            |
| hotspot               | California, six were  |                       |
|                       | in meadows, although  |                       |
| settlement in lekking | meadows composed only |                       |
| Sage Grouse. Animal   | 9% of the available   |                       |
|                       | sagebrush/meadow      |                       |
| Behaviour             | habitat.              |                       |
| 52:993-1005.          |                       |                       |
|                       | In addition to open   |                       |
|                       | areas for display by  |                       |
|                       | males and traffic by  |                       |
|                       | hens, protection from |                       |
|                       | raptors is a factor   |                       |
|                       | in lek location.      |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Bradbury, J. W., R.   | Habitat type did not  | California            |
| M. Gibson, C. E.      | appear to be the      |                       |
|                       | primary factor in lek |                       |
| McCarthy, and S. L.   | location, however;    |                       |
| Vehrencamp. 1989.     | instead, female       |                       |
|                       | dispersal traffic     |                       |
| Dispersion of         | (patterns of travel   |                       |
| displaying male Sage  | between wintering and |                       |
| Grouse.               | nesting areas)        |                       |
|                       | appeared to most      |                       |
| II\. The role of      | strongly influence    |                       |
| female dispersion.    | lek location.         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Behavioral Ecology    |                       |                       |
| and Sociobiology      |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 24:15-24.             |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Klebenow, D. A. 1985. | Displaying male       | Nevada                |
| Habitat management    | sage-grouse require   |                       |
|                       | relatively open areas |                       |
| for Sage Grouse in    | during the breeding   |                       |
| Nevada. World         | season.               |                       |
| Pheasant              |                       |                       |
|                       | Lek sites are         |                       |
| Association Journal   | typically adjacent to |                       |
| 10:34-46.             | sagebrush with        |                       |
|                       | adequate cover for    |                       |
|                       | nesting hens as well  |                       |
|                       | as protection from    |                       |
|                       | avian predators, and  |                       |
|                       | support low, sparse   |                       |
|                       | vegetation, if any at |                       |
|                       | all. Flat or gently   |                       |
|                       | sloping terrain is a  |                       |
|                       | common characteristic |                       |
|                       | of leks as is their   |                       |
|                       | location in valley    |                       |
|                       | bottoms or draws.     |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| U. S. Dept. of        | Coordinate with       | Nevada                |
| Interior, Bureau of   | livestock permittees  |                       |
| Land                  | to locate the         |                       |
|                       | placement of salt or  |                       |
| Management. 2000.     | mineral supplements   |                       |
| Management            | appropriate distances |                       |
|                       | from leks to avoid    |                       |
| guidelines for sage   | livestock             |                       |
| grouse and sagebrush  | concentrations and    |                       |
|                       | reduce the potential  |                       |
| ecosystems in Nevada. | for harassment and    |                       |
|                       | displacement of birds |                       |
|                       | during the breeding   |                       |
|                       | season.               |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| van Kooten, G.C., R.  | Define, identify,     | Nevada                |
| Thomsen, T.G. Hobby,  | conserve and enhance  |                       |
|                       | critical lek,         |                       |
| and A.J. Eagle. 2004. | nesting, brood        |                       |
| Social Dilemmas and   | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat used by sage  |                       |
| Public Range          | grouse.               |                       |
| Management in Nevada. | Characteristics of    |                       |
|                       | habitat types         |                       |
|                       | preferred by sage     |                       |
|                       | grouse at various     |                       |
|                       | times of the year,    |                       |
|                       | and the               |                       |
|                       | interrelationships    |                       |
|                       | between these habitat |                       |
|                       | types, are not        |                       |
|                       | clearly defined.      |                       |
|                       | Public (landowners,   |                       |
|                       | land managers and     |                       |
|                       | other land users)     |                       |
|                       | involvement and       |                       |
|                       | participation in      |                       |
|                       | reporting sightings   |                       |
|                       | of sage grouse leks,  |                       |
|                       | nests, broods and     |                       |
|                       | winter locations      |                       |
|                       | should be encouraged. |                       |
|                       | Intensive searches of |                       |
|                       | sage grouse range are |                       |
|                       | required to assess    |                       |
|                       | critical habitat      |                       |
|                       | parameters throughout |                       |
|                       | the year and the      |                       |
|                       | relationships between |                       |
|                       | these habitat types.  |                       |
|                       | Abandoned habitat     |                       |
|                       | should be assessed    |                       |
|                       | for seasonal          |                       |
|                       | deficiencies which    |                       |
|                       | may limit use by sage |                       |
|                       | grouse. Critical      |                       |
|                       | habitat must be       |                       |
|                       | protected and         |                       |
|                       | secured. Land-use     |                       |
|                       | practices and other   |                       |
|                       | factors detrimental   |                       |
|                       | to maintenance of     |                       |
|                       | quality sage grouse   |                       |
|                       | habitat need to be    |                       |
|                       | identified. Working   |                       |
|                       | co-operatively with   |                       |
|                       | land managers and     |                       |
|                       | other land users,     |                       |
|                       | initiatives need to   |                       |
|                       | be developed to       |                       |
|                       | enhance and maintain  |                       |
|                       | an abundance of high  |                       |
|                       | quality habitat on    |                       |
|                       | private and public    |                       |
|                       | lands throughout the  |                       |
|                       | range of sage grouse. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Establish public      |                       |
|                       | reporting system for  |                       |
|                       | sage grouse leks,     |                       |
|                       | nesting, brood and    |                       |
|                       | winter locations.     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Conduct              |                       |
|                       | searches/surveys for  |                       |
|                       | active leks, nests,   |                       |
|                       | brood rearing and     |                       |
|                       | winter use areas      |                       |
|                       | throughout sage       |                       |
|                       | grouse range.         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Document habitat     |                       |
|                       | characteristics of    |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting,         |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing and     |                       |
|                       | winter-use areas and  |                       |
|                       | the                   |                       |
|                       | interrelationships    |                       |
|                       | between habitat       |                       |
|                       | types.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Investigate habitat  |                       |
|                       | parameters (lek,      |                       |
|                       | nesting, brood        |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | use) in areas of      |                       |
|                       | abandoned leks.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Investigate the use  |                       |
|                       | of remote-sensing     |                       |
|                       | data systems to       |                       |
|                       | identify potential    |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting,         |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing and     |                       |
|                       | winter habitat.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Map critical lek,    |                       |
|                       | nesting, brood        |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat areas.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Identify critical    |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting, brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat which must be |                       |
|                       | protected, secured or |                       |
|                       | enhanced.             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Identify land-use    |                       |
|                       | practices which are   |                       |
|                       | detrimental to        |                       |
|                       | provision of quality  |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting, brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Develop cooperative  |                       |
|                       | initiatives to        |                       |
|                       | protect lek sites and |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting, brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat on public     |                       |
|                       | lands.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Develop cooperative  |                       |
|                       | initiatives to        |                       |
|                       | protect lek sites and |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting, brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat on private    |                       |
|                       | lands.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Develop cooperative  |                       |
|                       | initiatives to        |                       |
|                       | enhance and improve   |                       |
|                       | the quantity and      |                       |
|                       | quality of lek,       |                       |
|                       | nesting, brood        |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat.              |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Nisbet, R. A., S. H.  | Forty-one leks in     | Nevada and Utah       |
| Berwick, and K. L.    | Nevada and Utah were  |                       |
| Reed.                 | preferentially        |                       |
|                       | located in black      |                       |
| 1983\. A spatial      | sagebrush habitats    |                       |
| model of Sage Grouse  | (based on use versus  |                       |
|                       | availability)         |                       |
| habitat quality.      |                       |                       |
| Developments in       |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Environmental         |                       |                       |
| Modeling 5:267-276.   |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Ellis, K.L., J.R.     | On the basis of       | Duchesne County,      |
| Murphy, J.R., and     | similar dispersal     | northeast Utah        |
| G.H.                  | distances and         |                       |
|                       | distribution          |                       |
| Richins. 1987.        | patterns, we believe  |                       |
| Distribution of       | that breeding male    |                       |
| Breeding              | sage grouse in other  |                       |
|                       | areas most likely     |                       |
| Male Sage Grouse in   | continue to select    |                       |
| Northeastern Utah.    | the same day-use      |                       |
|                       | areas year after      |                       |
| Western Birds.        | year. Such areas,     |                       |
| 18:117-121.           | once identified,      |                       |
|                       | should be protected   |                       |
|                       | to the greatest       |                       |
|                       | extent possible.      |                       |
|                       | Alteration of these   |                       |
|                       | areas may cause       |                       |
|                       | abandonment of a lek. |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Ellis, K. L., J. R.   | During daytime, male  | northeast Utah        |
| Parrish, J. R.        | sage-grouse in        |                       |
| Murphy, and G.        | northeastern Utah     |                       |
|                       | used areas near leks  |                       |
| H. Richins. 1989.     | that had              |                       |
| Habitat use by        | comparatively greater |                       |
| breeding              | canopy cover (mean =  |                       |
|                       | 31%) and taller       |                       |
| male Sage Grouse: a   | shrubs (mean = 53 cm) |                       |
| management            | than did nearby       |                       |
|                       | non-use areas.        |                       |
| approach. Great Basin | Minimum core day-use  |                       |
| Naturalist 49:404-    | areas of males were   |                       |
|                       | 0.25 km^2^ in size,   |                       |
| 407\.                 | and the birds often   |                       |
|                       | walked to such sites  |                       |
|                       | for feeding and       |                       |
|                       | loafing.              |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Rogers, G.E. 1964.    | ...characteristics of | Colorado              |
| Sage grouse           | 120 leks throughout   |                       |
| investigations        | Colorado during       |                       |
|                       | 1953-1961 and found   |                       |
| in Colorado. Tech.    | that, on average,     |                       |
| Publ. 16, 132 p.      | half were in          |                       |
| Colo.                 | sagebrush; 54% were   |                       |
|                       | on gentle slopes; 55% |                       |
| Game, Fish and Parks  | were in bottoms; only |                       |
| Dep., Denver.         | 5% were within 200 m  |                       |
|                       | of a building; and    |                       |
|                       | that although 42%     |                       |
|                       | were \>1.6 km from an |                       |
|                       | improved road, 26%    |                       |
|                       | were within 100 m of  |                       |
|                       | a county or state     |                       |
|                       | highway.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Lek sites are         |                       |
|                       | typically adjacent to |                       |
|                       | sagebrush with        |                       |
|                       | adequate cover for    |                       |
|                       | nesting hens as well  |                       |
|                       | as protection from    |                       |
|                       | avian predators, and  |                       |
|                       | support low, sparse   |                       |
|                       | vegetation, if any at |                       |
|                       | all. Flat or gently   |                       |
|                       | sloping terrain is a  |                       |
|                       | common characteristic |                       |
|                       | of leks as is their   |                       |
|                       | location in valley    |                       |
|                       | bottoms or draws.     |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Connelly, J.W., H.W.  | Male sage grouse from | southeast Idaho       |
| Browers, and R.J.     | the mountain valley   |                       |
| Gates.                | abandoned their leks  |                       |
|                       | in late April or      |                       |
| 1988\. Seasonal       | early May. Their      |                       |
| movements of sage     | movements to summer   |                       |
| grouse                | range were more       |                       |
|                       | direct and rapid than |                       |
| in southeastern       | those of females.     |                       |
| Idaho. J Wildl        |                       |                       |
| Manage.               | Females from the      |                       |
|                       | mountain valley did   |                       |
| 52(1): 116-122.       | not move directly to  |                       |
|                       | summer range after    |                       |
| Beck, T.D.I. 1977.    | nesting. Instead,     |                       |
| Sage grouse flock     | these birds remained  |                       |
|                       | in the general area   |                       |
| characteristics and   | of the lek on which   |                       |
| habitat selection in  | they had been         |                       |
|                       | captured before       |                       |
| winter. J. Wildl.     | moving to summer      |                       |
| Manage. 41:18-26.     | range in early to     |                       |
|                       | mid-June.             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Limited data on male  |                       |
|                       | sage grouse from the  |                       |
|                       | lowland area suggest  |                       |
|                       | that males moved      |                       |
|                       | directly to summer    |                       |
|                       | ranges after leaving  |                       |
|                       | their leks in late    |                       |
|                       | April or early May.   |                       |
|                       | Males normally        |                       |
|                       | arrived on summer     |                       |
|                       | range first but were  |                       |
|                       | closely followed by   |                       |
|                       | females without       |                       |
|                       | broods.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | ...protection of      |                       |
|                       | sagebrush within a    |                       |
|                       | 3.2 km radius of leks |                       |
|                       | is not sufficient     |                       |
|                       | (Beck 1977) because   |                       |
|                       | protecting sagebrush  |                       |
|                       | habitats associated   |                       |
|                       | with leks will not    |                       |
|                       | ensure that year long |                       |
|                       | habitat requirements  |                       |
|                       | are met for migratory |                       |
|                       | populations of sage   |                       |
|                       | grouse.               |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Hulet, B.V., 1983.    | Sage grouse created   | southeast Idaho       |
| Selected responses of | new leks on domestic  |                       |
| sage-                 | sheep salting         |                       |
|                       | grounds.              |                       |
| grouse to prescribed  |                       |                       |
| fire, predation and   | Sage grouse abandoned |                       |
|                       | leks in areas where   |                       |
| grazing by domestic   | sagebrush was burned  |                       |
| sheep in southeastern | to improve the range  |                       |
|                       | for livestock.        |                       |
| Idaho. Thesis.        |                       |                       |
| Brigham Young Univ.   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Provo, UT.            |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Autenrieth, R. E.     | Displaying male       | Idaho                 |
| 1981. Sage Grouse     | sage-grouse require   |                       |
|                       | relatively open areas |                       |
| management in Idaho.  | during the breeding   |                       |
| Idaho Dept. of Fish   | season.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| and Game.             |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Dalke, P. D., D. B.   |                       |                       |
| Pyrah, D. C. Stanton, |                       |                       |
| J. E.                 |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Crawford, and E. F.   |                       |                       |
| Schlatterer. 1963.    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Ecology,              |                       |                       |
| productivity, and     |                       |                       |
| management of         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Sage Grouse in Idaho. |                       |                       |
| J. Wildl. Manage.     |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 27:811-841.           |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Wakkinen, W.L. 1990.  | In a study of 31 leks | Idaho                 |
| Nest Site             | in Idaho, mean        |                       |
|                       | interlek distance     |                       |
| Characteristics and   | (i.e., distance       |                       |
| Spring-Summer         | between nearest       |                       |
|                       | neighbor leks) was    |                       |
| Movements of          | about 1.6 km.         |                       |
| Migratory Sage Grouse |                       |                       |
| in                    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Southeastern Idaho.   |                       |                       |
| Ph.D. Dissertation.   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Univ. of Idaho.       |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Klebenow, D.A. 1969.  | Of 13 leks examined   | Idaho                 |
| Sage grouse nesting   | in the Upper Snake    |                       |
|                       | River Plains in       |                       |
| and brood habitat in  | Idaho, 10 were in     |                       |
| Idaho. J. Wildl.      | threetip sagebrush.   |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Manage.               |                       |                       |
| 33(3):649-661.        |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Autenrieth, R. E.     | Lek sites are         | Idaho                 |
| 1981. Sage Grouse     | typically adjacent to |                       |
|                       | sagebrush with        |                       |
| management in Idaho.  | adequate cover for    |                       |
| Idaho Dept. of Fish   | nesting hens as well  |                       |
|                       | as protection from    |                       |
| and Game              | avian predators, and  |                       |
|                       | support low, sparse   |                       |
|                       | vegetation, if any at |                       |
|                       | all. Flat or gently   |                       |
|                       | sloping terrain is a  |                       |
|                       | common characteristic |                       |
|                       | of leks as is their   |                       |
|                       | location in valley    |                       |
|                       | bottoms or draws.     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Leks have been found  |                       |
|                       | on airstrips, firing  |                       |
|                       | ranges, gravel pits,  |                       |
|                       | sheep bedding         |                       |
|                       | grounds, cultivated   |                       |
|                       | fields, recently      |                       |
|                       | burned sagebrush,     |                       |
|                       | plowed fields,        |                       |
|                       | cleared roadsides or  |                       |
|                       | roadbeds, and         |                       |
|                       | actively occupied ant |                       |
|                       | mounds.               |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Autenrieth, R. E.     | Known nesting areas   | Idaho                 |
| 1981. Sage Grouse     | (3.2 km radius of     |                       |
|                       | leks) should be       |                       |
| management in Idaho.  | avoided from          |                       |
| Idaho Dept. of Fish   | mid-April to early    |                       |
|                       | June to reduce        |                       |
| and Game              | abandonment.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Authenrieth, R., W.   |                       |                       |
| Molina, and C. Braun, |                       |                       |
| eds.                  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 1982\. Sage Grouse    |                       |                       |
| Management Practices. |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Western States Sage   |                       |                       |
| Grouse Committee.     |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Western States Sage   |                       |                       |
| Grouse Committee      |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Technical Bulletin    |                       |                       |
| #1. Twin Falls, ID.   |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Dalke, P. D., D. B.   | Leks have been found  | Idaho                 |
| Pyrah, D. C. Stanton, | on airstrips, firing  |                       |
| J. E.                 | ranges, gravel pits,  |                       |
|                       | sheep bedding         |                       |
| Crawford, and E. F.   | grounds, cultivated   |                       |
| Schlatterer. 1963.    | fields, recently      |                       |
|                       | burned sagebrush,     |                       |
| Ecology,              | plowed fields,        |                       |
| productivity, and     | cleared roadsides or  |                       |
| management of         | roadbeds, and         |                       |
|                       | actively occupied ant |                       |
| Sage Grouse in Idaho. | mounds.               |                       |
| J. Wildl. Manage.     |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 27:811-841.           |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Dalke, P. D., D. B.   | Leks often occur in   | Idaho, Colorado       |
| Pyrah, D. C. Stanton, | complexes, with       |                       |
| J. E.                 | satellite leks on the |                       |
|                       | periphery that may    |                       |
| Crawford, and E. F.   | not be used in all    |                       |
| Schlatterer. 1963.    | years, depending on   |                       |
|                       | population size or    |                       |
| Ecology,              | weather.              |                       |
| productivity, and     |                       |                       |
| management of         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Sage Grouse in Idaho. |                       |                       |
| J. Wildl. Manage.     |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 27:811-841.           |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Rogers, G. E. 1964.   |                       |                       |
| Sage Grouse           |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| investigations in     |                       |                       |
| Colorado. Technical   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Publication 16.       |                       |                       |
| Colorado Game, Fish   |                       |                       |
| and                   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Parks Department,     |                       |                       |
| Denver, Colorado. 132 |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| pages.                |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Wiley, R. H., Jr.     |                       |                       |
| 1978. The lek mating  |                       |                       |
| system                |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| of the Sage Grouse.   |                       |                       |
| Scientific American   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 238:114- 125.         |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Dalke, P. D., D. B.   | During years of low   | Idaho, Alberta        |
| Pyrah, D. C. Stanton, | population size,      |                       |
| J. E.                 | smaller dancing       |                       |
|                       | grounds tend to be    |                       |
| Crawford, and E. F.   | abandoned.            |                       |
| Schlatterer. 1963.    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Ecology,              |                       |                       |
| productivity, and     |                       |                       |
| management of         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Sage Grouse in Idaho. |                       |                       |
| J. Wildl. Manage.     |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 27:811-841.           |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Aldridge, C.L. 1998.  |                       |                       |
| Status of the Sage    |                       |                       |
| Grouse                |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| (*Centrocercus        |                       |                       |
| urophasianus          |                       |                       |
| urophasianus*)        |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| in Alberta. Alberta   |                       |                       |
| Environmental         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Protection, Wildlife  |                       |                       |
| Management Division,  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| and Alberta           |                       |                       |
| Conservation          |                       |                       |
| Association.          |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Wildlife Status       |                       |                       |
| Report No. 13.        |                       |                       |
| Edmonton,             |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Alberta, Canada.      |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Hanf, J. M., P.A.     | Minimize livestock    | central Oregon        |
| Schmidt, and E.B.     | and human activity    |                       |
| Groshens.             | adjacent to leks      |                       |
|                       | during the breeding   |                       |
| 1994\. Sage grouse in | season, and continue  |                       |
| the high desert of    | to monitor these      |                       |
|                       | activities            |                       |
| central Oregon:       |                       |                       |
| results of a study,   | Minimize livestock    |                       |
| 1988-                 | and human activity    |                       |
|                       | adjacent to leks      |                       |
| 1993\. U. S. Dept. of | during the breeding   |                       |
| Interior, Bureau of   | season, and continue  |                       |
|                       | to monitor these      |                       |
| Land Management       | activities.           |                       |
| Series. Prineville,   |                       |                       |
| OR.                   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| P-SG-01.              |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Batterson, W. M., and | Leks have been found  | Oregon                |
| W. B. Morse. 1948.    | on airstrips, firing  |                       |
|                       | ranges, gravel pits,  |                       |
| Oregon Sage Grouse.   | sheep bedding         |                       |
| Oregon Fauna Series   | grounds, cultivated   |                       |
|                       | fields, recently      |                       |
| No. 1. Oregon State   | burned sagebrush,     |                       |
| Game Commission,      | plowed fields,        |                       |
|                       | cleared roadsides or  |                       |
| Portland, Oregon. 29  | roadbeds, and         |                       |
| pages.                | actively occupied ant |                       |
|                       | mounds.               |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Willis, M. J., G. P.  | Similar lek densities | Oregon                |
| Keister, Jr., D. A.   | were reported in      |                       |
| Immell,               | Oregon; there were    |                       |
|                       | 4.3 leks per 100      |                       |
| D. M. Jones, R. M.    | km^2^ at Hart         |                       |
| Powell, and K. R.     | Mountain National     |                       |
|                       | Antelope Refuge and   |                       |
| Durbin. 1993. Sage    | 4.7 leks per 100      |                       |
| Grouse in Oregon.     | km^2^ at Jackass      |                       |
|                       | Creek.                |                       |
| Wildlife Research     |                       |                       |
| Report 15. Oregon     |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Department of Fish    |                       |                       |
| and Wildlife,         |                       |                       |
| Portland,             |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Oregon. 70 pages.     |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Rowland, M.M. 2004.   |                       |                       |
| Effects of management |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| practices on          |                       |                       |
| grassland birds:      |                       |                       |
| Greater Sage-         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Grouse. Northern      |                       |                       |
| Prairie Wildlife      |                       |                       |
| Research              |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Center. Jamestown,    |                       |                       |
| ND.                   |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Marshall, D.B.,       | Sagebrush protection  | Oregon                |
| Chilcote, M., and H.  | is needed within at   |                       |
| Weeks.                | least a 1.5 mile      |                       |
|                       | radius of leks.       |                       |
| 1996\. Species at     |                       |                       |
| Risk: Sensitive,      |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Threatened, and       |                       |                       |
| Endangered            |                       |                       |
| Vertebrates of        |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Oregon. Oregon Dept.  |                       |                       |
| of Fish and Wildlife. |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Portland, OR.         |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Barrett H., E.G.      | Livestock allocations | Oregon and Washington |
| Campbell, S. Ellis,   | should only be        |                       |
| J. Hanf, R.           | increased if it can   |                       |
|                       | be demonstrated that  |                       |
| Masinton, J. Pollet,  | there are no          |                       |
| T. Rich, J. Rose, J.  | detrimental effects   |                       |
|                       | on sage-grouse        |                       |
| Sadowski, F. Taylor,  | habitat quality.      |                       |
| and P. Teensma, 2000. |                       |                       |
|                       | Where livestock       |                       |
| Greater sage grouse   | grazing results in a  |                       |
| and sagebrush-steppe  | level of forage use   |                       |
|                       | (utilization levels)  |                       |
| ecosystems management | determined to have    |                       |
| guidelines. U. S.     | detrimental effects   |                       |
|                       | to habitat quality,   |                       |
| Dept. of Interior,    | changes in grazing    |                       |
| Bureau of Land        | management that will  |                       |
|                       | improve or restore    |                       |
| Management            | habitat quality will  |                       |
|                       | be made as soon as    |                       |
| Connelly, J.W., H.W.  | practical but no      |                       |
| Browers, and R.J.     | later than the start  |                       |
| Gates.                | of the next grazing   |                       |
|                       | year pursuant to 43   |                       |
| 1988\. Seasonal       | CFR 4180.2(c).        |                       |
| movements of sage     | Examples of changes   |                       |
| grouse                | in management that    |                       |
|                       | should be considered  |                       |
| in southeastern       | include: temporary    |                       |
| Idaho. J Wildl        | livestock exclusion   |                       |
| Manage.               | (rest); permanent     |                       |
|                       | livestock exclusion;  |                       |
| 52(1): 116-122.       | change in the season, |                       |
|                       | duration, or          |                       |
| Vallentine, J. F.     | intensity of use;     |                       |
| 1990. Grazing         | fencing; and changes  |                       |
| management.           | in salting and/or     |                       |
|                       | watering locations.   |                       |
| Academic Press,       |                       |                       |
| Incorporated. San     | Provide secure sage   |                       |
| Diego,                | grouse breeding       |                       |
|                       | ground habitat to     |                       |
| CA. 553pp.            | reduce physical       |                       |
|                       | disturbance to sage   |                       |
| Thurow, T. L., and C. | grouse by managing    |                       |
| A. Taylor. 1999. The  | locations of salt or  |                       |
|                       | mineral supplements   |                       |
| role of drought in    | within 0.4 km (1/4    |                       |
| range management.     | mi) of lek locations. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Journal of Range      | Timing and location   |                       |
| Management            | of livestock turnout  |                       |
| 52:413-419.           | and trailing should   |                       |
|                       | not contribute to     |                       |
|                       | livestock             |                       |
|                       | concentrations on     |                       |
|                       | leks during the sage  |                       |
|                       | grouse breeding       |                       |
|                       | season.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Grazing use levels    |                       |
|                       | within known/occupied |                       |
|                       | habitat will be       |                       |
|                       | determined            |                       |
|                       | specifically for      |                       |
|                       | those habitats, not   |                       |
|                       | averaged with use     |                       |
|                       | levels for the        |                       |
|                       | remainder of the      |                       |
|                       | pasture or grazing    |                       |
|                       | units.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Coordinate with       |                       |
|                       | livestock permittees  |                       |
|                       | to locate the         |                       |
|                       | placement of salt or  |                       |
|                       | mineral supplements   |                       |
|                       | appropriate distances |                       |
|                       | from leks to avoid    |                       |
|                       | livestock             |                       |
|                       | concentrations and    |                       |
|                       | reduce the potential  |                       |
|                       | for harassment and    |                       |
|                       | displacement of birds |                       |
|                       | during the breeding   |                       |
|                       | season.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Construct new spring  |                       |
|                       | developments to       |                       |
|                       | maintain their        |                       |
|                       | free-flowing nature   |                       |
|                       | and wet meadow        |                       |
|                       | characteristics.      |                       |
|                       | Where priority and    |                       |
|                       | funding permits,      |                       |
|                       | retrofit existing     |                       |
|                       | springs to restore    |                       |
|                       | free-flowing nature.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Install wildlife      |                       |
|                       | escape ramps in all   |                       |
|                       | new water troughs.    |                       |
|                       | Where priority and    |                       |
|                       | funding permits,      |                       |
|                       | retrofit existing     |                       |
|                       | water troughs.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Construct new         |                       |
|                       | livestock facilities  |                       |
|                       | (livestock troughs,   |                       |
|                       | fences, corrals,      |                       |
|                       | handling facilities,  |                       |
|                       | "dusting bags," etc.) |                       |
|                       | at least1 km (0.6     |                       |
|                       | mi.) from leks to     |                       |
|                       | avoid concentration   |                       |
|                       | of livestock,         |                       |
|                       | collision hazards to  |                       |
|                       | flying birds, or      |                       |
|                       | avian predator        |                       |
|                       | hunting perches.      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | The BLM grazing       |                       |
|                       | regulations (43 CFR   |                       |
|                       | 4180.2 \[c\]) state:  |                       |
|                       | "The authorized       |                       |
|                       | officer shall take    |                       |
|                       | appropriate action as |                       |
|                       | soon as practicable   |                       |
|                       | but not later than    |                       |
|                       | the start of the next |                       |
|                       | grazing year upon     |                       |
|                       | determining that      |                       |
|                       | existing grazing      |                       |
|                       | management practices  |                       |
|                       | or levels of grazing  |                       |
|                       | use on public lands   |                       |
|                       | are significant       |                       |
|                       | factors in failing to |                       |
|                       | achieve the standards |                       |
|                       | and conform with the  |                       |
|                       | guidelines that are   |                       |
|                       | made effective under  |                       |
|                       | this section."        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Grazing too soon      |                       |
|                       | after disturbances    |                       |
|                       | such as fire may lead |                       |
|                       | to long-term          |                       |
|                       | reductions in food    |                       |
|                       | plants and nesting    |                       |
|                       | cover. Current BLM    |                       |
|                       | policy provides for a |                       |
|                       | minimum rest of two   |                       |
|                       | growing seasons       |                       |
|                       | following fire.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Drought can lead to   |                       |
|                       | an increase in        |                       |
|                       | overlapping use among |                       |
|                       | livestock, wild       |                       |
|                       | horses, and           |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse. Drought  |                       |
|                       | can exacerbate        |                       |
|                       | adverse effects of    |                       |
|                       | livestock and wild    |                       |
|                       | horse grazing on      |                       |
|                       | vegetation and soils  |                       |
|                       | (Vallentine 1990). In |                       |
|                       | some instances,       |                       |
|                       | failure to timely     |                       |
|                       | adjust livestock use  |                       |
|                       | during drought has    |                       |
|                       | resulted in limited   |                       |
|                       | plant regrowth and    |                       |
|                       | overuse in wet        |                       |
|                       | meadows and riparian  |                       |
|                       | areas, negating gains |                       |
|                       | in rangeland          |                       |
|                       | conditions during     |                       |
|                       | higher-precipitation  |                       |
|                       | years (Thurow and     |                       |
|                       | Taylor 1999).         |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Stinson, D.W., D.W.   | Sage-grouse recovery  | Washington            |
| Hays, and M.          | will require          |                       |
| Schroeder.            | protecting remaining  |                       |
|                       | shrub-steppe habitat  |                       |
| 2004\. Washington     | from fires, harmful   |                       |
| State Recovery Plan   | grazing, conversion,  |                       |
| for                   | and development.      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| the Greater           | Minimize              |                       |
| Sage-Grouse.          | proliferation of      |                       |
| Washington Dept.      | additional corridors  |                       |
|                       | for power lines,      |                       |
| of Fish and Wildlife. | towers, and fences,   |                       |
| Olympia, Washington.  | except where needed   |                       |
|                       | to exclude livestock. |                       |
|                       | Remove unneeded       |                       |
|                       | fences in sage-grouse |                       |
|                       | use areas.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Discourage removal of |                       |
|                       | sagebrush from known  |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse wintering |                       |
|                       | areas and areas that  |                       |
|                       | provide escape cover  |                       |
|                       | in breeding habitat,  |                       |
|                       | especially within 3   |                       |
|                       | km of leks            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Salt grounds should   |                       |
|                       | not be located on     |                       |
|                       | sites used annually   |                       |
|                       | by grouse. New        |                       |
|                       | livestock water       |                       |
|                       | developments should   |                       |
|                       | not located at sites  |                       |
|                       | used by grouse unless |                       |
|                       | designed to improve   |                       |
|                       | habitat and reduce    |                       |
|                       | existing damage by    |                       |
|                       | livestock.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Use periodic deferral |                       |
|                       | of grazing and        |                       |
|                       | rotational grazing in |                       |
|                       | all rangeland         |                       |
|                       | pastures.             |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Hofmann, L. A. 1991.  | Hofmann (1991)        | Washington            |
| The western Sage      | reported a mean size  |                       |
|                       | of 36 ha for the four |                       |
| Grouse (*Centrocercus | largest leks in a     |                       |
| urophasianus*         | study in central      |                       |
|                       | Washington.           |                       |
| *phaios*) on the      |                       |                       |
| Yakima Training       | Leks have been found  |                       |
| Center in             | on airstrips, firing  |                       |
|                       | ranges, gravel pits,  |                       |
| central Washington: a | sheep bedding         |                       |
| case study of a       | grounds, cultivated   |                       |
|                       | fields, recently      |                       |
| declining species and | burned sagebrush,     |                       |
| the military. M.S.    | plowed fields,        |                       |
|                       | cleared roadsides or  |                       |
| thesis. Central       | roadbeds, and         |                       |
| Washington            | actively occupied ant |                       |
| University,           | mounds.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Ellensburg,           |                       |                       |
| Washington.           |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Wallestad, R. and P.  | Eighty percent of the | Montana               |
| Schadweiler. 1974.    | locations \[of        |                       |
|                       | feeding and loafing   |                       |
| Breeding season       | sites of strutting    |                       |
| movements and habitat | cocks\] occurred in   |                       |
| use                   | sagebrush with a      |                       |
|                       | canopy coverage of    |                       |
| of male sage grouse   | 20-50 percent.        |                       |
| in central Montana.   |                       |                       |
| J.                    | Males also remain     |                       |
|                       | near leks during the  |                       |
| Wildl. Manage.        | nesting season, with  |                       |
| 38(4):634-637.        | one study reporting   |                       |
|                       | that 76% of all       |                       |
|                       | movements during this |                       |
|                       | season were within    |                       |
|                       | one kilometer of the  |                       |
|                       | dancing grounds.      |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Rowland, M.M. 2004.   | Sage-grouse establish | North Dakota          |
| Effects of management | leks not only in      |                       |
|                       | native habitats but   |                       |
| practices on          | also in altered or    |                       |
| grassland birds:      | recently disturbed    |                       |
| Greater Sage-         | environments.         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Grouse. Northern      | There is no evidence  |                       |
| Prairie Wildlife      | that suitable habitat |                       |
| Research              | for leks is limiting  |                       |
|                       | for sage-grouse.      |                       |
| Center. Jamestown, ND |                       |                       |
| .                     | This flexibility      |                       |
|                       | suggests that         |                       |
|                       | man-made leks are a   |                       |
|                       | potential management  |                       |
|                       | tool when traditional |                       |
|                       | leks are destroyed,   |                       |
|                       | such as by wildfire   |                       |
|                       | or human activities   |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Keys to management    |                       |
|                       | are maintaining       |                       |
|                       | expansive stands of   |                       |
|                       | sagebrush             |                       |
|                       | (*Artemisia* spp.),   |                       |
|                       | especially varieties  |                       |
|                       | of big sagebrush (*A. |                       |
|                       | tridentata*), with    |                       |
|                       | abundant forbs in the |                       |
|                       | understory,           |                       |
|                       | particularly during   |                       |
|                       | spring; undisturbed   |                       |
|                       | and relatively open   |                       |
|                       | sites for leks; and   |                       |
|                       | healthy perennial     |                       |
|                       | grass and forb stands |                       |
|                       | intermixed with       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush for brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing. Within       |                       |
|                       | suitable habitats,    |                       |
|                       | areas should have 15  |                       |
|                       | to 25% canopy cover   |                       |
|                       | of sagebrush 30 to 80 |                       |
|                       | cm tall for nesting,  |                       |
|                       | and 10 to 25% canopy  |                       |
|                       | cover from 40 to 80   |                       |
|                       | cm tall for brood     |                       |
|                       | rearing (Connelly et  |                       |
|                       | al. 2000). In winter  |                       |
|                       | habitats, shrubs      |                       |
|                       | should be exposed 25  |                       |
|                       | to 35 cm above snow   |                       |
|                       | level and have 10 to  |                       |
|                       | 30% canopy cover      |                       |
|                       | exposed above snow.   |                       |
|                       | In nesting and        |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing         |                       |
|                       | habitats, understory  |                       |
|                       | habitats with         |                       |
|                       | adequate cover of     |                       |
|                       | grasses (\>15%) and   |                       |
|                       | forbs (\>10%) at      |                       |
|                       | least 18 cm tall are  |                       |
|                       | needed (Connelly et   |                       |
|                       | al. 2000).            |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Aldridge, C.L. 1998.  | Males begin returning | Alberta               |
| Status of the Sage    | to strutting grounds  |                       |
| Grouse                | in late winter, and   |                       |
|                       | begin displaying and  |                       |
| (*Centrocercus        | establishing          |                       |
| urophasianus          | territories on leks   |                       |
| urophasianus*)        | as soon as snow       |                       |
|                       | begins to disappear.  |                       |
| in Alberta. Alberta   |                       |                       |
| Environmental         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Protection, Wildlife  |                       |                       |
| Management Division,  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| and Alberta           |                       |                       |
| Conservation          |                       |                       |
| Association.          |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Wildlife Status       |                       |                       |
| Report No. 13.        |                       |                       |
| Edmonton,             |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Alberta, Canada.      |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Schroeder, M. A., J.  | ...livestock (J. W.   | N/A                   |
| R. Young, and C. E.   | Connelly pers. comm.) |                       |
|                       | ... may adversely     |                       |
| Braun. 1999. Sage     | influence display     |                       |
| Grouse                | activity when         |                       |
| (*Centrocercus*       | disturbances are near |                       |
|                       | breeding areas.       |                       |
| *urophasianus*). No.  |                       |                       |
| 425 in A. Poole and   | Sage-grouse establish |                       |
| F.                    | leks not only in      |                       |
|                       | native habitats but   |                       |
| Gill, editors. The    | also in altered or    |                       |
| birds of North        | recently disturbed    |                       |
| America,              | environments.         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| The Academy of        | There is no evidence  |                       |
| Natural Sciences,     | that suitable habitat |                       |
|                       | for leks is limiting  |                       |
| Philadelphia,         | for sage-grouse.      |                       |
| Pennsylvania; The     |                       |                       |
| American              |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Ornithologists'       |                       |                       |
| Union, Washington,    |                       |                       |
| D.C.                  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 28 pages.             |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Mack, R. N. and J. N. | Heavy spring grazing  | Location unknown      |
| Thompson. 1982.       | can prevent the       |                       |
|                       | plants from           |                       |
| Evolution in steppe   | reproducing and can   |                       |
| with few large,       | eventually eliminate  |                       |
| hooved                | the native            |                       |
|                       | bunchgrasses.         |                       |
| mammals. American     |                       |                       |
| Naturalist 119:757-   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 773\.                 |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Braun, C.E. 1987.     | Indirect evidence     | Location unknown      |
| Current issues in     | suggests grazing by   |                       |
| sage                  | livestock or wild     |                       |
|                       | herbivores that       |                       |
| grouse management.    | significantly reduces |                       |
| Proc. Of the Western  | the herbaceous        |                       |
|                       | understory in         |                       |
| Assoc. Fish and       | breeding habitat may  |                       |
| Wildl. Agencies       | have negative impacts |                       |
| 67:134-               | on sage grouse        |                       |
|                       | populations.          |                       |
| 144\.                 |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Dobkin, D.S. 1995.    |                       |                       |
| Management and        |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| conservation of sage  |                       |                       |
| grouse, denominative  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| species for the       |                       |                       |
| ecological health of  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| shrubsteppe           |                       |                       |
| ecosystems. USDI      |                       |                       |
| Bureau of             |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Land Management.      |                       |                       |
| Portland, OR.         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Connelly, J.W., M.A.  |                       |                       |
| Schroeder, A.R. Sands |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| and C.E. Braun. 2000. |                       |                       |
| Guidelines to         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| manage sage grouse    |                       |                       |
| populations and their |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| habitats. Wildl Soc.  |                       |                       |
| Bull. 28(4):967-985.  |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Scott, J. W. 1942.    | Leks vary in size;    | Location unknown      |
| Mating behavior of    | Scott (1942) reported |                       |
| the Sage              | a range of 0.4 to 16  |                       |
|                       | ha, based on his work |                       |
| Grouse. Auk           | on the Laramie Plains |                       |
| 59:477-498.           | in Wyoming; one lek,  |                       |
|                       | however, was about 20 |                       |
| Klebenow, D. A. 1973. | ha in size and        |                       |
| The habitat           | supported 400         |                       |
|                       | strutting males.      |                       |
| requirements of Sage  | Klebenow (1973)       |                       |
| Grouse and the role   | reported a typical    |                       |
| of                    | range from 0.04 to    |                       |
|                       | 4.0 ha.               |                       |
| fire in management.   |                       |                       |
| Tall Timbers Fire     |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Ecology Conference    |                       |                       |
| 12:305-315.           |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Connelly, J.W., M.A.  | For nonmigratory      | Location unknown      |
| Schroeder, A.R. Sands | grouse occupying      |                       |
|                       | habitats that are     |                       |
| and C.E. Braun. 2000. | distributed           |                       |
| Guidelines to         | uniformly...protect   |                       |
|                       | (i.e. do not          |                       |
| manage sage grouse    | manipulate) sagebrush |                       |
| populations and their | and herbaceous        |                       |
|                       | understory within 3.2 |                       |
| habitats. Wildl Soc.  | km of all occupied    |                       |
| Bull. 28(4):967-985.  | leks                  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | For nonmigratory      |                       |
|                       | grouse occupying      |                       |
|                       | habitats that are not |                       |
|                       | distributed           |                       |
|                       | uniformly...protect   |                       |
|                       | suitable habitats for |                       |
|                       | ≤ 5 km from all       |                       |
|                       | occupied leks         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | For migratory         |                       |
|                       | populations, identify |                       |
|                       | and protect breeding  |                       |
|                       | habitats within 18 km |                       |
|                       | of leks               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | During drought        |                       |
|                       | periods (≥2           |                       |
|                       | consecutive years),   |                       |
|                       | reduce stocking rates |                       |
|                       | or change management  |                       |
|                       | practices for         |                       |
|                       | livestock, wild       |                       |
|                       | horses, and wild      |                       |
|                       | ungulates if cover    |                       |
|                       | requirements during   |                       |
|                       | the nesting and       |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing periods |                       |
|                       | are not met. Grazing  |                       |
|                       | pressure from         |                       |
|                       | domestic livestock    |                       |
|                       | and wild ungulates    |                       |
|                       | should be managed in  |                       |
|                       | a manner that at all  |                       |
|                       | times addresses the   |                       |
|                       | possibility of        |                       |
|                       | drought.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Human activities      |                       |
|                       | within view of or     |                       |
|                       | \<0.5 km from leks    |                       |
|                       | should be minimized   |                       |
|                       | during the early      |                       |
|                       | morning and late      |                       |
|                       | evening when birds    |                       |
|                       | are near or on leks.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Generally, fire       |                       |
|                       | should not be used in |                       |
|                       | breeding habitats     |                       |
|                       | dominated by Wyoming  |                       |
|                       | big sagebrush if      |                       |
|                       | these areas support   |                       |
|                       | sage grouse.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Increase the          |                       |
|                       | visibility of fences  |                       |
|                       | and other structures  |                       |
|                       | occurring within 1 km |                       |
|                       | of seasonal ranges by |                       |
|                       | flagging or similar   |                       |
|                       | means if these        |                       |
|                       | structures appear     |                       |
|                       | hazardous to flying   |                       |
|                       | grouse.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Keys to management    |                       |
|                       | are maintaining...    |                       |
|                       | undisturbed and       |                       |
|                       | relatively open sites |                       |
|                       | for leks              |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Scott, J. W. 1942.    | Displaying male       | Location unknown      |
| Mating behavior of    | sage-grouse require   |                       |
| the Sage              | relatively open areas |                       |
|                       | during the breeding   |                       |
| Grouse. Auk           | season.               |                       |
| 59:477-498.           |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Klebenow, D. A. 1973. |                       |                       |
| The habitat           |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| requirements of Sage  |                       |                       |
| Grouse and the role   |                       |                       |
| of                    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| fire in management.   |                       |                       |
| Tall Timbers Fire     |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Ecology Conference    |                       |                       |
| 12:305-315.           |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Schroeder, M. A., J.  |                       |                       |
| R. Young, and C. E.   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Braun. 1999. Sage     |                       |                       |
| Grouse                |                       |                       |
| (*Centrocercus*       |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| urophasianus). No.    |                       |                       |
| 425 in A. Poole and   |                       |                       |
| F.                    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Gill, editors. The    |                       |                       |
| birds of North        |                       |                       |
| America,              |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| The Academy of        |                       |                       |
| Natural Sciences,     |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Philadelphia,         |                       |                       |
| Pennsylvania; The     |                       |                       |
| American              |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Ornithologists'       |                       |                       |
| Union, Washington,    |                       |                       |
| D.C.                  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 28 pages.             |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Scott, J. W. 1942.    | Lek sites are         | Location unknown      |
| Mating behavior of    | typically adjacent to |                       |
| the Sage              | sagebrush with        |                       |
|                       | adequate cover for    |                       |
| Grouse. Auk           | nesting hens as well  |                       |
| 59:477-498.           | as protection from    |                       |
|                       | avian predators, and  |                       |
|                       | support low, sparse   |                       |
|                       | vegetation, if any at |                       |
|                       | all. Flat or gently   |                       |
|                       | sloping terrain is a  |                       |
|                       | common characteristic |                       |
|                       | of leks as is their   |                       |
|                       | location in valley    |                       |
|                       | bottoms or draws.     |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Klebenow, D. A. 1973. | Leks have been found  | Location unknown      |
| The habitat           | on airstrips, firing  |                       |
|                       | ranges, gravel pits,  |                       |
| requirements of Sage  | sheep bedding         |                       |
| Grouse and the role   | grounds, cultivated   |                       |
| of                    | fields, recently      |                       |
|                       | burned sagebrush,     |                       |
| fire in management.   | plowed fields,        |                       |
| Tall Timbers Fire     | cleared roadsides or  |                       |
|                       | roadbeds, and         |                       |
| Ecology Conference    | actively occupied ant |                       |
| 12:305-315.           | mounds.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Giezantanner, K. I.,  |                       |                       |
| and W. H. Clark.      |                       |                       |
| 1974.                 |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| The use of western    |                       |                       |
| harvester ant mounds  |                       |                       |
| as                    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| strutting locations   |                       |                       |
| by Sage Grouse.       |                       |                       |
| Condor                |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 76:218-219.           |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Connelly, J. W., W.   |                       |                       |
| J. Arthur, and O. D.  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Markham. 1981. Sage   |                       |                       |
| Grouse leks on        |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| recently disturbed    |                       |                       |
| sites. Journal of     |                       |                       |
| Range                 |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Management            |                       |                       |
| 34:153-154.           |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Gates, R. J. 1985.    |                       |                       |
| Observations of the   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| formation of a Sage   |                       |                       |
| Grouse lek. Wilson    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Bulletin 97:219-221.  |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Connelly, J. W., W.   | This flexibility      | Location unknown      |
| J. Arthur, and O. D.  | suggests that         |                       |
|                       | man-made leks are a   |                       |
| Markham. 1981. Sage   | potential management  |                       |
| Grouse leks on        | tool when traditional |                       |
|                       | leks are destroyed,   |                       |
| recently disturbed    | such as by wildfire   |                       |
| sites. Journal of     | or human activities   |                       |
| Range                 |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Management            |                       |                       |
| 34:153-154.           |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+

