The role of wildland fire in caribou ecology

An Annotated Bibliography

**Lisa B. Saperstein^1^ and Kyle Joly^2^**

![](media/image1.jpeg){width="4.945138888888889in" height="2.0in"}

# USGS Alaska Science Center

## 1011 East Tudor Road

## Anchorage, AK 99503

Webpage: http://www.absc.usgs.gov/research/caribou/fire_impacts.htm

**^1^** Current Address: Kanuti National Wildlife Refuge

**^2^** Corresponding Author. Current Address: Bureau of Land
Management, Northern Field Office: Kyle_Joly@blm.gov

May 2004

1\. Adams, Layne G. 1983. Buckland Valley Master Habitat Management
Plan. AK-020-WHA T/3 Buckland Valley. Bureau of Land Management,
Fairbanks, Alaska. 17 . pp.\
**\
Note:** No abstract; portions pertaining to fire are presented here. The
Buckland Valley is an important wintering area for the Western Arctic
Caribou Herd.\
\
**Abstract:** Objective 2: Improve, maintain or enhance habitat
diversity by managing naturally ignited wildfire.\
\
a. Complete vegetation mapping of the Buckland Valley Wildlife Habitat
Area (WHA), that was initiated during Fiscal Year (FY) 82, by end of
FY84.\
\
[Rationale:]{.underline} At this time, the land cover on that portion of
the WHA west of the Tagagawik River has been mapped from 1:60,000 scale
color IR photos and ground truthed. Photo coverage of the remaining
one-third of the area has been purchased by the Bureau of Land
Management (BLM). It will be necessary to complete this mapping effort
to provide a fuels map for the fire management planning effort.\
\
b. Develop a fire management plan for the WHA by end of FY85.\
\
[Rationale:]{.underline} A fire management plan, similar in intent to
the Alaska Interagency Fire Management Plan for the Tanana/Minchumina
Planning Area, will be developed by BLM, with input from ADF&G and
adjacent land owners, for the WHA. This plan will allow BLM to select
areas where natural fires will be allowed to burn when conditions are
favorable. This action will reestablish a more normal fire regime,
maintain habitat diversity, and reduce suppression costs.\
\
This fire management plan will either be developed as a supplement to
this habitat management plan or as a portion of the Interagency Fire
Management Plan that includes the WHA, depending on timing of the
interagency plan. The interagency plan completion for the Seward
Peninsula is not scheduled at this time but will be no earlier than
FY85. Work accomplished on the WHA fire management plan will allow for
reduced suppression efforts on public lands in the WHA prior to
completion of the interagency plan and facilitate BLM input into the
Seward Peninsula plan.\
\
c. Continue to monitor transects established for the Ulukluk Creek fire
recovery study.\
\
[Rationale:]{.underline} During summer 1981, transects were established
on a small burn on Ulukluk Creek to monitor recovery of vegetation on
the area. These transects were re-observed 11 days after the fire and in
1982. Continued monitoring of this area would add insight into post-fire
succession on lichen dominated tussock tundra, an important area for
study according to Klein (1982) who stated that \"long-term monitoring
of the responses of varying types of range vegetation to fires of
differing intensities clearly should be a high priority of government
agencies responsible for management of caribou range lands.\"\
\
Literature Cited:\
**Klein, D.R. 1982.** Fire, lichens, and caribou. J. Range Manage.
35(3):390-395.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ Buckland Valley/ fire/ habitat management/ lichens.

2\. Ahti, T. and Hepburn, R. L. 1967. Preliminary studies on woodland
caribou range, especially on lichen stands, in Ontario. Technical
Series. Research Report (Wildlife) No. 74. Department of Lands and
Forests, Ontario. 134 pp.\
**\
Note:** Abstract and sections related to fire reproduced below.\
\
Major report sections are as follows: Introduction; Methods of Study;
Food Habits of Woodland Caribou in Ontario ; Important Terrestrial and
Arboreal Macrolichens of Northern Ontario, Their Distribution and
Ecology; Ecology and Composition of Ground Lichen Stands; Ecology and
Composition of Arboreal Lichen Stands; Vegetation of Peatlands;
Divisions of Woodland Caribou Range of Ontario and Assessments of Their
Carrying Capacities; Range Management for Woodland Caribou;
Acknowledgments; References; Sample Plots; Tables; Figures; Keys to the
Macrolichens of Northern Ontario.\
\
**Abstract:** In 1958 an extensive survey of northern Ontario was made
with the purpose of describing and classifying the vegetation, and
particularly the lichen resources, of this area as a habitat for
woodland caribou (*Rangifer tarandus caribou*). Survey methods consisted
of random and systematic observations along 4,800 miles of aerial
transects, and intensive examination of 74 ground plots and 72 examples
of arboreal lichen stands.\
\
Distribution and ecology of 38 of the most abundant macrolichens are
discussed. The ecology and composition of typical lichen stands
throughout the study area are outlined in relation to substrata, to
their use as food for caribou, and to the distribution of vascular
plants.\
\
On the basis of broad land types and availability of lichens, seven
major divisions of the caribou range are proposed, and estimates are
given for carrying capacity in each. It appears that present food
supplies could support about six times as many caribou as now occupy the
range, particularly north of 53° N lat.\
\
Controlled burning is suggested as the best method of range management.\
\
Keys to 138 macrolichens of northern Ontario are included in this
report.\
\
**Stands on Swampy Burns (p. 34)**: In general, fire increases ground
lichen stands especially in peatlands. A lichen bog will be much more
lichenous after fire. If the bog is dry enough to burn, it is generally
also dry enough for lichen growth. In Ontario, only *Sphagnum fuscum*
bogs are dry enough to burn to any large extent although in the Sioux
Lookout and Geraldton Forest Districts a considerable amount of lichen
is found on burned-over margins of fairly wet swamps.\
\
Stands of ground lichen are also seen in burned-over, formerly
heavily-wooded swamp forests. Both of these lichenous peatland types
represent transitory vegetation, which will change into moss communities
along with the invasion of black spruce.\
\
Lichen peatlands seem to provide the best winter range for caribou.
Besides lichen, the same or neighbouring sites usually produce many
sedges, herbs and shrubs which are highly palatable in summer, late fall
and in early spring. Even in the middle of winter several vascular
plants are available. The lichenous peatlands in the Kapuskasing,
Geraldton and Sioux Lookout Forest Districts and in the southern
Patricias, however, are not important lichen range since their lichen
occurs in very patchy, scanty stands.\
\
**Range Management for Woodland Caribou (p. 58)**: Our rudimentary
knowledge of food habits and range requirements among the Ontario
woodland caribou now indicates that lichen resources are more than
sufficient for the present population. More detailed information,
however, may show that caribou need additional or larger units of range
in order to use it to their best advantage.\
\
Ground Lichen Range: Cringan (1948) made the following suggestions for
the experimental extension of *Cladonia* range: (1) controlled burning
of the forest, (2) logging and controlled burning of the slash, (3)
logging, topping and scattering of the slash, (4) increasing the area of
existing *Cladonia* patches through logging, destruction of cone-bearing
tops, removal of slash and manual stripping of moss in bands around
existing patches.\
\
The first is no doubt the most effective and the only practical method.
In the Northern Boreal Lichen Belt lichen supplies could easily be
increased by burning *Sphagnum fuscum* peatlands - treeless bogs or
wooded muskegs. The result of heavy fire is an almost solid reindeer
lichen stand in some 40 to 50 years, and because black spruce and mosses
regenerate more slowly than lichen on those sites, good lichen growth
persists for at least 100 years.\
\
In more southern latitudes the black spruce muskegs produce considerable
lichen after burning. In these regions controlled ground fire in
over-mature jack pine woodlands and mossy rock outcrops would produce
the best lichen stands. On these sites the humus layer is thinnest, but
relatively long-lived lichen stands could be established even on thick
humus. In sandy black spruce stands the best lichen results from burning
off the humus layer. When this happens lichens grow fairly well but the
forest regenerates slowly. The rotation period of the burning treatment
would be much shorter here than in the Northern Boreal Lichen Belt. The
natural succession of jack pine woodland into dense black spruce-feather
moss forest could be prevented by removal of black spruce seedlings and
by thinning the jack pine stands to keep the woodland continuously open
so that feather-mosses are inhibited.\
\
Light ground fire in pine-lichen woodlands would not interfere with the
normal development of the pine, nor reduce the value of the current
timber resource to any significant degree. Selective thinning would
likely benefit the pine stands themselves while favouring lichen.\
\
On rocky outcrops patchy burning of the mossy vegetation on thicker soil
would be best. It is not advantageous to strip the bedrock entirely
bare. A shallow layer of loose soil is necessary for reindeer lichens to
prosper on rocks.\
\
In spruce-lichen woodlands thinning and burning are also the best
management methods, but unless the spruce stand is very thin, ground
fires will spread into and damage the trees. Burning gives good results
in tundra heaths, also.\
\
Perhaps the best results are achieved if new burns are situated adjacent
to continuously occupied range, since caribou are inclined to follow
traditional routes. It might be advisable to burn only a third of a
lichen stand in need of improvement, and another third only after the
regeneration of the first piece, and so on.\
\
In habitats other than forests with thin humus, or peatlands with dry
surfaces, very little can profitably be done to increase ground lichen
supplies.\
\
Tree Lichen Supplies: The best yields of arboreal lichens are found in
old and moist coniferous forests. The following measures are recommended
for maintenance of tree lichen supplies: (1) protection against forest
fire, (2) protection of lichenous forests against logging and fire on
shores, swamp margins, swamps and close to the northern timber line, and
particularly forests known to act as winter range for caribou, e.g., the
islands of Lake Nipigon, (3) thinning of dense spruce and fire forests
in critical areas, (4) felling of lichen-covered trees, especially those
killed by budworm, when snow conditions are unfavorable. This method,
formerly widely used in reindeer husbandry, would be only locally useful
in caribou management.\
\
The management of ground lichen stands is definitely more important than
management of tree lichens in the potentially productive caribou
districts of northern Ontario.\
\
Future management of caribou range might well be concentrated north of
the northern C.N.R. line, since human disturbances will almost certainly
result in further deterioration of the range to the south.\
\
Literature Cited:\
**Cringan, A.T. 1948.** Report upon forest conditions of Burnt Island in
connection with woodland caribou range requirements. Ont. Dept. Lands
and Forests unpubl. rpt. 6 pp.\
**\
Keywords:** arboreal lichens/ boreal forest/ Canada/ caribou/ feather
mosses/ forest fires/ forest management/ lichens/ logging/ prescribed
fires/ *Rangifer*/ winter range.

3\. Andreev, V. N. 1954. Growth of forage lichens and methods to improve
it. Geobotanica. 9:11-74.\
\
**Note:** English translation. Paper does not mention fire, but
describes the growth stages and maturation period of lichens. Therefore,
despite the absence of reference to fire, the conclusions have been
reproduced below due to their relevance to basic lichen ecology and
post-fire regeneration. The conclusion section was copied from a xeroxed
portion of a report by Andreev, and the title and source were not
available. The xeroxed copy appears to be the original translation, with
some words crossed out. Although it is cited above as the 1954
Geobotanica paper, it is possible that these conclusions are from a
different report or an earlier version of the Geobotanica report. The
1954 paper is the only one I have found cited in the literature. Due to
the poor quality of the xerox, some words or portions of words were
illegible. Illegible portions of words are designated by a ?; when a
word was likely correct but there remains some possibility of error, the
word is followed by (?).\
\
**Abstract:** Conclusions: (1) The growth of fruticose lichens takes
place at various rates for different species and in different living
conditions. The amount of growth is also subject to considerable
fluctuations during the process of ?togenesis and depends on the period
of development in which the plant is at the time and on the dimensions
and age of the living part of podetium.\
\
(2) In the fruticose *Cladoniae* the stalk of the podetium branches once
a year, at the tip. A single ring is formed each year on the stalk of
the podetium, representing the distance between two main lateral
branches. In their first year the rings consist of small projections
about 0.5 mm in length. (Translator\'s note: the preceding sentence,
apparently obscure at first reading, means that when the stalk forks at
the tip one prong (0.5 mm in length) is the future continuation of the
main stalk and the other is a future lateral branch. Strictly speaking,
a \"ring\" should not be described as such until its second year, when
it would be bounded by one lateral branch above and another beneath.) In
succeeding years the rings increase their length considerably. The
period of growth of each ring is on an average about ten years, varying
from 6-7 years up to 20-25 years. In the first half of that period the
amount of annual growth of the ring gradually increases, and in the
second half it falls sharply. During the growth period the length of
each ring increases to from 10 to 15 times the original dimensions. The
cessation of growth of the ring is due to the death of the algal cells;
at the same time the fungal component begins to ?.\
\
(3) The growth of the podetium as a whole is the sum of the amounts of
growth of individual rings. There are three periods in the life of the
podetium: (a) the period of formation of the podetium or the
growth-accumulation period, (b) the podetium-renewal period, and (c) the
period of dying-off of the podetium.\
\
During the first period the length of the podetium increases annually as
a result of the formation of new rings and the extension of old ones.
The amount of growth increases each year as the number of growing rings
increases.\
\
During the second period the total length of the podetium continues to
increase, but the length of the living part remains more or less
constant because one ring at the base of the podetium dies off each
year. The podetium continues to grow during that period, but no further
accumulation of growth takes place, as the number of rings in the living
part of the podetium remains constant. At the beginning of the second
period the total amount of living mass continues to increase for some
time on account of the growth of lateral branches. During that period
the living part of the podetium attains its greatest length and contains
its greatest number of rings. The number of rings in the living part of
the podetium corresponds to the duration of their life in years.\
\
In the third period there occurs a decrease in length and a gradual
dying-off of the living part of the podetium in consequence of a
falling-off in the vigour of the plant, expressed in cessation of the
branching process and shorter duration of life for individual rings.\
\
In specific living conditions each species of fruticose lichens is
characterized by a more or less definite number of years for the
duration of the first period of its life. The second period of its life
may last for decades, even as much as a century. In view of the
possibility of changes (?) in external conditions over such a long time,
it is difficult to assign a definite length to that period.\
\
(4) Changes in nutrition have a very pronounced influence on the rate(?)
of growth and the duration of life of individual rings. The length of
the living part of the podetium and the number of rings in it increase
with improvement of living conditions and decrease if they deteriorate.
The ? growth depends to a considerable degree on the length of the
living part of the podetium, which determines the area of the
assimilating surface and (?) the amount of metabolism. The power of
self-regulation of length possessed (?) by the living part of the
podetium is of great importance in the adaptation of fruticose lichens
to harsh living conditions and, combined with the high resistance of
lichens to frost and drought, makes possible their wide distribution in
the Far North and on high mountains.\
\
(5) Regeneration of the podetium of *Cladonia*, like that of the
corticose(?) thallus of other lichens, after a greater or lesser part of
it has been removed by grazing reindeer, proceeds similarly to the
growth of the podetium in the first period of its life. On the \"stump\"
left after grazing a new podetium, as it were, begins to form, whose
rate of growth depends on the size of the \"stump.\" If some young
lateral branches are left, one of them takes over the functions of the
main stem of the podetium. In that ?ant the rate of re-growth depends on
the length and age of the lateral branches. Usually if only the top of
the podetium (from one-quarter to one-third of its height) is removed,
regeneration is completed in from two to five years; if the greater part
(from two-thirds to three-quarters) is removed, regeneration takes place
over a period equal in length to the first period of life of the
podetium (varying from 6-7 up to 20-25 years); if the whole or almost
the whole of the living part of the podetium is removed, the remaining
moribund base either perishes completely or begins slowly to re-grow,
the period of regeneration in that case being lengthened by from three
to five years.\
\
(6) For production purposes it is important to ascertain the duration of
the growth-accumulation period in different species of lichens in
different conditions and the amount of living material created by a
fully \"mature\" lichen, i.e. one that has completed its
growth-accumulation period. The former can be easily ascertained for
fruticose lichens by counting the number of rings in the living part of
a podetium in the second period of life. The amount of living material
can be found by the usual method ?ting samples of fully \"mature\"
lichens, or from special tables ?led from data obtained from such
samples.\
\
The average rate of annual linear growth during the first period of
life, like the rate of growth in the second period, and also the
duration of the first period of life of a podetium and the height of a
mature podetium can be ascertained by morphological analysis of
specimens of podetia, made in the laboratory. The rate of current growth
during a year or any ? period can be found only by special field
investigations, using the counting(?) method.\
\
(7) On the basis of morphological analysis of 37,500 specimens of
*Cladonia* podetia, and of studies made by the marking method on more
than ? specimens of various species of fruticose lichens in different
districts of the Far North, a number of principles have been
established.\
\
First: the rate of growth, the height of the living part of the
podetium, and the duration of the growth-accumulation period show
considerable variations in the several lichen species. According to the
degree of \"earliness of maturity\" we may differentiate three groups of
lichens: \"late-maturing,\" with the first period of life lasting from
twelve to fourteen years (*C. alpestris*); \"medium-maturing,\" with
that period lasting from nine to eleven years (*C. sylvatica*); and
\"early-maturing,\" with that period lasting from eight to nine years
(*C. rangiferina*). These groups are also distinguished from each other
by their rate of growth, which is greater with earlier maturity.
According to that feature, in the first group (with the slowest rate of
growth) we must include *Cetraria islandica*; in the second, *Cladonia
gracilis* and *Stereocaulon;* and in the third *Cetraria cucullata* and
*Cetraria nivalis*. The greatest amount of living material is
accumulated by the species that are slow-growing but are very
late-maturing, and the least amount by the quickly-growing
early-maturing *Cladoniae.* The rate of growth and the earliness of
maturity are important features economically and are also important in
determining the role of the several species in the composition of plant
communities.\
\
Secondly: the rate of growth in all species depends on climatic factors.
From the northern sub-zones of the forest zone the rate of growth falls
off towards the north, and it reacts very sensitively to the variations
in climate in the several sub-zones. The character of the weather during
the summer months is reflected in the amount of growth. Lichens in the
same zones but in locations with a moister and more prolonged summer
show higher growth-rate.\
\
Thirdly: the rate of growth of lichens depends to a great degree on the
nature of the plant community. In the more favourable microclimate
created by tree and bush communities the rate of growth is sharply
raised. In lichen carpets composed of a single species the rate of
growth appears to be higher than in mixed carpets.\
\
The above-noted features regarding rate of growth and duration of
growth-accumulation period in fruticose lichens are of substantial
importance in the task of devising measures for their regulation.\
\
(8) The rate of growth of forage lichens can be considerably altered by
human action. Ill-timed and irregular use of pastures seriously slows
down growth and reduces the total supply of lichens. By organizing
systematic reindeer-pasturing one may greatly increase the rate of
growth and the amount of living material in the lichens. To that end it
is necessary, in the first place, to use the lichens immediately at the
end of the growth-accumulation period, at the very beginning of the
podetium-renewal period, because use of \"immature\" lichens decreases
the rate of restoration of the forage supply (since the highest rate of
growth occurs in the later years of \"maturing\") but use of
\"over-mature\" lichens leads to loss of part of the forage supply
through dying-off of the base of the podetium; secondly, lichens should
be mostly top-cropped, i.e. grazing should be restricted to the upper
part of the podetium, measuring about one-third of the height of the
living part, as when that is done the rate of re-growth of the lichen is
1.5 times as high as when from two-thirds to three-quarters of its
height is removed and twice as high as when from 80 to 95% of its living
part is removed.\
\
(9) A most important practical measure for regulating the growth of
forage lichens is pasture-rotation, that is, using pastures successively
in an order based on the periods taken to restore the forage supply
after grazing. The period of pasture-rotation (the duration of a single
rotation) depends on the time taken in restoration and on the area of
the pastures in use. The time taken to restore the forage supply depends
in turn on the duration of the growth-accumulation period and on the
height at which the lichens are cropped, and the area of the pastures in
use depends on their degree of accessibility (which varies with the
depth and density of the snow cover) and on the methods used for
pasturing reindeer. The following pasture-rotations are recommended:
two-year rotation, when lichens are top-cropped; three-year rotation,
when from two-thirds to three-quarters of the height of the lichens is
removed, and the proportion of the lichen-covered area used is from 15
to 20% with \"late-maturing\" lichens and from 25 to 30% with
\"early-maturing\" and \"medium-maturing\" lichens; four-year rotation,
with the same height of cropping and with use of from 25 to 30% of the
lichen-covered area when the lichens are \"late-maturing\" and from 40
to 50% when they are \"early-maturing\" or \"medium-maturing\". In most
cases a two-year rotation is permissible in the first half of the winter
and a three-year or four year rotation in the second half. The
establishment of a pasture-rotation system must in each individual case
be preceded by study of the condition of the range, and also of natural
and economic conditions affecting the pasture-rotation.\
\
(10) Besides pasture-rotation, an important measure for regulating the
growth of fruticose lichens is the organization of a proper alternation
of pastures during the season, and of correct methods of herding
reindeer on the pastures. The most complete utilization of lichen
supplies is achieved by proper selection of late-autumn, winter, and
early-spring pastures, and organization of proper successive use of them
during the season. The roster of pasture use should provide for the
first visits to be made to the pastures that soonest become inaccessible
on account of deep snow cover, while keeping for later use the pastures
that remain accessible longest and have the richest supplies of forage.
A rational size of herd for the tundra and the forest-tundra, as shown
by the experience of the leading organizations, is from 1,200 to 1,500
head. When pastures are difficult of access and the forage area is
broken up into a number of small sections it will be necessary to divide
the herd temporarily into two parts. When the herd is of rational size
it is possible, by maintaining a planned concentration of grazing
reindeer in the pastures and by driving the animals from used pastures
to new ones at the proper time, to ensure that the lichens are
top-cropped during a considerable part of the snowy period of the year,
and to avert excessive grazing of lichens in dug-out spots.\
\
As a consequence of the measures listed above the rate of lichen growth
may be in some cases almost doubled, which makes possible a
corresponding increase in the number of reindeer on the pastures.\
\
The theory of the growth of fruticose lichens propounded in the present
work requires further elaboration in the future. The tasks immediately
ahead consist in thorough study of the biology of the growth of
fruticose lichens, and \-- on the foundation of that study \-- the
devising of special measures to stimulate the growth of lichens,
accelerating it to a much greater degree than is possible at present by
means of rationalization of the periods and methods of use of lichen
ranges.\
\
**Keywords:** grazing/ lichens/ lichen growth/ rangeland/ reindeer.

4\. Anonymous 1981. Methods used to determine the ecological effects of
fire on plant succession and related resources on Bear Creek burn.
Bureau of Land Management 86 pp.\
**\
Note:** No abstract. Report documents methods used to study the effects
of the 1977 Bear Creek fire between the South Fork and the Windy Fork of
the Kuskokwim River, Alaska. Wildlife found in the burned area include
moose, bison, caribou (primarily in winter), bears, wolves, furbearers,
small mammals, and a variety of bird species. The report describes
methods to sample vegetation and wildlife resources. Large mammal
studies included winter aerial surveys to estimate animal numbers and
distribution, forage utilization, browse condition, and winter food
habits (microhistological analysis of fecal pellets). The report also
includes numerous maps and sample data sheets.\
\
**Abstract:** Not available.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ boreal forest/ caribou/ fecal pellets/ fire/ forest
fires/ forage/ interior Alaska/ *Rangifer*/ wildlife.