## [Nesting Habitat]{.underline}

+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| **Source**                        | **Citation**                      |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Greer, R. 1990. Sage Grouse       | Relatively dense (20-40 percent   |
| Habitat Requirements and          | coverage) sagebrush stands are    |
| Development.                      | used for nesting                  |
|                                   |                                   |
| Wyoming Game and Fish Dept.       | No treatment should be considered |
|                                   | where sagebrush cover is less     |
|                                   | than 20 percent or within 2 miles |
|                                   | of breeding, nesting, or brood    |
|                                   | areas.                            |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | During livestock drives, nesting  |
|                                   | areas within 2 miles of breeding  |
|                                   | grounds should be avoided from    |
|                                   | mid-April through mid-June.       |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | High intensity grazing or         |
|                                   | trampling should be avoided in    |
|                                   | nesting and brood rearing areas.  |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Heath, B. J., R. Straw, S.H.      | Removing less than 50% of the     |
| Anderson, J. Lawson, and M.       | herbaceous vegetation production  |
| Holloran.                         | appear to have similar affects on |
|                                   | sage grouse nesting and early     |
| 1998\. Sage-Grouse Productivity,  | chick survival                    |
| Survival, and Seasonal Habitat    |                                   |
| Use                               | We recommend maintaining residual |
|                                   | grass heights \> 10 cm to provide |
| Among Three Ranches with          | nesting sage grouse with suitable |
| Different Livestock Grazing,      | concealment and screening cover.  |
| Predator                          |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| Control, and Harvest Management   |                                   |
| Practices. Wyoming Game and       |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| Fish Dept.                        |                                   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Petersen B.E. 1980. Breeding and  | ...sage grouse nest in stands     |
| nesting ecology of female sage    | with the maximum big sagebrush    |
|                                   | height and canopy cover available |
| grouse in North Park, Colorado.   | for nesting.                      |
| M.S. Thesis, Colo. St. Univ. Fort |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| Collins, Colo.                    |                                   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Patterson, R. L. 1952. The Sage   | Nest destruction by livestock     |
| Grouse in Wyoming. Wyoming Game   | trampling is rare, however, the   |
|                                   | presence of livestock can cause   |
| and Fish Comm. and Sage Books,    | sage grouse to abandon their      |
| Inc. Denver, Colorado.            | nests.                            |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Patterson (1952) recorded \>200   |
|                                   | sage-grouse nests during 1949-50  |
|                                   | in the Eden Valley- Pacific Creek |
|                                   | area in Wyoming. Height of cover  |
|                                   | at nest sites ranged from 0 to    |
|                                   | 102 cm, with a mean of 36 cm;     |
|                                   | nests were most commonly placed   |
|                                   | beneath "short sagebrush of       |
|                                   | medium density, such as is found  |
|                                   | on drier sites, in preference to  |
|                                   | the dense, tall sagebrush found   |
|                                   | along watercourses...."           |
|                                   | (Patterson 1952:114).             |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | In Wyoming, nesting densities of  |
|                                   | sage-grouse were considerably     |
|                                   | lower (10 nests/100 ha) in areas  |
|                                   | heavily grazed by domestic sheep  |
|                                   | compared to adjacent sites with   |
|                                   | moderate grazing (28 nests/100    |
|                                   | ha). Nest desertion caused by     |
|                                   | migrant bands of sheep also was   |
|                                   | documented.                       |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Lyon, A. G. 2000. The potential   | In the Green River Valley in      |
| effects of natural gas            | Wyoming, Lyon (2000) compared a   |
| development on                    | suite of variables at 50 nests    |
|                                   | with random vegetation plots.     |
| Sage Grouse near Pinedale,        | Compared with independent, random |
| Wyoming. M.S. thesis. University  | sites, nest-use plots had taller  |
| of                                | average live sagebrush (32.7 vs.  |
|                                   | 27.6 cm), more grass cover (10.6  |
| Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming. 120    | vs. 5.4%), more forb cover (8.2   |
| pages.                            | vs. 4.3%), and taller nest bushes |
|                                   | (44.4 vs. 21.4 cm). Compared to   |
|                                   | random sites, nest sites had      |
|                                   | greater tall (\>18 cm) residual   |
|                                   | grass cover and greater cover of  |
|                                   | medium-height shrubs.             |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Petersen, B. E. 1980. Breeding    | In North Park, Colorado, Petersen |
| and nesting ecology of female     | (1980) studied breeding biology   |
| Sage                              | of sage-grouse hens; mean         |
|                                   | sagebrush canopy cover at 35 nest |
| Grouse in North Park, Colorado.   | sites was 24% (range from 9.4 to  |
| M.S. thesis. Colorado State       | 52.6%), and mean sagebrush height |
|                                   | was 32 cm (range 11.1 to 59.8     |
| University, Fort Collins,         | cm), with no differences between  |
| Colorado. 86 pages.               | nest sites used by adult versus   |
|                                   | yearling hens. Slope at nest      |
| Gill, R. B. 1965. Distribution    | sites was gentle, with 85% of     |
| and abundance of a population of  | nests on slopes of \<12%          |
| Sage                              | (Petersen 1980). Gill (1965),     |
|                                   | also working in North Park,       |
| Grouse in North Park, Colorado.   | located 92% of 117 nests under    |
| M.S. thesis. Colorado State       | sagebrush; mean height of cover   |
|                                   | at the nest was 43 cm. Nests were |
| University, Fort Collins,         | typically on flat ground, with    |
| Colorado. 142 pages.              | mean slope of 2% (Gill 1965).     |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Schroeder M.A., J.R. Young, C.E.  | Density of sage-grouse nests      |
| Braun. 1999. Sage grouse          | varies across the range of the    |
|                                   | species, with densities of 3.8 to |
| (*Centrocercus urophasianus*). p  | 55.6 per km^2^ reported by        |
| 1--28 *In*: A. Poole and F. Gill  | Schroeder et al. (1999). Nest     |
| (eds.)                            | densities averaged 16.2 per km^2^ |
|                                   | over two breeding seasons within  |
| The birds of North America. The   | big sagebrush habitats in Wyoming |
| Birds of North America, Inc.,     | (Patterson 1952). Across North    |
|                                   | Park, Colorado, nest density was  |
| Philadelphia, Penn.               | estimated at 12.4 per km^2^ (Gill |
|                                   | 1965).                            |
| Patterson R.L. 1952. The sage     |                                   |
| grouse in Wyoming. Sage Books,    |                                   |
| Inc.,                             |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| Denver, Colo.                     |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| Gill, R. B. 1965. Distribution    |                                   |
| and abundance of a population of  |                                   |
| Sage                              |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| Grouse in North Park, Colorado.   |                                   |
| M.S. thesis. Colorado State       |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| University, Fort Collins,         |                                   |
| Colorado. 142 pages.              |                                   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Giesen, K.M. 1995. Evaluation of  | Combined data from both years     |
| livestock grazing and residual    | \[1993-1994\] indicated nearly    |
|                                   | one-third (32.2%) of the marked   |
| herbaceous cover on sage grouse   | hens moved farther than 3.0 km    |
| nest success. Unpublished report. | from the lek to nest.             |
|                                   |                                   |
| Colorado Division of Wildlife.    | Shrub height, primarily sagebrush |
| Wildlife Research Report.         | (*Artemisia* spp.) at nests       |
|                                   | averaged 54.6 ±14.0 cm and 57.7 ± |
|                                   | 14.5 cm in 1993 and 1994,         |
|                                   | respectively. Mean sagebrush      |
|                                   | canopy cover and density at nests |
|                                   | were 35.3 ± 14.9% and 14,700 ±    |
|                                   | 6,000 plants/ha in 1993 and 42.8  |
|                                   | ± 15.0% and 15,300 ± 6,200        |
|                                   | plants/ha in 1994. No differences |
|                                   | in habitat selected for nesting   |
|                                   | were observed by hens marked at   |
|                                   | different strutting grounds.      |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Ritchie et al. (1994) suggested   |
|                                   | that herbaceous cover may be more |
|                                   | important in determining sage     |
|                                   | grouse nest success than          |
|                                   | sagebrush height or cover.        |
|                                   | Results from this study,          |
|                                   | particularly the comparisons      |
|                                   | between nest transects and        |
|                                   | dependent random transects agree  |
|                                   | with this finding.                |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Holloran, M.J., B.J. Heath, A.G.  | Greater sage grouse in Wyoming    |
| Lyon, S.J. Slater, J.L. Kuipers,  | selected nesting sites with more  |
| and                               | shrub and residual grass cover    |
|                                   | than was present at randomly      |
| S.H. Anderson. 2005. Greater      | selected sites, supporting our    |
| sage-grouse nesting habitat       | hypothesis that nest sites were   |
| selection                         | characterized by appropriate      |
|                                   | sagebrush and herbaceous cover    |
| and success in Wyoming. J Wildl   | (Connelly et al. 1991).           |
| Manage. 69(2): 638-649.           |                                   |
|                                   | ...the probability plot indicated |
|                                   | increasing sagebrush height did   |
|                                   | not substantially influence the   |
|                                   | probability of a nest, suggesting |
|                                   | that greater sage grouse selected |
|                                   | for increased total shrub canopy  |
|                                   | cover given adequate sagebrush    |
|                                   | height. This contention was also  |
|                                   | supported by the relative         |
|                                   | variable importance analysis.     |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | ... the confidence interval       |
|                                   | around the odds ratio for         |
|                                   | sagebrush height was centered     |
|                                   | about 1, suggesting that          |
|                                   | sagebrush height was not a good   |
|                                   | predictor of nesting habitat.     |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Greater sage grouse generally     |
|                                   | select sagebrush patches in       |
|                                   | mid-range canopy cover conditions |
|                                   | (i.e. 15 to 25%; Connelly et al.  |
|                                   | 2000) for nesting, and avoid      |
|                                   | sparse and excessively dense      |
|                                   | patches. However, the             |
|                                   | relationship between shrub canopy |
|                                   | cover and the probability of a    |
|                                   | nest was linear (not quadratic),  |
|                                   | and suggested that selection was  |
|                                   | for sagebrush patches with the    |
|                                   | highest canopy cover in the range |
|                                   | of canopies measured (i.e., range |
|                                   | 15-40% for grouped means).        |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | The relative importance analysis  |
|                                   | suggested that taller and thicker |
|                                   | residual grass cover              |
|                                   | characterized successful greater  |
|                                   | sage grouse nesting habitat.      |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Our results support findings that |
|                                   | cover of taller grasses was       |
|                                   | important to nesting grouse,      |
|                                   | while further suggesting both     |
|                                   | increased residual grass cover    |
|                                   | and height could be important     |
|                                   | individually.                     |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | The relative importance analysis  |
|                                   | additionally indicated that       |
|                                   | herbaceous cover and height were  |
|                                   | more important than shrub cover   |
|                                   | or height in distinguishing       |
|                                   | successful from unsuccessful      |
|                                   | nests. However, the nest          |
|                                   | selection analysis established    |
|                                   | that nests were in areas with     |
|                                   | increased shrub canopy cover      |
|                                   | relative to available areas.      |
|                                   | Thus, taller, thicker residual    |
|                                   | grass cover in dense sagebrush    |
|                                   | stands appeared to increase the   |
|                                   | probability of a successful nest. |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Our results suggest the timing    |
|                                   | and amount of moisture received   |
|                                   | were important to nest            |
|                                   | success...cool season grass       |
|                                   | growth during the preceding year  |
|                                   | (i.e., available as residual      |
|                                   | grass to nesting females)         |
|                                   | appeared to be important for      |
|                                   | overall greater sage grouse       |
|                                   | nesting success.                  |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | ... selection was for areas with  |
|                                   | the densest residual grass        |
|                                   | available and, within those       |
|                                   | selected areas, nests with the    |
|                                   | densest residual grass were most  |
|                                   | successful.                       |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | ... residual grass heights should |
|                                   | be a minimum of 10 cm within      |
|                                   | Wyoming big sagebrush dominated   |
|                                   | habitats.                         |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Our results suggest that          |
|                                   | sagebrush patches with a          |
|                                   | combination of dense shrub        |
|                                   | (overhead) and residual grass     |
|                                   | (lateral) cover are preferred     |
|                                   | greater sage grouse nesting areas |
|                                   | and that tall, dense residual     |
|                                   | grasses within these dense shrub  |
|                                   | stands may be important for       |
|                                   | nesting success. The results      |
|                                   | additionally suggest that factors |
|                                   | other than the vegetative         |
|                                   | characteristics immediately       |
|                                   | surrounding the nest influence    |
|                                   | nesting success.                  |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | ...our results suggest annual     |
|                                   | grazing in nesting habitat,       |
|                                   | regardless of the timing, could   |
|                                   | negatively impact the following   |
|                                   | year's nesting success.           |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

***The following sources may contain information relevant to the Wyoming
Basin - Southern Rocky Mountains ecoregions, but were not conducted
within the ecoregional boundaries.***

+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| **Source**            | **Citation**          | **Location of Study** |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Batterson, W. M., and | Nesting areas are     | Columbia River Basin  |
| W. B. Morse. 1948.    | found on gradually    | (Oregon and           |
|                       | sloping               | Washington)           |
| Oregon Sage Grouse.   | sagebrush-covered     |                       |
| Oregon Fauna Series   | hills from one to     |                       |
|                       | five miles from the   |                       |
| No. 1. Oregon State   | strutting grounds and |                       |
| Game Commission,      | from 100 to 400 feet  |                       |
|                       | higher in elevation.  |                       |
| Portland, Oregon. 29  | Most nests are built  |                       |
| pages.                | at the foot of a      |                       |
|                       | sagebrush and under   |                       |
|                       | an over-hanging       |                       |
|                       | limb...               |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Call, M. W., and      | Grass cover and/or    | Columbia River Basin  |
| Maser, C. 1985.       | height may contribute | (Oregon and           |
| Wildlife              | to suitable nesting   | Washington)           |
|                       | habitat and,          |                       |
| habitats in managed   | possibly, success     |                       |
| rangelands, the Great |                       |                       |
|                       | ...so long as key     |                       |
| Basin of southeastern | vegetation components |                       |
| Oregon: Sage-         | do not deteriorate,   |                       |
|                       | cattle are not a      |                       |
| Grouse. U.S. Dept.    | serious factor in     |                       |
| Agric. Pacific        | destruction of nests  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Northwest For. And    | In important sage     |                       |
| Range Exp. Stn., Gen. | grouse nesting and    |                       |
|                       | summering areas,      |                       |
| Tech. Rep. PNW-187.   | livestock grazing     |                       |
|                       | should be monitored   |                       |
|                       | to protect at least   |                       |
|                       | 50 percent of the     |                       |
|                       | annual herbaceous     |                       |
|                       | vegetation (by        |                       |
|                       | weight) prior to      |                       |
|                       | mid-September. After  |                       |
|                       | mid-September, grouse |                       |
|                       | commence feeding on   |                       |
|                       | sagebrush and         |                       |
|                       | increased livestock   |                       |
|                       | grazing on herbaceous |                       |
|                       | vegetation will not   |                       |
|                       | be detrimental.       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Coggins, K. A. 1998.  | ...mean nest          | Columbia River Basin  |
| Relationship between  | initiation and        | (Oregon and           |
|                       | renesting rates       | Washington)           |
| habitat changes and   | increased             |                       |
| productivity of sage  | concordantly with     |                       |
|                       | spring forbs, which   |                       |
| grouse at Hart        | increased 2- to       |                       |
| Mountain National     | 3-fold in several key |                       |
| Antelope              | cover types between   |                       |
|                       | periods               |                       |
| Refuge, Oregon.       |                       |                       |
| Oregon State Univ.,   | ... mean nesting      |                       |
|                       | success increased     |                       |
| Corvallis, Oregon.    | concomitantly with    |                       |
|                       | increases in tall     |                       |
|                       | grass cover during    |                       |
|                       | spring                |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Crawford, J. A., M.   | Greater amounts of    | Columbia River Basin  |
| A. Gregg, M. S. Drut, | residual tall grass   | (Oregon and           |
| and                   | cover and medium      | Washington)           |
|                       | height shrub cover at |                       |
| A. K. DeLong. 1992.   | nests likely provided |                       |
| Habitat use by female | increased nest        |                       |
|                       | concealment from      |                       |
| Sage Grouse during    | predators and         |                       |
| the breeding season   | resulted in greater   |                       |
| in                    | nest success than at  |                       |
|                       | sites with less tall  |                       |
| Oregon. BLM Coop.     | grasses and medium    |                       |
| Res. Unit, Oregon     | shrubs.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| State Univ.           | Sage grouse           |                       |
| Corvallis, OR         | apparently require    |                       |
|                       | stands of medium      |                       |
|                       | height (40-80 cm)     |                       |
|                       | sagebrush with an     |                       |
|                       | understory of tall    |                       |
|                       | (\>18 cm) residual    |                       |
|                       | bunchgrasses for      |                       |
|                       | successful nesting.   |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Management of nesting |                       |
|                       | habitat should        |                       |
|                       | concentrate on big    |                       |
|                       | sagebrush stands with |                       |
|                       | an understory of      |                       |
|                       | native perennial      |                       |
|                       | grasses, whereas      |                       |
|                       | management of brood   |                       |
|                       | and broodless hen     |                       |
|                       | habitat should        |                       |
|                       | concentrate on        |                       |
|                       | maintenance of cover  |                       |
|                       | type diversity and    |                       |
|                       | availability of       |                       |
|                       | forbs.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Livestock grazing is  |                       |
|                       | the principal land    |                       |
|                       | management practice   |                       |
|                       | and proximate factor  |                       |
|                       | that affects grass    |                       |
|                       | cover and height      |                       |
|                       | (Rickard et al 1975). |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Maintain or develop   |                       |
|                       | stands consisting of  |                       |
|                       | 8-12% cover of        |                       |
|                       | Wyoming big sagebrush |                       |
|                       | and 15-20% cover of   |                       |
|                       | mountain and basin    |                       |
|                       | big sagebrush         |                       |
|                       | (Winward 1991) to     |                       |
|                       | provide nesting       |                       |
|                       | habitat with medium   |                       |
|                       | height (40-80 cm)     |                       |
|                       | sagebrush and tall    |                       |
|                       | (\>18 cm) residual    |                       |
|                       | grass cover.          |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| DeLong, A.K., J.A.    | Artificial nest fate  | Columbia River Basin  |
| Crawford, and D.C.    | was positively        | (Oregon and           |
|                       | associated with tall  | Washington)           |
| DeLong, Jr. 1995.     | grass cover and       |                       |
| Relationships between | medium-height shrub   |                       |
|                       | cover collectively    |                       |
| vegetational          | (p=0.01).             |                       |
| structure and         |                       |                       |
| predation of          | This study supports   |                       |
|                       | the hypothesis that   |                       |
| artificial sage       | greater amounts of    |                       |
| grouse nests. J Wildl | tall grass and        |                       |
| Manage.               | medium-height shrub   |                       |
|                       | cover at nest sites   |                       |
| 59(1):88-92.          | lower risk of nest    |                       |
|                       | predation for sage    |                       |
|                       | grouse.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | ...land management    |                       |
|                       | practices that reduce |                       |
|                       | herbaceous cover in   |                       |
|                       | sagebrush communities |                       |
|                       | can negatively affect |                       |
|                       | sage grouse nesting   |                       |
|                       | habitat...When sage   |                       |
|                       | grouse nesting        |                       |
|                       | habitat is an         |                       |
|                       | objective, managers   |                       |
|                       | should monitor        |                       |
|                       | livestock             |                       |
|                       | distribution and      |                       |
|                       | depletion of grasses  |                       |
|                       | to remove livestock   |                       |
|                       | before the minimum    |                       |
|                       | herbaceous cover and  |                       |
|                       | height needed for     |                       |
|                       | nesting is reached.   |                       |
|                       | Some rangelands may   |                       |
|                       | need rest from        |                       |
|                       | grazing to increase   |                       |
|                       | herbaceous cover and  |                       |
|                       | height to desired     |                       |
|                       | levels. In many       |                       |
|                       | situations, however,  |                       |
|                       | the absence of        |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing     |                       |
|                       | along would not       |                       |
|                       | increase herbaceous   |                       |
|                       | cover because high    |                       |
|                       | shrub cover           |                       |
|                       | effectively inhibits  |                       |
|                       | the herbaceous        |                       |
|                       | understory (Sneva et  |                       |
|                       | al. 1984, Laycock     |                       |
|                       | 1991, Winward 1991).  |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Drut, M. S., J. A.    | In southeastern       | Columbia River Basin  |
| Crawford, and M. A.   | Oregon, 13 of 18      | (Oregon and           |
| Gregg.                | nests were in big     | Washington)           |
|                       | sagebrush             |                       |
| 1994\. Brood habitat  |                       |                       |
| use by Sage Grouse in |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Oregon. Great Basin   |                       |                       |
| Naturalist            |                       |                       |
| 54:170-176.           |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Hanf, J. M., P. A.    | Grass at nest sites   | Columbia River Basin  |
| Schmidt, and E. B.    | was taller than at    | (Oregon and           |
|                       | random sites and      | Washington)           |
| Groshens. 1994. Sage  | successful nesting    |                       |
| Grouse in the high    | sites had taller      |                       |
|                       | grass than            |                       |
| desert of central     | unsuccessful sites.   |                       |
| Oregon: results of a  |                       |                       |
| study,                | Medium and tall       |                       |
|                       | shrubs were also      |                       |
| 1988-1993. U. S.      | recurrent components  |                       |
| Department of the     | of successful nest    |                       |
|                       | sites (Hanf et al.    |                       |
| Interior, Bureau of   | 1994). Grazing that   |                       |
| Land Management,      | occurs just prior to  |                       |
|                       | nesting (winter and   |                       |
| Prineville, Oregon.   | early spring) has the |                       |
| 57 pages.             | most immediate effect |                       |
|                       | on residual cover;    |                       |
|                       | adequate herbaceous   |                       |
|                       | cover should be left  |                       |
|                       | for concealment of    |                       |
|                       | nests.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In central Oregon,    |                       |
|                       | nests were most       |                       |
|                       | common in mountain    |                       |
|                       | big sagebrush (*A. t. |                       |
|                       | vaseyana*); however,  |                       |
|                       | the percentage of     |                       |
|                       | nests in this type    |                       |
|                       | was similar to the    |                       |
|                       | availability of the   |                       |
|                       | type.                 |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Although mountain     |                       |
|                       | shrub types (mountain |                       |
|                       | big                   |                       |
|                       | sagebrush/antelope    |                       |
|                       | bitterbrush) and      |                       |
|                       | native grasslands     |                       |
|                       | were less commonly    |                       |
|                       | used, sage-grouse     |                       |
|                       | appeared to select    |                       |
|                       | these types for       |                       |
|                       | nesting; that is, use |                       |
|                       | exceeded              |                       |
|                       | availability.         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Improve the quality   |                       |
|                       | of nesting habitat.   |                       |
|                       | This includes         |                       |
|                       | managing for          |                       |
|                       | appropriate habitat   |                       |
|                       | types and structural  |                       |
|                       | composition within    |                       |
|                       | nesting habitat,      |                       |
|                       | especially with       |                       |
|                       | respect to grass      |                       |
|                       | height.               |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Stinson, D.W., D.W.   | Wherever possible,    | Washington            |
| Hays, and M.          | prevent disturbance   |                       |
| Schroeder.            | in sage-grouse        |                       |
|                       | nesting and brood     |                       |
| 2004\. Washington     | rearing habitat       |                       |
| State Recovery Plan   | between 1 March and   |                       |
| for                   | 15 June,              |                       |
|                       | including...livestock |                       |
| the Greater           | trail use...          |                       |
| Sage-Grouse.          |                       |                       |
| Washington Dept.      | Where protection and  |                       |
|                       | restoration of        |                       |
| of Fish and Wildlife. | sage-grouse is a      |                       |
| Olympia, Washington.  | major objective for   |                       |
|                       | public lands, manage  |                       |
|                       | grazing so that the   |                       |
|                       | habitat               |                       |
|                       | characteristics       |                       |
|                       | needed for breeding   |                       |
|                       | and wintering can be  |                       |
|                       | consistently          |                       |
|                       | maintained (Connelly  |                       |
|                       | et al. 2000).         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Discourage removal of |                       |
|                       | sagebrush from known  |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse wintering |                       |
|                       | areas and areas that  |                       |
|                       | provide escape cover  |                       |
|                       | in breeding habitat,  |                       |
|                       | especially within 3   |                       |
|                       | km of leks.           |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Sveum, C. M., W. D.   | ...evaluated nesting  | Columbia River Basin  |
| Edge, and J. A.       | habitat selection at  | (Oregon and           |
|                       | the Yakima Training   | Washington)           |
| Crawford. 1998.       | Center in Washington, |                       |
| Nesting habitat       | which contains some   |                       |
| selection             | of the most intact    |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse habitat   |                       |
| by Sage Grouse in     | remaining in the      |                       |
| south-central         | state. Most first     |                       |
|                       | nest attempts (64% of |                       |
| Washington. Journal   | 72) were in the big   |                       |
| of Range Management   | sagebrush/bunchgrass  |                       |
|                       | cover type. This type |                       |
| 51:265-269.           | was preferred (use    |                       |
|                       | exceeded              |                       |
|                       | availability) in 1 of |                       |
|                       | 2 yr of study.        |                       |
|                       | Sage-grouse nested in |                       |
|                       | stiff sagebrush (*A.  |                       |
|                       | rigida*)/bluegrass    |                       |
|                       | (*Poa* spp.) and      |                       |
|                       | grassland cover types |                       |
|                       | less than expected in |                       |
|                       | both years. They      |                       |
|                       | showed no preference  |                       |
|                       | (i.e., use was        |                       |
|                       | proportional to       |                       |
|                       | availability) for     |                       |
|                       | nesting in big        |                       |
|                       | sagebrush/bunchgrass  |                       |
|                       | that had reduced      |                       |
|                       | shrub cover and       |                       |
|                       | increased bare ground |                       |
|                       | resulting from        |                       |
|                       | military training     |                       |
|                       | activities, or in     |                       |
|                       | riparian cover types  |                       |
|                       | (ephemeral streams    |                       |
|                       | and wet areas). Shrub |                       |
|                       | cover at nest sites   |                       |
|                       | averaged 51% (1992)   |                       |
|                       | and 59% (1993),       |                       |
|                       | compared with 6 to 7% |                       |
|                       | at random sites.      |                       |
|                       | Shrub height was      |                       |
|                       | greater (59 and 63    |                       |
|                       | cm) at nest sites     |                       |
|                       | than at random sites  |                       |
|                       | (15 and 13 cm) (1992  |                       |
|                       | and 1993,             |                       |
|                       | respectively). Nest   |                       |
|                       | sites also had less   |                       |
|                       | cover of short (\<18  |                       |
|                       | cm) grasses, greater  |                       |
|                       | vertical cover        |                       |
|                       | height, less bare     |                       |
|                       | ground, and more      |                       |
|                       | litter than random    |                       |
|                       | sites                 |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Most nests \[within   |                       |
|                       | the Yakima Training   |                       |
|                       | Center study site\]   |                       |
|                       | (71%) were in big     |                       |
|                       | sagebrush (*Artemesia |                       |
|                       | tridentata*           |                       |
|                       | Nutt.)/bunchgrass     |                       |
|                       | communities.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Nest habitat was      |                       |
|                       | characterized by      |                       |
|                       | greater shrub cover,  |                       |
|                       | shrub height,         |                       |
|                       | vertical cover        |                       |
|                       | height, residual      |                       |
|                       | cover, and litter     |                       |
|                       | than at random        |                       |
|                       | locations.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Successful 1 m^2^     |                       |
|                       | nest sites within big |                       |
|                       | sagebrush/bunchgrass  |                       |
|                       | in 1992 had less      |                       |
|                       | shrub cover (51%) and |                       |
|                       | shrub height (64 cm)  |                       |
|                       | than depredated nest  |                       |
|                       | sites (70% and 90 cm, |                       |
|                       | respectively).        |                       |
|                       | Successful 77 m^2^    |                       |
|                       | nest areas in big     |                       |
|                       | sagebrush/bunchgrass  |                       |
|                       | in 1993 had more tall |                       |
|                       | grass (≥ 18 cm) than  |                       |
|                       | depredated nest       |                       |
|                       | areas.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Nest sites had        |                       |
|                       | greater vertical      |                       |
|                       | cover height each     |                       |
|                       | year and greater      |                       |
|                       | standing dead cover   |                       |
|                       | than random sites in  |                       |
|                       | 1992.                 |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Willis, M. J., G. P.  | On better ranges,     | Columbia River Basin  |
| Keister, Jr., D. A.   | litter and grass-forb | (Oregon and           |
| Immell,               | understory was        | Washington)           |
|                       | thought to contribute |                       |
| D. M. Jones, R. M.    | to successful nesting |                       |
| Powell, and K. R.     | by helping to         |                       |
|                       | camouflage nests.     |                       |
| Durbin. 1993. Sage    |                       |                       |
| Grouse in Oregon.     | ...successful nests   |                       |
|                       | were located in       |                       |
| Wildlife Research     | stands of sagebrush   |                       |
| Report 15. Oregon     | with a higher canopy  |                       |
|                       | coverage than those   |                       |
| Department of Fish    | of unsuccessful       |                       |
| and Wildlife,         | nests.                |                       |
| Portland,             |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Oregon. 70 pages.     |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Gregg, M. A. 1994.    | 94% of all nests of   | southeastern Oregon   |
| Brood habitat use by  | radio-marked hens     |                       |
| Sage                  | were under sagebrush  |                       |
|                       | in an area where      |                       |
| Grouse in Oregon.     | sagebrush composed    |                       |
| Great Basin           | 87% of the shrubs.    |                       |
| Naturalist            |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 54:170-176.           |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Gregg, M. A., J. A.   |                       |                       |
| Crawford, M. S. Drut, |                       |                       |
| and                   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| A. K. Delong. 1994.   |                       |                       |
| Vegetational cover    |                       |                       |
| and                   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| predation of Sage     |                       |                       |
| Grouse nests in       |                       |                       |
| Oregon.               |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Journal of Wildlife   |                       |                       |
| Management 58:162-    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 166\.                 |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Rasmussen, D. I., and | Nest destruction by   | Utah                  |
| L. A. Griner. 1938.   | livestock trampling   |                       |
| Life                  | is rare, however, the |                       |
|                       | presence of livestock |                       |
| history and           | can cause sage grouse |                       |
| management studies of | to abandon their      |                       |
| the Sage              | nests.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Grouse in Utah, with  | Of 161 nests examined |                       |
| special reference to  | in Utah, two were     |                       |
|                       | trampled by livestock |                       |
| nesting and feeding   | (one sheep, one       |                       |
| habits. Transactions  | cattle) and five were |                       |
| of                    | deserted due to       |                       |
|                       | disturbance by        |                       |
| the North American    | livestock.            |                       |
| Wildlife Conference   |                       |                       |
|                       | Nesting is, as a      |                       |
| 3:852-864.            | rule, definitely      |                       |
|                       | under way by the      |                       |
|                       | middle of May in the  |                       |
|                       | Strawberry Valley.    |                       |
|                       | This is subject to    |                       |
|                       | some seasonal         |                       |
|                       | var                   |                       |
|                       | iation...Observations |                       |
|                       | in the Strawberry     |                       |
|                       | Valley (elevation     |                       |
|                       | 7,550 to 8,000 feet)  |                       |
|                       | show that in 1936 the |                       |
|                       | nesting activity      |                       |
|                       | began early in May    |                       |
|                       | and nests were found  |                       |
|                       | between the 12th and  |                       |
|                       | 16^th^ of May with    |                       |
|                       | clutches from 4 to 8  |                       |
|                       | eggs.                 |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Observations on some  |                       |
|                       | nests near Portage,   |                       |
|                       | Utah, at an elevation |                       |
|                       | of near 5,500 feet    |                       |
|                       | showed that nesting   |                       |
|                       | activity began        |                       |
|                       | between April 15 and  |                       |
|                       | April 30 in 1936.     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | The nesting period    |                       |
|                       | extended until the    |                       |
|                       | first week of July,   |                       |
|                       | the last hatch with   |                       |
|                       | definite record was   |                       |
|                       | on July 5, 1936.      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Concealment is the    |                       |
|                       | first and perhaps     |                       |
|                       | most important        |                       |
|                       | requisite of a good   |                       |
|                       | sage grouse nesting   |                       |
|                       | site.                 |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Of the 161 nests      |                       |
|                       | studied during the    |                       |
|                       | two years all were    |                       |
|                       | found on the ground,  |                       |
|                       | usually protected by  |                       |
|                       | sagebrush and never a |                       |
|                       | great distance from   |                       |
|                       | these shrubs.         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In the case of the    |                       |
|                       | two nests destroyed   |                       |
|                       | by livestock one is   |                       |
|                       | attributed to sheep   |                       |
|                       | and the other to      |                       |
|                       | cattle, they were the |                       |
|                       | only class of stock   |                       |
|                       | using the area where  |                       |
|                       | the desertion         |                       |
|                       | occurred.             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | The livestock which   |                       |
|                       | accounted for the 5   |                       |
|                       | desertions were both  |                       |
|                       | sheep and cattle. In  |                       |
|                       | all cases the stock   |                       |
|                       | either knocked eggs   |                       |
|                       | from the nest or      |                       |
|                       | bedded down too near  |                       |
|                       | the nest.             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In the most           |                       |
|                       | productive nesting    |                       |
|                       | habitat in the        |                       |
|                       | Strawberry Valley in  |                       |
|                       | Utah, Rasmussen and   |                       |
|                       | Griner (1938) found   |                       |
|                       | 36 nests per km^2^.   |                       |
|                       | This habitat was      |                       |
|                       | composed of recently  |                       |
|                       | disturbed (e.g., from |                       |
|                       | burning or flooding)  |                       |
|                       | sites in which big    |                       |
|                       | sagebrush or black    |                       |
|                       | sagebrush had         |                       |
|                       | recovered so that     |                       |
|                       | \>50% of total cover  |                       |
|                       | was in sagebrush, and |                       |
|                       | shrubs were \>45 cm   |                       |
|                       | tall.                 |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Rowland, M.M. 2004.   | Greater Sage-Grouse   | North Dakota          |
| Effects of management | nest in a variety of  |                       |
|                       | cover types, but most |                       |
| practices on          | nests are under big   |                       |
| grassland birds:      | sagebrush (Patterson  |                       |
| Greater Sage-         | 1952, Gill 1965,      |                       |
|                       | Petersen 1980,        |                       |
| Grouse. Jamestown,    | Wakkinen 1990,        |                       |
| ND. Northern Prairie  | Connelly et al. 1991, |                       |
|                       | Schroeder et al.      |                       |
| Wildlife Research     | 1999). Other shrubs   |                       |
| Center.               | used for nesting      |                       |
|                       | cover include         |                       |
|                       | bitterbrush,          |                       |
|                       | greasewood            |                       |
|                       | (*Sarcobatus          |                       |
|                       | vermiculatus*),       |                       |
|                       | horsebrush            |                       |
|                       | (*Tetradymia* spp.),  |                       |
|                       | low sagebrush,        |                       |
|                       | mountain mahogany     |                       |
|                       | (*Cercocarpus* spp.), |                       |
|                       | rabbitbrush,          |                       |
|                       | shadscale saltbush    |                       |
|                       | (*Atriplex            |                       |
|                       | confertifolia*),      |                       |
|                       | snowberry             |                       |
|                       | (*Symphoricarpos*     |                       |
|                       | spp.), and western    |                       |
|                       | juniper (*Juniperus   |                       |
|                       | occidentalis*)        |                       |
|                       | (Patterson 1952,      |                       |
|                       | Klebenow 1969,        |                       |
|                       | Wakkinen 1990,        |                       |
|                       | Connelly et al. 1991, |                       |
|                       | Crawford and Davis    |                       |
|                       | 2002). Nests also     |                       |
|                       | have been found on    |                       |
|                       | bare ground devoid of |                       |
|                       | cover (Patterson      |                       |
|                       | 1952) and under basin |                       |
|                       | wildrye (*Leymus      |                       |
|                       | cinereus*) (Wakkinen  |                       |
|                       | 1990, Crawford and    |                       |
|                       | Davis 2002). Young    |                       |
|                       | (1994) reported a     |                       |
|                       | Gunnison Sage-Grouse  |                       |
|                       | nest beneath a        |                       |
|                       | Douglas-fir           |                       |
|                       | (*Pseudotsuga         |                       |
|                       | menziesii*) tree.     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | The most suitable     |                       |
|                       | nesting habitat       |                       |
|                       | includes a mosaic of  |                       |
|                       | sagebrush with        |                       |
|                       | horizontal and        |                       |
|                       | vertical structural   |                       |
|                       | diversity. A healthy  |                       |
|                       | understory of native  |                       |
|                       | grasses and forbs     |                       |
|                       | provides 1) cover for |                       |
|                       | concealment of the    |                       |
|                       | nest and hen from     |                       |
|                       | predators, 2)         |                       |
|                       | herbaceous forage for |                       |
|                       | pre-laying and        |                       |
|                       | nesting hens, and 3)  |                       |
|                       | insects as prey for   |                       |
|                       | chicks and hens. Mean |                       |
|                       | sagebrush canopy      |                       |
|                       | cover at nest sites   |                       |
|                       | ranges from 15 to     |                       |
|                       | 38%, and mean         |                       |
|                       | sagebrush height      |                       |
|                       | ranges from 36 to 79  |                       |
|                       | cm (Schroeder et al.  |                       |
|                       | 1999). Mean distance  |                       |
|                       | between nests and     |                       |
|                       | nearest leks varies   |                       |
|                       | from 1.1 to 6.2 km;   |                       |
|                       | however, nests have   |                       |
|                       | been found \>20 km    |                       |
|                       | from the nearest lek  |                       |
|                       | (Connelly et al.      |                       |
|                       | 2000).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In an Idaho study,    |                       |
|                       | 216 nest bushes were  |                       |
|                       | taller and larger     |                       |
|                       | than big sagebrush    |                       |
|                       | shrubs in 40- m^2^    |                       |
|                       | plots surrounding the |                       |
|                       | nests (Autenrieth     |                       |
|                       | 1981). Mean height of |                       |
|                       | nest bushes ranged    |                       |
|                       | from 58.2 cm to 79.3  |                       |
|                       | cm, compared with     |                       |
|                       | 30.2 to 54.9 cm in    |                       |
|                       | the plots. Mean       |                       |
|                       | diameter of nest      |                       |
|                       | bushes ranged from    |                       |
|                       | 93.9 to 109.7 cm,     |                       |
|                       | compared with 42.7 to |                       |
|                       | 61.0 cm for other     |                       |
|                       | sagebrush shrubs in   |                       |
|                       | the plots (Autenrieth |                       |
|                       | 1981). Canopy cover   |                       |
|                       | in the surrounding    |                       |
|                       | plots ranged from     |                       |
|                       | 23.4 to 38.1%.        |                       |
|                       | Distance from nests   |                       |
|                       | to water varied from  |                       |
|                       | 530 to 2,257 m.       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Poley, B. E. 1969.    | From data collected   | Colorado              |
| Seasonal Movements of | in 1968 in Colorado,  |                       |
|                       | it was found that     |                       |
| Sage Grouse in        | females began nesting |                       |
| Colorado. Journal of  | in late May.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Colorado Field        | Observations          |                       |
| Ornithologists.       | indicated that sage   |                       |
| 5:1-4.                | grouse hens acted as  |                       |
|                       | individuals as        |                       |
|                       | opposed to following  |                       |
|                       | general patterns.     |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Crawford, J. A., and  | Of 61 sage-grouse     | Great Basin (Nevada   |
| D. M. Davis. 2002.    | nests at the Sheldon  | and California)       |
|                       | National Wildlife     |                       |
| Habitat use by        | Refuge (NWR) in       |                       |
| Greater Sage-Grouse   | Nevada, 41% were in   |                       |
| on                    | mountain big          |                       |
|                       | sagebrush, 31% were   |                       |
| Sheldon National      | in mountain shrub     |                       |
| Wildlife Refuge.      | (including mountain   |                       |
| Final                 | big sagebrush,        |                       |
|                       | antelope bitterbrush, |                       |
| Report. Game Bird     | bluegrass, and        |                       |
| Research Program,     | needlegrass           |                       |
|                       | \[*Achnatherum*       |                       |
| Oregon State          | spp.\]), and 13% were |                       |
| University,           | in low sagebrush      |                       |
| Corvallis, Oregon.    | cover types.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 119 pages.            | Neither cover type,   |                       |
|                       | medium-height (40 to  |                       |
|                       | 80 cm) shrub cover,   |                       |
|                       | nor total forb cover  |                       |
|                       | were related to nest  |                       |
|                       | success, and no       |                       |
|                       | relationship was      |                       |
|                       | found between age of  |                       |
|                       | hen and type of cover |                       |
|                       | used for nesting.     |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Neel, L.A. 1980. Sage | Heavy use of riparian | Great Basin (Nevada   |
| grouse response to    | meadows by livestock  | and California)       |
|                       | reduces the           |                       |
| grazing management in | availability of       |                       |
| Nevada. M.S.          | succulent plant       |                       |
|                       | species and may       |                       |
| Thesis, Univ. Nevada. | induce avoidance of   |                       |
| Reno, Nev.            | these habitats by     |                       |
|                       | sage grouse.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | One advantage of rest |                       |
|                       | rotation grazing is   |                       |
|                       | that rested pastures  |                       |
|                       | can provide emergency |                       |
|                       | forage (Ratliff and   |                       |
|                       | Reppert 1974), which  |                       |
|                       | may prevent excessive |                       |
|                       | grazing in the used   |                       |
|                       | pastures during       |                       |
|                       | drought.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Compared with no      |                       |
|                       | grazing, rest         |                       |
|                       | rotation grazing      |                       |
|                       | increased forb        |                       |
|                       | abundance on sage     |                       |
|                       | grouse meadow habitat |                       |
|                       | in Nevada.            |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| U. S. Dept. of        | During drought        | Nevada                |
| Interior, Bureau of   | periods (i.e., a      |                       |
| Land                  | specified period of   |                       |
|                       | time in which the     |                       |
| Management. 2000.     | precipitation         |                       |
| Management            | received is less than |                       |
|                       | 75 percent of         |                       |
| guidelines for sage   | average) of two or    |                       |
| grouse and sagebrush  | more years, reduce    |                       |
|                       | stocking rates or     |                       |
| ecosystems in Nevada. | change management     |                       |
|                       | practices for         |                       |
|                       | livestock if nesting  |                       |
|                       | cover and             |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing habitat |                       |
|                       | requirements are not  |                       |
|                       | being met.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Determine grazing use |                       |
|                       | levels on that        |                       |
|                       | portion of the        |                       |
|                       | pasture which is      |                       |
|                       | known habitat.        |                       |
|                       | Grazing use levels    |                       |
|                       | should not be         |                       |
|                       | determined by         |                       |
|                       | \"average use\"       |                       |
|                       | throughout the entire |                       |
|                       | pasture or grazing    |                       |
|                       | unit.                 |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| van Kooten, G.C., R.  | Define, identify,     | Nevada                |
| Thomsen, T.G. Hobby,  | conserve and enhance  |                       |
|                       | critical lek,         |                       |
| and A.J. Eagle. 2004. | nesting, brood        |                       |
| Social Dilemmas and   | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat used by sage  |                       |
| Public Range          | grouse.               |                       |
| Management in Nevada. | Characteristics of    |                       |
|                       | habitat types         |                       |
|                       | preferred by sage     |                       |
|                       | grouse at various     |                       |
|                       | times of the year,    |                       |
|                       | and the               |                       |
|                       | interrelationships    |                       |
|                       | between these habitat |                       |
|                       | types, are not        |                       |
|                       | clearly defined.      |                       |
|                       | Public (landowners,   |                       |
|                       | land managers and     |                       |
|                       | other land users)     |                       |
|                       | involvement and       |                       |
|                       | participation in      |                       |
|                       | reporting sightings   |                       |
|                       | of sage grouse leks,  |                       |
|                       | nests, broods and     |                       |
|                       | winter locations      |                       |
|                       | should be encouraged. |                       |
|                       | Intensive searches of |                       |
|                       | sage grouse range are |                       |
|                       | required to assess    |                       |
|                       | critical habitat      |                       |
|                       | parameters throughout |                       |
|                       | the year and the      |                       |
|                       | relationships between |                       |
|                       | these habitat types.  |                       |
|                       | Abandoned habitat     |                       |
|                       | should be assessed    |                       |
|                       | for seasonal          |                       |
|                       | deficiencies which    |                       |
|                       | may limit use by sage |                       |
|                       | grouse. Critical      |                       |
|                       | habitat must be       |                       |
|                       | protected and         |                       |
|                       | secured. Land-use     |                       |
|                       | practices and other   |                       |
|                       | factors detrimental   |                       |
|                       | to maintenance of     |                       |
|                       | quality sage grouse   |                       |
|                       | habitat need to be    |                       |
|                       | identified. Working   |                       |
|                       | co-operatively with   |                       |
|                       | land managers and     |                       |
|                       | other land users,     |                       |
|                       | initiatives need to   |                       |
|                       | be developed to       |                       |
|                       | enhance and maintain  |                       |
|                       | an abundance of high  |                       |
|                       | quality habitat on    |                       |
|                       | private and public    |                       |
|                       | lands throughout the  |                       |
|                       | range of sage grouse. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Establish public      |                       |
|                       | reporting system for  |                       |
|                       | sage grouse leks,     |                       |
|                       | nesting, brood and    |                       |
|                       | winter locations.     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Conduct              |                       |
|                       | searches/surveys for  |                       |
|                       | active leks, nests,   |                       |
|                       | brood rearing and     |                       |
|                       | winter use areas      |                       |
|                       | throughout sage       |                       |
|                       | grouse range.         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Document habitat     |                       |
|                       | characteristics of    |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting,         |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing and     |                       |
|                       | winter-use areas and  |                       |
|                       | the                   |                       |
|                       | interrelationships    |                       |
|                       | between habitat       |                       |
|                       | types.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Investigate habitat  |                       |
|                       | parameters (lek,      |                       |
|                       | nesting, brood        |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | use) in areas of      |                       |
|                       | abandoned leks.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Investigate the use  |                       |
|                       | of remote-sensing     |                       |
|                       | data systems to       |                       |
|                       | identify potential    |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting,         |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing and     |                       |
|                       | winter habitat.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Map critical lek,    |                       |
|                       | nesting, brood        |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat areas.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Identify critical    |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting, brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat which must be |                       |
|                       | protected, secured or |                       |
|                       | enhanced.             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Identify land-use    |                       |
|                       | practices which are   |                       |
|                       | detrimental to        |                       |
|                       | provision of quality  |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting, brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Develop cooperative  |                       |
|                       | initiatives to        |                       |
|                       | protect lek sites and |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting, brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat on public     |                       |
|                       | lands.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Develop cooperative  |                       |
|                       | initiatives to        |                       |
|                       | protect lek sites and |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting, brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat on private    |                       |
|                       | lands.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Develop cooperative  |                       |
|                       | initiatives to        |                       |
|                       | enhance and improve   |                       |
|                       | the quantity and      |                       |
|                       | quality of lek,       |                       |
|                       | nesting, brood        |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat.              |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Fischer, R.A., A.D.   | Sage grouse on the    | Idaho                 |
| Apa, W.L. Wakkinen,   | Big Desert showed     |                       |
| K.P.                  | strong fidelity for   |                       |
|                       | specific nesting      |                       |
| Reese, and J.W.       | areas, since          |                       |
| Connelly. 1993.       | movements between     |                       |
| Nesting-              | consecutive-year      |                       |
|                       | nests represented     |                       |
| area fidelity of sage | only 3.5% of their    |                       |
| grouse in             | median annual         |                       |
| southeastern          | straight-line         |                       |
|                       | movement (20.9 km).   |                       |
| Idaho. The Condor.    |                       |                       |
| 95:1038-1041.         | Gates (1983) reported |                       |
|                       | fidelity to nesting   |                       |
|                       | areas by three female |                       |
|                       | sage grouse that all  |                       |
|                       | nested \<200m from    |                       |
|                       | the previous year's   |                       |
|                       | nests.                |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Autenrieth, R. E.     | When heavy use occurs | Idaho                 |
| 1981. Sage Grouse     | within the            |                       |
|                       | traditional sage      |                       |
| management in Idaho.  | grouse nesting and/or |                       |
| Idaho Dept. of Fish   | brood rearing         |                       |
|                       | habitats the result   |                       |
| and Game.             | appears to be         |                       |
|                       | negative both in      |                       |
|                       | terms of harassment   |                       |
|                       | and competition for   |                       |
|                       | forbs. It is not      |                       |
|                       | valid to assume sage  |                       |
|                       | grouse can move       |                       |
|                       | elsewhere during      |                       |
|                       | heavy livestock use.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | The greatest          |                       |
|                       | potential for nest    |                       |
|                       | impacts on            |                       |
|                       | Sage-Grouse may be    |                       |
|                       | associated with       |                       |
|                       | forced livestock      |                       |
|                       | movements across      |                       |
|                       | nesting areas.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Known nesting areas   |                       |