5\. \-\-- 1978. Workshop report; Section 6: The ecology of fire on
caribou rangelands. Page 35 *in* Klein, David R. and White, Robert G.,
eds. Parameters of caribou population ecology in Alaska. Fairbanks,
Alaska, 17 Nov 1977-19 Nov 1977. Biological Papers of the University of
Alaska. Special Report No. 3. University of Alaska-Fairbanks. Fairbanks,
Alaska, 49 pp.\
**\
Note:** A model of caribou population ecology was developed during the
symposium and was then used as a basis for discussion. The following
section was excerpted from the discussion of plant-animal relations.\
\
**Abstract:** Extensive fires on tundra rangelands in northwestern
Alaska during the drought conditions of 1977 point out the need for both
short and long term research into the effects of fire on these lands as
caribou (or reindeer) range. It is also important to determine the
cycles of vegetational change following fire in the various upland
communities and under the variable site conditions and fire intensities
that prevailed. Change on the new burn areas should be monitored, and
more intensive and immediate comparisons should be made with plant
recovery patterns on older burns with a known or determinable fire
history. The ecology of fire in spruce-lichen wintering areas should
also receive increased research emphasis.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ fire/ post-fire succession/ Rangifer.

6\. Arseneault, Dominique and Payette, Serge. 1992. A postfire shift
from lichen-spruce to lichen-tundra vegetation at tree line. Ecology .
73(3):1067-1081.\
\
**Abstract:** The environmental changes associated with a fire-induced
shift from old-growth lichen-spruce krummholz to lichen-tundra
vegetation have been evaluated at a tree line site in northern Quebec.
Tree ring and growth form patterns of black spruce (*Picea mariana*)
remains lying on the ground in a lichen-tundra community were used to
reconstruct within a 4600-m^2^ quadrat, the structure of a conifer stand
at the time of the burn (\~AD 1750). The pre-fire spruces were the last
members of a long regenerative sequence leading to maintenance of a
lichen-spruce stand formed after a burn \~ 1700 yr BP. At this time
postfire recruitment was most likely facilitated by favorable climatic
conditions. Before the 1750 fire event the krummholz was predominantly
maintained by layering, due to severe climatic conditions at least since
the beginning of the Little Ice Age (\~AD 1580). The site was deforested
by the 1750 fire, because of the limited regenerative potential of
stunted spruce. Postfire spruce exclusion has been responsible for major
environmental changes associated with a thinner snow cover. Along the
border of the deforested site snow cover depth was controlled by living
spruces, whereas postfire shrubs (mostly dwarf birch, *Betula
glandulosa*) of the lichen-tundra stand were unable to trap drifting
snow. A significant decrease in thickness of the snow cover following
deforestation was deduced from a comparative analysis of stem morphology
of pre-fire spruces and present snow conditions. Inception of
gelifluction lobes and mudboils was also caused by a change in the soil
thermal regime associated with a reduced snow cover. Our results confirm
the hypotheses that several lichen stands of the forest-tundra are
postfire communities succeeding from degraded conifer stands during cold
periods of the late Holocene.\
\
**Keywords:** Canada/ climatic change/ deforestation/ dendro-ecology/
fire/ forest-tundra/ lichen-spruce/ lichen-tundra/ Picea.

7\. Auclair, A. N. D. 1983. Role of fire in lichen-dominated tundra and
forest-tundra. pp. Pages 235-256 *in* Wein, Ross W. and MacLean, David
A. eds. Role of fire in northern circumpolar ecosystems. John Wiley and
Sons; New York.\
\
**Note:** Chapter sections are: 13.1 Introduction; 13.1.1 Predisposition
to fire; 13.1.2 Fire occurrence; 13.1.3 Vegetation distribution; 13.2
Vegetation flammability and behaviour of fire; 13.2.1 Extrinsic factors;
13.2.1.1 Meteorology; 13.2.1.2 Uniformity; 13.2.2 Intrinsic factors;
13.2.2.1 Tissue content; 13.2.2.2 Surface-volume ratio; 13.2.2.3
Vertical plane; 13.2.2.4 Fuel mass; 13.3 Fire-induced changes; 13.3.1
Combustion and mineralization of organic material; 13.3.1.1 Quantity of
organic matter; 13.3.1.2 Plant and soil nutrients; 13.3.1.3 Allelopath
and burnt-litter compounds; 13.3.2 Changes in surface and soil
microclimate; 13.3.2.1 Temperature and radiation flux; 13.3.2.2 Soil
moisture; 13.3.3 Alteration of soil stability and hydrology; 13.3.3.1
Thermokarst subsidence; 13.3.3.2 Hydrology and erosion; 13.3.3.3 Element
losses; 13.4 Post-fire regeneration; 13.4.1 Plant succession; 13.4.2
Changes in soil decomposers; 13.4.3 Changes in insect, bird, and mammal
species; 13.5 Future research needs; 13.6 References.\
\
Includes extensive reference list.\
\
**Abstract:** Unique aspects of fire in lichen tundra and forest-tundra
were enumerated. The very high inherent fire susceptibility is related
to the presence of lichens and shrubs. Lichens are predisposed to
burning by virtue of continuous distribution on the soil surface, high
surface-volume ratio, and rapid desiccation related to the absence of
roots, vascular tissue, and tissue that resists moisture loss. In most
fires, two-thirds of the organic matter in live biomass is not combusted
and there is only minor loss of nutrients during burning. Decomposition
rates are low and nitrogen limited.\
\
Post-fire regeneration of vascular species is rapid. Shrubs sprout the
same year of the fire and tree establishment peaks within 2-3 years.
Lichen growth is slow by comparison and the lichen may require 50-80
years to develop a continuous cover.\
\
**Keywords:** fire/ forest fires/ forest-tundra/ lichens/ post-fire
succession/ soils/ tundra.

8\. Avramchik, M. N. 1939. The after-grass of some forage plants on
tundra pastures. Trans. Inst. Pol. Agr. 4:89-131.\
\
**Note:** Citation and summary, based on an English summary of the
paper, from Courtright, A.T. 1959. Range management and the genus
*Rangifer*: A review of selected literature. M.Sc. This, Univ. of
Alaska, Fairbanks, AK. 172 pp.\
\
**Abstract:** \[\"After-grass\" is a term meaning, roughly, \"secondary
growth after removal by grazing, cutting, burning, etc., of the natural
new growth.\" It does not apply only to grass, but to browse and other
types of plants as well.\] The following is an abstract of the English
summary.\
\
There were three objectives in this study:\
1. To establish the ability of tundra forage plants to \"grow the
after-grass.\"\
2. To determine the quantity of after-grass and the time at which it
grows.\
3. To determine the chemical composition of the after-grass and its
palatability to reindeer.\
\
Two different experiments were made; one to determine the growth after
cutting in early summer (beginning of July) and the other to determine
growth after cutting in the beginning of August. A third experiment to
determine growth after removal by fire was made with *Eriophorum
vaginatum*; on one plot the cover was burned in early spring (April 11)
and on the other on June 6. Twenty-three chemical analyses of grass,
foliage, and after-grass were made. Summarized, the results of the
experiments were as follows:\
\
\... 5. \"After-grass is no different\" when *Eriophorum vaginatum* is
burned in early spring than when it is burned in the middle of summer.\
\
6. Chemical analyses of after-grass indicate that its nutritive value is
very high \-- higher than that of primary growth of plants collected in
late summer and fall. It also contains less fiber than the latter.
Palatability, at least in the case of shrubs, is increased.\
\
**Keywords:** *Eriophorum*/ fire/ forage/ nutrient content/ reindeer.

9\. Banfield, A. W. F. 1951. The barren-ground caribou. Dept. of
Resources and Development, Northern Administration and Lands Branch,
Ottawa. 56 pp.\
**\
Note:** General report about caribou. Brief section about fire effects
reproduced below. Major report sections are: Introduction; Migration;
Changes in Range and Status; Physical Description; Vegetation Studies;
Individual Behaviour; Group Behaviour; Vital Statistics; Growth;
Pathology; Accidents; Ecological Relations; Wolf Predation; Human
Utilization; Human Population in Caribou Range; Native Game Returns;
Conclusion.\
\
**Abstract:** [Human Influence on Migration]{.underline} (p. 11):\
\... The most important influence exerted by man upon the movements of
caribou, however, is the destruction of forage through fires. The
lichens, upon which the caribou rely for winter forage, are slow-growing
plants. It has been ascertained from investigations in Alaska that it
may take a burnt-over lichen area as long as 25 years to regenerate. If
the humus is destroyed the loss is, for all practical purposes,
permanent.\
\
During the present investigation information which would indicate an
actual desertion of a burned area by the caribou was sought, and was
obtained from the aerial flights. It was observed that caribou and their
tracks were absent from recently-burned areas, while their tracks were
abundant in adjacent \"green\" areas. During migration periods it was
observed that the routes traveled by the animals lay in \"green\"
corridors between burned areas. Large burned areas were practically
devoid of winter caribou tracks.\
\
The tundra and the northern fringe of the woods are largely unaffected
by fires, but there have been many destructive fires in the heart of the
wooded winter range of the caribou. \...\
**\
Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ disturbance/ fire/ lichens/ migration/
winter range/ Rangifer.

10\. \-- 1954. Preliminary investigation of the barren ground caribou.
In two parts. Part I. Former and present distribution, migrations, and
status. Wildlife Management Bulletin. Series 1. Number 10A. Minister of
Northern Affairs and National Resources, Ottawa.\
**\
Note:** No abstract. Describes migration patterns and distribution of
individual herds. Major report sections are: Introduction; Present
Investigation; Itinerary; General Description of the Physical
Environment; Historical Records; Present Distribution; Population Data
and Estimates; Migration Routes; Spring Migration; Midsummer Migration;
Autumn Migration; Human Influences upon Migration; Changes in Range,
Status, and Migrations; Summary.\
\
Section related to fire reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** [Human Influences upon Migration]{.underline}\
*Forest Fires*\
The most important influence exerted by man upon the movements of
caribou is through the destruction of forage by forest fires. Lichens,
upon which the caribou rely for winter forage, are exceedingly
slow-growing plants. It has been ascertained from investigations in
Alaska by Palmer (1926) that it may take a burnt-over lichen area as
long as 25 years to regenerate. If the humus is destroyed the loss is,
for all practical purposes, permanent. Lichens must be considered as a
long-term crop, comparable to trees. Thus, fires under sub-Arctic
conditions may be even more damaging than at lower latitudes. Harper
(1932) and Clarke (1940) have previously pointed out how forest fires
may reduce greatly the number of caribou that can be supported on the
taiga winter ranges.\
\
During the present investigation factual information which would
indicate an actual desertion of a burned area by the caribou was sought.
Such evidence was obtained in abundance from the aerial reconnaissance
flights.\
\
It was observed that caribou and their tracks were almost always absent
from the recently burned areas, even at times when tracks were abundant
in adjacent \"green\" areas. Occasionally the winter distribution of
caribou was observed to be delineated by the boundaries of \"green\"
taiga. In Figure 17 the observations made on flights in northern
Saskatchewan during January, 1949, are shown. From the figure one can
note the presence of caribou bands in the unburned areas and their
absence from the burned areas. Similar observations were made on several
flights in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and the Mackenzie District, Northwest
Territories.\
\
It was observed that the routes traveled by the migrating animals lay in
\"green\" corridors between burned areas. Such was the case at Ghost
Lake, Mackenzie District, on April 24, 1949, where the route lay
eastward along a narrow \"green\" corridor between two extensive burns
at Matberry Lake and south of Ghost Lake. Large burned areas were
practically devoid of winter caribou tracks in the snow. Small burns
were occasionally crossed by single trails but there was no evidence of
feeding.\
\
The tundra and the northern fringe of the taiga are largely unaffected
by fires, but there have been many large destructive fires in the heart
of the taiga winter caribou range. In the Mackenzie District, there were
large burned areas in the Mattberry-Indian Lake region. A large area
east and northeast from Yellowknife was useless as caribou range because
of the destruction of the vegetation by numerous recent fires. There
were also large burns in the lower Talston River region. The winter
range south of Fort Reliance was still largely intact.\
\
There have been damaging fires about Tazin Lake and Camsell Portage,
Saskatchewan. Large areas of former caribou winter range in northern
Saskatchewan, south of Wollaston Lake and west of Reindeer Lake, have
been destroyed. Throughout this area no caribou were observed during
reconnaissance flights in January and February, 1949. Large burns north
of Fond-du-lac and Stoney Rapids have probably deflected migration
routes away from these crossing points. It is estimated that 30 per cent
of the winter range in Saskatchewan has been devastated and will not be
productive for many years.\
\
Similarly in northern Manitoba there have been large burns recently in
the caribou winter range. Large areas north and west of Southern Indian
Lake, as well as areas in the Angling River drainage south of the Nelson
River, have been destroyed. It seems probable that recent destruction of
winter forage in the Southern Indian Lake region may have been a
contributing cause of the recent southward movement of caribou herds
into central Manitoba in winter.\
\
It is difficult to assess the full effect of recent burns upon the
population of the species. Hitherto it has meant a shift of the caribou
herds to other areas, which have usually been available. It is probable
that were the larger part of the winter range destroyed by fire, the
population of caribou would be reduced by starvation.\
\
Literature Cited:\
**Clarke, C.H.D. 1940.** A biological investigation of the Thelon Game
Sanctuary. Nat. Mus. Can., Bull. No. 96, Biol. Ser. No. 25. 135 pp.\
\
**Harper, F. 1932.** Mammals of the Athabaska and Great Slave Lakes
region. J. Mamm. 13:19-36.\
\
**Palmer, L.J. 1926.** Progress of reindeer grazing investigations in
Alaska. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bull. 1423. 36 pp.\
**\
Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ caribou distribution/ fire/ forest fires/
lichens/ winter range/ Rangifer.

11\. Bergerud, Arthur T. 1971. Abundance of forage on the winter range
of Newfoundland caribou. The Canadian Field-Naturalist. 85:39-52.\
\
**Abstract:** The abundance of forage for caribou (*Rangifer tarandus*),
mainly evergreen shrubs and terrestrial lichens, was measured at 22
locations in Newfoundland. Study areas were selected to represent plant
successional stages following fires on former forest sites and in lichen
woodlands and also on subalpine winter range used by caribou. The
supplies of forage were substantial and there appeared to be no absolute
shortage of food for caribou. It was concluded that forest fires in the
past have increased the extent of winter range by altering closed-canopy
forests to lichen woodlands or shrub-barrens, and prostrate subalpine
spruce-fire thickets to lichen-shrub barrens.\
\
**Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ fire/ lichens/ post-fire succession/
Rangifer.

12\. \-\--. 1974. Decline of caribou in North America following
settlement. Journal of Wildlife Management. 38(4):757-770.\
\
**Abstract:** The numbers of caribou (*Rangifer tarandus*) in North
America generally declined in the 1800s and early 1900s. Four hypotheses
are discussed relative to this decline: (I) numbers decreased because of
a shortage of lichen supplies caused by the destruction of lichen
pastures by fire and logging; (II) population declined because of
increased hunting mortality, augmented by increased natural predation of
some herds by wolves (*Canis lupus*); (III) a combination of hypotheses
I and II above; and (IV) caribou declined in Alaska because of increased
movement of marginal habitats with high numbers. This review supports
hypothesis II\--that numbers declined because of increased hunting
mortality and natural predation of some herds, and argues that the
range-destruction hypothesis has not been shown to be either a necessary
or sufficient cause to explain the decline.\
\
**Keywords:** caribou/ fire/ hunting/ lichens/ logging/ population
decline/ predation/ *Rangifer*.

13\. Beverly and Kaminuriak Caribou Management Board. 1986. Executive
summary of the long-term management plan for the Beverly and Kaminuriak
caribou herds.\
\
**Note:** Citation from ASTIS bibliographic database; abstract
attributed to the author.\
**\
Abstract:** The Beverly and Kaminuriak Caribou Management Board was
created to implement the Beverly-Kaminuriak Caribou Management
Agreement, signed in 1982 by the Governments of Canada, Manitoba,
Saskatchewan, and the Northwest Territories and witnessed by
participating native groups. The Board is a forum for caribou users,
managers, and biologists to discuss caribou issues and to recommend
management actions and the allocation of resources. After several years
of research, discussion, and negotiation, the Board developed a draft
management plan that is being submitted for government and public review
before it can be considered operational. This Executive Summary is
intended for the use of Ministers, senior public servants and wildlife
organizations. A popular version, issued concurrently, forms part of a
special edition of the Board\'s newsletter aimed at traditional users
and is translated into native languages. The full-length, detailed
version will, when approved, constitute a guide for program managers and
specialists during the term of the management agreement. Caribou have
been important to the traditional users for centuries, and will continue
to be so in the future. They provide for the subsistence requirements of
an expanding northern population, and satisfy cultural and aesthetic
needs of both northern and southern Canadians. The Caribou Management
Board was formed at a time when an apparent decline in the Kaminuriak
herd population threatened the herd\'s existence, and when managers and
users were frustrated by a lack of understanding that prevented them
from reaching mutually acceptable management solutions. Circumstances
have since changed. The Kaminuriak herd population has rebounded
dramatically and both herds are healthy, although there are user
communities that still do not have ready access to them, which is a
cause of hardship for many native people. In addition, there are high
expectations on the Board as a working model for governments and users
to work in harmony on a worthy resource. \... The board relies heavily
on the traditional knowledge of user constituents, most of whom have
spent a lifetime observing the caribou in all places and all seasons. It
also recognizes that the managers and biologists who serve either as
members or advisers have impressive scientific credentials and
experience. \... It is this combination of scientific and traditional
skills and knowledge, and the mutual respect that has grown between
Board members and their advisers, that make the Board unique, strong and
worthy of full attention from the public and the Ministers in authority.
\...\
\
**Keywords:** Beverly Herd/ Canada/ caribou/ fire/ hunting/ Kaminuriak
Herd/ subsistence/ taiga / wildlife management/ Rangifer.

14\. Black, R. Alan and Bliss, Lawrence C. 1978. Recovery sequence of
*Picea mariana-Vaccinium uliginosum* forests after burning near Inuvik,
Northwest Territories, Canada. Canadian Journal of Botany.
56:2020-2030.\
\
**Abstract:** *Picea mariana-Vaccinium uliginosum* vegetation was
sampled in a north-south transect near Inuvik, N.W.T., Canada. Four
stages in the postfire recovery sequence were described. Little
qualitative change in vascular plants was found in the transect or with
time since burning, although quantitative changes were found to exist.
Contrary to vascular plant development, an orderly postfire succession
of cryptogamic species was found. The postfire recovery sequence by
comparison with other open boreal forest studies has a persistent
shrub-dominated stage. Burning, with few exceptions, occurred within 100
years of examination along the transect. Objective analyses by
Bray-Curtis ordination and reciprocal averaging ordination were used to
analyze the vegetation data and proved useful in the data reduction and
interpretation of results.\
\
**Keywords:** boreal forest/ Canada/ fire/ forest fires/ lichen
succession/ lichens/ ordination/ *Picea*/ post-fire succession.

15\. Bradshaw, Corey J. A. and Hebert, Daryll M. 1996. Woodland caribou
population decline in Alberta: fact or fiction? Rangifer. Special Issue
No. 9:223-234.\
\
**Note:** Paper presented at the Sixth North American Caribou Workshop,
Prince George, B.C., Canada, 1-4 March 1994. Includes discussion of fire
and caribou ecology in the section on habitat loss.\
\
**Abstract:** We re-assessed the view of a major woodland caribou
(*Rangifer tarandus caribou*) population decline in Alberta. Several
historical publications and provincial documents refer to this drastic
decline as the major premise for the designation of Alberta\'s woodland
caribou an endangered species. In the past, wildlife management and
inventory techniques were speculative and limited by a lack of
technology, access and funding. The accepted trend of the decline is
based on many speculations, opinions and misinterpretation of data and
is unsubstantiated. Many aerial surveys failed to reduce variance and
did not estimate sightability. Most surveys have underestimated numbers
and contributed unreliable data to support a decline. Through forest
fire protection and the presence of extensive wetlands, the majority of
potential caribou habitat still exists. Recreational and aboriginal
subsistence hunting does not appear to have contributed greatly to
mortality, although data are insufficient for reliable conclusions. Wolf
(*Canis lupus*) population fluctuations are inconclusive and do not
provide adequate information on which to base prey population trends.
The incidence of documented infection by parasites in Alberta is low and
likely unimportant as a cause of the proposed decline.\
\
**Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ habitat loss/ hunting/ pathology/
population decline/ predation/ wildlife management/ Rangifer.

16\. Bunnell, F.; Dauphine, D. C.; Hilborn, R.; Miller, Donald R.;
Miller, F. L.; McEwan, E. H.; Parker, G. R.; Peterman, R.; Scotter,
George Wilby, and Walters, C. J. 1975. Preliminary report on computer
simulation of barren ground caribou management. Pages 189-193 *in*
Luick, Jack R.; Lent, Peter C.; Klein, David R., and White, Robert G.,
eds. Proceedings of the first international reindeer and caribou
symposium. Fairbanks, Alaska, 9 Aug 1972-11 Aug 1972. Biological Papers
of the University of Alaska, Special Report No. 1. University of
Alaska-Fairbanks. Fairbanks, Alaska, 551 pp.\
\
**Abstract:** Abstract: A computer model was developed to look at the
dynamics of a caribou population on the winter range. Represented in the
model are browse and lichen production, total caribou population, winter
harvest, summer harvest and calf survival. The main objective of this
simulation model was to evaluate management practices. The model has
proven useful as a means of testing the interaction of management
interventions such as harvest rates, selective hunting, rate of forest
fire burns and calf survival.\
**\
Keywords:** caribou/ forage/ forest fires/ hunting/ lichens/ management/
model/ population dynamics/ winter range / Rangifer.

17\. Carroll, Steven B. 1978. The role of fire in the jack pine-lichen
woodlands of the Athabasca Plains region of Canada. Pages 47-49 *in*
Dube, D. E., eds. Proceedings - Workshop on fire ecology in resource
management. Edmonton, Alberta, 6 Dec 1977-7 Dec 1977. Information
Report. NOR-X-210. Canadian Forestry Service.\
**\
Note:** Report reproduced in its entirety.\
\
**Abstract:** During the summer of 1977, the jack pine-lichen woodlands
of the Athabasca Plains Region of northeastern Alberta and northern
Saskatchewan were studied with the following objectives: (1) to
determine the structure and species composition of these woodlands, (2)
to document the frequency and role of fire in the region, and (3) to
document the post-fire recovery of the vegetation. This summary will
deal with the latter two objectives.\
\
The widespread occurrence of fire margins, even-aged stands,
fire-scarred trees, charred wood and charcoal in the soil attests to the
importance of fire in this region. Analysis of fire-scar dates indicates
mean fire return intervals (MFRI) of 17.2-29.0 yr at six widely
scattered sites. When the MFRI was calculated for individual stands
(that is, did not include intervals between fires occurring in different
stands), the values ranged from 27.7 to 53.8 at the six sites. This
interval averaged 45.0 yr when data from all six sites were combined.\
\
Floristically, these woodlands are very simple. Sampled species totaled
only 4 trees, 6 shrubs, 27 herbs, 5 dwarf shrubs, 2 Pteridophytes, 8
Bryophytes, and 31 lichens. Despite this simplicity, species do replace
each other over time (since burning).\
\
One of the first species to colonize is jack pine, since a nearby seed
source is almost always present in the form of remnant trees or patches
of forest. Other colonizers include *Polytrichum piliferum*, *P.
juniperinum*, *Ceratodon purpureus*, *Cladonia coccifera*, *Cladonia
gracilis*, *Vaccinium myrtilloides*, *V. vitis-idaea*, *Ledum
groenlandicum*, *Hudsonia tomentosa*, *Arctostaphylos uva-ursi*, *Carex
foenea*, *Agrostis scabra*, and *Epilobium angustifolium*. The species
which colonize a particular site depend on many factors, and vary
geographically.\
\
After initial establishment of vegetative cover, the species composition
continues to change. *Cladonia coccifera* is soon replaced by *Cladina
mitis* as the dominant lichen. Other lichens, including *Cladonia
uncialis*, *Cetraria nivalis* and *Cladina stellaris*, increase in
importance. *Cladonia gracilis* is less predictable, but is often
codominant at this point, as are the two *Vacciniums*. Bryophytes such
as *Pleurozium schreberi*, *Dicranum polysetum* and *Ptilidium cilare*
begin to appear. At this point (30-60 years after burning), a stand will
likely burn, beginning the cyclical succession once again. If a stand
remains free from fire, however, succession is likely to proceed in one
of two directions, although variations are possible.\
\
In most instances, the canopy will continue to thin, allowing more solar
radiation to reach the ground. This maintains a warm, dry microclimate
at ground level which favors the maintenance of the *Cladina mitis*
dominated mat, although species such as *Cladonia uncialis*, *C.
gracilis*, *Cladina stellaris* and *Cetraria nivalis* may continue to
increase in cover. These park-like woodlands are among the most
beautiful of Canada\'s forests.\
\
Despite continued changes in the relative importance of species, the
lichen mat totally recovers (in terms of thickness and total cover) in
approximately 45 years. This contrasts sharply with regeneration times
farther north in the Canadian Shield.\
\
In more mesic areas, and especially on north-facing slopes, *Picea
mariana* may begin to seed in, or may form a subcanopy equal in age to
the higher pine canopy. Through regeneration and layering, radiation
levels on the ground are reduced. The increased moisture available under
such conditions allows the Bryophytes to gain in importance. Given
sufficient time, a mixed pine-spruce canopy forms, with a
lichen-bryophyte understory. The modified microclimate can be expected
to modify the fire regime by increasing fire-free intervals.\
\
Under the mesic successional regime, the thickness of the
lichen-bryophyte mat does continue to increase, and the species
composition continues to change. The lichen species *Cladina
rangiferina*, *C. stellaris*, *C. arbuscula* and *Cetraria nivalis* may
eventually attain greater cover than *Cladina mitis*. Only under these
conditions do *Cladina stellaris* woodlands form in the region. The
*Stereocaulon* *paschale* woodlands reported from farther north are
totally absent from this region.\
**\
Keywords:** boreal forest/ Canada/ fire/ fire frequency/ forest fires/
jack pine/ lichen succession/ lichens/ microclimate/ post-fire
succession.

18\. Carroll, Steven B. and Bliss, Lawrence C. 1982. Jack pine-lichen
woodland on sandy soils in northern Saskatchewan and northeastern
Alberta. Canadian Journal of Botany. 60(11):2270-2282.\
\
**Abstract:** Open woodland forests dominated by *Pinus banksiana* occur
on sandy soils in northeastern Alberta and northwestern Saskatchewan and
are generally even-aged and uniform in height. Ordination techniques
were used to divide the stands (n=38) into the following communities:
*Pinus banksiana/Vaccinium myrtilloides* seral community; *Pinus
banksiana/Cladina mitis*, *Pinus banksiana/Vaccinium
myrtilloides/Cladina mitis* in uplands; and *Pinus banksiana - Picea
mariana/Ledum groenlandicum/Cladina* spp. in lowlands. Fires occur with
a mean return interval of 38 years (range at six locations, 28-54
years). *Pinus banksiana* recolonizes rapidly after fire, and average
thickness of lichen cover is reached in 45 years. This is a shorter time
interval for recovery than is reported for the Northwest Territories.
Stands that escape fire 90+ years become more open in upland sites, but
in lowlands *Picea mariana* becomes codominant with associated shift in
lichen species and an increase in bryophytes.\
\
**Keywords:** boreal forest/ Canada/ forest fires/ jack pine/ lichens/
ordination/ *Picea*/ post-fire succession.

19\. Christiansen, Janet S. 1988. A spruce-lichen woodland in northern
Alaska: Post-fire regeneration and community dynamics. University of
Washington. Seattle, WA. 95 pp.\
**\
Note:** Ms. Sc. thesis. No abstract; conclusions section reproduced
below.\
\
Study area not used by caribou to any great extent. This thesis
documents post-fire ecology of a spruce-lichen woodland in Alaska, where
such habitats are uncommon. Conversely, most of the papers related to
fire and caribou in Canada concern spruce (and sometimes jack
pine)-lichen woodlands.\
\
**Abstract:** The conclusions of this study are the following:\
\
1.) Wildfires burned the spruce-lichen woodlands at Walker Lake in 1891
and 1913. Trees that survived these fires are scattered among younger
trees and are numerous in some areas.\
\
2.) Patterns of tree regeneration after fire were different for black
spruce than for white spruce. Age distributions for black spruce stands
show strong peaks of establishment within the firest two decades after
fire, with establishment dropping off to low levels within 35 years of
the fire. Regeneration in the white spruce stands was more continuous,
without strong peaks.\
\
3.) Few trees have established in the past 25 years. The lack of current
tree regeneration may be due to the poor seedbed provided by the lichen
mat.\
\
4.) The soil moisture regime is probably a major factor determining the
vegetation composition of the woodlands. Black spruce dominates on finer
textured soils, while white spruce occurs mainly on sandier soils. The
stands on finer textured soils are also generally denser, with thicker
lichen mats and higher shrub cover.\
\
5.) Tree growth is slow on all plots. Because of the slow tree growth
and narrow crown form and the eventual termination of seedling
establishment, these stands develop slowly. Stand canopies would
probably remain open for several centuries, even in the absence of fire,
allowing the continued dominance of the understory by lichens.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ boreal forest/ lichens/ *Picea*/ post-fire
succession/ soils.

20\. Cichowski, Deborah B. and Banner, Allen 1993. Management strategy
and options for the Tweedsmuir-Entiako caribou winter range. Land
Management Report. No. 83. ISSN 0702-9861; No. 83. Research Branch,
Ministry of Forests, Victoria, British Columbia. 48 pp.\
**\
Note:** Report mostly concerned with logging on winter range. Fire is
mentioned in Section 6.3.2 of the discussion on pg. 32 (see below).\
\
**Abstract:** Section 6.3.2. Tweedsmuir-Entiako caribou\
\
Some aspects of Tweedsmuir-Entiako woodland caribou ecology still need
to be addressed. In late winter, caribou move to ranges near the mouth
of the Entiako River. Food habits of caribou at that time of year are
not well understood. There is little habitat containing abundant
terrestrial lichens. It appears that they may switch from feeding on
terrestrial lichens to feeding on arboreal lichens or vegetation in
snow-free areas. A better understanding of forage selection during late
winter will facilitate defining harvesting guidelines compatible with
late winter range.\
\
Terrestrial lichen stands begin declining over the long run (200-300
years) as feather mosses colonize the forest floor, and they must
undergo periodic disturbance to regenerate back to productive stands. In
the past, wildfires acted as a disturbance factor. Today, however, with
widespread fire suppression efforts, occurrence of wildfires has been
significantly reduced. Eventually terrestrial lichen sites in high value
caribou management zones must be regenerated back to productive levels.
Further research into regenerating terrestrial lichen stands while
minimizing potential impacts to the caribou population is also required
and a Fire Management Plan for the winter range should be developed.\
\
Although arboreal lichens are used less than terrestrial lichens on the
low elevation winter range, arboreal lichens are a secondary food source
during winter. Where possible, both terrestrial and arboreal lichens
should be maintained. The caribou winter habitat map shows terrestrial
lichen abundance only. Methodology should be developed to predict
arboreal lichen abundance and used in conjunction with the caribou
habitat map.\
\
Because the Tweedsmuir-Entiako caribou population is declining, a
management strategy for the caribou winter range must address caribou
population considerations in the short run, as well as caribou
population and habitat considerations in the long run. Further research
is required to determine the primary limiting factor causing the
population decline. Once the cause of the decline is known, wildlife
management techniques may be employed to stop the declining population
trend. A better understanding of the population limiting factor will
also result in a better understanding of potential indirect effects of
timber harvesting on the Tweedsmuir-Entiako caribou winter range.
Harvesting guidelines could be further refined to maximize caribou
habitat and timber harvesting potential.\
**\
Keywords:** arboreal lichens/ British Columbia/ caribou/ fire/ fire
management/ logging/ population decline/ terrestrial lichens/ Rangifer.

21\. Cochrane, Ross G. and Rowe, John Stanley 1969. Fire in the tundra
at Rankin Inlet N.W.T. Pages 61-74 *in* Proceedings of the Tall Timbers
Fire Ecology Conference. Tallahassee, Florida, 1969. No. 9. 13 pp.\
**\
Note:** Summary reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** (Summary) Fires do occur in the Canadian tundra and their
traces were observed on a variety of topographic sites. They burn
readily downwind but are easily halted by physical obstacles in an
upwind direction.\
\
Burning is selective, reflecting fuel differences in the vegetation and
habitat moistness. *Alectoria* lichen communities burn readily and
evenly. *Cetraria* lichen communities burn less easily, while mixed
lichen-and-heath communities burn irregularly according to type and
quantity of fuel. Apparently Labrador tea and ground birch are
particularly flammable and burn fiercely.\
\
Growth and regeneration of lichens and heaths following fire seems to be
slow. Arctic holy grass is an important early colonizer of dry, sandy
and stony burned areas. Its dominance in a locality, especially if
banded alternately with sparsely vegetated moss-peat areas, strongly
suggests earlier fire influences.\
**\
Keywords:** Canada/ fire/ lichens/ tundra/ tundra fires.

22\. Cole, Glen F. 1982. Restoring natural conditions in a boreal forest
park. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 47:411-420.\
\
**Abstract:** Voyageurs National Park is located in northern Minnesota.
Its northern and eastern boundaries parallel a historic fur trade route
that influenced the location of the boundary between the United States
and Canada. About two-thirds of the park\'s 344-square-mile (891 km²)
area is land, and the remainder is made up of numerous small and large
lakes. The interspersion of forested land, massive rock outcrops and
lakes make the park very scenic. It is also somewhat unique because it
is the only U. S. park on the mainland in a southern boreal forest
region. Isle Royale National Park is also in this region, but its biota
is characteristic of island areas. The information in previous sections
identifies four major man-caused problems (i.e. changes from natural
conditions). These are: 1. Preventing all forest fires prevents the park
from having a natural forest vegetation. 2. Two of the park\'s four
native cervid species are absent and a third persists in precariously
low numbers. 3. Reduced food for carnivores is causing further declines
in the numbers and kinds of native wildlife species in the park. 4.
Regulated lake levels are having adverse effects on wild rice, fish, and
other wildlife. Some possible solutions to these problems, in the form
of hypotheses that can be tested by research, follow. 1. Allowing fires
to burn within designated areas where they can be confined (by natural
barriers or control) will reestablish mosaics of forest vegetation
comparable to those before logging. 2. Introductions will reestablish
viable populations of woodland caribou, moose, and/or elk. 3.
Reestablishing caribou, moose, and/or elk populations will increase food
for native carnivores. 4. The present adverse effects of regulating lake
levels on various aquatic species can be reduced, without serious
conflicts with other presently authorized uses of water, by
approximating the magnitude and timing of natural fluctuations in most
years and reducing the extreme fluctuations from occasional natural
floods or droughts. Alternatives to these solutions range from doing
nothing to employing actions that solve one problem, but not others. For
example, one alternative to reestablishing caribou, moose, or elk
populations to provide food for carnivores is to prescribe burn forests
to maintain high numbers of white-tailed deer. This would not restore
the park\'s native cervid fauna or maintain a natural forest vegetation.
Doing nothing seems certain to result in more native species becoming
less abundant or absent. These and other alternatives relating to cervid
introductions or fire are covered in greater detail in planning or
environmental impact documents. Alternative ways of regulating lake
levels are being explored with different users of water and an
International Joint Commission, which must authorize any changes. It is
intended that any actions to correct problems be monitored and evaluated
by research. This approach has been previously used to correct similar
problems in other national parks (Hayden 1971, Kilgore 1971, Houston
1971). The introductions of native cervids should be of particular
interest because they would allow various hypotheses about the effects
of parasites, interspecies competition, and inbreeding to be tested in
the field. More important, however, these and other appropriate actions
could assure that representative examples of natural southern boreal
forest environments and their native wildlife are preserved in Voyageurs
National Park.\
\
**Keywords:** boreal forest/ caribou/ fire mosaic/ forest fires/
Voyageurs National Park/ wildlife introductions/ Rangifer.

23\. Collins, William B., McElwain, Darien E., Dale, Bruce W., Joly,
Kyle, and Adams, Layne G. **In prep**. Fire, forage lichens, and caribou
distribution.\
\
**Abstract:** This paper is currently (summer 2004) in preparation.
Vegetation plots were studied at known caribou locations and random
locations in the both the current and historic winter ranges of the
Nelchina Caribou Herd. Comparisons between used and random locations
will be made, as well as comparisons between the winter ranges.\
\
**Keywords:** boreal forest/ caribou/ habitat selection/ forest fires/
lichens/ Nelchina/ Rangifer/ succession.

24\. Courtright, Alan T. 1959. Range management and the genus Rangifer:
A review of selected literature. University of Alaska-Fairbanks.
Fairbanks, Alaska. 172 pp.\
**\
Note:** M. Sc. thesis. Includes bibliographies of papers and reports,
some originally in Russian. Some entries extensively annotated. No
abstract, but select passages reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** (Preface) \... This paper is divided into three main
sections. The first consists of a brief review of the research that has
been conducted on the foods, food habits, and food requirements of the
genus *Rangifer*, and the relationships of these studies to general
range management in the north. It is intended primarily as a guide and
framework for the reading of the individual items in Section II. \... In
Section II the individual papers which have been abstracted, summarized,
reviewed or otherwise treated are listed in alphabetical order (by
author). The third section is composed of tables, lists, and other
\"compiled\" and tabulated data selected from the works in Section II;
these are grouped according to subject for easy comparison. \...\
\
**Effects of Fires, Other Animals (Including Man) Climate, and Other
Factors on the Range:** Due to the catholic tastes of the genus
*Rangifer* in regard to non-lichen forage \-- Igoshina (1937) mentions
130 species as being a part of the diet in summer, 30 to 40 in winter
\-- and to the fact that the value of lichens has not been properly
defined, there appears to be little profit in making definite statements
concerning the effects of fires, man, climate, or other factors on the
grazing capacity of northern ranges. The following generalities however,
have been repeated by one or more authors with varying amounts of
substantiation and are worth noting:\
\
1. The fact that lichens are sensitive to smoke and air pollution and
for this reason disappear from the vicinity of large cities is mentioned
even in encyclopedias. \...\
\
2. Fire is much more destructive to the lichen cover of an area than
grazing. Repeated burning, according to Lutz (1956), may result in
permanent or nearly permanent replacement of lichens by grasses, sedges,
and other plants. The effects of fires have also been mentioned by
Palmer (1941), Edwards (1952) and Avramchik (1939). The latter\'s
writings indicate the possibility of a difference in palatability of
\"after-grass\" grown after burning and that resulting from clipping or
grazing. The indication is expressed in rather vague terms, however, and
may stem from translation difficulties.\
\
In addition to changing the plant composition of an area, fires may
break up a range into units of \"good\" range separated by areas which
caribou avoid: Lutz (1956) states that caribou avoid burned areas. Thus
a range as a whole could become \"undesirable\" even though it contains
a large proportion of palatable and nutritious plants.\
\
It is always possible that some fire may be beneficial to the range.
Certainly there does not appear to be enough evidence to warrant the
common assertion that fire is always detrimental to caribou range.
Occasional small local fires may assist in returning a few nutrients to
the soil or may otherwise benefit production. Most forest fires,
however, are neither small nor local, and it is difficult to see where
the usual uncontrolled fire can be anything but harmful to the range.\
\
3. Caribou were once much more extensively distributed in North America
than they are at present. It appears to be tacitly assumed, though often
unwritten, that retreat of the animals to their present range has been
caused by disappearance of the lichen cover. A number of reasons have
been given for the retreat of lichens northward, and all of them
probably contain some degree of truth. Fires, logging, air pollution and
other factors could all have had a part in reducing the extent and
continuity of lichen cover.\
\
Literature Cited:\
**Avramchik, M.N. 1939.** \[The after-grass of some forage plants on
tundra pastures.\] Trans. Inst. Pol. Agr., 4:89-131. Eng. sum. pp.
129-131.\
\
**Edwards, R.Y. 1952.** Fire and the decline of a mountain caribou herd.
J. Wildl. Manage. 18(4):243-251.\
\
**Igoshina, K.N. 1937.** \[The pasture foods and food seasons of the
reindeer-husbandry of the Pri-Ural district.\] Arctic Inst. U.S.S.R.,
Sov. Reindeer Indus. 10:125-195. Eng. Sum. pp. 194-195.\
\
**Lutz, H.J. 1956.** Ecological effects of forest fires in the interior
of Alaska. U.S. Dept. Agric., Tech. Bull. 1133. 121 pp. Wash., D.C.\
\
**Palmer, L.J. 1941.** 1941. Progress report, caribou versus fire in
interior Alaska (A study of burned-over lichen ranges). 37 pp. U.S.
Dept. Int., Fish and Wildl. Serv.\
**\
Keywords:** air pollution/ bibliography/ caribou/ lichens/ rangeland /
*Rangifer*.

25\. Cumming, H. G. 1992. Woodland caribou: Facts for forest managers.
The Forestry Chronicle. 68(4):481-491.\
\
**Note:** Abstract and section on fire reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** A literature review points to predation as the proximate
factor controlling woodland caribou (*Rangifer tarandus caribou*)
populations in most cases, but that finding does not obviate the need
for caribou to be included in forest management. Managers must consider
the indirect effects of forest operations on caribou through their
impacts on caribou mortality factors, such as predation. Lichens remain
important. Habitat destruction may in some cases be the ultimate cause
of population decline. Reactions of caribou to disturbance vary, and
remain controversial: more research is needed. Multiple resource
managers of boreal commercial forests should identify sensitive
components of caribou range- calving grounds, rutting locations,
wintering areas, and travel routes among them- and prescribe for these
areas in forest management plans. Ways of accommodating caribou in
commercial forests are not well established, but some examples suggest
how this might be done. Most importantly, areas that have been proven by
their continued use to contain all necessary requirements for caribou
survival should not be physically altered until their essential
qualities and functions are better understood.\
\
*Fire*\
Fires impinge on woodland caribou primarily through their effects on
lichen supplies. The immediate consequence of fire is to destroy lichens
and because of this, many biologists consider fire to have strictly
negative effects on caribou habitat (Edwards 1954, Cringan 1957, Scotter
1972, Seip 1990). Other biologists point to the fact that large stands
of ground lichens often originate after fires and conclude that fires
are good for caribou range (Euler *et al.* 1976, Miller 1979). Klein
(1982) pointed out the importance of differentiating between short-term
and long-term effects. A consensus may be emerging that fires reduce the
taiga\'s potential to support caribou for up to 50 years, but over
periods of a century or more, they are essential for maintaining
ecological diversity and forage production for caribou (Klein 1982).
This idea was supported by Schaefer and Pruitt (1991) who found that
local caribou numbers in Manitoba decreased to half previous levels (36
to 18) following a fire, but suggested that long term benefits might
accrue, depending on local fire history. The boreal ecosystem is a
complex system. Even if direct effects of fire become well understood,
indirect effects also have to be considered. Fires set back succession,
favouring deer and moose. Normally, forest managers would consider this
change to be beneficial but the change to early forest successional
stages may increase the number of deer or moose and so increase the
probability of caribou picking up brain worms, or being eaten by wolves.
The consequence of these possibilities are detailed later.\
\
Literature cited:\
**Edwards, R.Y. 1954.** Fire and the decline of a mountain caribou herd.
J. Wildl. Manage. 18:512-526.\
\
**Cringan, A.T. 1957.** History, food habitats, and range requirements
of the woodland caribou of continental North America. Trans. North Am.
Wildl. Conf. 22:485-501.\
\
**Euler, D.L., B. Snyder, and H.R. Timmerman. 1976.** Woodland caribou
and plant communities on the Slate Islands. Lake Superior Can.
Field-Nat. 90:17-21.\
\
**Klein, D.R. 1982.** Fire, lichens, and caribou. J. Range Manage.
35:390-395.\
\
**Miller, D.R. 1979.** Wildfire effects of barren-ground caribou
wintering on the taiga of northcentral Canada: a reassessment. Pages
84-98 *in* Proc. Sec. Intern. Reindeer/caribou Symp. Roros, Norway.
Direktorated for vilt og ferkvannsfisk. Trondheim.\
\
**Schaefer, J.A. and W.O. Pruitt, Jr. 1991.** Fire and woodland caribou
in southeastern Manitoba. Wildl. Monogr. 116: 39 pp.\
\
**Scotter, G.W. 1972.** Fire as an ecological factor in boreal forest
ecosystems in Canada. Pages 15-24 *in* Proc. Conf. Fire in the
Environment. Denver, Colo. U.S. Forest Ser. FS-276.\
\
**Seip, D.R. 1990.** Ecology of woodland caribou in Wells Gray
Provincial Park. British Columbia Min. Environ Report. 43 pp.\
\
**Keywords:** boreal forest/ caribou/ forest fires/ forest management/
predation/ *Rangifer*.

26\. Davis, James L.; Shideler, R., and LeResche, R. E. 1978. Fortymile
caribou herd studies. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration. Projects
W-17-6 and W-17-7. Jobs 3.13R, 3.15R, and 3.16R. Final Report - Alaska
Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration. Alaska Department of Fish and Game,
Juneau, Alaska.\
**\
Note:** Final report consists of 3 separate reports: Size, composition,
and productivity of the Fortymile Caribou Herd; Movements and
distribution of the Fortymile Caribou Herd; and Range Reconnaissance-
Fortymile Caribou Herd. Although the final report was printed in June
1998, individual reports covered the time period 1973-1975. Summary of
the third report (Range Reconnaissance- Fortymile Caribou Herd) is
reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** The generalization that fire has been the cause of
widespread North American caribou declines in the late 1800s and early
1900s is not tenable. Evidence from Alaska and Canada suggests that fire
has never been the major limiting factor to most caribou populations.
The role of fire in caribou declines can only be evaluated on a
case-by-case basis. Destruction of lichens has been hypothesized as the
primary detrimental effect of fires. However, several studies have shown
that caribou and reindeer are not dependent on lichens. Furthermore,
there is evidence that lichen forage can in fact increase following
fire, and that forage species from seral stages which are dependent on
fire are heavily utilized by caribou. Indirect effects of fire on
caribou, such as adverse snow accumulation, increase in predator
numbers, and exposure to disease transmitted by animals dependent on
seral stages, may be as important in explaining population declines as
the hypothesized destruction of lichens.\
\
Extermination of caribou from the Kenai Peninsula is the most frequently
cited Alaskan situation in which fire has been assumed to be the cause.
This speculation is too simplistic - it is probable that other factors
such as overhunting and adverse weather were possible primary causes.\
\
Although fires may have reduced the winter carrying capacity of the
Fortymile herd\'s range during this century, the number of animals
present at any time has been well below the calculated carrying
capacity. The most conservative estimate of carrying capacity was
70,000-90,000 in 1956, when the population was only 50,000 animals. The
present carrying capacity is conservatively estimated at 61,000 animals,
while the population is 4,000-6,000. Furthermore, at no time since 1956
has the population level even approached the carrying capacity
estimates.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ Canada/ caribou/ fire / Fortymile Herd/ lichens/
winter range/ Rangifer.