|                       | (3.2 km radius of     |                       |
|                       | leks) should be       |                       |
|                       | avoided from          |                       |
|                       | mid-April to early    |                       |
|                       | June to reduce        |                       |
|                       | abandonment.          |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Wakkinen, W.L. 1990.  | ...sage grouse use    | Idaho                 |
| Nest Site             | different portions of |                       |
|                       | the available habitat |                       |
| Characteristics and   | for nesting in        |                       |
| Spring-Summer         | different geographic  |                       |
|                       | areas.                |                       |
| Movements of          |                       |                       |
| Migratory Sage Grouse | ...data suggests that |                       |
| in                    | grass height may be a |                       |
|                       | factor in both nest   |                       |
| Southeastern Idaho.   | site selection and    |                       |
| Ph.D. Dissertation.   | nest fate.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Univ. of Idaho.       | ...hens in Idaho      |                       |
|                       | select less than      |                       |
|                       | maximum available     |                       |
|                       | canopy cover.         |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Autenrieth, R. E.     | Grass cover and/or    | Idaho                 |
| 1981. Sage Grouse     | height may contribute |                       |
|                       | to suitable nesting   |                       |
| management in Idaho.  | habitat and,          |                       |
| Idaho Dept. of Fish   | possibly, success...  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| and Game.             |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Klebenow, D.A. 1969.  |                       |                       |
| Sage grouse nesting   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| and brood habitat in  |                       |                       |
| Idaho. J. Wildl.      |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Manage. 33:649-662    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Wakkinen, W.L. 1990.  |                       |                       |
| Nest Site             |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Characteristics and   |                       |                       |
| Spring-Summer         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Movements of          |                       |                       |
| Migratory Sage Grouse |                       |                       |
| in                    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Southeastern Idaho.   |                       |                       |
| Ph.D. Dissertation.   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Univ. of Idaho.       |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Klott, J. H., R. B.   | In southcentral       | Idaho                 |
| Smith, and C. Vullo.  | Idaho, Klott et al.   |                       |
| 1993.                 | (1993) found four     |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse nests in  |                       |
| Sage Grouse habitat   | Wyoming big           |                       |
| use in the Brown's    | sagebrush, two in low |                       |
|                       | sagebrush, and one    |                       |
| Bench area of         | each in mountain big  |                       |
| south-central Idaho.  | sagebrush and crested |                       |
| U.S.                  | wheatgrass. No nests  |                       |
|                       | were found in quaking |                       |
| Department of the     | aspen (*Populus       |                       |
| Interior, Bureau of   | tremuloides*),        |                       |
| Land                  | mountain mahogany,    |                       |
|                       | mountain shrub, or    |                       |
| Management, Denver    | meadow habitat types. |                       |
| Service Center,       |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Denver, Colorado, and |                       |                       |
| Idaho Department of   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Fish and Game,        |                       |                       |
| Jerome, Idaho. 14     |                       |                       |
| pages.                |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Klebenow, D.A. 1969.  | ...sage grouse nest   | Idaho                 |
| Sage grouse nesting   | in stands with the    |                       |
|                       | maximum big sagebrush |                       |
| and brood habitat in  | height and canopy     |                       |
| Idaho. J. Wildl.      | cover available for   |                       |
|                       | nesting.              |                       |
| Manage. 33:649-662    |                       |                       |
|                       | In the Upper Snake    |                       |
|                       | River Plains of       |                       |
|                       | southeastern Idaho,   |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse nested    |                       |
|                       | primarily in threetip |                       |
|                       | sagebrush (Klebenow   |                       |
|                       | 1969). Mean height of |                       |
|                       | shrubs under which    |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse nested    |                       |
|                       | was 43 cm, whereas    |                       |
|                       | mean height of        |                       |
|                       | threetip sagebrush in |                       |
|                       | the study area was    |                       |
|                       | only 20 cm. Mean      |                       |
|                       | total shrub cover in  |                       |
|                       | the vicinity of nest  |                       |
|                       | sites was 18.4%,      |                       |
|                       | compared with 14.4%   |                       |
|                       | in the threetip       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush community   |                       |
|                       | overall. Although big |                       |
|                       | sagebrush density and |                       |
|                       | crown cover were      |                       |
|                       | greater near nests    |                       |
|                       | than in the general   |                       |
|                       | area, sage-grouse     |                       |
|                       | nests were not found  |                       |
|                       | in big sagebrush      |                       |
|                       | stands with cover     |                       |
|                       | exceeding 25%.        |                       |
|                       | Bitterbrush provided  |                       |
|                       | all or part of the    |                       |
|                       | nesting shrub cover   |                       |
|                       | for 29% of the nests. |                       |
|                       | The author used       |                       |
|                       | stepwise discriminant |                       |
|                       | function analysis in  |                       |
|                       | an attempt to         |                       |
|                       | distinguish between   |                       |
|                       | nest sites and the    |                       |
|                       | surrounding habitat   |                       |
|                       | in the threetip       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush community;  |                       |
|                       | however, a            |                       |
|                       | satisfactory model    |                       |
|                       | could not be          |                       |
|                       | developed with the    |                       |
|                       | data collected.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In southeastern       |                       |
|                       | Idaho, there were 3.8 |                       |
|                       | nests per km^2^ in a  |                       |
|                       | big                   |                       |
|                       | sagebrush/threetip    |                       |
|                       | sagebrush site;       |                       |
|                       | however, nests were   |                       |
|                       | not evenly            |                       |
|                       | distributed across    |                       |
|                       | the study area, and   |                       |
|                       | in some areas nest    |                       |
|                       | density reached 24.7  |                       |
|                       | nests per km^2^       |                       |
|                       | (Klebenow 1969).      |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Rowland, M.M. 2004.   | Keys to management    | North Dakota          |
| Effects of management | are maintaining       |                       |
|                       | expansive stands of   |                       |
| practices on          | sagebrush             |                       |
| grassland birds:      | (*Artemisia* spp.),   |                       |
| Greater Sage-         | especially varieties  |                       |
|                       | of big sagebrush (*A. |                       |
| Grouse. Jamestown, ND | tridentata*), with    |                       |
| Northern Prairie      | abundant forbs in the |                       |
|                       | understory,           |                       |
| Wildlife Research     | particularly during   |                       |
| Center.               | spring; undisturbed   |                       |
|                       | and relatively open   |                       |
|                       | sites for leks; and   |                       |
|                       | healthy perennial     |                       |
|                       | grass and forb stands |                       |
|                       | intermixed with       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush for brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing. Within       |                       |
|                       | suitable habitats,    |                       |
|                       | areas should have 15  |                       |
|                       | to 25% canopy cover   |                       |
|                       | of sagebrush 30 to 80 |                       |
|                       | cm tall for nesting,  |                       |
|                       | and 10 to 25% canopy  |                       |
|                       | cover from 40 to 80   |                       |
|                       | cm tall for brood     |                       |
|                       | rearing (Connelly et  |                       |
|                       | al. 2000). In winter  |                       |
|                       | habitats, shrubs      |                       |
|                       | should be exposed 25  |                       |
|                       | to 35 cm above snow   |                       |
|                       | level and have 10 to  |                       |
|                       | 30% canopy cover      |                       |
|                       | exposed above snow.   |                       |
|                       | In nesting and        |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing         |                       |
|                       | habitats, understory  |                       |
|                       | habitats with         |                       |
|                       | adequate cover of     |                       |
|                       | grasses (\>15%) and   |                       |
|                       | forbs (\>10%) at      |                       |
|                       | least 18 cm tall are  |                       |
|                       | needed (Connelly et   |                       |
|                       | al. 2000).            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Manage livestock      |                       |
|                       | grazing through       |                       |
|                       | stocking rates and    |                       |
|                       | season of use on all  |                       |
|                       | seasonal ranges of    |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse to avoid  |                       |
|                       | habitat degradation   |                       |
|                       | (Paige and Ritter     |                       |
|                       | 1999, Beck and        |                       |
|                       | Mitchell 2000, Wisdom |                       |
|                       | et al. 2000),         |                       |
|                       | especially on         |                       |
|                       | recently disturbed    |                       |
|                       | sites, such as those  |                       |
|                       | sprayed or burned     |                       |
|                       | (Braun et al. 1977).  |                       |
|                       | In nesting and        |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing         |                       |
|                       | habitats, ensure that |                       |
|                       | grazing does not      |                       |
|                       | reduce herbaceous     |                       |
|                       | understory cover      |                       |
|                       | below levels that     |                       |
|                       | serve as a deterrent  |                       |
|                       | to potential          |                       |
|                       | predators of eggs and |                       |
|                       | chicks (Connelly et   |                       |
|                       | al. 2000, Hockett     |                       |
|                       | 2002). Healthy native |                       |
|                       | understories also     |                       |
|                       | support insects and   |                       |
|                       | forbs that are        |                       |
|                       | important in diets of |                       |
|                       | pre-laying hens and   |                       |
|                       | chicks (Johnson and   |                       |
|                       | Boyce 1990, Barnett   |                       |
|                       | and Crawford 1994,    |                       |
|                       | Drut et al. 1994).    |                       |
|                       | Riparian areas and    |                       |
|                       | wet meadows used for  |                       |
|                       | brood rearing are     |                       |
|                       | especially sensitive  |                       |
|                       | to grazing by         |                       |
|                       | livestock; in these   |                       |
|                       | habitats, removal of  |                       |
|                       | livestock before the  |                       |
|                       | nesting season may be |                       |
|                       | prudent (Beck and     |                       |
|                       | Mitchell 2000,        |                       |
|                       | Hockett 2002).        |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Moynahan, B.J.;       | ...most nests were    | Northern Great Plains |
| Lindberg, M.S.; J.J.  | located under big     | (Montana)             |
| Rotella;              | sagebrush             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| and J.W. Thomas. *In  | Management of         |                       |
| Press* (b). Factors   | habitats for nesting  |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse should    |                       |
| affecting nest        | focus on increasing   |                       |
| survival of Greater   | grass cover to        |                       |
| Sage-                 | increase survival of  |                       |
|                       | first nests and       |                       |
| grouse in             | contribute to         |                       |
| northcentral Montana. | favorable conditions  |                       |
| Journal of            | for renesting, which  |                       |
|                       | should be less likely |                       |
| Wildlife Management.  | if survival of first  |                       |
|                       | nests increases.      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Precipitation         |                       |
|                       | affected nest         |                       |
|                       | survival on a daily   |                       |
|                       | basis. The relative   |                       |
|                       | effect of daily       |                       |
|                       | precipitation was     |                       |
|                       | greater than that of  |                       |
|                       | the lag effect and    |                       |
|                       | the net effect of     |                       |
|                       | precipitation over    |                       |
|                       | the course of a       |                       |
|                       | season was positive.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Several previous      |                       |
|                       | studies also          |                       |
|                       | documented higher     |                       |
|                       | nesting probability   |                       |
|                       | for adults than for   |                       |
|                       | yearlings (Gregg      |                       |
|                       | 1991, Connelly et al. |                       |
|                       | 1993); others have    |                       |
|                       | recorded nearly all   |                       |
|                       | hens nesting          |                       |
|                       | regardless of         |                       |
|                       | age-class (Schroeder  |                       |
|                       | 1997). We observed    |                       |
|                       | the lowest nesting    |                       |
|                       | probability in 2001   |                       |
|                       | when the study area   |                       |
|                       | was affected by       |                       |
|                       | severe drought and    |                       |
|                       | there was little      |                       |
|                       | growth of             |                       |
|                       | non-sagebrush food    |                       |
|                       | items (i.e., forbs).  |                       |
|                       | Nesting probabilities |                       |
|                       | increased markedly in |                       |
|                       | 2002 and 2003 when    |                       |
|                       | range conditions      |                       |
|                       | improved. This        |                       |
|                       | pattern, coupled with |                       |
|                       | the lower mean clutch |                       |
|                       | sizes observed in     |                       |
|                       | 2001, supports the    |                       |
|                       | hypothesis that       |                       |
|                       | better range          |                       |
|                       | condition may result  |                       |
|                       | in improved condition |                       |
|                       | of pre-laying hens    |                       |
|                       | (Barnett and Crawford |                       |
|                       | 1994) and thus higher |                       |
|                       | nesting               |                       |
|                       | probabilities.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Reported renesting    |                       |
|                       | rates for sage-grouse |                       |
|                       | vary widely and       |                       |
|                       | likely are greatly    |                       |
|                       | affected by weather   |                       |
|                       | conditions in at      |                       |
|                       | least 3 different     |                       |
|                       | ways: little or no    |                       |
|                       | renesting in a dry    |                       |
|                       | year with little      |                       |
|                       | current year's        |                       |
|                       | vegetative growth;    |                       |
|                       | relatively high       |                       |
|                       | renesting effort when |                       |
|                       | habitat conditions    |                       |
|                       | were more favorable,  |                       |
|                       | but first nest        |                       |
|                       | survival rates were   |                       |
|                       | moderate; and lower   |                       |
|                       | when conditions were  |                       |
|                       | favorable and         |                       |
|                       | relatively high       |                       |
|                       | survival of first     |                       |
|                       | nests precluded many  |                       |
|                       | hens from renesting.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Wildlife and land     |                       |
|                       | managers should       |                       |
|                       | strive to maintain or |                       |
|                       | enhance herbaceous    |                       |
|                       | understory conditions |                       |
|                       | favorable for         |                       |
|                       | survival of first     |                       |
|                       | nests and for         |                       |
|                       | later-season          |                       |
|                       | renesting attempts.   |                       |
|                       | Land uses (including  |                       |
|                       | grazing) that reduce  |                       |
|                       | contributions of      |                       |
|                       | herbaceous vegetation |                       |
|                       | to visual obstruction |                       |
|                       | of sage-grouse nests  |                       |
|                       | may reduce nest       |                       |
|                       | survival at the       |                       |
|                       | landscape scale by    |                       |
|                       | resulting in          |                       |
|                       | increased             |                       |
|                       | depredation.          |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Wallestad, R. O.      | ...average sagebrush  | Northern Great Plains |
| 1975. Life history    | height over nests was | (Montana)             |
| and habitat           | 15.9 inches.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| requirements of sage  |                       |                       |
| grouse in central     |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Montana. Montana Fish |                       |                       |
| and Game Dept.        |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Technical Bulletin.   |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Wallestad, R.O. and   | ...sagebrush cover    | Northern Great Plains |
| D. Pyrah. 1974.       | was the most          | (Montana)             |
|                       | important factor to   |                       |
| Movement and nesting  | nesting sage grouse   |                       |
| of sage grouse hens   | in Montana, most      |                       |
|                       | nests were located    |                       |
| in central Montana.   | under big sagebrush.  |                       |
| Journal of Wildlife   |                       |                       |
|                       | ...sage grouse nest   |                       |
| Management            | in stands with the    |                       |
| 38:630-633.           | maximum big sagebrush |                       |
|                       | height and canopy     |                       |
|                       | cover available for   |                       |
|                       | nesting.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | ...most nests located |                       |
|                       | under the tallest     |                       |
|                       | bushes available at a |                       |
|                       | particular site.      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Successful nests had  |                       |
|                       | greater sagebrush     |                       |
|                       | cover within 24       |                       |
|                       | inches of the nest    |                       |
|                       | and were located in   |                       |
|                       | stands of sagebrush   |                       |
|                       | with a higher average |                       |
|                       | canopy coverage (27%) |                       |
|                       | than those of         |                       |
|                       | unsuccessful nests    |                       |
|                       | (20%).                |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Wallestad, R.O. and   | Males also remain     | Northern Great Plains |
| R. Schladweiler.      | near leks during the  | (Montana)             |
| 1974.                 | nesting season, with  |                       |
|                       | one study reporting   |                       |
| Breeding season       | that 76% of all       |                       |
| movements and habitat | movements during this |                       |
|                       | season were within    |                       |
| selection of male     | one kilometer of the  |                       |
| sage grouse. Journal  | dancing grounds.      |                       |
| of                    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Wildlife Management   |                       |                       |
| 38:634-637.           |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Adams, B.W., J.       | ...suggests that so   | Northern Great Plains |
| Carlson, D. Milner,   | long as key           | (Alberta)             |
| T. Hood,              | vegetation components |                       |
|                       | do not deteriorate,   |                       |
| B. Cairns and P.      | cattle are not a      |                       |
| Herzog. 2004.         | serious factor in     |                       |
|                       | destruction of nests. |                       |
| Beneficial grazing    |                       |                       |
| management practices  | Heavy grazing reduces |                       |
|                       | cover and increases   |                       |
| for Sage-Grouse       | the chance of         |                       |
| (*Centrocercus*       | predation, especially |                       |
|                       | by ground squirrels   |                       |
| *urophasianus*) and   | (*Spermophilus*       |                       |
| ecology of silver     | spp.).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| sagebrush (*Artemisia | Encourage practices   |                       |
| cana*) in             | that increase height  |                       |
| southeastern          | and cover of          |                       |
|                       | sagebrush and of      |                       |
| Alberta. Public Lands | native grasses at     |                       |
| and Forests Division, | nesting sites.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Alberta Sustainable   | Maintain light        |                       |
| Resource Development. | grazing intensities   |                       |
|                       | to produce mosaics in |                       |
| Pub. No. T /049.      | vegetation and an     |                       |
|                       | increase in herbage   |                       |
|                       | production that are   |                       |
|                       | favorable for         |                       |
|                       | Sage-Grouse nesting   |                       |
|                       | and brood-rearing     |                       |
|                       | habitat.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Practice grazing      |                       |
|                       | deferral to allow for |                       |
|                       | undisturbed nesting.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Practices that        |                       |
|                       | increase the amount   |                       |
|                       | of rest in a pasture  |                       |
|                       | may be a useful to    |                       |
|                       | restore fair and poor |                       |
|                       | condition range which |                       |
|                       | will provide more     |                       |
|                       | cover for             |                       |
|                       | Sage-Grouse.          |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Aldridge, C.L, and    | If management goals   | Canada                |
| R.M. Brigham. 2002.   | are to provide        |                       |
| Sage                  | suitable nesting and  |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing         |                       |
| grouse nesting and    | habitat, efforts      |                       |
| brood habitat use in  | should be directed    |                       |
|                       | toward protecting and |                       |
| southern Canada. J    | enhancing sagebrush   |                       |
| Wildl Manage.         | stands ≥ 30 m^2^ and  |                       |
|                       | increasing overall    |                       |
| 66(2):433-444.        | sagebrush cover.      |                       |
|                       | These stands also     |                       |
|                       | should have a         |                       |
|                       | suitable understory   |                       |
|                       | of tall grasses and   |                       |
|                       | forbs to enhance nest |                       |
|                       | concealment.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Management strategies |                       |
|                       | also should focus on  |                       |
|                       | increasing the        |                       |
|                       | availability of mesic |                       |
|                       | sites and increasing  |                       |
|                       | the abundance of      |                       |
|                       | sites with \> 10%     |                       |
|                       | forb cover, to        |                       |
|                       | enhance brood rearing |                       |
|                       | habitat.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Land managers         |                       |
|                       | implementing water    |                       |
|                       | developments for      |                       |
|                       | livestock need to     |                       |
|                       | consider the          |                       |
|                       | potential negative    |                       |
|                       | effects those         |                       |
|                       | developments might    |                       |
|                       | have on key wetlands  |                       |
|                       | and mesic sites.      |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Connelly, J. W., M.   | Manage breeding       | N/A                   |
| A. Schroeder, A. R.   | habitats to support   |                       |
| Sands,                | 15-25% canopy cover   |                       |
|                       | of sagebrush,         |                       |
| and C. E. Braun.      | perennial herbaceous  |                       |
| 2000. Guidelines to   | cover averaging ≥ 18  |                       |
|                       | cm in height with ≥   |                       |
| manage Sage Grouse    | 15% canopy cover for  |                       |
| populations and their | grasses and ≥ 10% for |                       |
|                       | forbs and a diversity |                       |
| habitats. Wildlife    | of forbs (Barnett and |                       |
| Society Bulletin      | Crawford 1994, Drut   |                       |
| 28:967-               | et al. 1994, Apa      |                       |
|                       | 1998) during spring.  |                       |
| 985\.                 |                       |                       |
|                       | For nonmigratory      |                       |
|                       | grouse occupying      |                       |
|                       | habitats that are     |                       |
|                       | distributed           |                       |
|                       | uniformly...protect   |                       |
|                       | (i.e. do not          |                       |
|                       | manipulate) sagebrush |                       |
|                       | and herbaceous        |                       |
|                       | understory within 3.2 |                       |
|                       | km of all occupied    |                       |
|                       | leks.                 |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | For nonmigratory      |                       |
|                       | grouse occupying      |                       |
|                       | habitats that are not |                       |
|                       | distributed           |                       |
|                       | uniformly...protect   |                       |
|                       | suitable habitats for |                       |
|                       | ≤ 5 km from all       |                       |
|                       | occupied leks.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | For migratory         |                       |
|                       | populations, identify |                       |
|                       | and protect breeding  |                       |
|                       | habitats within 18 km |                       |
|                       | of leks...            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | During drought        |                       |
|                       | periods (≥ 2          |                       |
|                       | consecutive years),   |                       |
|                       | reduce stocking rates |                       |
|                       | or change management  |                       |
|                       | practices for         |                       |
|                       | livestock...if cover  |                       |
|                       | requirements during   |                       |
|                       | the nesting and       |                       |
|                       | brooding periods are  |                       |
|                       | not met. Grazing      |                       |
|                       | pressure from         |                       |
|                       | domestic livestock    |                       |
|                       | and wild ungulates    |                       |
|                       | should be managed in  |                       |
|                       | a manner that at all  |                       |
|                       | times addresses the   |                       |
|                       | possibility of        |                       |
|                       | drought.              |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Authenrieth, R., W.   | When \[heavy use of   | N/A                   |
| Molina, and C. Braun, | pasture in rest       |                       |
| eds.                  | rotation grazing      |                       |
|                       | systems\] encompasses |                       |
| 1982\. Sage Grouse    | nesting and/or brood  |                       |
| Management Practices. | rearing habitats the  |                       |
|                       | results are negative. |                       |
| Western States Sage   |                       |                       |
| Grouse Committee.     | It is known that hens |                       |
|                       | abandon nests with    |                       |
| Western States Sage   | little provocation    |                       |
| Grouse Committee      | while laying          |                       |
|                       | (mid-April through    |                       |
| Technical Bulletin    | early May). It is     |                       |
| #1. Twin Falls, ID.   | also known that       |                       |
|                       | yearling hens are     |                       |
|                       | prone to nest         |                       |
|                       | abandonment when      |                       |
|                       | disturbed, even       |                       |
|                       | during incubation.    |                       |
|                       | Since yearling hens   |                       |
|                       | comprise about 35% of |                       |
|                       | the reproductive      |                       |
|                       | segment, the impact   |                       |
|                       | of livestock drives   |                       |
|                       | could be severe.      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Known nesting areas   |                       |
|                       | (3.2 km (2 mi) radius |                       |
|                       | from leks) should be  |                       |
|                       | undisturbed from      |                       |
|                       | mid-April to          |                       |
|                       | mid-June.             |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Hockett, G.A. 2002.   | Protect sage grouse   | N/A                   |
| Livestock Impacts on  | nesting and           |                       |
| the                   | brood-rearing habitat |                       |
|                       | from livestock use to |                       |
| Herbaceous Components | encourage climax      |                       |
| of Sage Grouse        | vegetative            |                       |
|                       | conditions. If this   |                       |
| Habitat: A Review.    | is not feasible,      |                       |
| Int. Jour. Sci.       | limit grazing to the  |                       |
|                       | month of July with    |                       |
|                       | the exact timing of   |                       |
|                       | grazing varying with  |                       |
|                       | local conditions.     |                       |
|                       | Defer grazing until   |                       |
|                       | after the peak of the |                       |
|                       | growing season with   |                       |
|                       | the intent of         |                       |
|                       | providing herbaceous  |                       |
|                       | cover and forage for  |                       |
|                       | the majority of the   |                       |
|                       | nesting, hatching,    |                       |
|                       | and early             |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing.        |                       |
|                       | Cessation of grazing  |                       |
|                       | by 1 August is        |                       |
|                       | designed to minimize  |                       |
|                       | livestock             |                       |
|                       | concentrations in wet |                       |
|                       | meadows and riparian  |                       |
|                       | areas with open water |                       |
|                       | by avoiding "hot      |                       |
|                       | season" use and to    |                       |
|                       | allow a 30-day        |                       |
|                       | regrowth period       |                       |
|                       | before the first      |                       |
|                       | killing frost as      |                       |
|                       | recommended by Myers  |                       |
|                       | (1989). Additionally, |                       |
|                       | late summer-early     |                       |
|                       | fall regrowth is      |                       |
|                       | important for         |                       |
|                       | carbohydrate storage  |                       |
|                       | in roots and stem     |                       |
|                       | bases of cool season  |                       |
|                       | grasses (Stoddart et  |                       |
|                       | al. 1975) that        |                       |
|                       | enhances plant vigor  |                       |
|                       | while allowing        |                       |
|                       | residual vegetation   |                       |
|                       | to accumulate cover   |                       |
|                       | for nesting and early |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing the     |                       |
|                       | following spring.     |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| U. S. Dept. of        | Height of sagebrush   | Location unknown      |
| Interior, Bureau of   | commonly used for     |                       |
| Land                  | nesting varies        |                       |
|                       | between 7 and 31      |                       |
| Management. 1979.     | inches (17 to 79 cm)  |                       |
| Habitat Requirements  | with most nests       |                       |
|                       | located under the     |                       |
| and Management        | tallest bushes        |                       |
| Recommendations for   | available at a        |                       |
|                       | particular site       |                       |
| Sage Grouse. Bureau   | (Keller et al. 1941,  |                       |
| of Land Management    | Patterson 1952,       |                       |
|                       | Trueblood 1954, Gray  |                       |
| TN 330. Denver, CO.   | 1967, Klebenow 1969). |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Hens nest in short    |                       |
|                       | sagebrush of medium   |                       |
|                       | density, such as is   |                       |
|                       | found on drier sites, |                       |
|                       | in preference to the  |                       |
|                       | dense, tall brush     |                       |
|                       | found along           |                       |
|                       | watercourses and on   |                       |
|                       | moist areas.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Stands of 20-40%      |                       |
|                       | canopy coverage were  |                       |
|                       | most frequently       |                       |
|                       | selected for nesting. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Patterson (1952)      |                       |
|                       | measured height of    |                       |
|                       | nesting cover in      |                       |
|                       | Wyoming and reported  |                       |
|                       | that 216 of 262 nests |                       |
|                       | measured had nesting  |                       |
|                       | cover between 10 and  |                       |
|                       | 20 inches tall.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | ... Patterson (1952)  |                       |
|                       | reported that on 2    |                       |
|                       | occasions bands of    |                       |
|                       | sheep caused birds to |                       |
|                       | flush and             |                       |
|                       | simultaneously to     |                       |
|                       | flip eggs out of      |                       |
|                       | their nests.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Every effort should   |                       |
|                       | be made to delay      |                       |
|                       | sheep bands from      |                       |
|                       | utilizing known sage  |                       |
|                       | grouse nesting areas  |                       |
|                       | until about the first |                       |
|                       | week in June, or      |                       |
|                       | until young sage      |                       |
|                       | grouse have hatched   |                       |
|                       | in the particular     |                       |
|                       | locality. Domestic    |                       |
|                       | sheep are known to    |                       |
|                       | have caused           |                       |
|                       | considerable nest     |                       |
|                       | abandonment around    |                       |
|                       | bedgrounds, in        |                       |
|                       | trailing areas, and   |                       |
|                       | during normal feeding |                       |
|                       | (Patterson 1952).     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Desertion was most    |                       |
|                       | prevalent in the      |                       |
|                       | vicinity of sheep     |                       |
|                       | bedgrounds. Bands of  |                       |
|                       | from 2,000 to 3,000   |                       |
|                       | sheep were serious    |                       |
|                       | disturbances to       |                       |
|                       | nesting activities    |                       |
|                       | (Patterson 1952).     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Patterson (1952)      |                       |
|                       | noted that it was     |                       |
|                       | significant that      |                       |
|                       | several thousand      |                       |
|                       | sheep began moving    |                       |
|                       | into his study area   |                       |
|                       | en route to their     |                       |
|                       | summer ranges         |                       |
|                       | coincident with the   |                       |
|                       | period of nest        |                       |
|                       | desertion.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | There was no          |                       |
|                       | indication that       |                       |
|                       | livestock is a        |                       |
|                       | serious factor in     |                       |
|                       | nest destruction,     |                       |
|                       | although nest         |                       |
|                       | desertion from        |                       |
|                       | livestock activities  |                       |
|                       | was of frequent       |                       |
|                       | occurrence under      |                       |
|                       | certain conditions    |                       |
|                       | (Patterson 1952).     |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Braun, C. E. 1987.    | Heavy grazing reduces | N/A                   |
| Current issues in     | cover and increases   |                       |
| Sage-                 | the chance of         |                       |
|                       | predation, especially |                       |
| Grouse management.    | by ground squirrels   |                       |
| Proc. Western         | (*Spermophilus* spp.) |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Association Fish and  |                       |                       |
| wildlife agencies.    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Colo. Div. Wildl.,    |                       |                       |
| Fort Collins.         |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Crawford, J.A., R.A.  | ...the specific       | Location unknown      |
| Olson, N.E. West,     | relationship between  |                       |
| J.C.                  | grazing pressure and  |                       |
|                       | sage grouse nest      |                       |
| Mosley, M.A.          | success has not been  |                       |
| Shroeder, T.D.        | empirically           |                       |
| Whitson, R.F.         | evaluated.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Miller, M.A. Gregg,   | Heavy use of riparian |                       |
| and C.S. Boyd. 2004.  | meadows by livestock  |                       |
|                       | reduces the           |                       |
| Synthesis Paper:      | availability of       |                       |
| Ecology and           | succulent plant       |                       |
| management            | species and may       |                       |
|                       | induce avoidance of   |                       |
| of sage-grouse and    | these habitats by     |                       |
| sage-grouse habitat.  | sage grouse.          |                       |
| J.                    |                       |                       |
|                       | Rotational grazing    |                       |
| Range Manage. 57:     | systems are one way   |                       |
| 2-19.                 | to provide areas      |                       |
|                       | (i.e., pastures) free |                       |
|                       | from livestock        |                       |
|                       | disturbance during    |                       |
|                       | nesting. This benefit |                       |
|                       | may be offset if      |                       |
|                       | heavy use occurs in   |                       |
|                       | the grazed pastures   |                       |
|                       | (Holechek et al.      |                       |
|                       | 1982), especially     |                       |
|                       | since sage grouse can |                       |
|                       | display high site     |                       |
|                       | fidelity (Fischer et  |                       |
|                       | al.1993).             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Grazing systems in    |                       |
|                       | riparian areas have   |                       |
|                       | met with mixed        |                       |
|                       | results and their     |                       |
|                       | influence on system   |                       |
|                       | recovery and          |                       |
|                       | vegetation response   |                       |
|                       | will vary based on    |                       |
|                       | site potential,       |                       |
|                       | ecological condition, |                       |
|                       | stream morphology,    |                       |
|                       | and climate (Elmore   |                       |
|                       | and Kauffman 1994).   |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | One advantage of rest |                       |
|                       | rotation grazing is   |                       |
|                       | that rested pastures  |                       |
|                       | can provide emergency |                       |
|                       | forage (Ratliff and   |                       |
|                       | Reppert 1974), which  |                       |
|                       | may prevent excessive |                       |
|                       | grazing in the used   |                       |
|                       | pastures during       |                       |
|                       | drought. This added   |                       |
|                       | residual cover may be |                       |
|                       | important to sage     |                       |
|                       | grouse, but light to  |                       |
|                       | moderate utilization  |                       |
|                       | of grasses in         |                       |
|                       | well-managed          |                       |
|                       | continuously grazed   |                       |
|                       | systems may also      |                       |
|                       | provide sufficient    |                       |
|                       | residual cover.       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Klebenow, D.A. 1972.  | Grass cover and/or    | Location unknown      |
| The habitat           | height may contribute |                       |
|                       | to suitable nesting   |                       |
| requirements of sage  | habitat and,          |                       |
| grouse and the role   | possibly, success...  |                       |
| of                    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| fire in management.   |                       |                       |
| Proc. Tall Timbers    |                       |                       |
| Fire                  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Ecol. Conf.           |                       |                       |
| 12:305-315.           |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Beck, J.L, and D.L.   | Excessive livestock   | Location unknown      |
| Mitchell. 2000.       | grazing has           |                       |
| Influence             | negatively impacted   |                       |
|                       | sage grouse habitat   |                       |
| of livestock grazing  | by creating seral     |                       |
| on sage grouse        | conditions that favor |                       |
| habitat.              | annual grass          |                       |
|                       | dominance and by      |                       |
| Wildlife Society      | reducing perennial    |                       |
| Bulletin 4:993-1002.  | grasses used as       |                       |
|                       | nesting and escape    |                       |
|                       | cover.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Grazing during the    |                       |
|                       | late spring nesting   |                       |
|                       | period can reduce     |                       |
|                       | herbaceous cover      |                       |
|                       | necessary for         |                       |
|                       | concealing nests from |                       |
|                       | predators.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Managers should       |                       |
|                       | consider removing     |                       |
|                       | livestock from sage   |                       |
|                       | grouse nesting areas  |                       |
|                       | prior to peak         |                       |
|                       | standing-crop         |                       |
|                       | development to        |                       |
|                       | maintain residual     |                       |
|                       | grass growth          |                       |
|                       | essential for nest    |                       |
|                       | concealment (Gregg et |                       |
|                       | al. 1994) and then    |                       |
|                       | delay grazing the     |                       |
|                       | same areas until      |                       |
|                       | after nesting.        |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Call M.W. 1979.       | Nest destruction by   | Location unknown      |
| Habitat requirements  | livestock trampling   |                       |
| and                   | is rare, however, the |                       |
|                       | presence of livestock |                       |
| management            | can cause sage grouse |                       |
| recommendations for   | to abandon their      |                       |
| sage                  | nests.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| grouse. USDI-BLM      |                       |                       |
| Denver Serv. Center   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Tech. Note 330        |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Crawford, J.A., R.A.  |                       |                       |
| Olson, N.E. West,     |                       |                       |
| J.C.                  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Mosley, M.A.          |                       |                       |
| Shroeder, T.D.        |                       |                       |
| Whitson, R.F.         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Miller, M.A. Gregg,   |                       |                       |
| and C.S. Boyd. 2004.  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Synthesis Paper:      |                       |                       |
| Ecology and           |                       |                       |
| management            |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| of sage-grouse and    |                       |                       |
| sage-grouse habitat.  |                       |                       |
| J.                    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Range Manage. 57:     |                       |                       |
| 2-19.                 |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Beck, J.L. and D.L.   | Managers should       | Location unknown      |
| Mitchell. 2000.       | consider delaying     |                       |
| Influences            | grazing of known      |                       |
|                       | nesting areas until   |                       |
| of livestock grazing  | after nesting.        |                       |
| on sage grouse        |                       |                       |
| habitat.              |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Wildl. Soc. Bull.     |                       |                       |
| 28:993--1002.         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Crawford, J.A., R.A.  |                       |                       |
| Olson, N.E. West,     |                       |                       |
| J.C.                  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Mosley, M.A.          |                       |                       |
| Shroeder, T.D.        |                       |                       |
| Whitson, R.F.         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Miller, M.A. Gregg,   |                       |                       |
| and C.S. Boyd. 2004.  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Synthesis Paper:      |                       |                       |
| Ecology and           |                       |                       |
| management            |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| of sage-grouse and    |                       |                       |
| sage-grouse habitat.  |                       |                       |
| J.                    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Range Manage. 57:     |                       |                       |
| 2-19.                 |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+

## [Brood Rearing]{.underline}

+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| **Source**                        | **Citation**                      |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Greer, R. 1990. Sage Grouse       | Although the adult diet switches  |
| Habitat Requirements and          | to forbs and insects in addition  |
| Development.                      | to sagebrush, developing young    |
|                                   | depend heavily upon insects for   |
| Wyoming Game and Fish Dept.       | food.                             |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Forbs become important in the     |
|                                   | diets of juveniles as summer      |
|                                   | progresses. At this time, broods  |
|                                   | move to higher elevations in      |
|                                   | search of succulent vegetation or |
|                                   | remain in sagebrush habitat if    |
|                                   | succulent forbs are readily       |
|                                   | available.                        |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Hens and broods are strongly      |
|                                   | attracted to lush hay meadows and |
|                                   | alfalfa fields during late        |
|                                   | summer.                           |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Meadow grazing should be delayed  |
|                                   | until mid-August to promote sage  |
|                                   | grouse chick survival and growth. |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | High intensity grazing or         |
|                                   | trampling should be avoided in    |
|                                   | nesting and brood rearing areas.  |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Springs and reservoirs can be     |
|                                   | fenced in brood rearing areas     |
|                                   | with water piped to stock tanks   |
|                                   | or troughs.                       |
|                                   |                                   |
|                                   | Stream meadows and the adjacent   |
|                                   | sagebrush buffer zone can be      |
|                                   | fenced, with 50 yard wide fenced  |
|                                   | corridors inserted to provide     |
|                                   | water access for cattle.          |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Danvir, R. E. 2002. Sage Grouse   | Increased use of meadows during   |
| ecology and management in         | dry summers.                      |
| northern                          |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| Utah sagebrush-steppe. A Deseret  |                                   |
| Land and Livestock Wildlife       |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| Research Report. Deseret Land and |                                   |
| Livestock Ranch and the Utah      |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| Foundation for Quality Resource   |                                   |
| Management, Woodruff, Utah. 39    |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| \+ appendices.                    |                                   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Heath, B. J., R. Straw, S.H.      | Our results suggest that grazing  |
| Anderson, J. Lawson, and M.       | management practices that promote |
| Holloran.                         | increased height and coverage of  |
|                                   | grass will increase chick         |
| 1998\. Sage-Grouse Productivity,  | survival.                         |
| Survival, and Seasonal Habitat    |                                   |
| Use                               |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| Among Three Ranches with          |                                   |
| Different Livestock Grazing,      |                                   |
| Predator                          |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| Control, and Harvest Management   |                                   |
| Practices. Wyoming Game and       |                                   |
|                                   |                                   |
| Fish Dept..                       |                                   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