27\. Davis, James L.; Valkenburg, Patrick, and Boertje, Rodney 1982.
Home range use, social structure, and habitat selection of the Western
Arctic Caribou Herd. Final Research Report. Contract No.: CX 9100-8-0032
. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska. 36 pp.\
**\
Note:** Prepared for the U.S. National Park Service.\
\
**Abstract:** During 1978-81, 38 male and 55 female caribou (*Rangifer
tarandus*) were successfully radio-collared in the range of the Western
Arctic Caribou Herd (WAH) and monitored on a year-round basis for 322
and 736 collar-months, respectively. Males were relocated 83 times and
females 279 times. Collared males died or shed collars more frequently
than females. As of 31 December 1981, radio collars were functioning on
a maximum of 19 males and 53 females.\
\
By relocating collared caribou for 2 or more years, we found that the
only movement patterns of collared individuals included the following:
(1) females returned each May to the traditional WAH calving area on the
North Slope; (2) both sexes used the foothills near the calving grounds
in May and June; and (3) both sexes returned to the arctic coastal plain
in summer. Use of a particular winter range during successive winters by
an individual was not predictable. In addition, the number of caribou
using a particular winter range varied greatly between years, although
the most important wintering areas consistently included the Selawik and
Buckland River drainages, the arctic coastal plain, and the central
Brooks Range.\
\
Findings from this study and concurrent complementary studies have
helped identify discrete caribou herds within the greater range of the
WAH. The Teshekpuk Herd and Central Arctic Herd clearly exist as
discrete entities which reside year-round on the North Slope in the
northeast corner of the WAH\'s range. Seven of 15 females and all males
collared in the Price and Oumalik River drainages in April 1981 remained
in this vicinity through summer 1981. This may indicate a widely
scattered distribution of the Teshekpuk Herd among other possibilities.
The Ray Mountains Herd exists in the southeastern portion of the WAH\'s
range, and the Andreafsky Herd is distributed near the southwestern
extent of the WAH\'s range. However, within northwestern Alaska, no
discrete herd inhabits NPS lands year-round. This implies that the
caribou which seasonally use NPS lands in northwestern Alaska can be
maintained only through cooperation between private landowners, the
State of Alaska, and various Federal agencies.\
\
Because of the current and historic seasonal distribution patterns of
the region\'s caribou, policies for managing NPS lands in northwestern
Alaska will generally have substantial effect on important direct
mortality factors to caribou. These policies will affect the caribou
population by controlling hunting, both for subsistence and sport, and
predation through protective regulations for major predator species. NPS
policies will have less impact on welfare factors such as habitat
because critical seasonal habitats extend well beyond or occur totally
outside of NPS lands.\
\
We investigated the existence of strong social bonds between individuals
by radio-collaring 2 to 4 caribou in each of 17 groups (38 individuals).
Although 125 resightings were made of these 38 individuals, we did not
document any persistent, nonrandom associations between individuals. Our
present data and observations support the hypothesis that the basic
units of caribou social structure are either \"temporary, tenuous
associations of individuals \" (Lent 1965) or \"open, social units\"
(Bergerud 1974).\
\
The most unexpected aspect of habitat selection by the WAH, and the one
possibly having greatest habitat management implications, was that
spruce (*Picea* spp.) forest habitat was rarely used even in winter.
Instead, open tundra plateaus, tussock communities, and windblown
ridgetops were favored. Food habits of caribou wintering on the arctic
coastal plain apparently differed substantially from those of caribou
wintering in the Selawik Hills and south of the Brooks Range. For
instance, caribou feces collected on the arctic coastal plain in late
winter contained about 40-50 percent less lichen fragments and 4 times
more shrub fragments (primarily *Vaccinium*) than similar samples
collected south of the Brooks Range.\
\
Review and assessment of effects of fire on the WAH suggest to us that
wildfires had little or no effect on the WAH\'s decline between 1970 and
1976. The WAH apparently uses tundra wintering habitats more than
tree-dominated winter habitats. Consequently, emphasizing research on
tundra fire ecology rather than taiga fire ecology should be more
relevant to managing the WAH.\
\
Literature Cited:\
**Bergerud, A.T. 1974.** Decline of caribou in North America following
settlement. Journal of Wildlife Management. 38(4):757-770.\
\
**Lent, P.J. 1965.** ???\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ caribou distribution/ fire/ habitat use/
Western Arctic Herd / Rangifer.

28\. Davis, James L.; Valkenburg, Patrick; Pitcher, Kenneth W., and
Larson, Douglas N. 1990. A conceptual basis for caribou management in
Alaska. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska. 6 pp.\
**\
Note:** 1990 Alaska Department of Fish and Game caribou workshop
committee report. Brief section on forest fires reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** *Forest fires:* Northern boreal forests are important
caribou winter ranges and wildfire is as important to these forests as
rain is to rain forests. Natural wildfire maintains a mosaic of
different aged forest and removes thick unproductive, insulating mats of
old lichen and moss. However, excessive burning as a result of
man-caused fires could result in a long-term reduction of winter range.
At present, however, we believe that the primary problem with fire is
that too many small natural ignitions have been or are extinguished
initially.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ boreal forest/ caribou/ forest fires/ Rangifer.

29\. Edwards, R. Y. 1954. Fire and the decline of a mountain caribou
herd. Journal of Wildlife Management. 18(4):521-526.\
\
**Note:** Author\'s summary reproduced here. Article contains
descriptions of pre- and post-fire vegetation that are not discussed in
the summary.\
\
**Abstract:** *Summary:* A mountain caribou herd in Wells Gray Park,
British Columbia, is one of many in the province that has decreased in
size since the turn of the century. Fire appears to be the cause of
decline of the Wells Gray herd. Since 1926 about 70 per cent of the
forests below 4,000 feet have been burned, and caribou, which appear to
require mature lowland forests for winter range, are now confined in
winter to the unburned forest remnants.\
\
The fires were followed by a dramatic change in composition and
population density of the mammalian community. The caribou decline was
accompanied by declines in a few other species, while the overall effect
of fires was to create a mammalian abundance previously unknown.\
\
To maintain and eventually to increase this herd, management will
include protection of the animals, protection of existing lowland
forests from fire, and a long-term endeavour to increase the area of
lowland climax or near-climax forests.\
\
**Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ fire/ population decline/ *Rangifer*.

30\. Eriksson, Olof 1975. Sylvicultural practices and reindeer grazing
in northern Sweden. Pages 108-121 *in* Luick, Jack R.; Lent, Peter C.;
Klein, David R., and White, Robert G., eds. Proceedings of the first
international reindeer and caribou symposium. Fairbanks, Alaska, 9 Aug
1972-11 Aug 1972. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska. Special
Report Number 1. University of Alaska-Fairbanks. Fairbanks, Alaska, 551
pp.\
**\
Note:** Abstract and section on controlled burning reproduced here.\
\
**Abstract:** The most obvious immediate effect of large scale logging
is the large quantity of slash that produces physical obstruction to
winter grazing. Bioclimate, plant cover and availability of forage
plants during winter are altered radically after clear cutting large
areas. Beneficial effects of logging are an enlarged supply of epiphytic
lichens immediately after the felling, and sometimes an increased growth
of higher plants during following years. Reforestation methods also have
an impact on the reindeer grazing resource. Controlled burning of clear
cut areas, that destroys lichen stands for decades but that for some
years may stimulate a rich growth of certain higher plants, is now
almost abandoned. Mechanical preparation of the seed bed may destroy
forage plants and reindeer herds also are reluctant to move across
treated areas. Today, the use of herbicides to control deciduous growth
in planted areas is restricted, since aerial application is prohibited.
Aerial fertilization is practiced widely in Sweden. Little is known
about the effect on plants used by reindeer. However, this method is
used only on rich lands to make fast growing trees grow still faster the
last few years before harvest. These rich lands are normally not of
great importance to the reindeer industry. Although little research
concerning interactions between logging and reindeer husbandry has been
carried out so far, it seems reasonable to suspect that the reindeer
husbandry will suffer if the existing sylvicultural practices are not
changed to some extent.\
\
*Controlled Burning*\
Usually one has to promote reforestation actively if one wants to get a
new productive forest in a logged over area within reasonable time.\
\
The oldest method is controlled burning, a method that is now more or
less abandoned since on one hand it is fairly expensive and on the other
hand it gives uncertain results. During 1970 only 736 ha were burned
over in Lappmark (Skogsstatistisk arsbok, 1970).\
\
According to Domanverket (1972) burning is a biologically useful method
in northern Sweden on moist ground with a thick layer of raw humus; that
is, on ground that is not of prime importance as winter pasture.\
\
Uggla (1958) has studied the effect of wildfires in lichen-rich pine
(*Pinus silvestris*) forests in Muddus National Park, county of
Norrbotten. He has reported a regeneration period of more than 40 years
for reindeer lichens (*Cladonia* spp.). Holmback and Malmstrom (1947)
have burned some study plots when making experiments in order to improve
seed beds in lichen-rich pine forests in North Sweden. After 10-12 years
only a few lichen thalli were to be seen. Fairly soon after a burning
there is, however, an increased growth of certain higher plants that are
eaten by reindeer. Among these are, for example, *Deschampsia flexuosa*.
These plants, however, have their annual period of optimum production
when there are plenty of other plants available for reindeer to eat and
when the larger part of the reindeer population does not use this
range.\
\
*Literature cited*\
**Domanverket. 1972.** Skogsvardshandbok, Stockholm.\
\
**Holmback, B. and C. Malmstrom. 1947.** Nagra markforbattringsforsok pa
nordsvenska tallhedar. Meddelanden fran Statens skogsforskningsinstitut
Band, 36 nr. 6., 82 pp.\
\
**Uggla, E. 1958.** Skogsbrandfalt i Muddus nationalpark. Acta
Phytogeographica Suecica nr 41 Uppsala.\
**\
Keywords:** fire/ forestry/ lichens/ pine forest/ prescribed fires/
reindeer/ Sweden.

31\. Esseen, Per-Anders. 1983. Ecology of lichens in boreal coniferous
forests with reference to spatial and temporal patterns. University of
Umea. c1983. various pagings.\
**\
Note:** Ph.D. thesis. Citation from BOREAL bibliographic database.\
\
**Abstract:** Doctoral thesis dealing with the ecology of epiphytic
lichens in old *Picea abies* forest of the fire-refugia type and epigeic
as well as epixylic lichens in a successional sequence of
fire-susceptible *Pinus sylvestris* forests in Medelpad and Vsterbotten
in central and northern Sweden.\
**\
Keywords:** lichens/ Sweden/ taiga.

32\. Evans, H. Frank. 1964. An investigation of woodland caribou in
northwestern United States. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf.
29:445-453.\
\
**Abstract:** The future of caribou presents several enigmas. If serious
fires are averted, if future intensive forestry practices do not too
dramatically alter optimum lichen growing conditions and if illegal
hunting does not lead to its extinction in the region, are caribou
likely to survive in any numbers? The answer to the question poses
another\--will the seral forests following logging and fire mature
enough to support sufficient lichen pastures to sustain the species
before these forests are likewise assigned to logging! Future logging
practices will probably demand less timber size. Only time, caribou
population behavior and lichen ecology studies may reveal the answers.
This creature which is associated with climax or relatively mature
forests would appear to be doomed since man does not maintain climaxes
but destroys them. However caribou possess one remarkable characteristic
that assists them in their seemingly tenuous existence. Their extremely
restless, roaming behavior (Murie, 1935) seems to persistently probe
enormous geographic areas and this brings the species in contact with
such habitat that has matured sufficiently to support them. If such
supporting habitat which has been destroyed early in the century is
regenerated before the species is reduced too severely in numbers,
caribou may find it and yet survive in the forests of northwestern
United States. Physical barriers within the study area were considered
almost nonexistent since it was established that caribou appear to
travel high ridges in the summer season. Therefore these ridges provide
excellent avenues of travel by means of which the animals may traverse
large segments of unsuitable habitat and find islands of aging forest
where winter lichen pastures will feed them until summer makes grasses
and forbs again available in the highlands. Fortunately, man is not
often found in the summering areas above timber and does rather little
hunting in dense forest, so caribou habits may permit some respite from
human contact. On the other hand, the restless, extensive wandering
increases the likelihood of contact with humans. The roam range concept
permits an understanding of several phenomena associated with caribou.
First, it permits an explanation of the variation of year to year
distribution and seeming fluctuation in populations that might be
observed. Second, it adequately explains the reoccurrence of caribou in
areas widely separated in time and space from previous reports of the
animals as well as accounting for their appearance where they have not
been previously reported. Third, it permits an explanation of how the
Kaniksu Forest herd may have remained relatively stable when there was
no evidence of predation or disease but presumed normal reproductory
behavior. If small bands wander from the area it subtracts any increment
of increase and accounts for reappearance elsewhere. Fourth, it would
tend to prevent a boom and bust of populations which would deplete their
range. It was the reoccurrence of caribou in the sixth decade in the
three widely separated areas that was the most encouraging aspect of
this study and the one which permits some hope for this rare species in
northwestern United States. The prediction is made that caribou will
continue to wander widely in their small bands of a few to a dozen or
more animals and will occasionally be reported. If the west side forests
of Glacier National Park reach sufficient maturity and are not reburned,
a stable population of caribou may become established there. It is
further predicted that man will continue to erode caribou numbers as the
wandering animals intersect human activities. This study revealed
thirteen illegal caribou kills in a nineteen year period (Evans, 1906)
and the probability of discovering illegal kills will be conceded as
being very small indeed. Since ever-increasing human populations rely
ever more heavily on diminishing old-age timber stands in the economy of
the region, it does not appear feasible that any assistance can be given
to the management of caribou habitat to assure higher population level.
The wandering nature of the animal has been of a high survival value to
the species because of slow lichen growth. This characteristic now
enhances its chance for survival since forest succession is an even more
time-consuming process.\
\
Literature cited:\
**Murie, O.J. 1935.** Alaska-Yukon caribou. U.S. Bur. Biol. Survey, N.
Am. Fauna, 54:1-93.\
\
**Keywords:** caribou/ caribou distribution/ fire/ hunting/ logging/
*Rangifer*/ Rocky Mountains.

33\. Ferguson, Robert S. 1983. Fire history of the Beverly caribou
winter range, NWT, 1966-1982. File report. No. 34. Northwest Territories
Wildlife Service, Yellowknife, NWT. 15 pp.\
\
**Abstract:** Fire history of the Caribou Range Subdistrict south of the
treeline (116,778 square km) was investigated by analyzing the fire
statistics compiled by the Forest Service, Northern Affairs Program,
Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. The Forest
Service has been monitoring and mapping fires by aerial reconnaissance
in the Caribou Range Subdistrict since 1966. From 1966 to 1982, 533
fires burned approximately 1.9 million hectares or 16.26 percent of the
Caribou Range Subdistrict. The annual burn rate ranged from \<0.01 to
6.43 percent, and averaged 0.96 percent for the 17 year period. Forty
(40) percent of the total burned area was attributed to the 1979 fire
season. The majority of fires (72%) and most of the burned area (79%)
occurred west of 108 degrees W longitude. This pattern is consistent
with earlier studies of fire history and reflects regional differences
in lightning incidence and length of fire season. The annual burn rates
reported for the Caribou Range Subdistrict should be regarded as
preliminary estimates because of the limitations of monitoring and
mapping fires by aerial reconnaissance.\
**\
Keywords:** caribou/ caribou distribution/ forest fires/ fire history/
Beverly Herd/ Rangifer.

34\. Filion, L. and Payette, Serge. 1989. Subarctic lichen polygons and
soil development along a colonization gradient on eolian sands. Arctic
and Alpine Research. 21(2):175-184.\
\
**Abstract:** The postfire recovery sequence during the last 150-200 yr,
lichen-ground colonization pattern, and soil development in a
parabolic-dune system along the east coast of Hudson Bay, northern
Quebec, were documented using fifteen contiguous vegetation belts.
Differential plant colonization takes place during succession because of
a sustained exposure gradient associated with site position in the dune
environment. Along the colonization gradient, seven developmental stages
were identified, showing distinct vegetation and soil types and
particular lichen-ground polygonal patterns. Soil development proceeded
successively from bare sands, regosol, and shallow eluviated dystric
brunisol. Bare sands are first colonized by *Polytrichum piliferum* and
subsequently by *Stereocaulon paschale* and *Rhacomitrium canescens*. At
stage 2, *Rhacomitrium* forms an extensive cover, while *Stereocaulon*
takes over at stage 3 with a significant increase of invading species.
The formation of thin desiccation cracks and inception of lichen
polygons, resulting in the dominance of *Cladina mitis* at stage 4. The
progressive dominance of *Cladina alpestris* and podzolic soil
development toward a late lichen-spruce woodland (stages 5 to 7) are
characterized by a sharp decline in species diversity and the appearance
of mostly ephemeral lichen polygons. It is concluded that the two
lichen-polygon types are associated with vegetation and soil development
during plant stabilization of eolian sands: the *C. mitis* type and the
*C. alpestris* type, respectively, formed during transient successional
stages and late lichen-woodland stages.\
\
**Keywords:** Canada/ dunes/ fire/ lichen regeneration/ lichens/ mosses/
post-fire succession/ soil development/ soils.

35\. Fire Subcommittee of the Alaska Land Managers Cooperative Task
Force 1979. The Fortymile interim fire management plan.\
**\
Note:** Fire management plan for the Fortymile River region in eastern
Alaska. Section pertaining to caribou reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** *Caribou:* Portions of at least five and perhaps six
caribou herds inhabit this area at various times of the year. The major
herd encompassed by this plan is the once-numerous Fortymile herd. While
historic reasons for the initial decline of this herd are not well
known, loss of winter range due to fire has been largely discounted as a
prime causative factor after investigation by the Alaska Department of
Fish and Game. The present population of 3,500 -5,000 caribou is well
below the estimated carrying capacity of 50,000. Human harvest averages
fewer than 50 animals annually. There is some viewing use of the herd
when it crosses the Taylor Highway in October. The main herd winters
east of the highway between Eagle and the Ladue River.\
\
Based on recent studies, it appears that caribou may not be adversely
affected by fire to the degree once believed. Because under the Interim
Fire Management Plan the prescription for late-season fires is
conservative, the probability of large conflagrations is greatly
reduced. While a large percentage of the winter range of the Fortymile
caribou herd lies within this area and received the lowest suppression
priority, caribou numbers are presently well below carrying capacity.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ fire/ fire management/ forest fires/
Fortymile Herd/ interior Alaska/ population decline/ wildlife/ winter
range/ Rangifer.

36\. Foote, M. Joan 1983. Classification, description, and dynamics of
plant communities after fire in the taiga of interior Alaska. Research
Paper. PNW-307. USDA Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Portland, Oregon. 108 pp.\
**\
Note:** Abstract and select sections about lichens reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** One hundred thirty forest stands ranging in age from 1
month postfire to 200 years were sampled and described by successional
series (white spruce and black spruce) and by developmental stage (newly
burned, moss-herb, tall shrub-sapling, dense tree, hardwood, and
spruce). Patterns of change in the two successional series are
described. In addition, 12 mature forest communities are described in
quantitative and qualitative terms.\
\
**White spruce sites:** Mosses, when present, grow on the basal trunks
and exposed roots of quaking aspen or occasionally in small patches on
the forest floor. Lichens, primarily *Cladonia* spp., occur but never in
large amounts.\
\
*Patterns of change on white spruce sites:* Ground lichens are always
present in small quantities. *Peltigera* spp. appear to peak in the tall
shrub stage, and *Cladonia* spp. peak in the dense tree stage. \...
Lastly, the number of species present in a given area increases
continuously well into the tall shrub-sapling stage and then remains
almost constant. Most species are present throughout succession but in
varying amounts. Other species occur in some stages but not all.
*Ceratodon purpureus*, *Marchantia polymorpha*, fireweed, willows,
hardwoods, and *Cladonia* spp. are examples of the latter group.\
\
**Black spruce sites:** The vegetation is dominated by trees, but low
shrubs, mosses, and sometimes lichens are also prominent. Black spruce,
quaking aspen, paper birch, Alaska larch, mountain-cranberry, bog
blueberry, the mosses *Pleurozium schreberi* and *Sphagnum* spp., and
lichens *Cladina* spp. and *Cladonia* spp. grow prominently on black
spruce sites.\
\
*Patterns of change on mesic black spruce sites:* Ground lichens all
follow one pattern. They appear slowly and increase gradually to cover
the greatest area during the dense tree stage, after which they slowly
decline. *Peltigera* spp. are the first to appear, and they usually
occur in the greatest amounts. *Cladina* spp. and *Cladonia* spp.
account for most of the remaining lichen cover. On mesic sites in this
study, only small quantities of lichens were found in stands
representing the spruce stage of development.\
\
**Comparisons of patterns of change:** Other species in both series
develop their greatest numbers and/or cover in the intermediate stages
and decline or disappear thereafter. Bebb, grayleaf, and Scouler willows
as well as *Peltigera* spp. are important in the tall shrub stage.
*Cladonia* spp. and *Cladina* spp. are important in the dense tree
stage. And quaking aspen and paper birch may be important in the dense
tree and hardwood stages. The lichen species are more extensive on black
spruce sites and the hardwood species on white spruce sites.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ fire/ fire ecology/ forest fires/ forest types/
interior Alaska/ *Picea*/ plant associations/ post-fire succession/
taiga.

37\. Foster, David R. 1984. The dynamics of *Sphagnum* in forest and
peatland communities in southeastern Labrador, Canada. Arctic.
37(2):133-140.\
\
**Abstract:** Long fire rotation, high levels of precipitation, and
acidic nature of the bedrock are factors contributing to the dominance
of *Sphagnum* in many upland and peatland communities in southeastern
Labrador. Vegetation development induced by local or regional
environmental change frequently involves replacement of species
assemblages of various bryophytes and lichens by species assemblages
dominated by *Sphagnum.* In upland forests the successional sequence
following fire often culminates in a carpet of *Sphagnum* *girgensohnii*
overgrowing feather mosses. Similarly, following a change in the water
table, *Sphagnum lindbergii* encroaches as a broad carpet over
*Cladopodiella fluitans* and *Gymnocolea inflata* on recently exposed
mud bottoms in bog hollows. On bog hummocks, following fire or changes
in the moisture regime, *Sphagnum fuscum* overtops *Cladonia* lichens to
form a pronounced recurrence horizon.\
\
**Keywords:** Canada/ fire/ lichens/ mosses/ post-fire succession/
taiga.

38\. Freddy, David J. and Erickson, Albert W. 1975. Status of the
Selkirk Mountain caribou. Pages 221-227 *in* Luick, Jack R.; Lent, Peter
C.; Klein, David R., and White, Robert G., eds. Proceedings of the first
international reindeer and caribou symposium. Faribanks, AK, 9 Aug
1972-11 Aug 1972. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska. Special
Report No. 1. University of Alaska-Fairbanks. Fairbanks, AK, 551 pp.\
**\
Note:** Abstract and brief section about fire reproduced here.\
\
**Abstract:** The Selkirk Mountain caribou (*Rangifer tarandus
montanus*) are the only naturally remaining caribou in the contiguous
United States, being found in the Selkirk Mountains of northern Idaho,
northeastern Washington and southern British Columbia, Canada.
Observations indicate there is a minimum of 35 caribou in the herd.
These animals are divided into at least three small groups and occupy a
somewhat discontinuous range. The animals wintered in the subalpine
fir-Engelmann spruce forest in areas of moderate relief between the
elevations of 1,380 m and 2,160 m. Arboreal lichens of the genus
*Alectoria* comprised the main winter food. Ecological damage to already
limited winter range could seriously jeopardize the size and
distribution of this herd. Special land classification, logging
restrictions, forest fire control and continued protected status for
these animals are essential management considerations.\
\
*Fire:*\
Forest fire records dating to the late 1800\'s indicate much of the
study area has been burned, especially at the lower elevations. In 24
instances during 1972, caribou were observed to visit burns that
occurred at high altitudes. In 15 of these cases, tracks indicated the
animals only traveled through the burned area. In nine cases some
feeding occurred; and in one instance, the animals fed in small pockets
of trees missed by the fire.\
**\
Keywords:** arboreal lichens/ caribou/ forest fires/ forestry/
*Rangifer*/ Selkirk Mountains.

39\. Gingras, J. J. and Guimont, P. illustrator. 1983. S.O.S. caribous.
North. 29(4):24-29.\
\
**Note:** Citation from ASTIS bibliographic database; abstract
attributed to author. English summary, but original article may be in
French.\
\
**Abstract:** \...the writer \... \[examines\] \... the complex question
of the future of northern caribou herds \[in Quebec and Labrador\].
Whereas the species is virtually extinct in the south, except in places
where the animals are protected such as in the Laurentians, in the
North, herds are increasing in size. Extensive surveys and studies done
over the last ten years by the Quebec Minstry of Recreation, Hunting and
Fishing have enabled experts to compile a large amount of data on the
numbers, habits, and habitats of the caribou. Statistics of herd sizes
in past years show that populations of this animal fluctuate
considerably, more than can be explained by over-hunting, land
clearance, forest fires and so on. \...Natural mechanisms may eventually
help to stabilize the situation but the author suggests various
possibilities for controlling or harvesting this resource in a
systematic way and thus reap benefits from control of the herds. This
would require a considerable amount of negotiation between the various
parties involved, whether native groups, environmentalists or
governments. Modifications would also have to be made to some existing
laws.\
\
**Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ population dynamics/ wildlife management/
Rangifer.

40\. Gorshkov, V. V. 1995. Changes in the diversity of species of
lichens in the post-fire process of revegetation in non-polluted pine
forests on the Kola Peninsula. Rossiiskaia Akademiia Nauk.
341(1):118-121.\
\
**Note:** In Russian. Citation from the Cold Regions - CRREL
bibliographic database.\
\
**Abstract:** Abstract not available.\
\
**Keywords:** forest fires/ lichens/ pollution/ post-fire succession.

41\. Gorshkov, V. V. and Gorshkov, V. G. 1992. Recovery characteristics
for forest ecosystems after fires. Rossiiskaia Akademiia Nauk:40 pp.\
\
**Note:** Citation from Cold Regions - CRREL bibliographic database.
Russian summary, English article.\
\
**Abstract:** Not Available.\
\
**Keywords:** forest fires/ lichens/ mosses/ post-fire succession.

42\. Grissom, Perry, Alexander, Martin E., Cella, Brad, et al. 2000.
Effects of climate change on management and policy: mitigation options
in the North American boreal forest. Kasischke, Eric S., and Stocks,
Brian J. eds. in Fire, climate change, and carbon cycling in the boreal
forest. Springer-Verlag, New York. pp. 85-101.

> **Abstract:** Predicted increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide are
> expected to increase summer temperatures 4-6^o^ C. This summer should
> increase the fire incidence and also the number and extent of major
> fires. Fire plays an important role in controlling many ecosystem
> processes. These changes may effect ungulate living in the boreal
> forest.

43\. Hanson, William A. \*chk pp. 1979. Preliminary results of the Bear
Creek fire effects studies. Open File Report. USDI Bureau of Land
Management, Anchorage, Alaska. 55+ pp.\
\
**Abstract:** During an extended drought in August and September 1977,
Bear Creek Fire burned 140,000 hectares (345,000 acres) of land near
Farewell, Alaska. Plant communities prior to the fire included extensive
stands of black spruce and white spruce, ericaceous and dwarf birch
shrublands, and sedge tussock communities.\
\
On well drained sites, white spruce-hardwood forests burned with high
severity and low intensity. All plants were killed and much more mineral
soil was exposed. During the first growing season after the fire,
pioneer communities on well drained sites consisted of six to eight
species, including many white spruce (*Picea glauca*) seedlings, the
liverwort *Marchatia polymorpha*, moss (*Polytrichum* spp. and
*Ceratadon purpurea*), and fireweed (*Epilobium angustifolium*).\
\
On poorly drained sites, black spruce and shrub-bog communities burned
with variable severity and intensity. Very little mineral soil was
exposed. Pioneer communities on these sites are largely the result of
vegetative reproduction by rootstocks which survived in the thick
organic mat. An average of 15 species were present during the first
season of growth, including bog blueberry (*Vaccinium uliganosum*),
lingonberry (*Vaccinium vitis-idaea*), black spruce (*Picea mariana*),
cloudberry (*Rubus chamaemorus*), arctic dwarf birch (*Betula nana*),
fireweed, and cottongrass (*Eriophorum* sp.).\
\
Wildlife observations during winter indicate that moose and caribou used
an adjacent 5-year-old burn more than adjacent unburned communities, and
adjacent unburned communities more than the newly burned areas. Bison
are using the 5-year-old burn and newly burned areas extensively.\
\
The fire caused local erosion on glacial moraines. However, almost no
erosion has occurred on 80 miles of reclaimed firelines. Two miles of
unreclaimed fireline have filled with standing water about 1 meter deep
but are not eroding.\
\
Approximately 58 km (36 miles) of the Iditarod Trail, a National
Historic Trail, were burned. Several historic roadhouses and three
prehistoric sites were damaged by the fire. Several additional cabins
and roadhouses escaped burning or were saved by fire crews.\
\
Increased exposure to wind, blockage of the trail by fallen trees, and
decreased visibility of the trail due to loss of the forest canopy, have
hampered travel by dog sledders during the annual Iditarod Race.\
\
Preliminary observations of the effects of fire and suppression
activities on fish, timber, recreation, subsistence users, and
socioeconomics of the area are discussed briefly. Studies should be
initiated to examine more closely, and from a multifaceted viewpoint,
the effects of the fire on local users of the area.\
\
**Caribou excerpts:** \.... Caribou were occasionally seen on the burn
in summer. They are reported to be part of the Mulchatna herd, which
contains about 5,000 animals. Some of these animals may also be part of
the Beaver herd or even the McKinley herd. \...Caribou were using three
broad regions of the burn in winter. Most (27 out of 42 animals) were
found along the southeastern edge near the moraines. They were feeding
in birch and ericaceous shrub-sedge communities. Several smaller groups
of caribou were feeding in sedge-grass meadows (old lakebeds) in the
northeast portion of the burn. These animals were traveling from meadow
to meadow, much like the bison. Along the northwest edge of Bear Creek
Burn the only fresh caribou signs were observed on the burn, although
older tracks were observed on meadows outside the burn. Along the
southeastern edge, most animals were in Farewell Burn or unburned
communities along the moraines. \...Although caribou would normally have
been a concern, the herds in this area are far below the carrying
capacity of their range.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ boreal forest/ caribou/ fire/ forest fires/ interior
Alaska/ post-fire succession/ wildlife/ Rangifer.

44\. Hinkes, Michael T. and Campbell, Bruce. 1981. Caribou winter
utilization of burned habitats on the Bear Creek Burn study area in
interior Alaska.\
\
**Note:** Presented at the 1981 Alaska Science Conference, but available
copy of report was an agency document and not included in an official
proceedings; not known if conference proceedings were published. Claims
to represent only a brief analysis and summary of caribou habitat
studies at Bear Creek. Conclusion section presented here.\
\
**Abstract:** Conclusions: Although some investigators have shown that
caribou can thrive without lichens in their winter diet, and concluded
that lichens are not essential to caribou survival, the fact remains
that lichens can be a major component in the free-ranging caribou winter
diet. The animals at Bear Creek make an effort to search out lichen
species even on burned areas where lichens make up less than 3% of the
vegetation cover.\
\
Although fire can be detrimental to caribou range and possibly affect
caribou abundance, each major herd and physiographic region must be
addressed in terms of population numbers and range availability.\
\
The Bear Creek and Farewell fires have probably had minimal impact on
the Rainy Pass/Farewell herd. We base this conclusion on four major
points. First, the herd is a relatively low density population in
relation to its habitat; second, abundance of forage is available in
adjacent unburned habitat; third, the burning characteristic on a major
portion of the burn left small islands of undisturbed habitat available
to caribou, and lastly, that although lichens are slow to regain former
abundance, an adequate amount of forage has recovered on some sites
within a few years following fire to allow continued use by caribou.\
\
The habitat at Bear Creek is fairly representative of much of the
Kuskokwim Basin, particularly along the western slopes of the Alaskan
Range. This region is also occupied by the McKinley, Beaver,
Sunshine/Cloudy Mountain, Granite Mountain, and Mulchatna herds. These
are small populations, and would probably not be adversely affected by
fire for the reasons I have summarized. The Kuskokwim Basin is an area
where BLM proposes to improve and maintain moose winter range through
prescription burning. Moose management objectives should not necessarily
conflict with caribou populations in this area.\
\
**Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ fire/ lichens/ *Rangifer*/ winter range.

45\. Hinkes, Michael T. and Campbell, Bruce FIND LAST PAGES finish lit.
cited 1984. Caribou winter use of unburned and recently burned habitat
in interior Alaska BLM Technical Report. 12 pp.\
**\
Note:** No abstract available; discussion presented here.\
\
**Abstract:** Discussion: The importance of lichens as a winter food for
caribou has been well documented (Banfield 1954; Kelsall 1960, 1968;
Scotter 1967; Skoog 1957; Thompson *et al*. 1978; Thompson and McCourt
1981; Davis *et al*. 1982; Adams 1982). *Cladina*, *Cladonia*, and
*Cetraria* lichens were found to be major dietary items (Miller 1976;
Adams 1982; Davis *et al*. 1982) and have been considered to be of high
value to caribou in the winter (Kelsall 1960, Scotter 1964).\
\
The Farewell caribou herd exhibited a clear preference for lichens
during the winters of 1980 and 1981. Lichens were the most utilized
forage on all sites at Farewell, yet they were not the most common
ground cover, especially on burned sites. This suggests that lichens are
important winter forage for the Farewell herd and are actively sought
over other available food items.\
\
The winter preference by caribou at Farewell for lichens of the
*Cladina*/*Cladonia* group followed by *Cetraria* is similar to what
others have found (Miller 1976; Adams 1982; Davis *et al*. 1982).
Kelsall (1960) and Scotter (1964) considered *Cladina mitis*, *C.
rangiferina*, *Cladonia amaurocraea*, *C. uncialis*, and *C. alpestris*
high value species. Relatively large quantities of *Stereocaulon* were
also consumed by caribou at Farewell. Klein (1972) suggested that
nitrogen-fixing lichens of the genera *Stereocaulon* and *Peltigera*
appear to \"balance\" the low protein content of *Cladonia* and
*Cetraria.*\
\
Shrubs have often been considered of limited importance in the winter
diet of caribou (Cringan 1957, Scotter 1964, Skoog 1968, Pegau 1975).
Skoog (1968) noted that although shrub species were widespread
throughout caribou winter range, their dietary importance is likely
minimal, except under special circumstances, due to reduced
palatability. In contrast, shrubs are an important part of the winter
diet of some caribou herds. Davis *et al*. (1982) reported the greatest
utilization of shrubs by caribou, with 42% of the diet of caribou north
of the Brooks Range comprised of shrubs. Murie (1935) found that willows
were eaten extensively by the McKinley herd and Kelsall (1960) believed
Labrador Tea was actively sought. While shrubs made up only 9.5-16% of
the diet at Farewell, they were the second most important food item.\
\
The reported importance of sedge, grass, and grass-like species to
caribou varied. Extensive use of *Eriophorum* has been reported by
several authors (Karev 1961; Skoog 1968; Davis et al. 1982; Adams 1982).
Karev (1961) reports that green forage seems to be a necessary item in
the winter diets of caribou. This forage is ???? LAST PAGES LOST!!!\
\
Literature cited:\
Adams, L.G. 1982.??\
\
**Banfield A.W.F. 1954.** Preliminary investigation of the barren ground
caribou. Canadian Wildl. Serv., Wildl. Mgmt. Bull., Ser. 1, Nos. 10A and
10B: 79 pp. and 112 pp.\
\
Davis et al. 1982.??\
\
**Kelsall, J.P. 1960.** Cooperative studies of barren-ground caribou,
1957-1958. Can. Wildl. Mgmt. Bull., Ser. 1, No. 15: 145 pp.\
\
**Kellsall, J.P. 1968.** The barren-ground caribou of the Canadian
mainland. Can. Wildl. Serv., Monograph Ser., No. 3. Ottawa.\
\
Miller, D.R. 1976??? thesis or report?\
\
**Scotter, G.W. 1967.** Effects of fire on barren-ground caribou and
their forest habitat in northern Canada. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. Nat.
Resour. Conf. 32:246-259.\
\
Skoog, R.O. 1957. ??\
\
Thompson et al.??\
\
Thompson and McCourt 1981??\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ caribou diet/ *Eriophorum*/ fire/
*Rangifer*/ winter range.

46\. Hunter, Malcom L. 1993. Natural fire regimes as spatial models for
managing boreal forests. Biological Conservation 65:115-120.\
\
**Note**: Forest management recommendations have implications for
caribou management\
\
**Abstract**: Because organisms have adapted to the natural disturbance
regimes of forest ecosystems such as fires and windfalls,
conservationists often suggest that timber harvesting systems be
designed to imitate natural disturbance regimes. Using the crown fires
that shape true boreal forest ecosystems as spatial models for
harvesting would require very large clearcuts; in two studies, mean fire
size was 12,710 ha (in Labrador) and 7,764 (in Quebec). Most
conservationists would be reluctant to advocate such large clearcuts and
it is not easy to justify them from the perspectives of various ethical
systems. A solution is proposed in which moderate sized clearcuts would
be clustered into portions of land areas bounded by water-bodies. These
water-bounded areas have an average size of 770 ha in Labrador and 322
ha in Quebec.\
\
**Keywords:** Canada/ boreal forest/ forest fire/ clearcuts/
environmental ethics

47\. Hustich, Ilmari. 1951. The lichen woodlands in Labrador and their
importance as winter pastures for domesticated reindeer. Acta
Geographica. 12(1):1-48.\
\
**Note:** Citation and summary from Courtright, A.T. 1959. Range
management and the genus *Ranigifer*: A review of selected literature.
M.Sc. This, Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK. 172 pp.\
\
**Abstract:** No abstract available. Major article sections are: The
Labrador Forests; The Lichen Woodlands in Labrador; Lichen Woodlands in
Other Parts of the World; On the Ecology of Lichen Woodlands;
Regeneration of the Reindeer Lichen \[incl. information about burned
ranges\]; Forest-Economic Importance of Lichen Woodlands; Capacity of
the Labrador Lichen Woodland as Winter Pasture for Reindeer; Appendix
\[nutritional content of some lichens\].\
\
Portions of Courtright\'s summary pertaining to fire:\
\
\... *Cladina mitis* is the first lichen to invade a burned forest. It
has a broader ecological amplitude than *Cl. alpestris*, while *Cl.
rangiferina* has the widest amplitude of these three main species of
reindeer lichens. \...\
\
\... Recovery of ground lichens after collection is said to take about
80 years, while recovery after grazing takes from 3 to 40 years. The
large differences are caused by the varying opinions held as to when a
lichen cover can be considered as \"recovered.\" According to some
Finnish Lapps a lichen-cover height of 2-5 cm. is enough to allow new
grazing on a lichen field. The recovery of a lichen field is slower
after a fire; various references give figures ranging from 30 to 50
years. The regrowth of a lichen field is dependent on the capacity of
prolonged growth of the lichen podetions \[*sic*, consistently\].
Generally the lichen-cover is not completely destroyed after a fire:
inside the lichen cover several podetions may preserve their growth
capacity. The height reached by a reindeer lichen cover is primarily
dependent on how little the habitat has been disturbed. The author has
noted about 18 cm. as the maximum height. Others have reported 25 cm.;
in such places the lichen cover must have been undisturbed by grazing or
fires in at least 100 years. \...\
\
**Keywords:** boreal forest/ Canada/ disturbance/ fire/ grazing/ lichen
regeneration/ lichens/ nutrient content/ reindeer.

48\. Ignatenko, I. V. and Pavlov, B. A. 1988. Natural regeneration of
*Eriophorum* tussock tundra after a fire. Polar Geography and Geology.
12(3):169-180.\
\
**Note:** Translated from Geografiya i Prirodnye Resursy, 1988, No. 2,
pp. 99-108.\
\
**Abstract:** The paper examines the impact of fire on area of
*Eriophorum* tussock tundra in the Chaun lowland, north-western
Chukotka. Studies of regeneration of vegetation and soils at the same
site were made at time intervals of 1,3, and 7 years after the fire.
Aspects examined included species composition and biomass of the
vegetation, temperature, water content, chemistry and nutrient content
of the soils, and the depth to the permafrost table. It was concluded
that the regenerated vegetation would appear substantially different (in
terms of species composition) from the original communities, with an
overwhelming predominance of *Eriophorum vaginatum*, very slow
regeneration of shrubs and mosses, and a total disappearance of lichens.
However, rates of biomass production would have returned to the original
level within 20 years after a fire, although it might take 2-3 times
longer for the destabilized soil parameters to return to normal.\
\
**Keywords:** Chukotka/ *Eriophorum*/ fire/ lichens/ post-fire
succession/ tundra fires.

49\. Igoshina, K. N. 1939. The growth of forage lichens in the Ural
north. Trans. Inst. of Pol. Agr., Ser. \"The Reindeer Industry\". M. Sc.
Thesis(4):7-29.\
\
**Note:** Citation and summary, based on an English summary of the
paper, from Courtright, A.T. 1959. Range management and the genus
*Ranigifer*: A review of selected literature. M.Sc. This, Univ. of
Alaska, Fairbanks, AK. 172 pp. Only those sections pertaining to lichen
succession and response to fire are reproduced here.\
\
**Abstract:** (excerpts): Lichens destroyed by fire did not show any
recovery after three to four years.\
\
The author found that *Cladonia gracilis*, *Cl. cornuta*, *Cl.
uncialis*, and *Cl. silvatica* predominated in young lichen cover of 15
years, while with increasing age and the accumulation of turf these
species are replaced by the \"more moisture-loving\" plants *Cl.
alpestris* and *Cl. rangiferina*.\
\
The paper also includes sections on lichen growth after mechanical
damage and renewal of lichen plants after fire.\
\
**Keywords:** fire/ lichens/ lichen regeneration/ lichen succession.

50\. Johnson, Edward A. 1981. Vegetation organization and dynamics of
lichen woodland communities in the Northwest Territories, Canada.
Ecology. 62(1):200-215.\
\
**Abstract:** The variances of species abundances from 141 upland stands
are partitioned into habitat and fire frequency. Principal components
analysis is then performed on each of these partitions. The habitat
ordination has a topographic-canopy coverage gradient and a nutrient
gradient. The fire frequency ordination has one gradient which orders
species according to their temporal response after fire, from shorter
lived, faster growing, competitively poor species to longer lived,
slower growing, competitively effective species. The fire frequency
ordination interacts with the habitat ordination by changing a site\'s
canopy cover for approximately 10 yr after fire. The nutrient gradient
is only slightly affected by the fire frequency. The recovery of
vegetation after fire is explained by using the information on the
adaptation of species as shown in the two ordinations and from existing
life-history information. Most species found in older stands are present
in the first years after fire. Recovery by vascular plants, mosses and
lichens is by vegetative reproduction and invasion by propagules. Buried
viable seeds play little role in recovery. Lichen abundance is best
explained by different habitat requirements rather than successional
sequences or caribou grazing. Feather mosses are most abundant in
specific sites which develop closed canopies and have greater soil
nutrients. The habitat and fire frequency ordinations represent two
environmental complexes for which species are adapted, and consequently
these are also the two predominant levels of vegetation dynamics. The
fire frequency ordination represents shorter term dynamics which cause
changes primarily in abundance but not species composition. The habitat
ordination represents longer term dynamics which cause major changes in
species composition.\
\
**Keywords:** Canada/ feather mosses/ fire/ fire frequency/ jack pine/
lichens/ ordination/ *Picea*/ post-fire succession/ subarctic.

51\. Johnson, Edward A. and Rowe, John Stanley. 1975. Fire in the
subarctic wintering ground of the Beverley caribou herd. American
Midland Naturalist. 94(1):1-14.\
\
**Abstract:** The study documents the timing, prevalence and importance
of fires in a 105,000-sq-km area of the Northwest Territories, Canada,
bounded by long 104°, lat 60° to tree line. Lightning caused most of the
fires and accounted for almost all of the area burned in a 7 year
period. In this part of the subarctic, the fires appear to follow a
seasonal pulse that progresses in June and July from the SW toward tree
line in the NE, retreating in August. The normality of fire in this part
of the northern boreal zone is beyond dispute. There is no conclusive
proof that fire regime has changed substantially in recent times from
what it was previously. The implication is that endemic animals, such as
caribou, are adjusted to recurring fires.\
\
**Keywords:** Beverly Herd/ boreal forest/ Canada/ caribou/ fire
ecology/ forest fires/ winter range/ Rangifer.