***The following sources may contain information relevant to the Wyoming
Basin - Southern Rocky Mountains ecoregions, but were not conducted
within the ecoregional boundaries.***

+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| **Source**            | **Citation**          | **Location of Study** |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Evans, C. 1986. The   | Selection for meadows | Sheldon National      |
| relationship of       | which had been grazed | Wildlife Refuge,      |
| cattle                | was consistently      | Nevada                |
|                       | higher for hens and   |                       |
| grazing to sage       | juveniles.            |                       |
| grouse use of meadow  |                       |                       |
|                       | In general, sage      |                       |
| habitat on the        | grouse seemed to use  |                       |
| Sheldon National      | meadows where cattle  |                       |
|                       | were present or in    |                       |
| Wildlife Refuge.      | the vicinity, but     |                       |
| Ph.D. Dissertation.   | appeared to avoid     |                       |
|                       | close contact.        |                       |
| Univ. of Nevada,      |                       |                       |
| Reno. Reno, NV.       | In riparian           |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing         |                       |
|                       | habitat, sage-grouse  |                       |
|                       | prefer the lower      |                       |
|                       | vegetation (5--15 cm  |                       |
|                       | vs. 30--50 cm.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In riparian           |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing         |                       |
|                       | habitat, sage-grouse  |                       |
|                       | prefer the succulent  |                       |
|                       | forb growth           |                       |
|                       | stimulated by         |                       |
|                       | moderate livestock    |                       |
|                       | grazing.              |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Klebenow, D.A. 1982.  | ... heavily grazed    | Nevada                |
| Livestock grazing     | meadows in poor       |                       |
|                       | condition were        |                       |
| interactions with     | avoided by sage       |                       |
| sage grouse. In: J.M. | grouse broods.        |                       |
| Peek                  |                       |                       |
|                       | ...loss of cover due  |                       |
| and P.D. Dalke        | to heavy grazing was  |                       |
| (eds.). Proc. Wildl.  | causing the avoidance |                       |
|                       | of these areas.       |                       |
| Livestock             |                       |                       |
| Relationships         | ...dense grassy       |                       |
| Symposium, Univ.      | meadows that had been |                       |
|                       | grazed lightly or     |                       |
| Idaho, For., Wildl.,  | moderately were       |                       |
| and Range Exp. Stn.,  | attractive to sage    |                       |
|                       | grouse.               |                       |
| Moscow. p. 113-123.   |                       |                       |
|                       | In riparian           |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing         |                       |
|                       | habitat, sage-grouse  |                       |
|                       | prefer the lower      |                       |
|                       | vegetation (5--15 cm  |                       |
|                       | vs. 30--50 cm).       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Klebenow, D. A. 1985. | Sage-grouse broods at | Nevada                |
| Habitat management    | the Sheldon NWR used  |                       |
|                       | primarily sagebrush   |                       |
| for sage-grouse in    | uplands (low          |                       |
| Nevada. World         | sagebrush and         |                       |
| Pheasant              | mountain and Wyoming  |                       |
|                       | big sagebrush) during |                       |
| Assoc. 10:34--46.     | 1978 and 1980;        |                       |
|                       | however, during the   |                       |
|                       | drought year of 1979, |                       |
|                       | use was greater in    |                       |
|                       | wet meadows, and      |                       |
|                       | upland sites were     |                       |
|                       | abandoned by broods   |                       |
|                       | by late summer.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Brood habitat in      |                       |
|                       | uplands differed from |                       |
|                       | that in wet meadows.  |                       |
|                       | Upland brood sites    |                       |
|                       | had greater canopy    |                       |
|                       | cover of sagebrush    |                       |
|                       | (mean = 25 vs. 0%),   |                       |
|                       | less grass cover (15  |                       |
|                       | vs. 57%), and less    |                       |
|                       | forb cover (10 vs.    |                       |
|                       | 38%). Meadows into    |                       |
|                       | which tall sagebrush  |                       |
|                       | has encroached were   |                       |
|                       | seldom used by        |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse during    |                       |
|                       | brood rearing, with   |                       |
|                       | no grouse found in    |                       |
|                       | areas with a mean     |                       |
|                       | shrub height of 140   |                       |
|                       | cm and \>40% canopy   |                       |
|                       | cover.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In these meadows,     |                       |
|                       | most broods occurred  |                       |
|                       | in sites with         |                       |
|                       | relatively shorter    |                       |
|                       | shrubs (60 cm) and    |                       |
|                       | greater dominance of  |                       |
|                       | grass and forb cover. |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Neel, L.A. 1980. Sage | In riparian           | Nevada                |
| Grouse Response to    | brood-rearing         |                       |
|                       | habitat, sage-grouse  |                       |
| Grazing Management in | prefer the lower      |                       |
| Nevada. M.S.          | vegetation (5--15 cm  |                       |
|                       | vs. 30--50 cm.        |                       |
| Thesis Univ. of       |                       |                       |
| Nevada, Reno. Reno,   | In riparian           |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing         |                       |
| Nevada.               | habitat, sage-grouse  |                       |
|                       | prefer the succulent  |                       |
|                       | forb growth           |                       |
|                       | stimulated by         |                       |
|                       | moderate livestock    |                       |
|                       | grazing.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | When a meadow was     |                       |
|                       | bisected by a pasture |                       |
|                       | fence with one side   |                       |
|                       | grazed and the other  |                       |
|                       | rested, grouse        |                       |
|                       | selected the grazed   |                       |
|                       | side.                 |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | As long as rest is    |                       |
|                       | afforded a given      |                       |
|                       | meadow every three    |                       |
|                       | years, no negative    |                       |
|                       | impact on sage grouse |                       |
|                       | habitat seems to      |                       |
|                       | occur.                |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Oakleaf, R.J. 1971.   | In riparian           | Nevada                |
| Relationship of sage  | brood-rearing         |                       |
|                       | habitat, sage-grouse  |                       |
| grouse to upland      | prefer the lower      |                       |
| meadows in Nevada.    | vegetation (5--15 cm  |                       |
| M.S.                  | vs. 30--50 cm.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Thesis, Univ. Nevada. | The upland meadow     |                       |
| Reno, Nev.            | represents the        |                       |
|                       | primary summer        |                       |
|                       | habitat available to  |                       |
|                       | sage grouse           |                       |
|                       | throughout much of    |                       |
|                       | its range in Nevada.  |                       |
|                       | Past and present      |                       |
|                       | management of public  |                       |
|                       | lands in Nevada has   |                       |
|                       | regarded upland       |                       |
|                       | meadows as sacrifice  |                       |
|                       | areas. A serious      |                       |
|                       | deterioration of this |                       |
|                       | habitat has been the  |                       |
|                       | inevitable result and |                       |
|                       | will continue unless  |                       |
|                       | meadows are           |                       |
|                       | specifically managed. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Oakleaf (1971) showed |                       |
|                       | that a reduction in   |                       |
|                       | meadow use by sage    |                       |
|                       | grouse occurred as an |                       |
|                       | increasing percentage |                       |
|                       | of the juvenile       |                       |
|                       | population reached    |                       |
|                       | 11-12 weeks of age.   |                       |
|                       | He further found that |                       |
|                       | the diminished food   |                       |
|                       | supply of a           |                       |
|                       | deteriorated meadow   |                       |
|                       | limited the use by    |                       |
|                       | sage grouse.          |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Savage, D.E. 1968.    | Favored foods are     | Nevada                |
| The relationship of   | common dandelion      |                       |
| sage                  | (*Taraxacum           |                       |
|                       | officinale*), common  |                       |
| grouse to upland      | salsify (*Tragopogon  |                       |
| meadows in Nevada.    | dubius*), western     |                       |
| M.S.                  | yarrow (*Archillea    |                       |
|                       | millifolium*) and     |                       |
| Thesis. Univ. Nevada, | others.               |                       |
| Reno. 172 pp.         |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Savage, D.E. 1969.    | Meadows provided a    | Nevada                |
| The relationship of   | source of food        |                       |
| sage                  | (forbs), water and    |                       |
|                       | cover that were       |                       |
| grouse to upland      | unavailable on more   |                       |
| meadows in Nevada.    | xeric, but adjacent   |                       |
|                       | rangelands.           |                       |
| Nevada Cooperative    |                       |                       |
| Wildlife Research,    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Nevada Fish and Game  |                       |                       |
| Commission, and       |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Nevada Agricultural   |                       |                       |
| Experiment Station.   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 101 pp.               |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| U.S. Department of    | ...the Bureau of Land | Nevada                |
| the Interior. 1975.   | Management (USDI      |                       |
| Effects               | 1975) identified      |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing as  |                       |
| of livestock grazing  | having an adverse     |                       |
| on wildlife,          | impact on 1,413 km    |                       |
| watershed,            | (883 mi) of           |                       |
|                       | streambank riparian   |                       |
| recreation, and other | habitat in Nevada.    |                       |
| resource values in    | This report also      |                       |
|                       | described the         |                       |
| Nevada. U.S. Dep.     | combined effects of   |                       |
| Int., Bur. Land       | water development     |                       |
| Manage.               | practices and         |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing as  |                       |
| Unpubl. Manuscript.   | being the primary     |                       |
| 96 pp.                | areas where wildlife  |                       |
|                       | habitat conflicts     |                       |
|                       | exist, and further    |                       |
|                       | states that "The      |                       |
|                       | areas around most     |                       |
|                       | livestock waters and  |                       |
|                       | water courses visited |                       |
|                       | (in the 3 districts)  |                       |
|                       | were denuded of       |                       |
|                       | vegetation and        |                       |
|                       | trampled by           |                       |
|                       | livestock."           |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| U. S. Dept. of        | During drought        | Nevada                |
| Interior, Bureau of   | periods (i.e., a      |                       |
| Land                  | specified period of   |                       |
|                       | time in which the     |                       |
| Management. 2000.     | precipitation         |                       |
| Management            | received is less than |                       |
|                       | 75 percent of         |                       |
| guidelines for sage   | average) of two or    |                       |
| grouse and sagebrush  | more years, reduce    |                       |
|                       | stocking rates or     |                       |
| ecosystems in Nevada. | change management     |                       |
|                       | practices for         |                       |
|                       | livestock if nesting  |                       |
|                       | cover and             |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing habitat |                       |
|                       | requirements are not  |                       |
|                       | being met.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Coordinate livestock  |                       |
|                       | use on                |                       |
|                       | wetland-riparian and  |                       |
|                       | streambank-riparian   |                       |
|                       | habitat to ensure     |                       |
|                       | known late season     |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing         |                       |
|                       | habitats are in       |                       |
|                       | optimal condition.    |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| van Kooten, G.C., R.  | Define, identify,     | Nevada                |
| Thomsen, T.G. Hobby,  | conserve and enhance  |                       |
|                       | critical lek,         |                       |
| and A.J. Eagle. 2004. | nesting, brood        |                       |
| Social Dilemmas and   | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat used by sage  |                       |
| Public Range          | grouse.               |                       |
| Management in Nevada. | Characteristics of    |                       |
|                       | habitat types         |                       |
|                       | preferred by sage     |                       |
|                       | grouse at various     |                       |
|                       | times of the year,    |                       |
|                       | and the               |                       |
|                       | interrelationships    |                       |
|                       | between these habitat |                       |
|                       | types, are not        |                       |
|                       | clearly defined.      |                       |
|                       | Public (landowners,   |                       |
|                       | land managers and     |                       |
|                       | other land users)     |                       |
|                       | involvement and       |                       |
|                       | participation in      |                       |
|                       | reporting sightings   |                       |
|                       | of sage grouse leks,  |                       |
|                       | nests, broods and     |                       |
|                       | winter locations      |                       |
|                       | should be encouraged. |                       |
|                       | Intensive searches of |                       |
|                       | sage grouse range are |                       |
|                       | required to assess    |                       |
|                       | critical habitat      |                       |
|                       | parameters throughout |                       |
|                       | the year and the      |                       |
|                       | relationships between |                       |
|                       | these habitat types.  |                       |
|                       | Abandoned habitat     |                       |
|                       | should be assessed    |                       |
|                       | for seasonal          |                       |
|                       | deficiencies which    |                       |
|                       | may limit use by sage |                       |
|                       | grouse. Critical      |                       |
|                       | habitat must be       |                       |
|                       | protected and         |                       |
|                       | secured. Land-use     |                       |
|                       | practices and other   |                       |
|                       | factors detrimental   |                       |
|                       | to maintenance of     |                       |
|                       | quality sage grouse   |                       |
|                       | habitat need to be    |                       |
|                       | identified. Working   |                       |
|                       | co-operatively with   |                       |
|                       | land managers and     |                       |
|                       | other land users,     |                       |
|                       | initiatives need to   |                       |
|                       | be developed to       |                       |
|                       | enhance and maintain  |                       |
|                       | an abundance of high  |                       |
|                       | quality habitat on    |                       |
|                       | private and public    |                       |
|                       | lands throughout the  |                       |
|                       | range of sage grouse. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Establish public      |                       |
|                       | reporting system for  |                       |
|                       | sage grouse leks,     |                       |
|                       | nesting, brood and    |                       |
|                       | winter locations.     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Conduct              |                       |
|                       | searches/surveys for  |                       |
|                       | active leks, nests,   |                       |
|                       | brood rearing and     |                       |
|                       | winter use areas      |                       |
|                       | throughout sage       |                       |
|                       | grouse range.         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Document habitat     |                       |
|                       | characteristics of    |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting,         |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing and     |                       |
|                       | winter-use areas and  |                       |
|                       | the                   |                       |
|                       | interrelationships    |                       |
|                       | between habitat       |                       |
|                       | types.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Investigate habitat  |                       |
|                       | parameters (lek,      |                       |
|                       | nesting, brood        |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | use) in areas of      |                       |
|                       | abandoned leks.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Investigate the use  |                       |
|                       | of remote-sensing     |                       |
|                       | data systems to       |                       |
|                       | identify potential    |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting,         |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing and     |                       |
|                       | winter habitat.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Map critical lek,    |                       |
|                       | nesting, brood        |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat areas.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Identify critical    |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting, brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat which must be |                       |
|                       | protected, secured or |                       |
|                       | enhanced.             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Identify land-use    |                       |
|                       | practices which are   |                       |
|                       | detrimental to        |                       |
|                       | provision of quality  |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting, brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Develop cooperative  |                       |
|                       | initiatives to        |                       |
|                       | protect lek sites and |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting, brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat on public     |                       |
|                       | lands.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Develop cooperative  |                       |
|                       | initiatives to        |                       |
|                       | protect lek sites and |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting, brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat on private    |                       |
|                       | lands.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Develop cooperative  |                       |
|                       | initiatives to        |                       |
|                       | enhance and improve   |                       |
|                       | the quantity and      |                       |
|                       | quality of lek,       |                       |
|                       | nesting, brood        |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat.              |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Young, J.A. 1994.     | Potential for         | Great Basin Ecoregion |
| Changes in plant      | competition with      | (Nevada and           |
|                       | Sage-Grouse young may | California)           |
| communities in the    | be in proportion to   |                       |
| Great Basin induced   | the extent to which   |                       |
| by                    | cattle select         |                       |
|                       | mesic/moist sites     |                       |
| domestic livestock    | that are preferred    |                       |
| grazing. Pages        | foraging areas. Young |                       |
| 113-123               | birds seek out        |                       |
|                       | insects and succulent |                       |
| in K.T. Harper, L.L.  | forbs in these        |                       |
| St. Clair, K.H.       | habitats.             |                       |
| Thorne,               |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| and W.M. Hess,        |                       |                       |
| editors, Natural      |                       |                       |
| history of            |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| the Colorado plateau  |                       |                       |
| and Great Basin.      |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| University Press of   |                       |                       |
| Colorado, Niwot.      |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Autenrieth, R.E.      | ... livestock         | Idaho                 |
| 1973. Sage grouse     | competition with      |                       |
| research in           | broods on wet meadows |                       |
|                       | negatively affected   |                       |
| Idaho. Proc. West.    | some sage grouse      |                       |
| States Sage Grouse    | populations in Idaho. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Workshop 8:51-52.     |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Autenrieth, R. E.     | The key to sage       | Idaho                 |
| 1981. Sage Grouse     | grouse habitat        |                       |
|                       | enhancement is to     |                       |
| management in Idaho.  | increase favored      |                       |
| Idaho Dept. of Fish   | forbs for brood use   |                       |
|                       | while minimally       |                       |
| and Game.             | reducing protective   |                       |
|                       | sagebrush cover.      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | ...even in wet        |                       |
|                       | springs hens must     |                       |
|                       | move their broods to  |                       |
|                       | mesic areas in search |                       |
|                       | of insects and forbs  |                       |
|                       | if domestic livestock |                       |
|                       | has depleted the      |                       |
|                       | range.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | When broods do not    |                       |
|                       | migrate, they rely on |                       |
|                       | springs and wet       |                       |
|                       | meadows for forbs.    |                       |
|                       | Livestock graze these |                       |
|                       | sites making adequate |                       |
|                       | forbs for sage-grouse |                       |
|                       | difficult.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | The key to improving  |                       |
|                       | dryland range for     |                       |
|                       | sage grouse benefit   |                       |
|                       | is to seed forbs on   |                       |
|                       | depleted areas and/or |                       |
|                       | control livestock use |                       |
|                       | on mesic areas in     |                       |
|                       | June and July to      |                       |
|                       | prevent forb loss and |                       |
|                       | trampling prior to    |                       |
|                       | and during brood use. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | One technique for     |                       |
|                       | protecting meadow     |                       |
|                       | forbs from livestock  |                       |
|                       | trampling and grazing |                       |
|                       | is to fence the       |                       |
|                       | stream meadow and     |                       |
|                       | leave access gaps for |                       |
|                       | water.                |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Connelly, J.W., M.A.  | Brood-rearing         | Idaho                 |
| Schroeder, A.R. Sands | habitats for          |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse are       |                       |
| and C.E. Braun. 2000. | typically mosaics of  |                       |
| Guidelines to         | upland sagebrush and  |                       |
|                       | other habitats (e.g., |                       |
| manage sage grouse    | wet meadows, riparian |                       |
| populations and their | areas) that together  |                       |
|                       | provide abundant      |                       |
| habitats. Wildl Soc   | insects and forbs for |                       |
| Bull. 28(4):967-985.  | hens and chicks.      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Increased use of      |                       |
|                       | meadows and riparian  |                       |
|                       | areas in mid- to late |                       |
|                       | summer is common as   |                       |
|                       | herbaceous vegetation |                       |
|                       | in upland habitat     |                       |
|                       | becomes desiccated.   |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | During drought        |                       |
|                       | periods (≥ 2          |                       |
|                       | consecutive years),   |                       |
|                       | reduce stocking rates |                       |
|                       | or change management  |                       |
|                       | practices for         |                       |
|                       | livestock...if cover  |                       |
|                       | requirements during   |                       |
|                       | the nesting and       |                       |
|                       | brooding periods are  |                       |
|                       | not met. Grazing      |                       |
|                       | pressure from         |                       |
|                       | domestic livestock    |                       |
|                       | and wild ungulates    |                       |
|                       | should be managed in  |                       |
|                       | a manner that at all  |                       |
|                       | times addresses the   |                       |
|                       | possibility of        |                       |
|                       | drought.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Restore degraded      |                       |
|                       | rangelands to a       |                       |
|                       | condition that again  |                       |
|                       | provides suitable     |                       |
|                       | breeding habitat for  |                       |
|                       | sage grouse by        |                       |
|                       | including sagebrush,  |                       |
|                       | native forbs          |                       |
|                       | (especially legumes), |                       |
|                       | and native grasses in |                       |
|                       | reseeding efforts     |                       |
|                       | (Apa 1998). If native |                       |
|                       | forbs and grasses are |                       |
|                       | unavailable, use      |                       |
|                       | species that are      |                       |
|                       | functional            |                       |
|                       | equivalents and       |                       |
|                       | provide habitat       |                       |
|                       | characteristics       |                       |
|                       | similar to those of   |                       |
|                       | native species.       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Dalke, P.D.; Pyrah,   | Sage grouse in Idaho  | Idaho                 |
| D.B.; Stanton, D.C.;  | formed large flocks   |                       |
|                       | near water and green  |                       |
| Crawford, J.E.; and   | meadows as plants     |                       |
| F. Schlatterer. 1963. | senesced during       |                       |
|                       | summer.               |                       |
| Ecology,              |                       |                       |
| productivity, and     |                       |                       |
| management of         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| sage grouse in Idaho. |                       |                       |
| J. Wildl. Manage. 27: |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 810-841.              |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Fielding, D.J., and   | Livestock grazing     | Idaho                 |
| M.A. Brusven. 1995.   | during drought        |                       |
|                       | generally reduced     |                       |
| Grasshopper densities | grasshopper           |                       |
| on grazed and         | production.           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| ungrazed rangeland    |                       |                       |
| under drought         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| conditions in         |                       |                       |
| southern Idaho. Great |                       |                       |
| Basin                 |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Naturalist            |                       |                       |
| 55:352-358.           |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Klebenow, D.A. and    | Favored foods are     | Idaho                 |
| G.M. Gray. 1969. Food | common dandelion      |                       |
|                       | (*Taraxacum           |                       |
| habits of juvenile    | officinale*), common  |                       |
| sage grouse. J. Range | salsify (*Tragopogon  |                       |
|                       | dubius*), western     |                       |
| Manage. 21(2):80-83.  | yarrow (*Archillea    |                       |
|                       | millifolium*) and     |                       |
|                       | others.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In southeastern       |                       |
|                       | Idaho, sage-grouse    |                       |
|                       | broods were most      |                       |
|                       | often found in big    |                       |
|                       | sagebrush (83% of     |                       |
|                       | broods), whereas      |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse in this   |                       |
|                       | area nested primarily |                       |
|                       | in threetip           |                       |
|                       | sagebrush.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Mean big sagebrush    |                       |
|                       | crown cover at brood  |                       |
|                       | locations was 8.5%,   |                       |
|                       | significantly less    |                       |
|                       | than in the           |                       |
|                       | surrounding area      |                       |
|                       | (14.3%). Broods       |                       |
|                       | appeared to avoid     |                       |
|                       | sites with dense      |                       |
|                       | (e.g., 40%) big       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush cover and   |                       |
|                       | few forbs. In the     |                       |
|                       | development of a      |                       |
|                       | predictive model for  |                       |
|                       | brood habitat with    |                       |
|                       | discriminant function |                       |
|                       | analysis, several     |                       |
|                       | variables were useful |                       |
|                       | in distinguishing     |                       |
|                       | brood habitat.        |                       |
|                       | Compared to the       |                       |
|                       | available big         |                       |
|                       | sagebrush habitat,    |                       |
|                       | broods used areas     |                       |
|                       | with lower density of |                       |
|                       | big sagebrush plants  |                       |
|                       | and greater frequency |                       |
|                       | of three forbs:       |                       |
|                       | western yarrow        |                       |
|                       | (*Achillea            |                       |
|                       | millefolium*; 23.5%), |                       |
|                       | tailcup lupine        |                       |
|                       | (*Lupinus caudatus*;  |                       |
|                       | 18.3%), and common    |                       |
|                       | dandelion (*Taraxacum |                       |
|                       | officinale*; 12.0%).  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Broods moved to       |                       |
|                       | higher elevations in  |                       |
|                       | summers presumably in |                       |
|                       | response to food      |                       |
|                       | availability.         |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Poley, B. E. 1969.    | Most researchers      | Colorado              |
| Seasonal Movements of | believe that broods   |                       |
|                       | stay in the vicinity  |                       |
| Sage Grouse in        | of the nest for about |                       |
| Colorado. Journal of  | two weeks before      |                       |
|                       | moving toward hay     |                       |
| Colorado Field        | meadows.              |                       |
| Ornithologists.       |                       |                       |
| 5:1-4.                | The hen on the other  |                       |
|                       | nest under            |                       |
|                       | observation remained  |                       |
|                       | in the vicinity of    |                       |
|                       | the nest for 30 days  |                       |
|                       | before starting a     |                       |
|                       | very leisurely trek   |                       |
|                       | to a meadow about one |                       |
|                       | mile away.            |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Rogers, G.E. 1964.    | As food plants mature | Colorado              |
| Sage grouse           | and dry, the grouse   |                       |
| investigations        | move to areas still   |                       |
|                       | supporting succulent  |                       |
| in Colorado. Colorado | vegetation. These may |                       |
| Dept. Game, Fish      | be lower elevation    |                       |
|                       | native meadows or     |                       |
| and Parks. Tech.      | irrigated meadows     |                       |
| Publ. 16. 132 pp.     | when no uplands with  |                       |
|                       | green vegetation are  |                       |
|                       | in the area.          |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Eng, R.L. 1952.       | As food plants mature | Montana               |
| Population trends and | and dry, the grouse   |                       |
|                       | move to areas still   |                       |
| breeding potential    | supporting succulent  |                       |
| studies (sage grouse  | vegetation. These may |                       |
|                       | be lower elevation    |                       |
| brood studies).       | native meadows or     |                       |
| Montana Fish and Game | irrigated meadows     |                       |
|                       | when no uplands with  |                       |
| Comm., Wildlife       | green vegetation are  |                       |
| Restoration Div.      | in the area.          |                       |
| Quart.                |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Prog. Rep.            |                       |                       |
| 3(4):56-62.           |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Peterson, J.G. 1970.  | Favored foods are     | Montana               |
| The food habits and   | common dandelion      |                       |
|                       | (*Taraxacum           |                       |
| summer distribution   | officinale*), common  |                       |
| of juvenile sage      | salsify (*Tragopogon  |                       |
| grouse                | dubius*), western     |                       |
|                       | yarrow (*Archillea    |                       |
| in central Montana.   | millifolium*) and     |                       |
| J. Wildl. Manage.     | others.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 34:147-155.           |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Wallestad, R.O. 1971. | Sage grouse broods    | Montana               |
| Summer movements      | shifted from          |                       |
|                       | sagebrush grasslands  |                       |
| and habitat use by    | to alfalfa fields and |                       |
| sage grouse broods in | greasewood bottoms as |                       |
|                       | forbs at higher       |                       |
| central Montana. J.   | elevations became     |                       |
| Wildl. Manage.        | desiccated.           |                       |
| 35:129-               |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 136\.                 |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Wallestad, R.O. 1975. | In Montana,           | Montana               |
| Life history and      | approximately 65% of  |                       |
| habitat               | all grouse            |                       |
|                       | observations during   |                       |
| requirements of sage  | August and September  |                       |
| grouse in central     | were recorded in      |                       |
|                       | bottomland types such |                       |
| Montana. J. Wildl.    | as alfalfa fields and |                       |
| Manage. 35:129-136.   | greasewood bottoms.   |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Brood habitat was     |                       |
|                       | largely determined by |                       |
|                       | the availability of   |                       |
|                       | succulent vegetation. |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Batterson, W. M., and | During July, several  | Oregon                |
| W.B. Morse. 1948.     | broods unite and      |                       |
|                       | adult males join      |                       |
| Oregon Sage Grouse.   | them; the grouse      |                       |
| Oregon Fauna Series   | flocks then migrate   |                       |
|                       | to the alfalfa fields |                       |
| No. 1. Oregon State   | or other areas with   |                       |
| Game Comm. Portland,  | more succulent feed   |                       |
|                       | in the valleys        |                       |
| OR                    |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Call, M.W., and C.    | Livestock grazing of  | Oregon                |
| Maser. 1985. Wildlife | sagebrush ranges      |                       |
|                       | during years of       |                       |
| Habitats in Managed   | unusually low         |                       |
| Rangelands\--The      | precipitation and     |                       |
|                       | poor plant growth     |                       |
| Great Basin of        | will cause an earlier |                       |
| Southeastern Oregon.  | than normal removal   |                       |
| U.S.                  | of grasses and forbs. |                       |
|                       | This can have a       |                       |
| Department of         | serious impact on     |                       |
| Agriculture Forest    | grouse dependent on   |                       |
| Service               | forbs in that         |                       |
|                       | locality.             |                       |
| Pacific Northwest     |                       |                       |
| Forest and Range      | In important sage     |                       |
|                       | grouse nesting and    |                       |
| Experiment Station.   | summering areas,      |                       |
| General Technical     | livestock grazing     |                       |
|                       | should be monitored   |                       |
| Report PNW-187.       | to protect at least   |                       |
| Portland, Oregon.     | 50 percent of the     |                       |
|                       | annual herbaceous     |                       |
|                       | vegetation (by        |                       |
|                       | weight) prior to      |                       |
|                       | mid-September. After  |                       |
|                       | mid-September, grouse |                       |
|                       | commence feeding on   |                       |
|                       | sagebrush and         |                       |
|                       | increased livestock   |                       |
|                       | grazing on herbaceous |                       |
|                       | vegetation will not   |                       |
|                       | be detrimental.       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Coggins, K. A. 1998.  | Between periods brood | Oregon                |
| Relationship between  | success increased,    |                       |
|                       | but not               |                       |
| habitat changes and   | significantly, with   |                       |
| productivity of sage  | increased total forb  |                       |
|                       | cover and key food    |                       |
| grouse at Hart        | forb cover during     |                       |
| Mountain National     | summer.               |                       |
| Antelope              |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Refuge, Oregon.       |                       |                       |
| Oregon State Univ..   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Corvallis, Oregon.    |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Crawford, J. A., M.   | Maintain or develop a | Oregon                |
| A. Gregg, M. S. Drut, | mosaic of low and big |                       |
| and                   | sagebrush habitats or |                       |
|                       | big sagebrush         |                       |
| A. K. DeLong. 1992.   | habitats in an array  |                       |
| Habitat use by female | of seral stages to    |                       |
|                       | provide 12-14% forb   |                       |
| Sage Grouse during    | cover for hens with   |                       |
| the breeding season   | broods and broodless  |                       |
| in                    | hens throughout the   |                       |
|                       | breeding season.      |                       |
| Oregon. BLM Coop.     |                       |                       |
| Res. Unit, Oregon     | Protect riparian      |                       |
|                       | habitats (lakebeds    |                       |
| State Univ.           | and meadows) from     |                       |
| Corvallis, OR         | excessive grazing and |                       |
|                       | rehabilitate riparian |                       |
|                       | habitats in poor      |                       |
|                       | condition. These      |                       |
|                       | habitats are critical |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing and     |                       |
|                       | summer use areas in   |                       |
|                       | regions with low      |                       |
|                       | annual rainfall and   |                       |
|                       | during drought years. |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Crawford, J. A., and  | In a subsequent study | Oregon                |
| D. M. Davis. 2002.    | during 1998-2000 at   |                       |
|                       | Sheldon NWR, broods   |                       |
| Habitat use by        | (n = 392 locations)   |                       |
| Greater Sage-Grouse   | used primarily low    |                       |
| on                    | sagebrush for the     |                       |
|                       | first few weeks after |                       |
| Sheldon National      | hatching, moving to   |                       |
| Wildlife Refuge.      | big sagebrush         |                       |
| Final                 | (mountain or Wyoming) |                       |
|                       | or mountain shrub     |                       |
| Report. Game Bird     | communities by 3      |                       |
| Research Program,     | weeks post-hatch.     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Oregon State          |                       |                       |
| University,           |                       |                       |
| Corvallis, Oregon.    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 119 pages             |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Drut, M. S., J. A.    | In two study sites in | Oregon                |
| Crawford, and M. A.   | southeastern Oregon,  |                       |
| Gregg.                | Hart Mountain         |                       |
|                       | National Antelope     |                       |
| 1994\. Brood habitat  | Refuge and Jackass    |                       |
| use by Sage Grouse in | Creek, sage-grouse    |                       |
|                       | broods were most      |                       |
| Oregon. Great Basin   | common in low         |                       |
| Naturalist            | sagebrush during      |                       |
| 54:170-176.           | early brood rearing   |                       |
|                       | (first 6 weeks        |                       |
|                       | post-hatch), but then |                       |
|                       | moved to sites        |                       |
|                       | dominated by big      |                       |
|                       | sagebrush (7-12 weeks |                       |
|                       | after hatching).      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Following brood       |                       |
|                       | breakup in August,    |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse used      |                       |
|                       | meadows and lake beds |                       |
|                       | more frequently than  |                       |
|                       | earlier during the    |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing period. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | During early brood    |                       |
|                       | rearing at Jackass    |                       |
|                       | Creek, forb cover at  |                       |
|                       | sites used by broods  |                       |
|                       | was 10 to 14% and     |                       |
|                       | exceeded forb cover   |                       |
|                       | at random sites (Drut |                       |
|                       | et al. 1994a);        |                       |
|                       | however, no pattern   |                       |
|                       | was evident during    |                       |
|                       | late brood rearing.   |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Broods at Hart        |                       |
|                       | Mountain used forb    |                       |
|                       | cover in relation to  |                       |
|                       | its availability      |                       |
|                       | during early brood    |                       |
|                       | rearing, but selected |                       |
|                       | sites with greater    |                       |
|                       | forb cover (19 to     |                       |
|                       | 27%) during the late  |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing period. |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Hanf, J. M., P.A.     | Manage mountain big   | Oregon                |
| Schmidt, and E.B.     | sagebrush areas and   |                       |
| Groshens.             | low sagebrush areas   |                       |
|                       | for increased forb    |                       |
| 1994\. Sage grouse in | production and good   |                       |
| the high desert of    | brood habitat.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| central Oregon:       | Manage sage grouse    |                       |
| results of a study,   | habitats for          |                       |
| 1988-                 | increased forb        |                       |
|                       | production.           |                       |
| 1993\. U. S. Dept. of |                       |                       |
| Interior, Bureau of   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Land Management       |                       |                       |
| Series. Prineville,   |                       |                       |
| OR.                   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| P-SG-01.              |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Stinson, D.W., D.W.   | Grasshoppers are      | Washington            |
| Hays, and M.          | important food of     |                       |
| Schroeder.            | growing chicks.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 2004\. Washington     | Wherever possible,    |                       |
| State Recovery Plan   | prevent disturbance   |                       |
| for                   | in sage-grouse        |                       |
|                       | nesting and brood     |                       |
| the Greater           | rearing habitat       |                       |
| Sage-Grouse.          | between 1 March and   |                       |
| Washington Dept.      | 15 June,              |                       |
|                       | including...livestock |                       |
| of Fish and Wildlife. | trail use...          |                       |
| Olympia, Washington.  |                       |                       |
|                       | Where protection and  |                       |
|                       | restoration of        |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse is a      |                       |
|                       | major objective for   |                       |
|                       | public lands, manage  |                       |
|                       | grazing so that the   |                       |
|                       | habitat               |                       |
|                       | characteristics       |                       |
|                       | needed for breeding   |                       |
|                       | and wintering can be  |                       |
|                       | consistently          |                       |
|                       | maintained (Connelly  |                       |
|                       | et al. 2000).         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Discourage removal of |                       |
|                       | sagebrush from known  |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse wintering |                       |
|                       | areas and areas that  |                       |
|                       | provide escape cover  |                       |
|                       | in breeding habitat,  |                       |
|                       | especially within 3   |                       |
|                       | km of leks.           |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Riggs, R.A. and P.J.  | Prescribed livestock  | Utah                  |
| Urness. 1989. Effects | grazing may help      |                       |
| of                    | control woody plant   |                       |
|                       | encroachment in       |                       |
| goat browsing on      | sage-grouse habitat   |                       |
| Gambel oak            | and may reduce        |                       |
| communities           | wildfire risks to low |                       |
|                       | elevation plant       |                       |
| in northern Utah. J.  | communities.          |                       |
| Range Manage 42:354-- |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 360\.                 |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Rowland, M.M. 2004.   | Broods at Hart        | North Dakota          |
| Effects of management | Mountain used forb    |                       |
|                       | cover in relation to  |                       |
| practices on          | its availability      |                       |
| grassland birds:      | during early brood    |                       |
| Greater Sage-         | rearing, but selected |                       |
|                       | sites with greater    |                       |
| Grouse. Jamestown, ND | forb cover (19 to     |                       |
| Northern Prairie      | 27%) during the late  |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing period. |                       |
| Wildlife Research     |                       |                       |
| Center.               | In these meadows,     |                       |
|                       | most broods occurred  |                       |
|                       | in sites with         |                       |
|                       | relatively shorter    |                       |
|                       | shrubs (60 cm) and    |                       |
|                       | greater dominance of  |                       |
|                       | grass and forb cover. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Important brood       |                       |
|                       | habitats were low     |                       |
|                       | sagebrush (40% of all |                       |
|                       | brood locations), a   |                       |
|                       | 10-yr old burn in a   |                       |
|                       | mountain big          |                       |
|                       | sagebrush site (19%), |                       |
|                       | mountain shrub (16%), |                       |
|                       | and mountain big      |                       |
|                       | sagebrush (13%).      |                       |
|                       | Differences in        |                       |
|                       | vegetation            |                       |
|                       | characteristics       |                       |
|                       | (e.g., tall grass     |                       |
|                       | cover and forbs       |                       |
|                       | consumed by hens)     |                       |
|                       | were found between    |                       |
|                       | brood locations and   |                       |
|                       | random sites; these   |                       |
|                       | differences, however, |                       |
|                       | varied among cover    |                       |
|                       | types. For example,   |                       |
|                       | in the low sagebrush  |                       |
|                       | cover type, cover of  |                       |
|                       | forbs eaten by hens   |                       |
|                       | and chicks was less   |                       |
|                       | at brood locations    |                       |
|                       | (about 5.5%) than at  |                       |
|                       | random sites (10.2    |                       |
|                       | and 8.2% for hens and |                       |
|                       | chicks,               |                       |
|                       | respectively), but    |                       |
|                       | tall grass cover was  |                       |
|                       | greater (4.4% at      |                       |
|                       | brood locations vs.   |                       |
|                       | 1.4% at random        |                       |
|                       | sites). By contrast,  |                       |
|                       | cover of forbs used   |                       |
|                       | by hens and chicks in |                       |
|                       | the burn was greater  |                       |
|                       | at brood locations    |                       |
|                       | (6.7 and 5.2%) versus |                       |
|                       | random sites (2.3 and |                       |
|                       | 3.4%, respectively),  |                       |
|                       | but tall grass cover  |                       |
|                       | was less (18.3% at    |                       |
|                       | brood locations vs.   |                       |
|                       | 26.2% at random       |                       |
|                       | sites). Of the five   |                       |
|                       | cover types in which  |                       |
|                       | there were            |                       |
|                       | significant           |                       |
|                       | differences, cover of |                       |
|                       | forbs used by hens    |                       |
|                       | and chicks was        |                       |
|                       | greater at brood      |                       |
|                       | locations than at     |                       |
|                       | random sites in four  |                       |
|                       | types (all but low    |                       |
|                       | sagebrush). No        |                       |
|                       | differences were      |                       |
|                       | found in vegetation   |                       |
|                       | characteristics       |                       |
|                       | between early and     |                       |
|                       | late brood-rearing    |                       |
|                       | habitats.             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Mean big sagebrush    |                       |
|                       | crown cover at brood  |                       |
|                       | locations was 8.5%,   |                       |
|                       | significantly less    |                       |
|                       | than in the           |                       |
|                       | surrounding area      |                       |
|                       | (14.3%). Broods       |                       |
|                       | appeared to avoid     |                       |
|                       | sites with dense      |                       |
|                       | (e.g., 40%) big       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush cover and   |                       |
|                       | few forbs. In the     |                       |
|                       | development of a      |                       |
|                       | predictive model for  |                       |
|                       | brood habitat with    |                       |
|                       | discriminant function |                       |
|                       | analysis, several     |                       |
|                       | variables were useful |                       |
|                       | in distinguishing     |                       |
|                       | brood habitat.        |                       |
|                       | Compared to the       |                       |
|                       | available big         |                       |
|                       | sagebrush habitat,    |                       |
|                       | broods used areas     |                       |
|                       | with lower density of |                       |
|                       | big sagebrush plants  |                       |
|                       | and greater frequency |                       |
|                       | of three forbs:       |                       |
|                       | western yarrow        |                       |
|                       | (*Achillea            |                       |
|                       | millefolium*; 23.5%), |                       |
|                       | tailcup lupine        |                       |
|                       | (*Lupinus caudatus*;  |                       |
|                       | 18.3%), and common    |                       |
|                       | dandelion (*Taraxacum |                       |
|                       | officinale*; 12.0%).  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Seasonal shifts in    |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing habitat |                       |
|                       | may not occur.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Broodless hens may    |                       |
|                       | exhibit different     |                       |
|                       | habitat use patterns. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Broodless hens used   |                       |
|                       | more low              |                       |
|                       | sagebrush/bunchgrass, |                       |
|                       | grasslands, and       |                       |
|                       | meadow types and less |                       |
|                       | low sagebrush/fescue. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Keys to management    |                       |
|                       | are maintaining       |                       |
|                       | expansive stands of   |                       |
|                       | sagebrush             |                       |
|                       | (*Artemisia* spp.),   |                       |
|                       | especially varieties  |                       |
|                       | of big sagebrush (*A. |                       |
|                       | tridentata*), with    |                       |
|                       | abundant forbs in the |                       |
|                       | understory,           |                       |
|                       | particularly during   |                       |
|                       | spring; undisturbed   |                       |
|                       | and relatively open   |                       |
|                       | sites for leks; and   |                       |
|                       | healthy perennial     |                       |
|                       | grass and forb stands |                       |
|                       | intermixed with       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush for brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing. Within       |                       |
|                       | suitable habitats,    |                       |
|                       | areas should have 15  |                       |
|                       | to 25% canopy cover   |                       |
|                       | of sagebrush 30 to 80 |                       |
|                       | cm tall for nesting,  |                       |
|                       | and 10 to 25% canopy  |                       |
|                       | cover from 40 to 80   |                       |
|                       | cm tall for brood     |                       |
|                       | rearing (Connelly et  |                       |
|                       | al. 2000). In winter  |                       |
|                       | habitats, shrubs      |                       |
|                       | should be exposed 25  |                       |
|                       | to 35 cm above snow   |                       |
|                       | level and have 10 to  |                       |
|                       | 30% canopy cover      |                       |
|                       | exposed above snow.   |                       |
|                       | In nesting and        |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing         |                       |
|                       | habitats, understory  |                       |
|                       | habitats with         |                       |
|                       | adequate cover of     |                       |
|                       | grasses (\>15%) and   |                       |
|                       | forbs (\>10%) at      |                       |
|                       | least 18 cm tall are  |                       |
|                       | needed (Connelly et   |                       |
|                       | al. 2000).            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Manage livestock      |                       |
|                       | grazing through       |                       |
|                       | stocking rates and    |                       |
|                       | season of use on all  |                       |
|                       | seasonal ranges of    |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse to avoid  |                       |
|                       | habitat degradation   |                       |
|                       | (Paige and Ritter     |                       |
|                       | 1999, Beck and        |                       |
|                       | Mitchell 2000, Wisdom |                       |
|                       | et al. 2000),         |                       |
|                       | especially on         |                       |
|                       | recently disturbed    |                       |
|                       | sites, such as those  |                       |
|                       | sprayed or burned     |                       |
|                       | (Braun et al. 1977).  |                       |
|                       | In nesting and        |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing         |                       |
|                       | habitats, ensure that |                       |
|                       | grazing does not      |                       |
|                       | reduce herbaceous     |                       |
|                       | understory cover      |                       |
|                       | below levels that     |                       |
|                       | serve as a deterrent  |                       |
|                       | to potential          |                       |
|                       | predators of eggs and |                       |
|                       | chicks (Connelly et   |                       |
|                       | al. 2000, Hockett     |                       |
|                       | 2002). Healthy native |                       |
|                       | understories also     |                       |
|                       | support insects and   |                       |
|                       | forbs that are        |                       |
|                       | important in diets of |                       |
|                       | pre-laying hens and   |                       |
|                       | chicks (Johnson and   |                       |
|                       | Boyce 1990, Barnett   |                       |
|                       | and Crawford 1994,    |                       |
|                       | Drut et al. 1994).    |                       |
|                       | Riparian areas and    |                       |
|                       | wet meadows used for  |                       |
|                       | brood rearing are     |                       |
|                       | especially sensitive  |                       |
|                       | to grazing by         |                       |
|                       | livestock; in these   |                       |
|                       | habitats, removal of  |                       |
|                       | livestock before the  |                       |
|                       | nesting season may be |                       |
|                       | prudent (Beck and     |                       |
|                       | Mitchell 2000,        |                       |
|                       | Hockett 2002).        |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Adams, B.W., J.       | Potential for         | Canada                |
| Carlson, D. Milner,   | competition with      |                       |
| T. Hood,              | Sage-Grouse young may |                       |
|                       | be in proportion to   |                       |
| B. Cairns and P.      | the extent to which   |                       |
| Herzog. 2004.         | cattle select         |                       |
|                       | mesic/moist sites     |                       |
| Beneficial grazing    | that are preferred    |                       |
| management practices  | foraging areas. Young |                       |
|                       | birds seek out        |                       |
| for Sage-Grouse       | insects and succulent |                       |
| (*Centrocercus*       | forbs in these        |                       |
|                       | habitats.             |                       |
| *urophasianus*) and   |                       |                       |
| ecology of silver     | During drought        |                       |
|                       | conditions, important |                       |
| sagebrush (*Artemisia | forage plants may be  |                       |
| cana*) in             | grazed earlier than   |                       |
| southeastern          | normal, thus reducing |                       |
|                       | the potential forage  |                       |
| Alberta. Public Lands | supply for young      |                       |
| and Forests Division, | birds. Conversely,    |                       |
|                       | dormant season        |                       |
| Alberta Sustainable   | grazing of brood      |                       |
| Resource Development. | rearing areas will    |                       |
|                       | reduce potential for  |                       |
| Pub. No. T /049.      | overlap with          |                       |
|                       | Sage-Grouse diets.    |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Maintain light        |                       |
|                       | grazing intensities   |                       |
|                       | to produce mosaics in |                       |
|                       | vegetation and an     |                       |
|                       | increase in herbage   |                       |
|                       | production that are   |                       |
|                       | favorable for         |                       |
|                       | Sage-Grouse nesting   |                       |
|                       | and brood-rearing     |                       |
|                       | habitat.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Patchy grazing will   |                       |
|                       | increase the          |                       |
|                       | availability of forbs |                       |
|                       | and stimulate their   |                       |
|                       | growth in upland      |                       |
|                       | meadows.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Grazing deferral may  |                       |
|                       | also prevent          |                       |
|                       | competition for       |                       |
|                       | forage, especially    |                       |
|                       | lush forbs required   |                       |
|                       | by young Sage-Grouse. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Riparian area         |                       |
|                       | management practices  |                       |
|                       | are required to       |                       |
|                       | maintain only light   |                       |
|                       | to moderate grazing   |                       |
|                       | pressure on mesic     |                       |
|                       | meadows and riparian  |                       |
|                       | areas.                |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Aldridge, C. L., and  | Potential for         | Canada                |
| R. M. Brigham. 2002.  | competition with      |                       |
|                       | Sage-Grouse young may |                       |
| Sage-Grouse nesting   | be in proportion to   |                       |
| and brood habitat use | the extent to which   |                       |
|                       | cattle select         |                       |
| in southern Canada.   | mesic/moist sites     |                       |
| Journal of Wildlife   | that are preferred    |                       |
|                       | foraging areas. Young |                       |
| Management 66(2):     | birds seek out        |                       |
| 433-444.              | insects and succulent |                       |
|                       | forbs in these        |                       |
|                       | habitats.             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | If management goals   |                       |
|                       | are to provide        |                       |
|                       | suitable nesting and  |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing         |                       |
|                       | habitat, efforts      |                       |
|                       | should be directed    |                       |
|                       | toward protecting and |                       |
|                       | enhancing sagebrush   |                       |
|                       | stands ≥ 30 m2 and    |                       |
|                       | increasing overall    |                       |
|                       | sagebrush cover.      |                       |
|                       | These stands also     |                       |
|                       | should have a         |                       |
|                       | suitable understory   |                       |
|                       | of tall grasses and   |                       |
|                       | forbs to enhance nest |                       |
|                       | concealment.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Management strategies |                       |
|                       | also should focus on  |                       |
|                       | increasing the        |                       |
|                       | availability of mesic |                       |
|                       | sites and increasing  |                       |
|                       | the abundance of      |                       |
|                       | sites with \> 10%     |                       |
|                       | forb cover, to        |                       |
|                       | enhance brood rearing |                       |
|                       | habitat.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Land managers         |                       |
|                       | implementing water    |                       |
|                       | developments for      |                       |
|                       | livestock need to     |                       |
|                       | consider the          |                       |
|                       | potential negative    |                       |
|                       | effects those         |                       |
|                       | developments might    |                       |
|                       | have on key wetlands  |                       |
|                       | and mesic sites.      |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Banasch, D. 1985.     | In Alberta, Banasch   | Canada                |
| Sage grouse in        | (1985) found that 85% |                       |
| Alberta,              | of broods located     |                       |
|                       | were in wet meadows.  |                       |
| habitat requirements, | Broods still remained |                       |
| life history, census  | relatively close to   |                       |
|                       | leks, with an average |                       |
| techniques, summer    | brood-lek distance of |                       |
| brood survey and      | 2.6 km.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| hunter check station  |                       |                       |
| analysis. Unpubl.     |                       |                       |
| rept.,                |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Alberta Fish and      |                       |                       |
| Wildlife, Edmonton,   |                       |                       |
| AB.                   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| 52 pp.                |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Authenrieth, R., W.   | The upland meadow     | Location unknown      |
| Molina, and C. Braun, | represents the        |                       |
| eds.                  | primary summer        |                       |
|                       | habitat available to  |                       |
| 1982\. Sage Grouse    | sage grouse           |                       |
| Management Practices. | throughout much of    |                       |
|                       | its range in Nevada.  |                       |
| Western States Sage   | Past and present      |                       |
| Grouse Committee.     | management of public  |                       |
|                       | lands in Nevada has   |                       |
| Western States Sage   | regarded upland       |                       |
| Grouse Committee      | meadows as sacrifice  |                       |
|                       | areas. A serious      |                       |
| Technical Bulletin    | deterioration of this |                       |
| #1. Twin Falls, ID.   | habitat has been the  |                       |
|                       | inevitable result and |                       |
|                       | will continue unless  |                       |
|                       | meadows are           |                       |
|                       | specifically managed. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Meadows provided a    |                       |
|                       | source of food        |                       |
|                       | (forbs), water and    |                       |
|                       | cover that were       |                       |
|                       | unavailable on more   |                       |
|                       | xeric, but adjacent   |                       |
|                       | rangelands.           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Oakleaf (1971) showed |                       |
|                       | that a reduction in   |                       |
|                       | meadow use by sage    |                       |
|                       | grouse occurred as an |                       |
|                       | increasing percentage |                       |
|                       | of the juvenile       |                       |
|                       | population reached    |                       |
|                       | 11-12 weeks of age.   |                       |
|                       | He further found that |                       |
|                       | the diminished food   |                       |
|                       | supply of a           |                       |
|                       | deteriorated meadow   |                       |
|                       | limited the use by    |                       |
|                       | sage grouse.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Stoddart and Smith    |                       |
|                       | (1955) found that     |                       |
|                       | valley bottoms and    |                       |
|                       | areas around water    |                       |
|                       | sources are used      |                       |
|                       | first by cattle. They |                       |
|                       | indicated overgrazing |                       |
|                       | of mesic sites was    |                       |
|                       | necessary to force    |                       |
|                       | cattle to use less    |                       |
|                       | accessible, rougher   |                       |
|                       | terrain. The result   |                       |
|                       | is that mesic sites   |                       |
|                       | become sacrifice      |                       |
|                       | areas.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | ...the Bureau of Land |                       |
|                       | Management (USDI      |                       |
|                       | 1975) identified      |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing as  |                       |
|                       | having an adverse     |                       |
|                       | impact on 1,413 km    |                       |
|                       | (883 mi) of           |                       |
|                       | streambank riparian   |                       |
|                       | habitat in Nevada.    |                       |
|                       | This report also      |                       |
|                       | described the         |                       |
|                       | combined effects of   |                       |
|                       | water development     |                       |
|                       | practices and         |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing as  |                       |
|                       | being the primary     |                       |
|                       | areas where wildlife  |                       |
|                       | habitat conflicts     |                       |
|                       | exist, and further    |                       |
|                       | states that "The      |                       |
|                       | areas around most     |                       |
|                       | livestock waters and  |                       |
|                       | water courses visited |                       |
|                       | (in the 3 districts)  |                       |
|                       | were denuded of       |                       |
|                       | vegetation and        |                       |
|                       | trampled by           |                       |
|                       | livestock."           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | When \[heavy use of   |                       |
|                       | pasture in rest       |                       |
|                       | rotation grazing      |                       |
|                       | systems\] encompasses |                       |
|                       | nesting and/or brood  |                       |
|                       | rearing habitats the  |                       |
|                       | results are negative. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | It is not legitimate  |                       |
|                       | to assume sage grouse |                       |
|                       | can move elsewhere    |                       |
|                       | during heavy          |                       |
|                       | livestock use.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | One technique for     |                       |
|                       | protecting meadow     |                       |
|                       | forbs from livestock  |                       |
|                       | trampling and grazing |                       |
|                       | is to fence the       |                       |
|                       | stream meadow and     |                       |
|                       | leave fence gaps to   |                       |
|                       | provide livestock     |                       |
|                       | access to water.      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | It may be that        |                       |
|                       | grazing should be     |                       |
|                       | allowed only once     |                       |
|                       | every 3 or more years |                       |
|                       | on meadows in poor    |                       |
|                       | condition or in the   |                       |
|                       | 15-25 cm (6-10 in)    |                       |
|                       | precipitation zone.   |                       |
|                       | In 30 cm (12 in)      |                       |
|                       | zones, annual August  |                       |
|                       | grazing could         |                       |
|                       | probably be allowed,  |                       |
|                       | once adequate         |                       |
|                       | vegetative cover has  |                       |
|                       | become reestablished  |                       |
|                       | and the water table   |                       |
|                       | is adequate.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | A cooperative         |                       |
|                       | agreement should be   |                       |
|                       | written between the   |                       |
|                       | state wildlife agency |                       |
|                       | and the land          |                       |
|                       | management agency to  |                       |
|                       | coordinate the        |                       |
|                       | responsibility of     |                       |
|                       | opening and closing   |                       |
|                       | meadow gates.         |                       |
|                       | Enforcement should    |                       |
|                       | also be coordinated.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In brood rearing      |                       |
|                       | areas springs and     |                       |
|                       | attendant meadow      |                       |
|                       | vegetation should be  |                       |
|                       | fenced and water      |                       |
|                       | piped to an outside   |                       |
|                       | stock tank with an    |                       |
|                       | atmospheric valve     |                       |
|                       | system. When the tank |                       |
|                       | is full, water should |                       |
|                       | be allowed to         |                       |
|                       | overflow into the     |                       |
|                       | fenced meadow.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Reservoirs should be  |                       |
|                       | fenced and the water  |                       |
|                       | piped to a trough.    |                       |
|                       | Dead storage must be  |                       |
|                       | provided to ensure    |                       |
|                       | availability of late  |                       |
|                       | summer water for sage |                       |
|                       | grouse.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Catch ponds may be    |                       |
|                       | built in association  |                       |
|                       | with a snow drift     |                       |
|                       | fence to provide a    |                       |
|                       | seep meadow for brood |                       |
|                       | use during early      |                       |
|                       | summer. Snow drift    |                       |
|                       | fences in nesting     |                       |
|                       | areas may create a    |                       |
|                       | temporary meadow type |                       |
|                       | beneficial to young   |                       |
|                       | broods.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Managers should       |                       |
|                       | evaluate \[situations |                       |
|                       | where winter and      |                       |
|                       | spring sheep range    |                       |
|                       | and sage grouse       |                       |
|                       | winter and brood use  |                       |
|                       | areas overlap\] and   |                       |
|                       | recommend alternate   |                       |
|                       | grazing sites where   |                       |
|                       | competition with and  |                       |
|                       | overuse by domestic   |                       |
|                       | livestock exists.     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Although fencing may  |                       |
|                       | not be the best       |                       |
|                       | management practice,  |                       |
|                       | especially in areas   |                       |
|                       | of limited water      |                       |
|                       | availability where    |                       |
|                       | mesic sites are also  |                       |
|                       | important to antelope |                       |
|                       | and/or deer; until    |                       |
|                       | innovative range      |                       |
|                       | management strategies |                       |
|                       | provide for riparian  |                       |
|                       | areas, it may be the  |                       |
|                       | only solution to      |                       |
|                       | prevent the loss of   |                       |
|                       | these key habitats.   |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Beck, J.L, and D.L.   | Livestock use around  | Location unknown      |
| Mitchell. 2000.       | water sources and wet |                       |
| Influences            | meadows in            |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing areas   |                       |
| of livestock grazing  | should be regulated   |                       |
| on sage grouse        | through fencing,      |                       |
| habitat.              | grazing, or herding   |                       |
|                       | management to         |                       |
| Wildl Soc Bull. 4:    | restrict overuse,     |                       |
| 993-1002.             | thereby protecting    |                       |
|                       | vulnerable forbs and  |                       |
|                       | grasses. However,     |                       |
|                       | livestock grazing     |                       |
|                       | could be used         |                       |
|                       | periodically inside   |                       |
|                       | meadow exclosures to  |                       |
|                       | reduce old            |                       |
|                       | vegetation, thereby   |                       |
|                       | exposing and          |                       |
|                       | rejuvenating          |                       |
|                       | succulent forbs       |                       |
|                       | (Evans 1986)          |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Call, M.W. 1979.      | However, consumption  | N/A                   |
| Habitat requirements  | of forbs by livestock |                       |
| and                   | may limit their       |                       |
|                       | availability to sage  |                       |
| management            | grouse.               |                       |
| recommendations for   |                       |                       |
| sage                  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| grouse. USDI-BLM      |                       |                       |
| Denver Serv. Center   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Tech. Note 330.       |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Crawford, J.A., R.A.  | In riparian           | N/A                   |
| Olson, N.E. West,     | brood-rearing         |                       |
| J.C.                  | habitat, sage-grouse  |                       |
|                       | prefer the succulent  |                       |
| Mosley, M.A.          | forb growth           |                       |
| Shroeder, T.D.        | stimulated by         |                       |
| Whitson, R.F.         | moderate livestock    |                       |
|                       | grazing.              |                       |
| Miller, M.A. Gregg,   |                       |                       |
| and C.S. Boyd. 2004.  | Logistics of applying |                       |
|                       | prescribed grazing    |                       |
| Synthesis Paper:      | treatments at large   |                       |
| Ecology and           | spatial scales remain |                       |
| management            | difficult.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| of sage-grouse and    |                       |                       |
| sage-grouse habitat.  |                       |                       |
| J.                    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Range Manage. 57:     |                       |                       |
| 2-19.                 |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Fulgham, K.O., M.A.   | Brood-rearing habitat | Location unknown      |
| Smith, and J.C.       | may be enhanced by    |                       |
|                       | grazing practices     |                       |
| Malechek. 1982. A     | that favor upland     |                       |
| compatible grazing    | forb production       |                       |
|                       | (e.g., fall grazing)  |                       |
| relationship can      | and prescribed light  |                       |
| exist between         | (\< 40%) to moderate  |                       |
| domestic              | spring grazing can    |                       |
|                       | remove standing       |                       |
| sheep and mule deer,  | herbage and make      |                       |
| p. 458--478. *In*:    | forbs more accessible |                       |
| J.M.                  | (see above).          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Peek and P.D. Dalke   |                       |                       |
| (eds.) Proc. of the   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Wildlife-Livestock    |                       |                       |
| Relationships Symp.   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Idaho For., Wildl.    |                       |                       |
| and Range Exp. Sta.,  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Univ. Idaho, Moscow,  |                       |                       |
| Ida.                  |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Hockett, G.A. 2002.   | Protect sage grouse   | N/A                   |
| Livestock Impacts on  | nesting and           |                       |
| the                   | brood-rearing habitat |                       |
|                       | from livestock use to |                       |
| Herbaceous Components | encourage climax      |                       |
| of Sage Grouse        | vegetative            |                       |
|                       | conditions. If this   |                       |
| Habitat: A Review.    | is not feasible,      |                       |
| Int. Jour. Sci.       | limit grazing to the  |                       |
|                       | month of July with    |                       |
|                       | the exact timing of   |                       |
|                       | grazing varying with  |                       |
|                       | local conditions.     |                       |
|                       | Defer grazing until   |                       |
|                       | after the peak of the |                       |
|                       | growing season with   |                       |
|                       | the intent of         |                       |
|                       | providing herbaceous  |                       |
|                       | cover and forage for  |                       |
|                       | the majority of the   |                       |
|                       | nesting, hatching,    |                       |
|                       | and early             |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing.        |                       |
|                       | Cessation of grazing  |                       |
|                       | by 1 August is        |                       |
|                       | designed to minimize  |                       |
|                       | livestock             |                       |
|                       | concentrations in wet |                       |
|                       | meadows and riparian  |                       |
|                       | areas with open water |                       |
|                       | by avoiding "hot      |                       |
|                       | season" use and to    |                       |
|                       | allow a 30-day        |                       |
|                       | regrowth period       |                       |
|                       | before the first      |                       |
|                       | killing frost as      |                       |
|                       | recommended by Myers  |                       |
|                       | (1989). Additionally, |                       |
|                       | late summer-early     |                       |
|                       | fall regrowth is      |                       |
|                       | important for         |                       |
|                       | carbohydrate storage  |                       |
|                       | in roots and stem     |                       |
|                       | bases of cool season  |                       |
|                       | grasses (Stoddart et  |                       |
|                       | al. 1975) that        |                       |
|                       | enhances plant vigor  |                       |
|                       | while allowing        |                       |
|                       | residual vegetation   |                       |
|                       | to accumulate cover   |                       |
|                       | for nesting and early |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing the     |                       |
|                       | following spring.     |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Klebenow, D.A. 1972.  | As food plants mature | N/A                   |
| The habitat           | and dry, they migrate |                       |
|                       | upward, seeking out   |                       |
| requirements of sage  | habitats where        |                       |
| grouse and the role   | succulent fobs are    |                       |
| of                    | still available such  |                       |
|                       | as more mesic swales. |                       |
| fire in management.   |                       |                       |
| Proceedings Annual    | ...birds appear to    |                       |
|                       | prefer relatively     |                       |
| Tall Timbers Fire     | open sagebrush        |                       |
| Ecology Conf. pp.     | vegetation types as   |                       |
| 305-                  | compared to dense     |                       |
|                       | stands of sagebrush.  |                       |
| 315\.                 |                       |                       |
|                       | In southern Idaho the |                       |
|                       | percent canopy cover  |                       |
|                       | of big sagebrush at   |                       |
|                       | brood sites was 8.5,  |                       |
|                       | significantly less    |                       |
|                       | than the average for  |                       |
|                       | the entire area,      |                       |
|                       | 14.3. 3 out of 98     |                       |
|                       | broods were found     |                       |
|                       | where total shrub     |                       |
|                       | cover was 40 to 49%;  |                       |
|                       | the rest where cover  |                       |
|                       | was less than 31%.    |                       |
|                       | Where there was an    |                       |
|                       | interspersion of      |                       |
|                       | openings mixed with   |                       |
|                       | dense sagebrush, they |                       |
|                       | used the more open    |                       |
|                       | portions.             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | The incidence of      |                       |
|                       | sagebrush consumption |                       |
|                       | increases \[in late   |                       |
|                       | August at high        |                       |
|                       | elevations, or in     |                       |
|                       | September or October  |                       |
|                       | in some lower         |                       |
|                       | areas\].              |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Klebenow, D.A. 1981.  | Brood sites contained | Location unknown      |
| Livestock Grazing     | more grass cover in   |                       |
|                       | all habitat types,    |                       |
| Interactions with     | but the difference    |                       |
| Sage Grouse           | was statistically     |                       |
| Proceedings           | significant in only   |                       |
|                       | the low sagebrush     |                       |
| of the                | type.                 |                       |
| Wildlife-Livestock    |                       |                       |
| Relationships         | Meadow habitats were  |                       |
|                       | important for cattle  |                       |
| Symposium. April      | as well as sage       |                       |
| 20-22, 1981. Moscow,  | grouse. During summer |                       |
|                       | 1979 grouse did not   |                       |
| Idaho Forest,         | avoid the grazed      |                       |
| Wildlife & Range      | areas. When the       |                       |
| Experiment            | choice was possible,  |                       |
|                       | they sought areas in  |                       |
| Station, Univ. of     | the meadow where      |                       |
| Idaho, Moscow. Coeur  | effective cover       |                       |
|                       | height was less than  |                       |
| d\'Alene, Idaho.      | normal for the        |                       |
|                       | meadow.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | When cattle first     |                       |
|                       | began grazing a       |                       |
|                       | meadow containing     |                       |
|                       | residual grass        |                       |
|                       | remaining from the    |                       |
|                       | previous year, parts  |                       |
|                       | of the meadow were    |                       |
|                       | initially grazed more |                       |
|                       | intensively than      |                       |
|                       | others, creating a    |                       |
|                       | mosaic of vegetation  |                       |
|                       | heights. Within this  |                       |
|                       | mosaic, grouse sought |                       |
|                       | the grazed openings.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Lightly grazed        |                       |
|                       | meadow, the grouse    |                       |
|                       | selected for the      |                       |
|                       | grazed patches with   |                       |
|                       | significantly lower   |                       |
|                       | height of cover than  |                       |
|                       | average for the       |                       |
|                       | meadow.               |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Merritt, S., C.       | Prescribed livestock  | Location unknown      |
| Prosser, K. Sedivec,  | grazing in spring and |                       |
| and D.                | early summer,         |                       |
|                       | especially by sheep   |                       |
| Bangsund. 2001.       | and goats (*Capra     |                       |
| Multi-species grazing | hircus*), can help    |                       |
| and                   | control invasive      |                       |
|                       | weeds in sage-grouse  |                       |
| leafy spurge.         | habitat and may       |                       |
| U.S.D.A.-ARS Team     | reduce wildfire risks |                       |
| Leafy                 | to low elevation      |                       |
|                       | plant communities.    |                       |
| Spurge, Sidney, Mont. |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Mosley, J. C. 1996.   |                       |                       |
| Prescribed sheep      |                       |                       |
| grazing               |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| to suppress           |                       |                       |
| cheatgrass: A review. |                       |                       |
| Sheep                 |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| and Goat Res. J.      |                       |                       |
| 12:74-81.             |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Olson, B.E. and R.T.  |                       |                       |
| Wallander. 2001.      |                       |                       |
| Sheep                 |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| grazing spotted       |                       |                       |
| knapweed and Idaho    |                       |                       |
| fescue.               |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| J. Range Manage.      |                       |                       |
| 54:25--30.            |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Paige, C, S. Ritter.  | Potential for         | Location unknown      |
| 1999. Birds in a      | competition with      |                       |
| sagebrush             | Sage-Grouse young may |                       |
|                       | be in proportion to   |                       |
| sea: Managing         | the extent to which   |                       |
| sagebrush habitats    | cattle select         |                       |
| for bird              | mesic/moist sites     |                       |
|                       | that are preferred    |                       |
| communities. Partners | foraging areas. Young |                       |
| in Flight, Western    | birds seek out        |                       |
|                       | insects and succulent |                       |
| Working Group.        | forbs in these        |                       |
|                       | habitats.             |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Schroeder, M.A.;      | Brood-rearing         | Location unknown      |
| Young, J.R.; and C.E. | habitats for          |                       |
| Braun.                | sage-grouse are       |                       |
|                       | typically mosaics of  |                       |
| 1999\. Sage Grouse.   | upland sagebrush and  |                       |
| The Birds of North    | other habitats (e.g., |                       |
|                       | wet meadows, riparian |                       |
| America, No. 425.     | areas) that together  |                       |
|                       | provide abundant      |                       |
|                       | insects and forbs for |                       |
|                       | hens and chicks.      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Increased use of      |                       |
|                       | meadows and riparian  |                       |
|                       | areas in mid- to late |                       |
|                       | summer is common as   |                       |
|                       | herbaceous vegetation |                       |
|                       | in upland habitat     |                       |
|                       | becomes desiccated.   |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Smith, M.A., J.C.     | Brood-rearing habitat | Location unknown      |
| Malechek and K.O.     | may be enhanced by    |                       |
|                       | grazing practices     |                       |
| Fulgham. 1979. Forage | that favor upland     |                       |
| selection by mule     | forb production       |                       |
|                       | (e.g., fall grazing)  |                       |
| deer on winter range  | and prescribed light  |                       |
| grazed by sheep in    | (\< 40%) to moderate  |                       |
|                       | spring grazing can    |                       |
| spring. J. Range      | remove standing       |                       |
| Manage. 32:40--45.    | herbage and make      |                       |
|                       | forbs more            |                       |
|                       | accessible.           |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| U. S. Dept. of        | Favored foods are     | N/A                   |
| Interior, Bureau of   | common dandelion      |                       |
| Land                  | (*Taraxacum           |                       |
|                       | officinale*), common  |                       |
| Management. 1979.     | salsify (*Tragopogon  |                       |
| Habitat Requirements  | dubius*), western     |                       |
|                       | yarrow (*Archillea    |                       |
| and Management        | millifolium*) and     |                       |
| Recommendations for   | others.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Sage Grouse. Bureau   | Roadsides and borrow  |                       |
| of Land Management    | pits are frequently   |                       |
|                       | used during June and  |                       |
| TN 330. Denver, CO.   | July because of       |                       |
|                       | moisture and          |                       |
|                       | succulent vegetation  |                       |
|                       | present.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | ...birds appear to    |                       |
|                       | prefer relatively     |                       |
|                       | open sagebrush        |                       |
|                       | vegetation types as   |                       |
|                       | compared to dense     |                       |
|                       | stands of sagebrush.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In southern Idaho the |                       |
|                       | percent canopy cover  |                       |
|                       | of big sagebrush at   |                       |
|                       | brood sites was 8.5,  |                       |
|                       | significantly less    |                       |
|                       | than the average for  |                       |
|                       | the entire area,      |                       |
|                       | 14.3. 3 out of 98     |                       |
|                       | broods were found     |                       |
|                       | where total shrub     |                       |
|                       | cover was 40 to 49%;  |                       |
|                       | the rest where cover  |                       |
|                       | was less than 31%.    |                       |
|                       | Where there was an    |                       |
|                       | interspersion of      |                       |
|                       | openings mixed with   |                       |
|                       | dense sagebrush, they |                       |
|                       | used the more open    |                       |
|                       | portions.             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | The incidence of      |                       |
|                       | sagebrush consumption |                       |
|                       | increases \[in late   |                       |
|                       | August at high        |                       |
|                       | elevations, or in     |                       |
|                       | September or October  |                       |
|                       | in some lower         |                       |
|                       | areas\].              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | ...a rapid removal of |                       |
|                       | forbs by livestock on |                       |
|                       | spring and summer     |                       |
|                       | ranges may have a     |                       |
|                       | substantial adverse   |                       |
|                       | impact on young sage  |                       |
|                       | and grouse,           |                       |
|                       | especially where      |                       |
|                       | forbs are already     |                       |
|                       | scarce in the         |                       |
|                       | composition.          |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+