52\. Joly, Kyle, Dale, Bruce W., Collins, William B., and Adams, Layne
G. 2003. Winter habitat use by female caribou in relation to wildland
fires in interior Alaska. Canadian Journal of Zoology 81:1192-1201.\
\
**Note**: Entire abstract presented below\
\
**Abstract**: The role of wildland fire in the winter habitat use of
caribou (Rangifer tarandus) has long been debated. Fire has been viewed
as detrimental to caribou because it destroys the slow-growing climax
forage lichens that caribou utilize in winter. Other researchers argued
that caribou were not reliant on lichens and that fire may be
beneficial, even in the short-term. We evaluated the distribution of
caribou relative to recent fires (\< 50 years old) within the current
winter range of the Nelchina Caribou Herd in east-central Alaska. To
address issues concerning independence and spatial and temporal scales,
we used both conventional very high frequency and Global Positioning
System telemetry to estimate caribou use relative to recent, known-aged
burns. In addition, we employed two methods to estimate availability of
different habitat classes. Caribou used recently burned areas much less
than expected regardless of methodologies employed. Moreover, within
burns, caribou were more likely to utilize habitat within 500 m of the
burn perimeter than core areas. Methods for determining use and
availability did not have large influences on our measures of habitat
selectivity.\
\
**Keywords**: Alaska/ habitat selection/ lichens/Nelchina Herd/ stand
age

53\. Joly, Kyle, Dale, Bruce W., Collins, William B., and Adams, Layne
G. 2002. Evaluating the Impacts of Wildland Fires on Caribou in Interior
Alaska. Arctic Research of the United States 16:63-67\
\
**Note**: Report presents the project\'s preliminary findings; caribou
avoided areas burned within the last 50 years, forage lichens are
largely absent from these stands, wildfires may affect caribou winter
range for decades\
\
**Keywords**: Alaska/ habitat selection/ lichens/Nelchina Herd/ stand
age

54\. Kelsall, John P.; Telfer, E. S., and Wright, Thomas D. 1977. The
effects of fire on the ecology of the boreal forest, with particular
reference to the Canadian north: A review and selected bibliography.
Occasional Paper Number 32. Minister of Supply and Services, Ottawa,
Canada. 58 pp.\
**\
Note:** Overview of fire in the boreal forest; includes chapters on fire
effects on wildlife, including caribou, and on vegetation. Also includes
a bibliography.\
\
Report sections are: Introduction; Sources of Information (Symposia,
Bibliographies, Systematic reviews, Computerized searches); The Boreal
Forest (Climate, Topography, Soils, Vegetation); Fire (History of fire,
Causes of fire, Areas burned); Effects of Fire on Soil and Hydrology
(Soil nutrients, Permafrost, Fire in rocky areas, Effects of fire on
hydrology); Effects of Fire on Vegetation (Types of forest burned,
Forest succession, The mosaic effect); Effects of Fire on Wildlife
(Fish, Birds, Mammals); Summary and Discussion; Topics for Research;
Appendix; Selected Bibliography.\
\
**Abstract:** This review analyzes literature relevant to effects of
fire on the boreal forest, and on its related wildlife resources, with
particular reference to the Canadian North. The selected bibliography
contains the more recent and historically important references and is
not all-inclusive. Because of a paucity of material pertinent to the
forests of the Northwest and the Yukon territories, it has been
necessary to extrapolate information from other areas. Alaskan
publications have been particularly useful.\
\
It was concluded that fire is the most important factor influencing the
ecology of the northern boreal forest; that fire and the resulting
forest mosaic are natural features of long standing; and that the boreal
forest can be characterized as a fire-dependent ecosystem. Trees, other
plants, birds, mammals, and other animals of the forest have evolved in
response and adaptation to the frequency, extent, and intensity of fire.
With some possible exceptions, a mosaic of varied successional stages in
the boreal forest provides a richer habitat for a more varied and
abundant fauna than does the monotypic spruce forest characteristic of
unburned areas. Specific attention is given to fish, birds, and
mammals - particularly to important species of game and furbearers - and
to such characteristics of the northern forests as the presence of
permafrost, the soils, and the characteristics of unique vegetation. The
basic characteristics of different types of fires are also described.\
**\
Keywords:** boreal forest/ Canada/ caribou/ fire mosaic/ forest fires/
soils/ Rangifer.

55\. Kershaw, Kenneth Andrew. 1977. Studies on lichen-dominated systems.
XX. An examination of some aspects of the northern boreal lichen
woodlands in Canada. Canadian Journal of Botany. 55:393-410.\
\
**Abstract:** The existence of two major types of lichen woodland in
Canada, *Cladonia stellaris* woodland and *Stereocaulon paschale*
woodland, is discussed in relation to their seral nature and their
rarely developed theoretical climax type.\
\
Our own observations, coupled with previous descriptions from a wider
area, suggest that *Stereocaulon paschale* woodland replaces *Cladonia
stellaris* woodland in a more or less continuous zone from just west of
Churchill across to Great Slave Lake, immediately north and south of
latitude 60° N. Both woodland types are often typical of sandy soils (pH
6 or less) and almost always represent the final recovery phase after
fire. Rarely, the lichen surface is replaced by a continuous moss cover
as the spruce canopy closes. The lichen surface is thus dependent on the
lack of competition from higher plants, the absence of which is
characteristic of the climate of this northern boreal region. *Cladonia
stellaris* woodland also occurs on palsas and peat plateaux where,
again, lack of higher plant competition and a suitable pH exist.\
\
The recovery sequence after fire is a highly complex process and as yet
only the following parameters have been categorized. In the early
recovery phases, limited soil moisture and hence a reduced summer latent
heat flux enhance the sensible heat flux. The surface conditions are
analogous to those of a hot desert with very high surface temperatures
and extremely large diurnal temperature fluctuations. The physiology of
these initial moss and lichen colonizers presumably enables them to
tolerate these harsh conditions. The establishment of a few spruce
seedlings and the subsequent development of open lichen woodland
modulates the harsh summer temperature regime and allows the further
development of a vegetated surface. After humus accumulation, which acts
as an effective mulch, summer soil moisture is elevated, enhancing the
latent heat flux and correspondingly reducing the sensible heat flux.
This probably allows the full development of mature lichen woodland with
its almost monospecific ground cover of either *Cladonia stellaris* or
*Stereocaulon paschale*. Limited data suggest that the net
photosynthetic responses of these two species is favoured by the
relatively warm mesic conditions established by the open spruce canopy.
Good accumulation of snow in the winter is probably also important for
protection of the lichen surface from low temperatures. The open nature
of mature lichen woodland is apparently maintained by an active
inhibition of spruce seedling establishment by the lichen mat, although
the mechanism is not entirely clear.\
\
**Keywords:** Canada/ fire/ lichens/ lichen woodland/ post-fire
succession.

56\. Kershaw, Kenneth Andrew and Rouse, W. R. 1976. The impact of fire
on forest and tundra ecosystems. Final report. ALUR 75-76-63. Minister
of Indian and Northern Affairs, Ottawa. 54 pp.\
**\
Note:** Major report sections are: Overall group objectives; Plant
ecology; Microclimate; General conclusions and recommendations.\
\
Conclusions and Recommendations section reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** (General Conclusions and Recommendations)\
The additional field work in the 1975 season firmly established the
continued vegetation sequence tentatively outlined in the previous
report of this program (Kershaw *et al.* 1975). Following the two phases
of succession dominated initially, by the moss *Polytrichum piliferum*
and then by the lichen *Cladonia stellaris*, the 75 year old burns are
dominated by the lichen *Stereocaulon paschale*, constituting a phase
which lasts up to 150 years when the lichen cover is replaced by a
carpet of mosses and herbaceous plants typical of the final recovery
phase. This *Stereocaulon* phase has quite typically an almost pure mat
of *Stereocaulon paschale*; such *Stereocaulon* woodland does not appear
to have been previously reported. It is very fire susceptible, burning
at frequent intervals and probably only rarely does it mature to the
final closed canopy spruce woodland. Thus the widespread occurrence of
*Sterocaulon* woodland in this region, S.E. of Great Slave Lake, owes
its existence to fire. In the absence of forest fires, it would develop
into spruce-moss woodland.\
\
Concurrently with the development of the *Stereocaulon* woodland there
is a continued increase in tree density, tree size and peat depth. This
leads to the final spruce-moss woodland which characteristically is a
closed canopy woodland with large overmature (35 m) trees, an abundance
of fallen timber following death of the older trees, and a thick layer
of peat.\
\
It is significant that caribou grazing is restricted to the
*Stereocaulon* phase, with fire essential to the maintenance of such
prime grazing habitat in this area. The wide variance between our
results and previous studies of post fire recovery sequences in other
parts of Canada, demonstrates the considerable element of geographical
uniqueness inherent in all post-fire recoveries and it is clear that
generalizations from the N.W.T. situation are not valid.\
\
Burning of the lichen woodland leads to long term microclimatic changes
which are of considerable magnitude for periods in excess of a half
century in this environment. Net radiation is reduced by 20 percent
immediately after burning and this decrease remains at least 10 percent
after 50 years. The magnitude of evaporation is reduced by 30 percent,
one year after burning, and by about 20 percent after 50 years of the
post-fire recovery sequence. The increase in soil temperatures, both
surface and subsurface, is in the order of 70 percent immediately
following the fire and temperatures are still about 30 percent higher a
half century later. Thus burning is accompanied by a hotter soil and a
hotter, drier atmosphere for a period exceeding 50 years and if large
areas are burned this will exert a strong desiccating influence on
nonburned areas downwind which will amongst other things greatly
increase evaporation from ponds and small lakes and could lead to a
drying up of the shallower ones.\
\
The following recommendations are proposed:\
1) The only obvious natural resource of the area appears to be caribou
which are dependent on the excellent winter grazing of this area.
Accordingly it is recommended that the forage utilization, the growth of
*Stereocaulon* mat and the environmental control of this growth should
be examined in relation to the management of this area.\
\
2) The degree of uniqueness of fire recovery sequences necessitates
similar survey studies to be made in other areas to enable an overall
sensible fire policy to be established. Thus, if similar findings were
available for Spruce-*Cladonia* woodland, a level of generality would be
established, essential to the development of an overall policy.\
\
3) If controlled burning is planned, fires of limited areal extent are
preferable and burning in the early summer is recommended.\
\
4) It is questionable if large-scale wildfires should be left
uncontrolled to burn themselves out since they affect not only the
immediate environment but will lead to an increased desiccation of areas
downwind.\
\
Literature Cited:\
**Kershaw, K.A., W.R. Rouse, and B.T. Bunting. (1975).** The impact of
fire on forest and tundra ecosystems. INA Pub. No. QS-8038-000-EE-A1.\
**\
Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ fire ecology/ fire management/ forest
fires/ lichen woodland/ lichens/ microclimate/ ordination/ post-fire
succession/ *Stereocaulon*/ snow/ Rangifer.

57\. Klein, David R. 1982. Fire, lichens, and caribou. Journal of Range
Management. 35(3):390-395.\
\
**Abstract:** Continental populations of caribou (*Rangifer tarandus*)
usually winter in the northern taiga. Fire is a natural feature of the
ecology of the taiga but its effect on winter range of caribou has been
the subject of conflicting reports in the literature. Lichens, which are
an important component of the diet of caribou in winter, are associated
with late successional stages in the post fire sequence; therefore their
loss when old growth forests burn has been considered detrimental to
caribou. On the other hand, several authors have suggested that lichens
are not essential for caribou in winter and therefore their loss through
forest fires does not seriously affect caribou. Recent nutritional
investigations with reindeer and caribou have demonstrated the
importance of lichens in their winter diet. Botanical studies have shown
that fires are essential for the long-term productivity of the boreal
forest and they account for much of the habitat diversity that
characterizes caribou winter range. Extremely old forest stands show
reduced lichen productivity. I conclude that, when viewed on a
short-term basis of 50 years or less, fire may destroy lichens and other
forage, thus reducing the taiga\'s potential to support caribou. Over
long-time periods, often of a century or more, fire appears essential
for maintaining ecological diversity and forage production for caribou.\
\
**Keywords:** caribou/ fire/ lichens/ taiga/ Rangifer.

58\. \-\-- 1976? Verbal comments. Page 3 in Fairbanks Environmental
Center, eds. A conference on survival of Alaska\'s caribou herds.
University of Alaska-Fairbanks, 4 Dec 1976. Fairbanks Environmental
Center; Alaska Humanities Forum. Fairbanks, Alaska, 64 pp.\
**\
Note:** The purpose of the conference was to provide the public with an
opportunity to discuss and assess factors critical to the survival and
propagation of Alaska\'s caribou herds. Emphasis was placed on the
importance of \"wildlands habitat\" and whether such lands could or
should be protected. Members of a select panel presented their views
during the morning section. The panel, and the interests each member
represented, consisted of: Dr. Robert Weeden (moderator); Dr. David
Klein (scientist); Willie Goodwin (Native); Jim Kowalsky
(environmentalist); Tom Scarborough (sportsman); Max Brewer (industry);
and Bob Hinman (agency-Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game).\
\
Some of Dr. Klein\'s comments were about fire effects on caribou; these
are reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** \... I mentioned lichens and the importance of their
relationship to old age forest stands, therefore forest fire can be an
important factor in the range relationship of caribou. But again there
has been controversy as to the significance of fire in influencing
caribou range. Generally, however, when fires move through a forest area
they destroy lichen. They may not completely destroy them. The lichens
may grow more rapidly after the fire has occurred if they are not
completely destroyed. So a light fire moving rapidly through a forest
area could stimulate lichen growth to a greater level than had
previously occurred but generally forest fires are destructive to lichen
range and set back the growth of lichen. For thirty five to a hundred
years following a fire there may be insufficient lichens for the animals
to use.\
\
In Canada there have been studies of the relationship of both caribou
and moose to forest stands of varying age. It was found that forest
stands in excess of 100 to 120 years of age were those used mostly by
wintering caribou and that there was very little use made of younger age
stands. On the other hand forest as young as 11 to 30 years were the
ones that were preferred and used most frequently by moose. In our work,
through the wildlife research unit, in mapping the vegetation types of
the western Arctic caribou herd we have been surprised to find through
examination of satellite imagery that fires have been more common and
have covered more extensive areas than we had anticipated in some of the
wintering areas of the western Arctic caribou herd in the Kobuk for
exmple. We don\'t know as yet what the significance of this is because
we haven\'t been able to examine all of the areas on the ground.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ fire/ forest fires/ lichens/ moose/ winter
range/ Rangifer.

59\. Larin, I. V. 1937. Forage plants of the meadow and pasture lands of
the U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. Commissariat of Agric., All-Union Inst. of Forage
Plants. House of the Lenin Acad. of Agric. Sci., Leningrad, U.S.S.R. 994
pp.\
**\
Note:** Citation and summary from Courtright, A.T. 1959. Range
management and the genus *Ranigifer*: A review of selected literature.
M.Sc. This, Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK. 172 pp. Larin is only one
editor of the report; names of co-authors were not provided. English
summary on pages 861-875 of original document.\
\
Courtright\'s section pertaining to lichen and fire reproduced here.\
\
**Abstract:** Lichens, which can become extremely parched during dry
weather, easily catch fire, and in forest regions considerable areas are
burned out. Recovery after burning proceeds very slowly, the rate
depending on several factors; the intensity of the fire, the size of
ashes (large ashes serve as rudimentary places of habitation), and the
degree of change in cover. According to F.V. Vashkevich recovery takes
place more rapidly in rainy years than in dry ones. In one case where
studies were made of lichen succession in recovery after fire, it was
found that the tubular and goblet-shaped *Cladoniae*, such as *Cladonia
gracilis*, *Cl. deformis*, and *Cl. cornuta* were the first colonists.
Then gradually the stalked lichens such as *Cl. amaurocraea*, *Cl.
silvatica*, and *Cl. uncialis* began to appear, and usually dominated
the area for 10 to 15 years, after which *Cladonia* *alpestris* began to
crowd out other lichen species; *Cl. rangiferina* later joined the
latter species, and the two together formed the climax lichen cover. In
old pine tree forests *alpestris* alone covered most of the soil
surface, hardly any small bushes or *Cl. rangiferina* being found.
Although the causes of replacement of one group of lichens by another
have not been studied, it is probable that the rate of growth, together
with the changes brought about by the lichens themselves and the
progression of the succession of other plants are the main factors.\
**\
Keywords:** fire/ lichens/ lichen regeneration/ post-fire succession.

60\. Lent, Peter C. and Klein, David R. 1988. Tundra vegetation as a
rangeland resource. pp. 307-337 *in* Tueller, P. T. Vegetation science
applications for rangeland analysis and management. Kluwer Academic
Publishers; Dordrecht, Boston, London.\
\
**Note:** Abstract and Section 13.4.2 \"Fire in Tundra Rangelands\"
reproduced here.\
\
**Abstract:** Tundra rangelands comprise about 10% of the earth\'s land
surface. They provide forage all or part of the year for millions of
wild and domestic reindeer and for musk oxen as well as summer range for
other domestic ungulates. Arctic tundra habitats are of international
significance because of their importance to waterfowl and other
migratory bird species.\
\
Tundra plant growth is generally nutrient limited, especially N limited.
Wildlife and domestic species exploit tundra to take advantage of short
periods of vigorous growth and very high quality forage. Nutrient
dynamics within individual plants are rapid and complex and herbivores
must respond accordingly for optimal forage intakes. Snowcover is an
especially important ecological factor in tundra rangelands, affecting
soil-moisture, plant survival, plant community composition, phenology of
growth, and access to winter forage by large herbivores moving above and
through the snowcover and by small herbivores moving below the snow
surface.\
\
Heavy grazing has frequently reduced or eliminated deciduous shrubs and
preferred lichen species. Graminoids may be either increasers or
decreasers depending upon the specific circumstances. Repeated grazing
on summer ranges by species such as reindeer and geese may lead to
formation of highly productive lawn-like graminoid communities. Numerous
secondary metabolites have now been identified in tundra plants,
especially evergreen shrubs. Their effectiveness as defenses against
mammalian herbivory and their ecological roles, as in influencing
microtine population cycles, are still poorly understood.\
\
Tundra vegetation is sensitive to disturbance and stress, especially
where permafrost is present but also in alpine environments where
effects of recreational use are of concern. Remote sensing techniques
for classifying and monitoring tundra rangelands are relatively well
developed. Rehabilitation techniques are also being developed and some
are now available to the vegetation manager.\
\
**Section 13.4.2 Fire in tundra rangelands**: Fires in tundra rangelands
occur occasionally in low arctic or sub-arctic environments but not in
the High Arctic with discontinuous vegetation and extremely low fuel
levels (Wein 1976). A shrub tundra area of over 2,124 km^2^ with
interspersed small islands of black spruce (*Picea mariana*) east of the
Mackenzie River Delta (Canada) burned in 1954. Following the fire this
winter range for reindeer showed thawing occurred to 41 cm and karst
hummocks resulted. Nine years later there was still no significant
lichen forage. *Ledum palustre*, dwarf birch and willows to 3 m in
height had returned and *Calamagrostis* spp. was among the significant
invaders (Cody 1964).\
\
On the Seward Peninsula of Alaska the effects of a 1977 fire were found
to be most marked on well drained slopes with birch and ericaceous
shrubs. In poorly drained sedge-shrub communities post-fire thaw depths
were only 10-15 cm. *Sphagnum* mats retarded the fire but were killed by
it (Racine 1981). *Eriophorum* tussocks recover rapidly from fires in
general. Tussocks were resprouting one month after fire had destroyed
80-90% of the shrub and graminoid biomass (Hall et al. 1978). Domestic
reindeer grazed in the burned areas the following spring, selecting new
growth of *Eriophorum* spp., *Rubus chamaemorus* and *Salix* spp.
(Klein, unpublished).\
\
Literature cited:\
Cody, W.J. 1964. Reindeer range survey, 1957-1963. Can. Depart. of Agr.,
Plant Research Inst., Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa.\
\
Hall, D.K., J. Brown, and L. Johnson. 1978. The 1977 tundra fire in the
Kokolik River area of Alaska. Arctic 31: 54-58.\
\
Racine, C.H. 1981. Tundra fire effects on soils and three plant
communities along a hill-slope gradient in the Seward Peninsula, Alaska.
Arctic 34:71-84.\
\
Wein, R.W. 1976. Frequency and characteristics of Arctic tundra fires.
Arctic 29: 213-222.\
\
**Keywords:** herbivores/ forage/ rangeland/ reindeer/ tundra/ winter
range.

61\. Leopold, Aldo Starker and Darling, Frank Fraser. 1953. Effects of
land use on moose and caribou in Alaska. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. Nat.
Resour. Conf. 18:553-562.\
\
**Abstract:** The processes of occupation and development of Alaska can
be guided and locally even curbed but they cannot be reversed. A
continuing change in climax vegetation is to be expected, and the
results, as they affect moose and caribou, presumably will follow trends
of the past. There is good reason to think that moose will continue to
increase and spread as new winter ranges are created by removal of the
spruce forest. As far as we can see at the moment, there is perhaps no
better use for much of the poorer forest land than to be moose range, so
managed as to sustain a maximum number without endangering the range.
There is also reason to think that the controlled use of fire to improve
critical areas of winter range in central and southern Alaska would be
advantageous and, at least in some localities, quite practicable. But
such deliberate burning would demand exact knowledge of when, where, and
how to burn to achieve the desired reproduction of moose browse without
destroying the soil complex. Moose range can be destroyed by a burn as
readily as it can be created and preparedness for fire control is
expensive. Such intensive management is most practicable and desirable
in accessible hunting grounds, near population centers, where demand for
hunting and for meat is greatest. There is little object in creating
large moose populations unless the harvest is to be taken. In general,
present moose hunting regulations in southern Alaska, where the animals
are most numerous, seem to us overconservative, particularly when
coupled with rigorous predator control. It is our feeling that much
larger harvests could be removed from the Kenai and Susitna, for
example. At the same time, efforts to rebuild breeding stocks may be
necessary for some time to come in parts of the Yukon basin and other
lightly stocked ranges. The prospects for caribou are not nearly so
good. Caribou, depending upon a climax vegetation, will probably
continue to diminish in numbers as their range shrinks with further
human encroachment and disturbance. Some great areas of tundra on the
slopes of the Brooks Range and Arctic plain probably can be preserved
more or less intact far into the future if proper steps are taken to
insure protection from overgrazing, and on the south side of the Brooks
Range, from fire; fortunately, the Arctic tundra does not burn. But it
is unlikely that the great caribou herds of central and southern Alaska
can be restored. Rather, efforts at restoration should be gauged by the
realization that money and effort so invested can bring but limited
returns on ranges no longer suitable for large herds, and even the most
conscientious endeavor, along lines of protective legislation and
predator control, cannot alter this ecologic fact. Much light could be
shed on solution of this problem if in the near future, a full
socio-ecological study of the caribou could be made in an undisturbed
environment, such as the eastern Brooks Range. Meantime, it is of
extreme importance that the remaining lichen ranges be protected from
fire. A plan of land-use zoning might well be adopted jointly by the
several agencies concerned with forest and game management which would
provide for experimental burning of designated moose ranges, at the same
time furnishing active protection from burning of the remaining caribou
ranges and of the better silvicultural sites. The controlled use or
exclusion of fire should be part of an integrated plan of game
management. It is almost inevitable that after occupation of a country
by technological, pastoral or agricultural man, we find ourselves
struggling to preserve the animals of ecological climax status, such as
bison, muskox and caribou. The opportunity to manage and produce game
lies largely in populations of those animals which reach maximum
abundance at stages of sub-climax or secondary succession, such as deer,
elk and moose.\
\
**Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ fire/ fire management/ lichens/ moose/
wildlife management/ Rangifer.