## [Winter Range]{.underline}

+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| **Source**                        | **Citation**                      |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Deseret Land and Livestock Ranch. | Management strategies that        |
| No date. Deseret Land and         | maintain or increase available    |
|                                   | sagebrush above snow in deep snow |
| Livestock Ranch Livestock Grazing | winters, or increase forb         |
| and Rangeland Management          | availability in droughts should   |
|                                   | reduce sage grouse mortality in   |
| Benefit Greater Sage Grouse.      | poor winter years, thus           |
| Western Governor\'s Association,  | maintaining larger populations to |
| U.S.                              | rebound in favorable weather      |
|                                   | years.                            |
| Department of Agriculture Natural |                                   |
| Resources Conservation Service.   |                                   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Greer, R. 1990. Sage Grouse       | During winter, sage grouse often  |
| Habitat Requirements and          | use tall, dense stands of         |
| Development.                      | sagebrush which remain relatively |
|                                   | exposed through deep snow.        |
| Wyoming Game and Fish Dept.       |                                   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Beck, T.D.I. 1977. Sage grouse    | Although snow cover was a major   |
| flock characteristics and habitat | factor in determining areas used, |
|                                   | slope and aspect further          |
| selection in winter. J Wildl      | restricted amount of suitable     |
| Manage. 41(1):18-26.              | habitat for sage grouse. In North |
|                                   | Park \[Colorado\], grouse         |
|                                   | selected sagebrush on southwest   |
|                                   | exposures and flat to gentle      |
|                                   | slopes. Sagebrush on slopes       |
|                                   | greater than 15 percent was       |
|                                   | rarely used although such areas   |
|                                   | were present...                   |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

***The following sources may contain information relevant to the Wyoming
Basin - Southern Rocky Mountains ecoregions, but were not conducted
within the ecoregional boundaries.***

+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| **Source**            | **Citation**          | **Location of Study** |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Hanf, J. M., P.A.     | During the winter,    | Oregon                |
| Schmidt, and E.B.     | sage grouse feed      |                       |
| Groshens.             | almost entirely on    |                       |
|                       | the leaves of         |                       |
| 1994\. Sage grouse in | sagebrush.            |                       |
| the high desert of    |                       |                       |
|                       | Typical winter ranges |                       |
| central Oregon:       | are large expanses of |                       |
| results of a study,   | dense sagebrush       |                       |
| 1988-                 | (\>20% canopy cover)  |                       |
|                       | with and average      |                       |
| 1993\. U. S. Dept. of | height of 25 cm, on   |                       |
| Interior, Bureau of   | land having little,   |                       |
| Land                  | if any, slope (Eng    |                       |
|                       | and Schladweiler      |                       |
| Management Series.    | 1972).                |                       |
| Prineville, OR. P-SG- |                       |                       |
|                       | Elimination of winter |                       |
| 01\.                  | range habitat would   |                       |
|                       | reduce sage grouse    |                       |
|                       | populations over      |                       |
|                       | large areas (Eng and  |                       |
|                       | Schladweiler 1972).   |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Batterson, W. M., and | Cold weather and      | Oregon                |
| W. B. Morse. 1948.    | frosts destroy the    |                       |
|                       | green feed in early   |                       |
| Oregon Sage Grouse.   | November causing sage |                       |
| Oregon Fauna Series   | grouse flocks to      |                       |
|                       | return to the         |                       |
| No. 1. Oregon State   | sagebrush hills to    |                       |
| Game Commission,      | spend the winter.     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Portland, Oregon. 29  |                       |                       |
| pages.                |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Call, M.W., and C.    | Where sage grouse     | Oregon                |
| Maser. 1985. Wildlife | nest and raise broods |                       |
|                       | on sagebrush-covered  |                       |
| Habitats in Managed   | mountain slopes or in |                       |
| Rangelands\--The      | high mountain         |                       |
| Great                 | valleys, they usually |                       |
|                       | migrate to lower      |                       |
| Basin of Southeastern | valleys in winter to  |                       |
| Oregon. U.S.          | find exposed          |                       |
|                       | sagebrush for food.   |                       |
| Department of         | This is common in     |                       |
| Agriculture Forest    | Wyoming, Colorado and |                       |
| Service               | Idaho but less true   |                       |
|                       | in southeastern       |                       |
| Pacific Northwest     | Oregon where winters  |                       |
| Forest and Range      | are milder and snow   |                       |
|                       | seldom covers         |                       |
| Experiment Station.   | sagebrush plants deep |                       |
| General Technical     | enough to make        |                       |
|                       | locating food a       |                       |
| Report PNW-187.       | serious problem.      |                       |
| Portland, Oregon.     |                       |                       |
|                       | ...it is paramount    |                       |
|                       | that only light       |                       |
|                       | grazing be permitted  |                       |
|                       | on important sage     |                       |
|                       | grouse wintering      |                       |
|                       | areas.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Light grazing (less   |                       |
|                       | than 30 percent of    |                       |
|                       | current year's        |                       |
|                       | growth) may benefit   |                       |
|                       | grouse in deep snow   |                       |
|                       | conditions by         |                       |
|                       | uncovering sagebrush  |                       |
|                       | plants, making them   |                       |
|                       | more available for    |                       |
|                       | use by grouse.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Grazing by all        |                       |
|                       | ungulates will need   |                       |
|                       | to be monitored to    |                       |
|                       | ensure that sagebrush |                       |
|                       | on the important      |                       |
|                       | wintering areas is    |                       |
|                       | not permitted to      |                       |
|                       | deteriorate.          |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Stinson, D.W., D.W.   | Where protection and  | Washington            |
| Hays, and M.          | restoration of        |                       |
| Schroeder.            | sage-grouse is a      |                       |
|                       | major objective for   |                       |
| 2004\. Washington     | public lands, manage  |                       |
| State Recovery Plan   | grazing so that the   |                       |
| for                   | habitat               |                       |
|                       | characteristics       |                       |
| the Greater           | needed for breeding   |                       |
| Sage-Grouse.          | and wintering can be  |                       |
| Washington Dept.      | consistently          |                       |
|                       | maintained (Connelly  |                       |
| of Fish and Wildlife. | et al. 2000).         |                       |
| Olympia, Washington.  |                       |                       |
|                       | Discourage removal of |                       |
|                       | sagebrush from known  |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse wintering |                       |
|                       | areas and areas that  |                       |
|                       | provide escape cover  |                       |
|                       | in breeding habitat,  |                       |
|                       | especially within 3   |                       |
|                       | km of leks.           |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| U. S. Dept. of        | Avoid supplemental    | Nevada                |
| Interior, Bureau of   | winter feeding of     |                       |
| Land                  | livestock in known    |                       |
|                       | winter sage grouse    |                       |
| Management. 2000.     | habitat.              |                       |
| Management guidelines |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| for sage grouse and   |                       |                       |
| sagebrush ecosystems  |                       |                       |
| in                    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Nevada.               |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| van Kooten, G.C., R.  | Define, identify,     | Nevada                |
| Thomsen, T.G. Hobby,  | conserve and enhance  |                       |
|                       | critical lek,         |                       |
| and A.J. Eagle. 2004. | nesting, brood        |                       |
| Social Dilemmas and   | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat used by sage  |                       |
| Public Range          | grouse.               |                       |
| Management in Nevada. | Characteristics of    |                       |
|                       | habitat types         |                       |
|                       | preferred by sage     |                       |
|                       | grouse at various     |                       |
|                       | times of the year,    |                       |
|                       | and the               |                       |
|                       | interrelationships    |                       |
|                       | between these habitat |                       |
|                       | types, are not        |                       |
|                       | clearly defined.      |                       |
|                       | Public (landowners,   |                       |
|                       | land managers and     |                       |
|                       | other land users)     |                       |
|                       | involvement and       |                       |
|                       | participation in      |                       |
|                       | reporting sightings   |                       |
|                       | of sage grouse leks,  |                       |
|                       | nests, broods and     |                       |
|                       | winter locations      |                       |
|                       | should be encouraged. |                       |
|                       | Intensive searches of |                       |
|                       | sage grouse range are |                       |
|                       | required to assess    |                       |
|                       | critical habitat      |                       |
|                       | parameters throughout |                       |
|                       | the year and the      |                       |
|                       | relationships between |                       |
|                       | these habitat types.  |                       |
|                       | Abandoned habitat     |                       |
|                       | should be assessed    |                       |
|                       | for seasonal          |                       |
|                       | deficiencies which    |                       |
|                       | may limit use by sage |                       |
|                       | grouse. Critical      |                       |
|                       | habitat must be       |                       |
|                       | protected and         |                       |
|                       | secured. Land-use     |                       |
|                       | practices and other   |                       |
|                       | factors detrimental   |                       |
|                       | to maintenance of     |                       |
|                       | quality sage grouse   |                       |
|                       | habitat need to be    |                       |
|                       | identified. Working   |                       |
|                       | co-operatively with   |                       |
|                       | land managers and     |                       |
|                       | other land users,     |                       |
|                       | initiatives need to   |                       |
|                       | be developed to       |                       |
|                       | enhance and maintain  |                       |
|                       | an abundance of high  |                       |
|                       | quality habitat on    |                       |
|                       | private and public    |                       |
|                       | lands throughout the  |                       |
|                       | range of sage grouse. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Establish public      |                       |
|                       | reporting system for  |                       |
|                       | sage grouse leks,     |                       |
|                       | nesting, brood and    |                       |
|                       | winter locations.     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Conduct              |                       |
|                       | searches/surveys for  |                       |
|                       | active leks, nests,   |                       |
|                       | brood rearing and     |                       |
|                       | winter use areas      |                       |
|                       | throughout sage       |                       |
|                       | grouse range.         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Document habitat     |                       |
|                       | characteristics of    |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting,         |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing and     |                       |
|                       | winter-use areas and  |                       |
|                       | the                   |                       |
|                       | interrelationships    |                       |
|                       | between habitat       |                       |
|                       | types.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Investigate habitat  |                       |
|                       | parameters (lek,      |                       |
|                       | nesting, brood        |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | use) in areas of      |                       |
|                       | abandoned leks.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Investigate the use  |                       |
|                       | of remote-sensing     |                       |
|                       | data systems to       |                       |
|                       | identify potential    |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting,         |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing and     |                       |
|                       | winter habitat.       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Map critical lek,    |                       |
|                       | nesting, brood        |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat areas.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Identify critical    |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting, brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat which must be |                       |
|                       | protected, secured or |                       |
|                       | enhanced.             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Identify land-use    |                       |
|                       | practices which are   |                       |
|                       | detrimental to        |                       |
|                       | provision of quality  |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting, brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Develop cooperative  |                       |
|                       | initiatives to        |                       |
|                       | protect lek sites and |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting, brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat on public     |                       |
|                       | lands.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Develop cooperative  |                       |
|                       | initiatives to        |                       |
|                       | protect lek sites and |                       |
|                       | lek, nesting, brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat on private    |                       |
|                       | lands.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | -Develop cooperative  |                       |
|                       | initiatives to        |                       |
|                       | enhance and improve   |                       |
|                       | the quantity and      |                       |
|                       | quality of lek,       |                       |
|                       | nesting, brood        |                       |
|                       | rearing and winter    |                       |
|                       | habitat.              |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Rowland, M.M. 2004.   | During winter,        | North Dakota          |
| Effects of management | sage-grouse rely      |                       |
|                       | almost exclusively on |                       |
| practices on          | sagebrush for forage  |                       |
| grassland birds:      | (Connelly et al.      |                       |
| Greater Sage-         | 2000). The spatial    |                       |
|                       | distribution of       |                       |
| Grouse. Jamestown,    | sage-grouse in winter |                       |
| ND. Northern          | often is related to   |                       |
|                       | snow depth (Patterson |                       |
| Prairie Wildlife      | 1952; Dalke et al.    |                       |
| Research Center.      | 1963; Gill 1965;      |                       |
|                       | Klebenow 1973, 1985;  |                       |
|                       | Beck 1975, 1977;      |                       |
|                       | Danvir 2002). At the  |                       |
|                       | onset of winter,      |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse gradually |                       |
|                       | move to lower         |                       |
|                       | elevations with       |                       |
|                       | greater exposure of   |                       |
|                       | sagebrush above the   |                       |
|                       | snow; in migratory    |                       |
|                       | populations, this     |                       |
|                       | movement may extend   |                       |
|                       | up to 160 km          |                       |
|                       | (Patterson 1952).     |                       |
|                       | During more severe    |                       |
|                       | winters, a large      |                       |
|                       | proportion of the     |                       |
|                       | sagebrush may be      |                       |
|                       | beneath snow and thus |                       |
|                       | unavailable for       |                       |
|                       | roosting or foraging. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Keys to management    |                       |
|                       | are maintaining       |                       |
|                       | expansive stands of   |                       |
|                       | sagebrush             |                       |
|                       | (*Artemisia* spp.),   |                       |
|                       | especially varieties  |                       |
|                       | of big sagebrush (*A. |                       |
|                       | tridentata*), with    |                       |
|                       | abundant forbs in the |                       |
|                       | understory,           |                       |
|                       | particularly during   |                       |
|                       | spring; undisturbed   |                       |
|                       | and relatively open   |                       |
|                       | sites for leks; and   |                       |
|                       | healthy perennial     |                       |
|                       | grass and forb stands |                       |
|                       | intermixed with       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush for brood   |                       |
|                       | rearing. Within       |                       |
|                       | suitable habitats,    |                       |
|                       | areas should have 15  |                       |
|                       | to 25% canopy cover   |                       |
|                       | of sagebrush 30 to 80 |                       |
|                       | cm tall for nesting,  |                       |
|                       | and 10 to 25% canopy  |                       |
|                       | cover from 40 to 80   |                       |
|                       | cm tall for brood     |                       |
|                       | rearing (Connelly et  |                       |
|                       | al. 2000). In winter  |                       |
|                       | habitats, shrubs      |                       |
|                       | should be exposed 25  |                       |
|                       | to 35 cm above snow   |                       |
|                       | level and have 10 to  |                       |
|                       | 30% canopy cover      |                       |
|                       | exposed above snow.   |                       |
|                       | In nesting and        |                       |
|                       | brood-rearing         |                       |
|                       | habitats, understory  |                       |
|                       | habitats with         |                       |
|                       | adequate cover of     |                       |
|                       | grasses (\>15%) and   |                       |
|                       | forbs (\>10%) at      |                       |
|                       | least 18 cm tall are  |                       |
|                       | needed (Connelly et   |                       |
|                       | al. 2000).            |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Beck, T.D.I. 1977.    | Eng and Schladweiler  | Montana               |
| Sage grouse flock     | (1972) also reported  |                       |
|                       | avoidance of steep    |                       |
| characteristics and   | slopes in winter by   |                       |
| habitat selection in  | sage grouse in        |                       |
|                       | central Montana.      |                       |
| winter. J Wildl       |                       |                       |
| Manage. 41(1):18-26.  | Disturbances of sage  |                       |
|                       | grouse habitat in     |                       |
|                       | identified winter use |                       |
|                       | areas should be       |                       |
|                       | avoided or kept to a  |                       |
|                       | minimum.              |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Adams, B. W., J.      | Call and Maser (1985) | Canada                |
| Carlson, D. Milner,   | suggest that managers |                       |
| T. Hood,              | need to protect at    |                       |
|                       | least 50% of annual   |                       |
| B. Cairns, and P.     | production to provide |                       |
| Herzog. 2004.         | adequate litter cover |                       |
| Beneficial            | and that Sage-Grouse  |                       |
|                       | winter ranges should  |                       |
| grazing management    | be even more lightly  |                       |
| practices for sage    | grazed.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| grouse (*Centrocercus |                       |                       |
| urophasianus*) and    |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| ecology of silver     |                       |                       |
| sagebrush (*Artemisia |                       |                       |
| cana*)                |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| in southeastern       |                       |                       |
| Alberta. Lethbridge,  |                       |                       |
| Alberta,              |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Canada: Public Lands  |                       |                       |
| and Forests Division, |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Alberta Sustainable   |                       |                       |
| Resource Development. |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Publication T /049.   |                       |                       |
| 52 p.                 |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Authenrieth, R., W.   | Managers should       | Location unknown      |
| Molina, and C. Braun, | evaluate \[situations |                       |
| eds.                  | where winter and      |                       |
|                       | spring sheep range    |                       |
| 1982\. Sage Grouse    | and sage grouse       |                       |
| Management Practices. | winter and brood use  |                       |
|                       | areas overlap\] and   |                       |
| Western States Sage   | recommend alternate   |                       |
| Grouse Committee.     | grazing sites where   |                       |
|                       | competition with and  |                       |
| Western States Sage   | overuse by domestic   |                       |
| Grouse Committee      | livestock exists.     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Technical Bulletin    |                       |                       |
| #1. Twin Falls, ID.   |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Hockett, G.A. 2002.   | For migratory         | N/A                   |
| Livestock Impacts on  | populations focus     |                       |
| the                   | livestock grazing     |                       |
|                       | activities during the |                       |
| Herbaceous Components | growing season on     |                       |
| of Sage Grouse        | sage grouse winter    |                       |
|                       | range. Sage grouse    |                       |
| Habitat: A Review.    | are 100 percent       |                       |
| Int. Jour. Sci.       | dependent on          |                       |
|                       | sagebrush for forage  |                       |
|                       | during winter         |                       |
|                       | (Connelly 2000). The  |                       |
|                       | removal of herbaceous |                       |
|                       | understory plants     |                       |
|                       | preferred by domestic |                       |
|                       | livestock during the  |                       |
|                       | growing season can    |                       |
|                       | lead to an increase   |                       |
|                       | in the density of     |                       |
|                       | sagebrush stands over |                       |
|                       | time (Mueggler 1950,  |                       |
|                       | Laycock 1967, Beck    |                       |
|                       | and Mitchell 2000).   |                       |
|                       | Livestock and sage    |                       |
|                       | grouse would be       |                       |
|                       | separated temporally  |                       |
|                       | under this scenario   |                       |
|                       | although impacts to   |                       |
|                       | other wildlife        |                       |
|                       | species may be        |                       |
|                       | significant.          |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| U. S. Dept. of        | Sage grouse live      | Location unknown      |
| Interior, Bureau of   | almost exclusively on |                       |
| Land                  | the leaves of         |                       |
|                       | sagebrush during the  |                       |
| Management. 1979.     | winter.               |                       |
| Habitat Requirements  |                       |                       |
|                       | In Montana when snow  |                       |
| and Management        | depth exceeded 12     |                       |
| Recommendations for   | inches, sage grouse   |                       |
|                       | were restricted to    |                       |
| Sage Grouse. Bureau   | taller sagebrush      |                       |
| of Land Management    | stands, a relatively  |                       |
|                       | small percentage of   |                       |
| TN 330. Denver, CO.   | the total range       |                       |
|                       | available to them in  |                       |
|                       | a normal (lesser      |                       |
|                       | snow) winter.         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Bean (1941) reported  |                       |
|                       | that when snow depth  |                       |
|                       | reached 13 to 15      |                       |
|                       | inches in Idaho, sage |                       |
|                       | grouse moved to       |                       |
|                       | taller sagebrush      |                       |
|                       | types.                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Eng and Schladweiler  |                       |
|                       | (1972) described      |                       |
|                       | winter ranges in      |                       |
|                       | eastern Montana as    |                       |
|                       | being large expanses  |                       |
|                       | of dense (20% or      |                       |
|                       | greater canopy        |                       |
|                       | coverage) sagebrush   |                       |
|                       | with an average       |                       |
|                       | height of 10 inches   |                       |
|                       | on land having little |                       |
|                       | if any slope.         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | This association with |                       |
|                       | dense stands of       |                       |
|                       | sagebrush usually     |                       |
|                       | began in September    |                       |
|                       | (Wallestad 1971) and  |                       |
|                       | continued through the |                       |
|                       | breeding and nesting  |                       |
|                       | seasons (Wallestad    |                       |
|                       | and Schladweiler      |                       |
|                       | 1974).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Wallestad (1975)      |                       |
|                       | reported that 78% of  |                       |
|                       | 151 winter locations  |                       |
|                       | of radioed sage       |                       |
|                       | grouse occurred in    |                       |
|                       | the greater than 20%  |                       |
|                       | canopy coverage       |                       |
|                       | class. As weather     |                       |
|                       | moderated in          |                       |
|                       | February, activities  |                       |
|                       | shifted to more open  |                       |
|                       | stands of sagebrush.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Snow depth forces the |                       |
|                       | birds to lower        |                       |
|                       | elevations and        |                       |
|                       | appears to be a       |                       |
|                       | factor determining    |                       |
|                       | the actual wintering  |                       |
|                       | site for a flock      |                       |
|                       | (Klebenow 1972).      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Black sage            |                       |
|                       | (*Artemisia nova*)    |                       |
|                       | was preferred as      |                       |
|                       | forage in             |                       |
|                       | southeastern Idaho.   |                       |
|                       | Sage grouse remain on |                       |
|                       | the areas supporting  |                       |
|                       | this species until    |                       |
|                       | the snow covers the   |                       |
|                       | plants and return     |                       |
|                       | again when the black  |                       |
|                       | sage is available     |                       |
|                       | (Pyrah 1954, Crawford |                       |
|                       | 1960).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Biologists and field  |                       |
|                       | personnel report a    |                       |
|                       | similar preference    |                       |
|                       | for low sagebrush on  |                       |
|                       | Nevada and Utah       |                       |
|                       | ranges where it is    |                       |
|                       | available.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Many sagebrush ranges |                       |
|                       | on public lands are   |                       |
|                       | grazed by domestic    |                       |
|                       | sheep in winter.      |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Livestock should not  |                       |
|                       | be permitted to       |                       |
|                       | heavily use known     |                       |
|                       | important sage grouse |                       |
|                       | wintering areas.      |                       |
|                       | Heavy utilization may |                       |
|                       | leave inadequate      |                       |
|                       | forage for sage       |                       |
|                       | grouse, but will      |                       |
|                       | depend on size of the |                       |
|                       | wintering area and    |                       |
|                       | amount of sagebrush,  |                       |
|                       | depth of snow, and    |                       |
|                       | severity of the       |                       |
|                       | winter.               |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+

# [Grazing Management and Migratory Populations]{.underline}

***The following sources may contain information relevant to the Wyoming
Basin - Southern Rocky Mountains ecoregions, but were not conducted
within the ecoregional boundaries.***