62\. \-- 1953. Effects of land use on ranges and populations of moose
and caribou in Alaska. Conservation Foundation, New York. 6 pp.\
**\
Note:** No abstract. Sections of the report related to fire and caribou
have been reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** Moose and caribou are the most important ungulate mammals
throughout most of Alaska by the criteria of biomass, area occupied and
use for meat. Our objective has been to view the long-term prospects of
moose and caribou in terms of past, present and probable future trends
in land use in the Territory.\
\
[Ecologic affinities of moose and caribou]{.underline}\
Let us consider the ecologic affinities of two species. The moose
occupies a habitat of wet forest edge, or tundra with expanses of
willows in the draws. It achieves highest density in forest areas that
have been opened by fire or any other form of timber removal, permitting
regeneration of willow, birch or aspen. Moose may occupy in summer a
variety of habitats, including even heavy unbroken forest or high
mountain valleys, but the quality of the winter range, which in the
final analysis determines population density, is a direct function of
the amount of young willow, birch or aspen protruding above the surface
of the snow. These critical browse plants are characteristic of
[secondary]{.underline} stages of vegetational succession, and the moose
itself may thus be considered an animal of a sub-climax biota.\
\
Conversely, the caribou seems to require a winter range well supplied
with various fruticose lichens, particularly of the genera *Cladonia*
and *Cetraria*, which are part of the [climax]{.underline} flora of
forest border (taiga) and to a lesser extent of tundra. Like the moose,
caribou wander into many types of country in spring, summer, and autumn,
from coastal low tundra to high glacial valleys, but all winter ranges
examined by us contained in the ground cover a fair amount of climax
lichen growth which supplies an appreciable, and seemingly an
indispensable, part of the winter caribou diet. The caribou, then, may
be looked upon as a member of a [climax]{.underline} biota.\
\
The considerable overlap in gross areas of moose and caribou range does
not disguise the fact of ecologic segregation of the two species along
lines of successional stages of vegetation. It follows that changes in
climax ground cover may affect the moose and caribou quite differently.\
\
[The impact of white settlement on range conditions]{.underline}\
The arrival of the white man, with his vices and devices of land
exploitation, introduced a set of ecologic influences distinct from
those endemic in the hunting-food gathering cultures of Eskimo and
Indians. Fire is much the most important of these influences.\
\
An astonishingly large proportion of the lowlands of central and
southern Alaska has burned in the last half century. Miners, trappers
and hunters\--men who deeply penetrate a country\--and more recently the
defense forces, have started far more fires than would naturally have
occurred. In saying this we take it as axiomatic that the passage of
fire through this kind of country is natural, though perhaps at
intervals of a century or more. Unfortunately, no fire statistics are
available which would permit us to compare the areas of recent fires
with those occurring previous to white infiltration. It is obvious to
the traveler that perhaps half or locally much more than half of the
taiga has been burned in the immediate past. H.J. Lutz, who has
exhaustively studied the history of fires in interior Alaska, estimates
that 80 per cent of the white spruce has burned in the past half
century.\
\
The quickened rhythm of fires has in general favored the extension of
willow-birch-aspen, and concomitantly reduced the original stands of
lichen which burn easily and take so long to regenerate. Such a
condition has encouraged the spread and local increase of moose, at the
same time eliminating or greatly reducing the winter range usable by
caribou. For example, caribou have been extirpated from the Kenai
Peninsula and in fact from all the lowlands adjoining Cook Inlet; moose
in the same region have achieved higher density than anywhere in Alaska.
Virtually all of their range has been burned and reburned. Caribou are
relatively scarce in the upper Copper and Susitna basins; moose are
increasing. Over half this area is burned. Caribou have been materially
reduced in the great Yukon drainage; moose, though by no means numerous,
are wide spread and holding their own or locally increasing. Such parts
of the Yukon as we visited were largely burned. Accelerated burning, in
other words, has influenced moose favorably and caribou unfavorably over
that large part of Alaska south of the Arctic Circle. Caribou in the
north, where fire is not a factor, are quite a different problem and
will be discussed separately later in this paper. \...\
\
[Management prospects]{.underline}\
\... Caribou, depending upon climax vegetation, will probably continue
to diminish in numbers as their range shrinks with further human
encroachment and disturbance. Some great areas of tundra on the slopes
of the Brooks Range and Arctic plain probably can be preserved more or
less intact far into the future if proper steps are taken to insure
protection from overgrazing, and, on the south side of the Brooks Range,
from fire; fortunately, the Arctic tundra does not burn. But it is
unlikely that the great caribou herds of central and southern Alaska can
be restored. Rather, efforts at restoration should be gauged by the
realization that money and effort so invested can bring but limited
returns on ranges no longer suitable for large herds, and even the most
conscientious endeavor, along lines of protective legislation and
predator control, cannot alter this ecologic fact. Much light could be
shed on solution of this problem if in the near future, a full
socio-ecological study of the caribou could be made in an undisturbed
environment, such as the eastern Brooks Range. Meantime, it is of
extreme importance that the remaining lichen ranges be protected from
fire. A plan of land-use zoning might well be adopted jointly by the
several agencies concerned with forest and game management which would
provide for experimental burning of designated moose ranges, at the same
time furnishing active protection from burning of the remaining caribou
ranges and of the better silvicultural sites. The controlled use or
exclusion of fire, should be part of an integrated plan of game
management. \...\
.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ climatic change/ disturbance/ fire/ fire
management/ forest management/ lichens/ management/ moose/ population
decline/ post-fire succession/ predation/ prescribed fires/ taiga/
winter range/ Rangifer.

63\. Lutz, H. J. 1956. Ecological effects of forest fires in the
interior of Alaska. Technical Bulletin . No. 2233. USDA Forest Service
121 pp.\
**\
Note:** Major report sections are: Introduction; Interior of Alaska;
History of Forest Fires in Interior Alaska; Effect of Fire on Trees
(includes information on understory plants and succession); Effect of
Fire on Soils; Effect of Fire on Hydrologic Relations; Effect of Fire on
Animal Populations; Effect of Fire on Economic Development; Summary and
Conclusions; Literature Cited; Appendix; Soil Analyses.\
\
No abstract. Sections on lichens and caribou reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract: Lichens:** Lichens form a large group of plants, a number of
which are highly important as food for caribou (*Rangifer arcticus*) and
reindeer (*Rangifer tarandus*). Lichens are usually destroyed whenever a
surface fire sweeps over an area. The general situation has been stated
by Lynge (1921), a close student of the group, as follows:\
\
\"If a lichen vegetation has been disturbed or driven away from its
natural habitat it will in many cases require a long time before it
again can cover it. This is best seen after forest fires. I have seen
gaps made by old forest fire, 50 years or more old, where the range of
the fire could be traced on the lichen vegetation, *Cladonia alpestris*
was more scarce and less developed there than outside the range of the
fire. Even quite small fire gaps require an extremely long time before
they will be covered with the same lichens again. I have seen
experimental fields, 1 square meter large in fine *Cladonia* fields
where no trace of *Cladonia alpestris* was visible 5 to 6 years after
the fire, and Lapponian tent fire-places so old that even their
surrounding stones were sunk into the earth where the place was
recognizable on the vegetation. The original lichen cover was gone,
sometimes replaced by mosses or by other lichens, as *Peltigera spuria*
and *P. aphthosa*, even if the nearest station for these plants was far
distant.\"\
\
Kujala (1926) expressed the view that fire has a more destructive effect
on lichens and mosses than on the vascular plants.\
\
Reproduction in lichens may be either sexual or asexual. However,
production of soredia and fragmentation appear to be the most common
means of reproduction. According to Perez-Llano (1944) a considerable
number of foliose lichens, as well as a few crustose and fruticose
species, seldom produce apothecia and spores. Those species which appear
earliest on burned areas are generally of low stature and probably
regenerate from subterranean parts and bits of unburned thallus. The
taller fruticose lichens in the reindeer lichen group are likely to be
exterminated by fire, and their return is generally slow.\
\
Hustich (1951) stated that in the lichen woodlands of northeastern
Canada complete recovery of the lichen cover after a fire requires at
least 40 years. He cited estimates from investigators in other countries
as follows: Itkonen, 40 to 50 years; Manning 30 years; Sarvas, 30 to 40
years. Aaltonen (1919) stated that in Finland lichens were still not
abundant 20-30 years after a forest fire. Tengwall (1928) measured the
rate of growth of the reindeer lichens and reported that the rate of
development of small plants is about the same as that of large plants.
Only when the lichens approach their maximum size does growth slow up.
He noted that certain individual large lichens did not grow at all
during the years that he carried on his observations; they had reached
their maximum size of about 1.8 to 2.6 inches (45 to 65 mm).\
\
The ecology of lichens, particularly as it relates to the effects of
fire, is not well understood. Considerable information has been obtained
by investigators in northern Europe, however, and an attempt has been
made to summarize this for certain species \[summary paraphrased below;
citations omitted\].\
\
*Alectoria jubata* and other arboreal \"beard\" lichens: Readily
flammable when dry, probably contribute to spread of fire.\
*Cetraria islandica*: destroyed by fires, found almost exclusively in
unburned areas. Grows more rapidly than *Cladonia alpestris*.\
*Cetraria nivalis*: Usually associated with *C. cucullata*; grows more
rapidly than *Cladonia alpestris*.\
*Cladonia alpestris*: Reindeer lichen of Scandinavian countries. Grows
very slowly. Estimates for post-fire recovery range from 10-40 years,
but tend to agree that at least 30 years are needed for it to attain
full growth.\
*Cladonia bellidiflora*: Greatest abundance 20-30 years post-fire. Can
regenerate from underground parts and unburned bits of thallus.\
*Cladonia cariosa*: Similar to *C. bellidiflora*.\
*Cladonia coccifera*: Generally one of the first lichens to appear after
fire. Greatest abundance 20-30 years post-fire, and regeneration similar
to *C. bellidiflora*.\
*Cladonia cornuta*: More likely to be exterminated by fire than previous
3 species due to taller stature. Disagreement as to niche: one source
said it was one of the first species to appear after fire; another
considered it a forest species.\
*Cladonia crispata*: Chiefly a forest lichen.\
*Cladonia deformis*: One of first lichens on burned areas. Regeneration
similar to *C. bellidiflora*.\
*Cladonia degenerans*: Similar growth characteristics as *C.
bellidiflora*.\
*Cladonia furcata* var. *racemosa*: Taller than many other *Cladonias*;
more likely to be destroyed by fire.\
*Cladonia gracilis*: Reports disagree: one report says this is one of
the first lichens appearing after fire; another considers it a forest
lichen.\
*Cladonia rangiferina*: One of the reindeer lichens. Readily destroyed
by fire. Estimates of time required for full growth range from 15-40
years. High light requirements.\
*Cladonia sylvatica*: One of the reindeer lichens. Estimates of time
required for full growth range from 20-40 years. Regenerates more
quickly than *C. alpestris*.\
*Cladonia mitis*: Reindeer lichen. Reportedly one of the first reindeer
lichens to invade burned lichen forest. Broader ecological amplitude
than other reindeer lichens.\
*Cladonia uncialis*: Reindeer lichen. Full growth achieved 30-40 years
post-fire, numerous small plants 10 years post-fire.\
*Cladonia verticillata*: Greatest abundance 20-30 years post-fire.\
*Icmadophila ericetorum*: Found on organic substrate bared by fire.\
*Nephroma arcticum*: Forest species.\
*Peltigera aphthosa*: Endures more shade than many other lichens. In
burned areas, found in areas missed by fire or only lightly burned.\
*Stereocaulon paschale*: Maximum size reached 15 years post-fire. Fast
growing. Principal axis partly embedded in soil and may be protected
from fire, allowing quick regeneration.\
\
**Caribou** \[portion about history of caribou on Kenai Peninsula
omitted\]**:** The problem of fires and caribou is in a category wholly
different from that of fires and moose. Unlike the moose, which prefers
pioneer plant communities or at least vegetation representing early
stages of successional development, the barren ground caribou normally
lives in environments characterized by climax plant communities, tundra,
and forest-tundra transition. \...\
\
\.... It seems reasonably certain that the increased tempo of burning by
forest fires in Alaska since 1890 unfavorably affected caribou
populations. Extensive forest fires, particularly in the lichen-rich
forest-tundra transitions or woodland areas, have without doubt
destroyed large portions of the caribou range. Unlike moose browse,
which in favorable circumstances may develop in a few years following
fires, caribou range requires very many years for recovery after it has
been damaged by fire or by overgrazing.\
\
Fruticose lichens of the *Cladonia* group, *Cetraria* spp., and
*Stereocaulon* spp., together with certain beard lichens such as species
of *Usnea* and *Alectoria* growing on trees, form the principal winter
food of caribou and reindeer (Dugmore and Radclyffe 1913, Aaltonen 1919,
Lynge 1921, Seton 1929, Perez-Llano 1934, Hustich 1951). These lichens
are all readily killed by forest fires and their recovery is extremely
slow as already noted in the section Herbaceous Plants. Aaltonen (1919)
reported that even 20 to 30 years following fires the reindeer lichens
in Finland (chiefly *Cladonia alpestris*, *C. rangiferina*, *C.
sylvatica*, and *C. uncialis*) occurred only sparsely and attained
heights of only a few centimeters.\
\
Lynge (1921) noted that *Cladonia alpestris* and *C. sylvatica* grow
very slowly in Norway; he estimated that they would require a minimum of
25 to 30 years for full development, even under favorable conditions.
Lynge observed burned areas where, after 50 years or more, *Cladonia
alpestris* was scarcer and less well developed than in adjacent unburned
areas. In 1926 Palmer stated,\
\
\"It may take a burned-over lichen area as much as 25 years to come
back; or where so badly burned that the cover of humus is destroyed, the
changed site conditions may result in a recovered stand of inferior
species, or virtually in a permanent removal of the lichens, so far as
practical grazing use is concerned. In view of the importance of the
lichen areas for winter grazing, it is vital to all reindeer men to
guard against fires; and because of the damage to game and fur animals
and to tree growth, it is the concern of everyone that fires be
prevented and fire protection sought.\"\
\
In 1945 Palmer and Rouse expressed the view that \"A depleted lichen
range under complete protection requires from 20 to 40 years for
restoration to the original density and height growth.\" These authors
studied the recovery of tundra range after various treatments intended
ot simulate grazing by reindeer. In an unpublished report on burned
woodland or timbered range, Palmer stated, \"A full recovery in lichen
composition comprising chiefly short growth forms takes place in about
50 years, following destruction by fire. For full return to the original
cover of tall growth lichens it is indicated that considerably more than
100 years will be required.\" Manning (1946) believed that complete
recovery would require 30 years in the country on the east side of
Hudson Bay. Hustich (1951) quoted the following estimates of the length
of time required for recovery of reindeer lichens following fires:
Itkonen, 40 to 50 years; Sarvas 30 to 40 years. Hustich estimated at
least 40 years for recovery in northeastern Canada.\
\
Variations in estimates of the length of time required for redevelopment
of the lichen vegetation after fires are influenced by differences of
opinion of what constitutes recovery, by differences in the intensity
and extent of fires, and by differences in site and microclimate. A
conservative estimate of the usual length of time would appear to be 40
to 50 years, but in some instances it may be much more. A half century,
more or less, is a very long time for caribou range to be out of
production. Burned areas are avoided by caribou and, as Schierbeck
(1931) has pointed out in Nova Scotia, the return of lichens to such
regions does not necessarily mean the return of caribou. Even though the
caribou are great travelers it seems reasonable to suppose that they are
adversely affected when their range is broken up into small, often
isolated, fragments by recurring fires. It also appears probable that
under these conditions excessive local overgrazing is more common than
on more extensive, continuous range.\
\
The effects of severe fires on fur bearers may be summarized as
generally unfavorable. The effects of most fires on moose are generally
favorable, but caribou are adversely affected by all fires. Judgment of
whether forest fires are good or bad must usually be based on a
consideration of the sum total of values involved. These values are
timber, wildlife, soil, water, and aesthetic or recreational values. In
management, priority may be given to one or a combination of these
values, but only after due consideration of the others. The principle of
multiple use should be applied to the extent that it is consistent with
efficient resource management. Uncontrolled wildfires have no place in
either forest or wildlife management. The ultimate place of prescribed
burning in Alaska cannot now be stated. Neither the forester nor the
wildlife specialist in Alaska today has the requisite knowledge to
enable him to use prescribed burning on anything more than a purely
experimental basis. There is a great opportunity and need for research
on this problem.\
\
References Cited:\
**Aaltonen, V.T. 1919.** Uber die naturliche verjungung der heidewalder
im Finnischen Lappland, I.\] Kangasmetsien luonnollisesta uudistumisesta
suomen lapissa, I. Inst. Quaest. Forest. Finland, Commun. 1:1-319, 1-56.
\[German summary, pp. 1-56\].\
\
**Dugmore, A. and A. Radclyffe. 1913.** The romance of the Newfoundland
caribou, an intimate account of the life of the reindeer of North
America. 191 pp. London\
\
**Hustich, I. 1951.** The lichen woodlands in Labrador and their
importance as winter pastures for domesticated reindeer. Acta. Geog.
12(1):1-48.\
\
**Kujala, V. 1926.** Untersuchungen uber den einfluss von wasdbranden
auf die waldvegetation in Nordfinnland. Suomenkielinen selostus:
Tutkimuksia kulojen vaikutuksesta metsakasvillisuuteen pohjois-suomessa.
Inst. Quaest. Forest. Finland, Commun. 10:1-41, illus.\
\
**Lynge, B. 1921.** Studies on the lichen flora of Norway. Skrifter
utgit av videnskapsselskapet I Kristiania, 1921. I.
Matematisk-Naturvidenskabelig Klasse Bd. 1, no.7, 252 pp.\
\
**Manning, T.H. 1946.** Bird and mammal notes from the east side of
Hudson Bay. Canad. Field Nat. 60 (4):71.\
\
**Palmer, L.J. 1926.** Progress of reindeer grazing investigations in
Alaska. U.S. Dept. Agr. Dept. Bul. 1423, 37 pp.\
\
**Palmer, L.J. and C.H. Rouse. 1945.** Study of the Alaska tundra with
reference to its reactions to reindeer and other grazing. U.S. Fish and
Wildl. Serv. Res. Rpt. 10, 48 pp.\
\
**Perez-Llano, G.A. 1944.** Lichens-their biological and economic
significance. Bot. Rev. 10(1):1-65.\
\
**Seton, E.T. 1929.** Lives of game animals. Vol. 2, Pt. 2, pp 369-746,
illus. Garden City, N.Y.\
\
**Schierbeck, O. 1931.** Forestry vs. game cover. Can. Field Nat.
45(2):28-30.\
\
**Tengwall, T.A. 1928.** \[Der zuwachs und die biologie der
renntier-flechten in den torne und lule lappmarken.\] Renlavarnas
tillvaxt och biolobi I torne och lule lappmarker. Svensk Bot. Tidskr.
22:18-32.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ fire/ fire ecology/ forest fires/ forest
types/ interior Alaska/ lichen regeneration/ lichens/ reindeer/ taiga/
wildlife/ Rangifer.

64\. \-- 1953. The effects of forest fires on the vegetation of interior
Alaska. Station Paper No. 1. U.S. Forest Service, Alaska Forest Research
Center, Juneau, Alaska. 36 pp.\
**\
Note:** Report sections: Introduction; Geography of the Alaska Interior;
Climatic Conditions of Interior Alaska; The Forests of Interior Alaska;
History of Forest Fires in Interior Alaska; Effects of Fires on Forest
Trees (White spruce; black spruce; paper birch; quaking aspen; and
tacamahac poplar); Forest Succession Following Fires (Recently burned
areas, currently regenerating; paper birch type; quaking aspen type;
white spruce-quaking aspen type; tacamahac poplar type; white spruce
type; and black spruce type); Effects of Forest Fires on Soils; Effects
of Forest Fires on Hydrologic Relations; Effects of Forest Fires on
Animal Populations; and Effects of Forest Fires on the Future Economic
Development of Alaska.\
\
Foreword by R.F. Taylor (Forester in Charge) and section on effects of
fire on wildlife reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** (Foreword). The future economic development of Alaska\'s
vast Interior is endangered by uncontrolled fires ranging over vast
areas every summer. Potential growth of wood products on what may in
future be termed commercial forest land of the Interior is no small
item.\
\
On an estimated 40 million acres that are considered to be commercial
forest land there are some 350 billion board feet, or perhaps 700
million cords of wood. Possibly some burned-over land not now considered
commercial would be productive if protected and allowed to restock
naturally. Just one severe fire, or even repeated light fires, means
waiting about 160 years for another crop of timber. When Alaskans
finally discover that this timber, properly manufactured, could be one
of the most valuable resources in Alaska, forest fires will be viewed
with more than mild concern.\
\
Before a resource can be developed it has to be protected. Good headway
is being made by the Bureau of Land Management\'s Forestry Division, but
more active support by the people of the Interior is needed and this can
come only with a realization of the values being damaged or destroyed.\
\
This paper is a summary of a report by Professor H.J. Lutz of the Yale
Forest School who conducted the study under the direction of the Alaska
Forest Research Center and with the cooperation of the Forestry Division
of the Bureau of Land Management.\
\
Two things stand out in the Lutz report: (1) the Interior forests are
[not]{.underline} all stunted, slow-growing arctic stands. Large areas
of forest in the Interior have as high a volume as stands in northern
Maine and southern Ontario where great industries depend on them; (2)
fires do a lot more damage than just destroying the timber. They damage
the beauty of the landscape for tourists, they create a smoke nuisance
that makes flying dangerous and they destroy wildlife habitats of many
valuable fur bearers. They are apt to reduce the water supply for mining
and when repeated on the same areas, turn a forest into permanent grass
and brush.\
\
**Effects of Forest Fires on Animal Populations:** The wildlife of
Interior Alaska is one of the important renewable resources of the
region. From it both the white population and the Natives derive very
considerable economic benefits. It is a resource that has great
attraction for hunters and for the even larger number of tourists who
merely wish to see and photograph wildlife in its natural environment.\
\
Exceptions may occur but in general the effect of uncontrolled forest
fires on the habitats of fur-bearing animals is unfavorable. The effect
on the moose population is still a matter of some conjecture.\
\
In certain areas following fires there quite evidently has been an
increase of the moose population. It is only natural that this be
interpreted in terms of cause and effect. Despite these examples, it may
be doubted that the relationship is always a simple case of \"more
browse more moose.\" There are extensive areas in the Interior that have
been burned repeatedly and which support much browse but few moose.
Moreover records indicate that moose in Alaska have been moving westward
and northward for over 75 years and that this movement has taken the
animals into areas where burning has not occurred.\
\
Good moose browse does not always follow forest fires. Spruce
reproduction may appear in quantity and the more desired willows may not
develop in numbers sufficient to withstand heavy use. It should also be
recognized that establishment of browse species following severe fires
is not immediate; years may pass before the burned areas again support
an appreciable amount of food for moose. It may also be doubted that
moose can reproduce rapidly enough to utilize fully the browse in
extensive burns before it grows up out of their reach.\
\
Accidental, uncontrolled forest fires can no more be justified in
wildlife management than in forest management. If, in the future, it is
ascertained that the objectives of management (either for wildlife or
for timber) can most economically and effectively be attained through
burning, then the use of [controlled]{.underline} fire will be in order.
The place, the time, and the intensity of the burn are all important
considerations; surely these are more susceptible of management under
controlled burning than when fires are accidental and hence
uncontrolled.\
\
The effects of fires on caribou are generally agreed to be harmful or
even disastrous. This animal normally lives in environments
characterized by climax communities, tundra and forest tundra. Fruticose
lichens of the *Cladonia* group (\"reindeer lichens\"), together with
certain \"beard lichens\" (*Usnea* and *Alectoria*) growing on trees,
form the principal winter food of the caribou. These lichens are highly
inflammable when dry and are thus readily susceptible to destruction by
fire. Recovery is excessively slow. The length of time required for full
recovery varies with the extent and intensity of the fires and site and
microclimatic conditions, but an average of 40 to 50 years appears to be
a conservative estimate. A half century, more or less, is a very long
time for caribou range to be out of production.\
\
.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ boreal forest/ caribou/ forest fires/ forest
management/ forest types/ furbearers/ interior Alaska/ moose/ post-fire
succession/ wildlife management/ Rangifer.