+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| **Source**            | **Citation**          | **Location of Study** |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Wakkinen, W.L. 1990.  | ...data supports the  | Idaho                 |
| Nest Site             | contention of Berry   |                       |
|                       | and Eng (1985) that   |                       |
| Characteristics and   | the management of     |                       |
| Spring-Summer         | migratory sage grouse |                       |
|                       | populations must be   |                       |
| Movements of          | done on large         |                       |
| Migratory Sage Grouse | ecologically defined  |                       |
| in                    | units. Habitat        |                       |
|                       | management for these  |                       |
| Southeastern Idaho.   | birds must also be    |                       |
| Ph.D. Dissertation.   | done on a year-round  |                       |
|                       | scale.                |                       |
| Univ. of Idaho.       |                       |                       |
|                       | ...data supports the  |                       |
|                       | contention of Berry   |                       |
|                       | and Eng (1985) that   |                       |
|                       | the management of     |                       |
|                       | migratory sage grouse |                       |
|                       | populations must be   |                       |
|                       | done on large         |                       |
|                       | ecologically defined  |                       |
|                       | units. Habitat        |                       |
|                       | management for these  |                       |
|                       | birds must also be    |                       |
|                       | done on a year-round  |                       |
|                       | scale.                |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Connelly, J.W., H.W.  | We further urge       | Idaho                 |
| Browers, and R.J.     | managers to consider  |                       |
| Gates.                | all seasonal ranges   |                       |
|                       | when evaluating       |                       |
| 1988\. Seasonal       | factors affecting     |                       |
| movements of sage     | sage grouse           |                       |
| grouse                | populations.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| in southeastern       | ...we suggest that    |                       |
| Idaho. J Wildl        | migratory sage grouse |                       |
| Manage.               | populations be        |                       |
|                       | defined on a temporal |                       |
| 52(1): 116-122.       | and geographic basis  |                       |
|                       | and that seasonal     |                       |
|                       | ranges and migration  |                       |
|                       | routes between ranges |                       |
|                       | be identified.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | ...protection of      |                       |
|                       | sagebrush within a    |                       |
|                       | 3.2 km radius of leks |                       |
|                       | is not sufficient     |                       |
|                       | (Beck 1977) because   |                       |
|                       | protecting sagebrush  |                       |
|                       | habitats associated   |                       |
|                       | with leks will not    |                       |
|                       | ensure that year long |                       |
|                       | habitat requirements  |                       |
|                       | are met for migratory |                       |
|                       | populations of sage   |                       |
|                       | grouse.               |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Browers, H.W., J.W.   | The relatively large  | Idaho                 |
| Connelly, and R.J.    | areas and diversity   |                       |
| Gates.                | of habitats used by   |                       |
|                       | migratory sage grouse |                       |
| 1984\. Movements and  | should be considered  |                       |
| habitat use of sage   | in management plans   |                       |
|                       | for \[sage grouse\].  |                       |
| grouse in             |                       |                       |
| southeastern Idaho.   |                       |                       |
| *In*: The 37^th^      |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Annual Meeting of the |                       |                       |
| Society for Range     |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Management. February  |                       |                       |
| 12-17, 1984.          |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Society for Range     |                       |                       |
| Management. Denver,   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Colorado.             |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Hockett, G.A. 2002.   | For migratory         | Location unknown      |
| Livestock impacts on  | populations focus     |                       |
| the                   | livestock grazing     |                       |
|                       | activities during the |                       |
| herbaceous components | growing season on     |                       |
| of sage grouse        | sage grouse winter    |                       |
|                       | range. Sage grouse    |                       |
| habitat: a review.    | are 100 percent       |                       |
| Intermountain Journal | dependent on          |                       |
| of                    | sagebrush for forage  |                       |
|                       | during winter         |                       |
| Sciences.             | (Connelly 2000). The  |                       |
| 8(2):105-114.         | removal of herbaceous |                       |
|                       | understory plants     |                       |
|                       | preferred by domestic |                       |
|                       | livestock during the  |                       |
|                       | growing season can    |                       |
|                       | lead to an increase   |                       |
|                       | in the density of     |                       |
|                       | sagebrush stands over |                       |
|                       | time (Mueggler 1950,  |                       |
|                       | Laycock 1967, Beck    |                       |
|                       | and Mitchell 2000).   |                       |
|                       | Livestock and sage    |                       |
|                       | grouse would be       |                       |
|                       | separated temporally  |                       |
|                       | under this scenario   |                       |
|                       | although impacts to   |                       |
|                       | other wildlife        |                       |
|                       | species may be        |                       |
|                       | significant.          |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+

# [Social Science Aspects]{.underline} 

***The following sources may contain information relevant to the Wyoming
Basin - Southern Rocky Mountains ecoregions, but were not conducted
within the ecoregional boundaries.***

+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| **Source**            | **Citation**          | **Location of Study** |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Torell, L.A., J.A.    | Cook et al. (1980)    | Idaho, Nevada, Oregon |
| Tanaka, N. Rimbey, T. | found that changes in |                       |
|                       | spring use had a      |                       |
| Darden, L. Van        | greater impact on     |                       |
| Tassell, and A. Harp. | livestock sales per   |                       |
| 2002.                 | AUM for Colorado      |                       |
|                       | ranchers than did AUM |                       |
| Ranch-Level Impacts   | changes in any other  |                       |
| of Changing Grazing   | season.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Policies on BLM Land  | Van Tassell and       |                       |
| to Protect the        | Richardson (1998)     |                       |
| Greater               | also found that       |                       |
|                       | spring and summer     |                       |
| Sage-Grouse: Evidence | forage obtained from  |                       |
| from Idaho, Nevada    | public lands was      |                       |
|                       | critical to the       |                       |
| and Oregon. Policy    | operation of          |                       |
| Analysis Center for   | federally based       |                       |
|                       | ranches in Wyoming.   |                       |
| Western Public Lands. |                       |                       |
| PACWPL Policy         | Similarly, Torell et  |                       |
|                       | al. (1981) found the  |                       |
| Paper SG-01-02.       | same situation for    |                       |
| Caldwell, ID.         | public land ranches   |                       |
|                       | in northern Nevada.   |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Optimal production    |                       |
|                       | strategies and ranch  |                       |
|                       | income were not       |                       |
|                       | exceptionally         |                       |
|                       | sensitive to          |                       |
|                       | increases in the      |                       |
|                       | grazing fee, but      |                       |
|                       | production and net    |                       |
|                       | returns changed       |                       |
|                       | substantially when    |                       |
|                       | federal AUMs were     |                       |
|                       | removed from any      |                       |
|                       | season, particularly  |                       |
|                       | the spring season.    |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | If an altered         |                       |
|                       | land-use policy means |                       |
|                       | that grazing will not |                       |
|                       | be allowed during the |                       |
|                       | spring period, but    |                       |
|                       | the number of public  |                       |
|                       | land AUMs allowed for |                       |
|                       | grazing is not        |                       |
|                       | correspondingly       |                       |
|                       | reduced, it is        |                       |
|                       | possible that         |                       |
|                       | eliminating spring    |                       |
|                       | grazing and           |                       |
|                       | shortening the        |                       |
|                       | allowed grazing       |                       |
|                       | period on public      |                       |
|                       | lands would increase  |                       |
|                       | optimal herd sizes.   |                       |
|                       | Torell et al. (1981)  |                       |
|                       | estimated this would  |                       |
|                       | be the situation for  |                       |
|                       | northeastern Nevada   |                       |
|                       | ranchers when spring  |                       |
|                       | grazing was           |                       |
|                       | eliminated. Given the |                       |
|                       | cost/price definition |                       |
|                       | of the analysis, the  |                       |
|                       | profit-maximizing     |                       |
|                       | strategy was to make  |                       |
|                       | up lost public land   |                       |
|                       | AUMs during the       |                       |
|                       | spring period by      |                       |
|                       | feeding more hay and  |                       |
|                       | to substitute other   |                       |
|                       | forages where         |                       |
|                       | possible. Net returns |                       |
|                       | were reduced, but it  |                       |
|                       | was most profitable   |                       |
|                       | to use BLM AUMs       |                       |
|                       | previously grazed     |                       |
|                       | during the spring in  |                       |
|                       | other seasons and to  |                       |
|                       | expand herd size. For |                       |
|                       | other ranches with    |                       |
|                       | few low-cost          |                       |
|                       | alternative sources   |                       |
|                       | of forage, optimal    |                       |
|                       | herd size could       |                       |
|                       | decrease with the     |                       |
|                       | elimination of spring |                       |
|                       | grazing.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | \[Linear              |                       |
|                       | programming\] studies |                       |
|                       | found reductions in   |                       |
|                       | income and net ranch  |                       |
|                       | returns were not      |                       |
|                       | proportional to       |                       |
|                       | reductions in federal |                       |
|                       | forage. The rigidity  |                       |
|                       | of seasonal forage    |                       |
|                       | availability meant    |                       |
|                       | the optimal use of    |                       |
|                       | other forages and     |                       |
|                       | resources were        |                       |
|                       | impacted when federal |                       |
|                       | AUMs were removed.    |                       |
|                       | Other forages were    |                       |
|                       | reallocated to offset |                       |
|                       | part of lost federal  |                       |
|                       | forage (Gee 1981, Van |                       |
|                       | Tassell and           |                       |
|                       | Richardson 1998).     |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | For the Wyoming       |                       |
|                       | \[federally based     |                       |
|                       | ranches\] studies,    |                       |
|                       | complete elimination  |                       |
|                       | of the BLM permit was |                       |
|                       | estimated to decrease |                       |
|                       | annual net cash       |                       |
|                       | income by an average  |                       |
|                       | of \$55/BLM AUM       |                       |
|                       | removed \[1998        |                       |
|                       | dollars\].            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | At the other extreme, |                       |
|                       | because some western  |                       |
|                       | ranchers are not      |                       |
|                       | necessarily in the    |                       |
|                       | business to make a    |                       |
|                       | profit and spend more |                       |
|                       | than they justifiably |                       |
|                       | should to produce     |                       |
|                       | livestock, Rowe and   |                       |
|                       | Bartlett (2001) found |                       |
|                       | that eliminating      |                       |
|                       | federal grazing       |                       |
|                       | permits in Colorado   |                       |
|                       | would actually        |                       |
|                       | benefit some ranchers |                       |
|                       | by forcing them to    |                       |
|                       | reduce the size of    |                       |
|                       | their money-losing    |                       |
|                       | livestock enterprise. |                       |
|                       | Economic changes from |                       |
|                       | allotment adjustments |                       |
|                       | varied widely,        |                       |
|                       | ranging from a loss   |                       |
|                       | of \$40/AUM to a gain |                       |
|                       | of \$27/AUM \[2001    |                       |
|                       | dollars\] when herd   |                       |
|                       | reductions were the   |                       |
|                       | assumed adjustment    |                       |
|                       | strategy.             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | ...eliminating BLM    |                       |
|                       | grazing to improve    |                       |
|                       | habitat for           |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse would     |                       |
|                       | have a significant    |                       |
|                       | impact on the         |                       |
|                       | economic viability of |                       |
|                       | affected ranches.     |                       |
|                       | This is especially    |                       |
|                       | true during the       |                       |
|                       | spring period. Early  |                       |
|                       | spring grazing is     |                       |
|                       | valuable because few  |                       |
|                       | alternative forage    |                       |
|                       | sources are available |                       |
|                       | at that time. In most |                       |
|                       | cases, the only       |                       |
|                       | feasible forage       |                       |
|                       | alternative would be  |                       |
|                       | to feed hay.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Rowe and Bartlett     |                       |
|                       | (2001) concluded that |                       |
|                       | once hay was needed   |                       |
|                       | to compensate for     |                       |
|                       | public forage losses, |                       |
|                       | reducing herd size    |                       |
|                       | would be the most     |                       |
|                       | cost-effective        |                       |
|                       | adjustment (Torrell   |                       |
|                       | et al. 2002).         |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Making alterative     |                       |
|                       | grazing resources     |                       |
|                       | available during the  |                       |
|                       | spring always         |                       |
|                       | minimized losses      |                       |
|                       | relative to feeding   |                       |
|                       | hay or reducing herd  |                       |
|                       | size. If complete     |                       |
|                       | flexibility of other  |                       |
|                       | deeded forages were   |                       |
|                       | assumed, the economic |                       |
|                       | loss of restricting   |                       |
|                       | the early use of BLM  |                       |
|                       | lands was minimal;    |                       |
|                       | seasonal use of       |                       |
|                       | alternative forages   |                       |
|                       | would be rearranged   |                       |
|                       | with little if any    |                       |
|                       | economic consequence. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | The economic value of |                       |
|                       | the BLM forage during |                       |
|                       | the spring period was |                       |
|                       | found to be 5 to 10   |                       |
|                       | times the value in    |                       |
|                       | other seasons later   |                       |
|                       | in the year for both  |                       |
|                       | the Idaho and Nevada  |                       |
|                       | models.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | The economic impacts  |                       |
|                       | from reducing BLM     |                       |
|                       | grazing in any season |                       |
|                       | were found to vary    |                       |
|                       | widely depending on   |                       |
|                       | several key factors.  |                       |
|                       | First, individual     |                       |
|                       | ranches will be able  |                       |
|                       | to substitute         |                       |
|                       | alternative forages   |                       |
|                       | to varying degrees as |                       |
|                       | federal AUMs are      |                       |
|                       | eliminated.           |                       |
|                       | Substituting forages  |                       |
|                       | minimizes economic    |                       |
|                       | losses relative to    |                       |
|                       | the option of feeding |                       |
|                       | hay and reducing cow  |                       |
|                       | herd size. Those      |                       |
|                       | ranches with          |                       |
|                       | restricted seasons of |                       |
|                       | forage availability   |                       |
|                       | will have less        |                       |
|                       | ability to substitute |                       |
|                       | alternative forages   |                       |
|                       | if BLM grazing is     |                       |
|                       | removed.              |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | The contributory      |                       |
|                       | value of the federal  |                       |
|                       | grazing permits for   |                       |
|                       | livestock production  |                       |
|                       | varies widely         |                       |
|                       | depending on the      |                       |
|                       | seasonal complement   |                       |
|                       | of forage and pasture |                       |
|                       | resources ranches     |                       |
|                       | have, and the level   |                       |
|                       | of dependency on      |                       |
|                       | federal lands.        |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | It is widely believed |                       |
|                       | that the complement   |                       |
|                       | between public and    |                       |
|                       | private lands         |                       |
|                       | contributes greatly   |                       |
|                       | to the economics of   |                       |
|                       | western ranching and  |                       |
|                       | our analysis clearly  |                       |
|                       | shows that to be the  |                       |
|                       | case.                 |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | For those ranches     |                       |
|                       | with limited          |                       |
|                       | off-ranch wealth and  |                       |
|                       | income, reducing      |                       |
|                       | public land grazing   |                       |
|                       | capacity by even      |                       |
|                       | marginal amounts was  |                       |
|                       | found to greatly      |                       |
|                       | impact the ability of |                       |
|                       | ranchers to meet      |                       |
|                       | annual financial      |                       |
|                       | obligations and to    |                       |
|                       | repay debt.           |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| van Kooten, G.C., R.  | Increasing tension in | Nevada                |
| Thomsen, T.G. Hobby,  | the Nevada ranch      |                       |
|                       | community may have    |                       |
| and A.J. Eagle. 2004. | had a negative impact |                       |
| Social Dilemmas and   | on social capital.    |                       |
|                       | Social capital        |                       |
| Public Range          | facilitates           |                       |
| Management in Nevada. | cooperation in        |                       |
|                       | resolving social      |                       |
|                       | dilemmas related to   |                       |
|                       | public range          |                       |
|                       | management.           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | \[Survey of public    |                       |
|                       | grazing permit        |                       |
|                       | holders in Nevada\]   |                       |
|                       | results indicate that |                       |
|                       | low levels of trust   |                       |
|                       | between ranchers and  |                       |
|                       | public land managers  |                       |
|                       | were most             |                       |
|                       | significantly related |                       |
|                       | to previous           |                       |
|                       | disagreements and     |                       |
|                       | belief that the       |                       |
|                       | future of ranching is |                       |
|                       | bleak. Disagreements  |                       |
|                       | with public agencies  |                       |
|                       | were mainly the       |                       |
|                       | caused by disputes    |                       |
|                       | concerning responses  |                       |
|                       | to wildfire, and such |                       |
|                       | disagreements led to  |                       |
|                       | a deterioration of    |                       |
|                       | relations over time.  |                       |
|                       | Relations between     |                       |
|                       | ranchers and the USFS |                       |
|                       | deteriorated to a     |                       |
|                       | greater extent than   |                       |
|                       | relations with the    |                       |
|                       | BLM, partly because   |                       |
|                       | the former have cut   |                       |
|                       | back on allowable     |                       |
|                       | grazing to a greater  |                       |
|                       | extent. While there   |                       |
|                       | remain opportunities  |                       |
|                       | to build on existing  |                       |
|                       | social capital in the |                       |
|                       | community (horizontal |                       |
|                       | relations), ranchers  |                       |
|                       | and the public        |                       |
|                       | agencies need to work |                       |
|                       | on building vertical  |                       |
|                       | relations, thereby    |                       |
|                       | increasing trust. We  |                       |
|                       | argue that, even if   |                       |
|                       | the latter fails, new |                       |
|                       | institutions might    |                       |
|                       | evolve to utilize     |                       |
|                       | existing social       |                       |
|                       | capital and thereby   |                       |
|                       | help resolve social   |                       |
|                       | dilemmas.             |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | If public land        |                       |
|                       | agencies become too   |                       |
|                       | rigid, or fail to     |                       |
|                       | evolve sufficiently   |                       |
|                       | to address 'modern'   |                       |
|                       | needs, then ranchers  |                       |
|                       | will rely on their    |                       |
|                       | informal contacts     |                       |
|                       | with agency personnel |                       |
|                       | -- their personal     |                       |
|                       | network -- to         |                       |
|                       | implement management  |                       |
|                       | activities that would |                       |
|                       | otherwise be held up  |                       |
|                       | by bureaucracy and    |                       |
|                       | the hierarchy that    |                       |
|                       | inevitably            |                       |
|                       | accompanies it.       |                       |
|                       | However, if ranchers  |                       |
|                       | cannot work with the  |                       |
|                       | public agencies,      |                       |
|                       | range quality may     |                       |
|                       | deteriorate as may    |                       |
|                       | the habitat of        |                       |
|                       | threatened or         |                       |
|                       | endangered species.   |                       |
|                       | In such cases, other  |                       |
|                       | institutional         |                       |
|                       | arrangements may need |                       |
|                       | to be considered,     |                       |
|                       | ones that yield       |                       |
|                       | better outcomes from  |                       |
|                       | a social viewpoint,   |                       |
|                       | and are also          |                       |
|                       | politically more      |                       |
|                       | acceptable.           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | ...trust is related   |                       |
|                       | to institutions and   |                       |
|                       | affects the costs of  |                       |
|                       | transacting. If       |                       |
|                       | confidence in an      |                       |
|                       | enforcement agency    |                       |
|                       | falters, one may not  |                       |
|                       | trust others to       |                       |
|                       | fulfill their         |                       |
|                       | agreements and thus   |                       |
|                       | enter into fewer      |                       |
|                       | agreements. There is  |                       |
|                       | an element of trust   |                       |
|                       | in any transaction    |                       |
|                       | where one has to      |                       |
|                       | decide (make a        |                       |
|                       | choice) before being  |                       |
|                       | able to observe the   |                       |
|                       | action of the other   |                       |
|                       | party to the          |                       |
|                       | transaction. One has  |                       |
|                       | to assume that the    |                       |
|                       | other person is not   |                       |
|                       | acting with guile,    |                       |
|                       | keeping information   |                       |
|                       | hidden that could be  |                       |
|                       | used to their         |                       |
|                       | advantage at the      |                       |
|                       | expense of the other  |                       |
|                       | party to the          |                       |
|                       | transaction. Like     |                       |
|                       | other components of   |                       |
|                       | social capital, trust |                       |
|                       | makes an economy      |                       |
|                       | function more         |                       |
|                       | efficiently (Fukuyama |                       |
|                       | 1999).                |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | In the ranch          |                       |
|                       | community, trust,     |                       |
|                       | social norms (shared  |                       |
|                       | beliefs) and social   |                       |
|                       | networks -- social    |                       |
|                       | capital -- are        |                       |
|                       | vitally important to  |                       |
|                       | community health and  |                       |
|                       | that of the range     |                       |
|                       | ecosystem.            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | The level of trust in |                       |
|                       | public land agencies  |                       |
|                       | is inversely related  |                       |
|                       | to two factors -- the |                       |
|                       | extent to which       |                       |
|                       | ranchers had          |                       |
|                       | disagreements with    |                       |
|                       | public land managers  |                       |
|                       | about how the range   |                       |
|                       | is utilized and the   |                       |
|                       | extent to which       |                       |
|                       | respondents were      |                       |
|                       | negative about the    |                       |
|                       | future of ranching.   |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Economic theory       |                       |
|                       | indicates that an     |                       |
|                       | increase in social    |                       |
|                       | capital can benefit   |                       |
|                       | the ranch community   |                       |
|                       | by reducing           |                       |
|                       | transaction costs and |                       |
|                       | increasing            |                       |
|                       | opportunities to      |                       |
|                       | resolve range         |                       |
|                       | management conflicts. |                       |
|                       | This can be           |                       |
|                       | accomplished          |                       |
|                       | primarily by          |                       |
|                       | restoring trust       |                       |
|                       | between ranchers and  |                       |
|                       | public land managers  |                       |
|                       | (vertical relations)  |                       |
|                       | and building upon     |                       |
|                       | extant relations that |                       |
|                       | exist because of high |                       |
|                       | levels of             |                       |
|                       | participation in      |                       |
|                       | community service and |                       |
|                       | professional          |                       |
|                       | organizations         |                       |
|                       | (horizontal           |                       |
|                       | relations).           |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Batterson, W. M., and | The only contact with | Oregon                |
| W.B. Morse. 1948.     | farming activities is |                       |
|                       | in localities where   |                       |
| Oregon Sage Grouse.   | grouse spend the      |                       |
| Oregon Fauna Series   | summer and fall on    |                       |
|                       | alfalfa and meadow    |                       |
| No. 1. Oregon State   | lands.                |                       |
| Game Comm. Portland,  |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| OR                    |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Dwyer, D.D., J.C.     | A reduction of        | N/A                   |
| Buckhouse, and W.S.   | permitted AUMs of     |                       |
| Huey.                 | grazing does not      |                       |
|                       | necessarily mean the  |                       |
| 1984\. Impacts of     | permittee will suffer |                       |
| Grazing Intensity and | a comparable loss in  |                       |
|                       | net return. Improved  |                       |
| Specialized Grazing   | application of animal |                       |
| Systems on the Use    | husbandry practices   |                       |
| and                   | can increase calf     |                       |
|                       | crop and weaning      |                       |
| Value of Rangeland:   | weight so that        |                       |
| Summary and           | per-head yield is     |                       |
|                       | substantially         |                       |
| Recommendations. *in* | increased. The        |                       |
| NRC/NAS.              | manager should help   |                       |
|                       | the permittee apply   |                       |
| Developing Strategies | these practices.      |                       |
| for Rangeland         |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Management: A Report  |                       |                       |
| Prepared for the      |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Committee on          |                       |                       |
| Developing Strategies |                       |                       |
| for                   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Rangeland Management. |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Malechek, J.C. 1984.  | ...reductions in      | N/A                   |
| Impacts of Grazing    | permitted numbers,    |                       |
|                       | always a troublesome  |                       |
| Intensity and         | action, should be     |                       |
| Specialized Grazing   | partially set-off by  |                       |
| Systems               | increased performance |                       |
|                       | of individual         |                       |
| on Livestock          | animals. This effect  |                       |
| Response. *in*        | is generally small    |                       |
| NRC/NAS.              | and it would          |                       |
|                       | undoubtedly be a      |                       |
| Developing Strategies | difficult concept to  |                       |
| for Rangeland         | sell to a permittee   |                       |
|                       | as a quantitative     |                       |
| Management: A Report  | advantage.            |                       |
| Prepared for the      |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Committee on          |                       |                       |
| Developing Strategies |                       |                       |
| for                   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Rangeland Management. |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Workman, J.P., S.K.   | Multiple-use          | N/A                   |
| Fairfax, and W.       | management should be  |                       |
| Burch.                | based on solid        |                       |
|                       | empirical analyses    |                       |
| 1984\. Applying       | that attempt to       |                       |
| Socioeconomic         | quantify costs and    |                       |
| Techniques            | benefits of the       |                       |
|                       | products produced on  |                       |
| to Range Management   | public lands.         |                       |
| Decision Making:      | Whenever possible,    |                       |
|                       | environmental         |                       |
| Summary and           | concerns should be    |                       |
| Recommendations *in*  | directly incorporated |                       |
|                       | into benefit-cost     |                       |
| NRC/NAS. Developing   | analysis rather than  |                       |
| Strategies for        | used as a separate    |                       |
|                       | ranking device for    |                       |
| Rangeland Management: | project selections.   |                       |
| A Report Prepared     |                       |                       |
|                       | Elimination of        |                       |
| for the Committee on  | grazing permit        |                       |
| Developing Strategies | eligibility           |                       |
|                       | requirements (prior   |                       |
| for Rangeland         | use,                  |                       |
| Management.           | commensurability,     |                       |
|                       | ownership of land and |                       |
|                       | water) should be      |                       |
|                       | considered. Such      |                       |
|                       | elimination would     |                       |
|                       | allow for free        |                       |
|                       | transfer of grazing   |                       |
|                       | permits among         |                       |
|                       | ranchers at           |                       |
|                       | market-dictated       |                       |
|                       | prices.               |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | If grazing permits    |                       |
|                       | are permanently       |                       |
|                       | reduced, permittees   |                       |
|                       | should be compensated |                       |
|                       | proportionately for   |                       |
|                       | their interest in     |                       |
|                       | range improvements    |                       |
|                       | just as they are for  |                       |
|                       | permit cancellations. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Incentives for        |                       |
|                       | private investment in |                       |
|                       | public range          |                       |
|                       | improvement should be |                       |
|                       | created by devising a |                       |
|                       | system for evaluating |                       |
|                       | changes in grazing    |                       |
|                       | capacity that is      |                       |
|                       | credible to ranchers, |                       |
|                       | including a guarantee |                       |
|                       | that increased forage |                       |
|                       | will be made          |                       |
|                       | available to          |                       |
|                       | participating         |                       |
|                       | permittees.           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Benefit-cost analysis |                       |
|                       | of range improvements |                       |
|                       | should be based on    |                       |
|                       | all costs and         |                       |
|                       | benefits, both        |                       |
|                       | private and           |                       |
|                       | government.           |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Godfrey, E.B. 1984.   | If evaluated from a   | N/A                   |
| Measuring the         | national perspective, |                       |
| Economic              | the impact of use at  |                       |
|                       | other sites must be   |                       |
| Impact of Agency      | considered but need   |                       |
| Programs on Users and | not be if very local  |                       |
|                       | considerations are    |                       |
| Local Communities     | paramount. This       |                       |
| *in* NRC/NAS.         | suggests that there   |                       |
|                       | exists a potential to |                       |
| Developing Strategies | overestimate the      |                       |
| for Rangeland         | benefits of uses such |                       |
|                       | as recreation,        |                       |
| Management: A Report  | wildlife, etc. when   |                       |
| Prepared for the      | shifts in use from    |                       |
|                       | one area to another   |                       |
| Committee on          | are ignored.          |                       |
| Developing Strategies |                       |                       |
| for                   |                       |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| Rangeland Management. |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Wambolt, C.L., A.J.   | ...significant        | Location unknown      |
| Harp, B.L. Welch, N.  | reductions in grazing |                       |
|                       | AUMs on public lands  |                       |
| Shaw, J.W. Connelly,  | can have identifiable |                       |
| K.P. Reese, C.E.      | negative economic     |                       |
|                       | effects on individual |                       |
| Braun, D.A. Klebenow, | producers and rural   |                       |
| E.D. McArthur,        | communities.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| J.G. Thompson, L.A.   | ...this study         |                       |
| Torell, and J.A.      | confirms that         |                       |
|                       | negative economic     |                       |
| Tanaka. 2002.         | effects can result    |                       |
| Conservation of       | from large reductions |                       |
| Greater Sage-         | in public land        |                       |
|                       | grazing. Public land  |                       |
| Grouse on Public      | grazers also point    |                       |
| Lands in the Western  | out that alternative  |                       |
| U.S.:                 | management actions,   |                       |
|                       | such as reducing fire |                       |
| Implications of       | in the sage ecosystem |                       |
| Recovery and          | or requiring habitat  |                       |
| Management            | mitigation for        |                       |
|                       | sagebrush             |                       |
| Policies. Policy      | fragmentation, do not |                       |
| Analysis Center for   | have the same         |                       |
| Western               | negative economic     |                       |
|                       | consequences for      |                       |
| Public Lands. PACWPL  | individuals and local |                       |
| Policy Paper SG-      | communities. The      |                       |
|                       | economic impacts of   |                       |
| 02-02. Caldwell, ID.  | such actions are      |                       |
|                       | usually exported from |                       |
|                       | the region and spread |                       |
|                       | over many consumers   |                       |
|                       | nationwide.           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Eliminating BLM       |                       |
|                       | grazing to improve    |                       |
|                       | habitat for           |                       |
|                       | sage-grouse would     |                       |
|                       | have a significant    |                       |
|                       | impact on the         |                       |
|                       | economic viability of |                       |
|                       | affected western      |                       |
|                       | ranches. Early spring |                       |
|                       | grazing is valuable   |                       |
|                       | because few           |                       |
|                       | alternative forage    |                       |
|                       | sources are available |                       |
|                       | at that time. In most |                       |
|                       | cases, the only       |                       |
|                       | feasible forage       |                       |
|                       | alternative would be  |                       |
|                       | to feed hay.          |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | If complete           |                       |
|                       | flexibility of other  |                       |
|                       | deeded forages were   |                       |
|                       | possible, the         |                       |
|                       | economic loss of      |                       |
|                       | restricting the early |                       |
|                       | use of BLM lands was  |                       |
|                       | minimal.              |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Holechek, J.L., H.    | Financial returns per | Location unknown      |
| Gomez, F. Molinar,    | acre average about 4% |                       |
| and D.                | higher under          |                       |
|                       | continuous or         |                       |
| Galt. 1999. Grazing   | season-long grazing   |                       |
| studies: What we\'ve  | than rotation grazing |                       |
|                       | systems.              |                       |
| learned. Rangelands.  |                       |                       |
| 21(2):12-16.          | Torell et al. (1991)  |                       |
|                       | using a Colorado      |                       |
|                       | prairie study (Sims   |                       |
|                       | et al. 1976), found   |                       |
|                       | profit-maximizing     |                       |
|                       | stocking rates were   |                       |
|                       | well below those that |                       |
|                       | would deteriorate the |                       |
|                       | rangeland resource.   |                       |
|                       | Workman (1986)...drew |                       |
|                       | the same conclusion.  |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Rotation grazing      |                       |
|                       | systems have been     |                       |
|                       | widely recommended by |                       |
|                       | various government    |                       |
|                       | agencies concerned    |                       |
|                       | with range            |                       |
|                       | management. However   |                       |
|                       | research shows        |                       |
|                       | stocking rate         |                       |
|                       | reductions from heavy |                       |
|                       | to conservative, have |                       |
|                       | much higher           |                       |
|                       | probability of        |                       |
|                       | increasing grazing    |                       |
|                       | capacity, reducing    |                       |
|                       | risk, increasing      |                       |
|                       | financial returns,    |                       |
|                       | and reducing erosion. |                       |
|                       | The United States     |                       |
|                       | Department of         |                       |
|                       | Agriculture, Natural  |                       |
|                       | Resources             |                       |
|                       | Conservation Service  |                       |
|                       | continues to          |                       |
|                       | recommend 50% use of  |                       |
|                       | forage resources.     |                       |
|                       | However the research  |                       |
|                       | convincingly shows    |                       |
|                       | 40-45% use is         |                       |
|                       | moderate on most      |                       |
|                       | rangelands and 30-35% |                       |
|                       | use is needed for     |                       |
|                       | improvement in        |                       |
|                       | rangeland vegetation. |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | Moderate continuous   |                       |
|                       | grazing typically     |                       |
|                       | gave better           |                       |
|                       | vegetation,           |                       |
|                       | livestock, and        |                       |
|                       | financial performance |                       |
|                       | than rotation grazing |                       |
|                       | at heavy stocking     |                       |
|                       | rates. However under  |                       |
|                       | moderate stocking     |                       |
|                       | rates there is        |                       |
|                       | evidence that some    |                       |
|                       | rotation grazing      |                       |
|                       | systems give equal or |                       |
|                       | superior vegetation,  |                       |
|                       | livestock, and        |                       |
|                       | financial performance |                       |
|                       | to continuous grazing |                       |
|                       | (Holechek et al.      |                       |
|                       | 1987, Heitschmidt et  |                       |
|                       | al. 1990, Taylor et   |                       |
|                       | al. 1993).            |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Dietz, T. 1984 Social | A shift in the        | N/A                   |
| Impact Assessment as  | allowed amount of     |                       |
| a                     | grazing by commercial |                       |
|                       | operators will change |                       |
| Tool for Rangeland    | the economic position |                       |
| Management *in*       | of those operators.   |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| NRC/NAS. Developing   | Cut-backs in access   |                       |
| Strategies for        | will increase the     |                       |
|                       | cost of operations    |                       |
| Rangeland Management: | and could force some  |                       |
| A Report Prepared     | ranchers out of       |                       |
|                       | business, though in   |                       |
| for the Committee on  | most cases this is    |                       |
| Developing Strategies | not likely.           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
| for Rangeland         | West (1980) argues    |                       |
| Management.           | that the elimination  |                       |
|                       | of provisions that    |                       |
|                       | exempted small users  |                       |
|                       | from allotment cuts   |                       |
|                       | had significant       |                       |
|                       | adverse effects on    |                       |
|                       | small users, and on   |                       |
|                       | Spanish-Americans in  |                       |
|                       | particular.           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | The increase in costs |                       |
|                       | might reduce local    |                       |
|                       | incomes and           |                       |
|                       | employment, produce   |                       |
|                       | shifts in the         |                       |
|                       | occupational          |                       |
|                       | structure of the      |                       |
|                       | communities           |                       |
|                       | surrounding the       |                       |
|                       | resource area, and    |                       |
|                       | affect the fiscal     |                       |
|                       | balance of those      |                       |
|                       | communities.          |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+

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