65\. Maikawa, E. and Kershaw, Kenneth Andrew. 1976. Studies on
lichen-dominated systems. XIX. The postfire recovery sequence of black
spruce-lichen woodland in the Abitau Lake region, N.W.T. Canadian
Journal of Botany. 54(23):2679-2687.\
\
**Abstract:** The postfire recovery sequence in spruce woodland growing
on drumlins in the Abitau-Dunvegan Lakes area of the Northwest
Territories is described. Four phases are recognized: year 1 to year 20,
the *Polytrichum* phase dominated by *P. piliferum*, with *Lecidea
granulosa* and *L. uliginosa* as associated species; year 21 to about
year 60, the *Cladonia* phase dominated by *Cladonia stellaris* and *C.
uncialis*; year 61 to about year 130, the spruce-*Stereocaulon* phase
with *Stereocaulon* *paschale* forming an almost pure lichen ground
cover; after year 130 the canopy closes and the lichen cover disappears
and is replaced by a moss cover forming the final phase, spruce-moss
woodland. These phases are confirmed by component analysis.\
\
The existence of spruce-*Stereocaulon* woodland in the area is thus
dependent on cyclic burning. In the absence of fire the spruce canopy
would close and the lichen cover would largely disappear. This event is
rare in the area with a reburn cycle of about 100 years. Fire is thus an
important vector in the maintenance of this extensive barren-ground
caribou winter range.\
\
**Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ forest fires/ lichen succession/ lichens/
Rangifer.

66\. Marshall, H. 1970. Problems of a contemporary arctic village.
Arctic. 23(4):286-287.\
\
**Note:** Short communication; no abstract. Records the effects of a
summer 1968 drought on the Old Crow area near the headwaters of the
Porcupine River in Yukon Territory. Section pertaining to fire and
caribou reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** \... The summer wore on without rain, and because of the
dryness forest fires consumed thousands of acres of woodland. A part of
this was spruce forest which covered the caribou migration route, and
when the fire passed through, the lichen which forms the base of the
caribou diet was destroyed. As a consequence the deer took an alternate
migration route, bypassing Old Crow, and the people lost their primary
source of winter meat. The lichens, *Cladonia* and *Cetraria*, upon
which the caribou depend are very slow growing. They often require more
than 50 years to recover from a burn, so the possibility of the caribou
passing near Old Crow again in the near future appears remote. \...\
\
**Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ forest fires/ hunting/ lichens/
migration/ subsistence/ Rangifer.

67\. Miller, Donald R. 1976. Biology of the Kaminuriak population of
barren-ground caribou. Part 3: Taiga winter range relationships and
diet. Canadian Wildlife Service Report Series. No. 36. Information
Canada, Ottawa. 42 pp.\
**\
Note:** Abstract and summary reproduced below.\
\
Report sections are: A. Introduction; B. Study Area; C. Study Periods;
D. Seasonal Availability of Vegetation; 1. Methods (1.1 Aerial
photography, 1.2 Study plots, 1.3 Lichen growth on caribou pellets, 1.4
Standing crop and nutritional analyses); 2. Results (2.1 Aerial
photography and occurrence of fires, 2.2 Vegetation on study plots, 2.3
Lichen growth on caribou pellets, 2.4 Standing crop and nutritional
analyses); E. Forage Utilization; 1. Methods (1.1 Winter forage
utilization, 1.2 Feeding crater observations and enclosures, 1.3 Rumen
contents); 2. Results (2.1 Winter forage utilization, 2.2 Feeding crater
observations and enclosures, 2.3 Rumen contents, 2.3.1 Locational
changes, 2.3.2 Seasonal changes, 2.3.3 Forage selection on taiga); F.
Physical Environment; 1. Methods (1.1 Climatic measurements, 1.2 Soil
analyses); 2. Results (2.1 Climatic measurements, 2.2 Soil analyses); G.
Discussion; 1. Snow; 2. Food habits; 3. Lichen growth; 4. Forest fires;
5. Condition of range; 6. Capacity of taiga range; H. Summary; I.
Literature cited; J. Appendices.\
\
**Abstract:** The winter range of barren-ground caribou in northwestern
Manitoba was studied to learn what potential forage was available, and
how weather, in particular snow conditions, affected the foraging of
caribou. The potential forage was determined from standing crop and
percentage cover of green plants and lichens in study plots. Feeding
caribou were observed, and plants were collected from feeding craters
and enclosures. Further evidence and confirmation of observed feeding
habits were obtained by an analysis of rumen contents. The results of
climatic measurements, especially of snow depth and crust hardness,
explained the sudden changes observed in caribou diet. The diet changed
from predominantly terrestrial lichens and grasslike plants in early
winter to arboreal lichens and woody browse in late winter when the snow
crust prevented caribou from digging craters. As the snow thawed the
caribou fed heavily on exposed plants and lichens especially along the
spring migration routes. Otherwise there was no evidence that the
caribou were exerting pressure on their winter range forage. Aerial
photographs, evidence of rates of lichen recovery, and knowledge of
feeding habits allowed some general conclusions to be drawn about the
capability of the winter range to support caribou. In particular forest
fires are beneficial in that they increase the heterogeneity of the
plant cover and favor the growth of some lichens which occur in early
successional stages. There is a plentiful supply of forage in the area
despite caribou use and fires. Snow cover rather than scarcity of forage
limits the capacity of taiga to support caribou.\
\
**Summary:** The taiga winter range of the Kaminuriak Population is in
northern Manitoba, northeast Saskatchewan, southeast Mackenzie District
and southwest Keewatin District. I studied portions of northwestern
Manitoba and northeastern Saskatchewan during this investigation.\
\
The winter range in northwestern Manitoba is roughly 20 per cent water,
40 per cent lowland and 40 per cent upland. Lowland areas include 80 per
cent muskeg and 20 per cent meadow whereas the upland is 80 per cent
spruce and 20 per cent jack pine. The upland areas are primarily
semi-open to open lichen woodland. Between 1955 and 1967, according to
aerial photograph interpretations of the same 9,200-km^2^ land area, 192
km^2^ or 2.1 per cent of the area burned in 47 different forest fires.\
\
Terrestrial lichens covered 50 to 90 per cent of the ground at 6 caribou
enclosures and 23 of 25 study plots located in spruce, spruce and jack
pine, and jack pine cover types. *Cladina* lichens, primarily *C. mitis*
and *C. alpestris*, were the most abundant in the plots and exclosures.
*Cladonia* spp. mainly *C. gracilis*, were common but only occasionally
abundant. *Cetraria* lichens were common but not abundant, whereas
*Stereocaulon* and *Peltigera* lichens were neither common nor
abundant.\
\
The standing crop of terrestrial lichens in the study plots and
enclosures ranged from 2,000 to 7,000 kg dry weight per ha at all but
two plots. The protein content in lichen samples ranged from 3.20 per
cent in *Cladonia* spp. to 16.26 per cent in primarily *Stereocaulon*
*paschale* samples. *Stereocaulon* samples also contained a higher
amount of energy than *Cladonia*, *Cladina*, or *Cetraria* samples.\
\
Lichen regeneration of primary thalli on artificially denuded 1-m^2^
plots occurred on all plots after three growing seasons and covered from
10 to 75 per cent of the plot. Secondary thalli or podetia appeared on
66 per cent of the plots after three growing seasons. Primary thalli and
in one instance a podetium were observed on caribou pellets after three
summer growing seasons. Removal of the stems and leaves of *Ledum
grouenlandicum* stimulated lichen growth whereas removal of only the
leaves did not show a change in lichen growth.\
\
Caribou rumen analyses showed that terrestrial lichens, primarily
*Cladina* spp. and to a lesser extent *Cladonia* spp. made up the bulk
of the winter diet on the taiga. *Stereocaulon* was also an important
food, especially during April according to a comparison of its abundance
in rumens and its occurrence in the taiga. Twigs and leaves of woody
plants as well as grasslike plants were also important winter forages,
and mushrooms were eaten when encountered. Seasonal availability
appeared to dictate forage use by caribou after early winter.\
\
The availability of forage depends on the depth, density, and crust
hardness of snow as well as the proximity of travel routes, and treeless
loafing and escape areas. Forage availability does not limit use in
early winter, but as soon as snow depths reach about 50 cm various sites
become unavailable. *Equisetum fluviatile* and *Carex aquatilis*,
preferred forage during the early winter, become less available in mid
winter along the drifted shores of lakes and streams. Caribou remain
close to loafing and escape areas and therefore make little use of large
areas of continuous tree cover. In late winter with the lengthening of
day-light hours a crust forms on the snow and caribou change to a diet
of arboreal lichens and woody browse. As soon as the crust softens
caribou return to a diet of terrestrial forage using south exposures of
stream-, lake-, and esker banks as well as old craters on exposed upland
sites. In addition, the boles of conifer trees become exposed and are
heavily used. Crater enclosures constructed during the early, mid and
late winter and spring periods showed that the late winter and spring
periods were the only time that the caribou damaged their forage stands.
In late winter, arboreal lichen and woody browse crops were depleted
locally and in spring the terrestrial forage crop was depleted on
exposed sites along the migration routes.\
\
The heterogeneity of plant cover in the taiga of northwestern Manitoba
and northeastern Saskatchewan makes it well suited to sustain caribou
use during the winter season because it offers caribou a wide range of
depth, density, and hardness of snow. Forest fires help to maintain the
heterogeneity.\
**\
Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ caribou diet/ caribou forage/ forest fires/
Kaminuriak Herd/ lichens/ post-fire succession/ snow/ taiga/ winter
range/ Rangifer.

68\. \-\--. 1976. Wildfire and caribou on the taiga ecosystem of
northcentral Canada. University of Idaho. Idaho. 131 pp.\
\
**Abstract:** Caribou numbers declined in northcentral Canada during the
mid-twentieth century and effects of wildfire on the taiga winter range
were considered as a potential factor causing the decline. No supporting
evidence was found for this hypothesis either during a study of the
taiga winter range of the Kaminuriak barren-ground caribou population in
northwestern Manitoba and northeastern Saskatchewan, or of the Beverly
population in northcentral Saskatchewan and southern Mackenzie District,
Northwest Territories. Comparison of caribou use on the two taiga ranges
showed similar preferences for feeding sites and forage despite
differences in wildfire rates. Landforms were generally used according
to occurrence and forage use was closely associated with availability.
*Cladina* species of lichens predominated in the diet of caribou on both
taiga ranges and were the most abundant forage available.
*Stereocaulon*, *Peltigera*, and to a lesser extent *Cetraria* species,
were selected lichen forage. *Cladonia* species were common constituents
in caribou rumens and common in terricolous lichen communities.\
\
Caribou showed no preference for feeding in stands greater than 90 years
old versus stands 40 to 90 years old. Standing crops of terricolous
lichens in moderate-aged stands were not significantly different from
older-aged stands. Large lichen standing crops were dominated by seral
*Stereocaulon* species and were generally in stands less than 110 years
old. Caribou seemingly did not select climax lichen species *Cladina
alpestris* and *C. rangiferina* over seral lichen species.\
\
Wildfires burned three times more taiga range annually in northcentral
Saskatchewan than in northwestern Manitoba. One large fire on the
Athabasca Plain accounted for most of the differential burn rate between
the two taiga ranges. Reburn of seral stands, especially in the
Athabasca Plain area, further inflated the annual burn rate. Forest
stands in northcentral Saskatchewan over 70 years old burn annually at a
rate approaching a 200-year rotation.\
\
Wintering caribou use a range differently after it has burned. Caribou
use recent burns as travel routes during migration and local movements
when snow conditions are favorable. Unburned islands within the burn are
used as feeding sites. Forest stands adjacent to recent burns become
more accessible for feeding. Deflection of major caribou movements by
large recent burns appears unlikely.\
\
Without wildfire the taiga ecosystem would be less suitable for
supporting wintering barren-ground caribou in northcentral Canada.
Periodic wildfire helps maintain vegetative heterogeneity and lichen
productivity. Caribou distribution, movements, and forage use in the
taiga depend on existing snow characteristics which are influenced by
wildfire history and its perpetual effect on the vegetative complex.\
**\
Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ forest fires/ lichens/ taiga/ Rangifer.

69\. \-\-- 1980. Wildfire effects on barren-ground caribou wintering on
the taiga of northcentral Canada: A reassessment. 84-98 Proc. 2nd Int.
Reindeer/Caribou Symposium. Roros, Norway, 1979.\
**\
Note:** Proceedings edited by Reimers, E., Gaare, E., and Skjenneberg,
S.\
\
**Abstract:** Range relationships of barren-ground caribou wintering on
the taiga of northcentral Canada were studied 1966 to 1974. Wildfire
aspects were emphasized after 1970. Colored aerial photographs were used
to quantify differences in landforms and wildfire history. Field studies
were conducted in northcentral Saskatchewan ranges of the Beverly
Population and northwestern Manitoba ranges of the Kaminuriak
Population. Wildfires annually burned 0.7% of the land surface in
Saskatchewan and 0.2% in Manitoba. Caribou wintering on both taiga
ranges showed no preferences for feeding in stands older than 90 years
postfire compared with stands 40 to 90 years old nor for climax lichen
species over subclimax species. In both winter ranges standing crops of
terricolous lichens in stands over 40 years postfire did not correlate
with age either at sites caribou selected for feeding, sites selected
for vegetative studies, or sites fenced against caribou use. Burned
areas served a different role to wintering caribou than unburned areas.
Periodic wildfires help maintain vegetative heterogeneity and
terricolous lichen productivity which affects caribou distribution,
movements and forage availability.\
**\
Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ fire/ lichens/ taiga/ winter range/
Rangifer.

70\. Miller, Melanie and See, Marianne. 1981. I. Effect of fire on black
spruce/lichen caribou range; II. Justification of research (statement of
need). Proposal draft. 15 pp\
**\
Note:** Bureau of Land Management proposal draft; introduction
reproduced here.\
\
**Abstract:** Introduction: The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) has
officially recognized the need for research to obtain fir effects
information in Alaska. The following is an excerpt from a memorandum
from the Alaska State Director to the BLM Director, December 10, 1974:\
\
Our analysis of fire research in Alaska finds that research data must be
closely elated to management decision points including: overall fire
policy; resource value class determination; MFP recommendations; and
fire situation management decisions. The Washington Creek (Fire Ecology)
Study Area will provide a beginning and central focus point for some
fire effects and management research. Due to the natural limitations of
the area, however, a number of key data requirements cannot be gathered
there\... including caribou fire relationships. There should be \"an
immediate concerted effort on a broader scale to gather key information
that cannot be gathered at Washington Creek.\"\
\
The letter also refers to an attachment, a paper titled \"Fire Ecology
Research Needs: Literature Review and Summary of Previous Works,\" (no
author), which specifies fire research needs on caribou winter range.
This paper states:\
\
Alaskan caribou herds are largely dependent on lichens for winter
forage. At present we know very little concerning how lichens fit into
the fire succession sequence. The basic question to be answered here is,
following a major disturbance, such as fire, how long does it take for
good lichen range to be established?\
\
**Keywords:** caribou/ fire/ lichens/ post-fire succession/ Rangifer.

71\. Morneau, C. 1988. Retablissement de la vegetation apres-feu dans la
partie nord de la foret boreale. Universite Laval. Quebec.\
**\
Note:** In French. Abstract from ASTIS bibliographic database, but
attributed to author.\
\
**Abstract:** La chronosequence vegetale apres-feu menant a la pessiere
a lichens dans la region de la Grande Riviere de la Baleine, situee dans
la partie nord de la foret boreale au Quebec, a ete reconstituee par
l\'etude de neuf sites bien draines. La plupart des especes de la
chronosequence recolonisent les sites brules au cours des 15 annees
suivant l\'incendie, alors que d\'importants changements de vegetation
se produisent jusque vers 100 ans apres-feu, soit jusqu\'au
developpement d\'une pessiere ouvertse a *Cladina stellaris*. Il n\'y a
pas de remplacement d\'especes chez les plantes vasculaires dominantes
au cours de la succession. Par contre, une sequence bien definie
d\'especes caracterise le developpement des strates lichenique et
muscinale en fonction de 5 stades successionnels. Immediatement
apres-feu, le sol est surtout colonise par les especes vasculaires.
Seulement quelques especes pionnieres, *Polytrichum juniperinum*, *P.
piliferum* et *Ceratodon purpureus*, occupent les substrats mineraux 4
and apres-feu. Le stade *Trapeliopsis granulosa - Polytrichum* spp.
appasrait 15 ans apres-few. Il est remplace par le stade *Cladonia* spp.
25 ans apres-feu.\
**\
Keywords:** boreal forest/ Canada/ fire ecology/ lichens/ post-fire
succession.

72\. Morneau, C. and Payette, Serge. 1989. Postfire lichen-spruce
woodland recovery at the limit of the boreal forest in northern Quebec.
Canadian Journal of Botany. 67(9):2770-2782.\
\
**Abstract:** A 250-year postfire plant chronosequence in well-drained
sites at the northern limit of the Boreal Forest in the Grande riviere
de la Baleine area, northern Quebec, was reconstructed from nine sites
associated with the development of the lichen-spruce woodland. Most
species recorded along the chronosequence reinvaded burned sites within
15 years after fire, whereas important vegetational changes occurred
during the first 100 years of postfire recovery, corresponding to full
development of the *Cladina stellaris*-spruce woodland. No vascular
plant species replacement was observed during succession, whereas by
contrast a well-defined lichen-bryophyte sequence occurred along five
successional stages. Species diversity (Shannon index) was low 4 years
after fire, but it has reached a maximum about 25 years after fire and
then dropped and stabilized at a low value in old-growth woodlands
dominated by black spruce (*Picea mariana* (Mill.) BSP) and *C.
stellaris*. The active period of black spruce sexual regeneration spans
about 20-25 years, with maximum regeneration occurring between 5 and 14
years after fire. After this period, seed regeneration is mostly
sporadic and sustained layering becomes fairly common at all sites. From
100 to 250 years after fire, no significant changes were observed in
vegetation structure, floristic composition, species diversity, and
spruce regeneration, suggesting that lichen woodlands are
selfperpetuating in absence of fire. In limiting spruce regeneration at
the ground surface, the lichen cover seems to be the most important
factor controlling the open structure of the lichen-spruce woodland.\
\
**Keywords:** boreal forest/ Canada/ fire history/ lichens/ *Picea*/
post-fire succession.

73\. \-\-- 1988. Retablissement de la vegetation apres-feu dans la
partie nord de la foret boreale, Nouveau-Quebec. Congres de
l\'Association Canadienne-Francaise pour l\'advancement des sciences.
Universite de Moncton, Moncton, N.-B., 1988.\
**\
Note:** In French. Abstract from ASTIS database bibliography, but
attributed to the author.\
\
**Abstract:** Un projet de cartographie et de datation des feux recents
au Nouveau-Quebec demontre l\'importance des feux sur la vegetation de
la region de la Grande riviere de la Baleine (55 N). Cette region,
situee dans la partie nord de la foret boreale, est caracterisee, dans
les sites bien draines, par la presence de pessieres a lichens. Le but
de la presente etude est d\'etablir la chronosequence vegetale apres-feu
dans les sites bien draines de cette region et de determiner la relation
entre le feu et la presence de pessieres a lichens. 9 sites caracterises
par une vegetation apres-feu d\'age variable (de 4 a ca. 250 ans) sont
etudies. On observe une succession d\'especes seulement au niveau des
lichens et des mousses. Les memes especes arbustives sont presentes
avant et apres un few. L\'epinette noire se regenere maintient par la
suite de facon vegetative (marcottes) et sporadiquement par graines. Un
maximum de diversite specifique est atteint environ 25 ans apres un feu.
Apres cs. 250 ans aucune tendance indique que la pessiere a lichens ne
peut se maintenir en l\'absence de feu.\
**\
Keywords:** boreal forest/ Canada/ fire ecology/ fire history/ lichens/
mosses/ post-fire succession.

74\. Palmer, Lawrence J. 1926 Nov 6.\
Author Affiliation: Reindeer Experiment Station, Fairbanks, AK.\
Letter To: Chief of Bureau, Biological Survey, Washington, D.C.\
\
**Source:** L.J. Palmer Collection, Acc. No. 904.\
\
**Note:** Letter reproduced in its entirety. Poor quality of copy may
have resulted in some spelling errors.\
\
**Text:** Dear Sir:\
\
We have gathered some additional notes on the reproduction of lichens on
old burns which tie in with our previous observations. They are as
follows:\
\
At Cantwell on an area burned over in 1924, two years ago, showed this
spring no growth of lichens as yet started over the main area. In
depressions, however, where the burning had been less severe, occasional
lichen growth was starting from remnants of plants not fully killed. The
main ground surface of the area being level, however, had been so badly
burned as to dry out the soil and in places entirely removed the humus.
Here the chief vegetation coming in in abundance was *Arctagrostis*,
*Calamagrostis*, and Fireweed (*Epilobium angustifolium*). This area
will be watched for further developments.\
\
From prospectors we were informed that on a burned over area on Valdez
Creek the lichens were abundantly coming back after a period of forty
years. In depressions, especially, a normal lichen cover was observed to
have returned.\
\
On a burned over area 13.5 miles from Fairbanks on the Richardson
Highway we found the return of a good stand of lichens. On this same
area we found a new stand of small spruce trees evidently coming after
the fire which indicated an age of about 35 to 40 years (counting
rings). We therefore concluded that the recovery of the lichen cover to
normal in this case took a period of about forty years.\
\
On the Station pasture area at the College, there is a section covering
a broad depression or shallow draw, including about 5 acres, which was
burned over in 1918, or 8 years ago. This area now comprises a browse,
lichen type of plant cover. The original climax type is *Picea - Larix*
with a browse, lichen undercover. The present content is an 8/10 cover
of 60% shrubs, 5% mosses, and 35% lichens. The lichen reproduction is
abundant over the area and probably of normal stand in numbers of
plants, but they are largely inferior forage species and of small height
growth. Scatteringly over the area the more important forage lichens are
coming in and in height these have in places attained 3 inches. The
inferior forage lichens comprising the bulk of the cover are,- species
of *Peltigera*, *Cladonia gracilis dilatata*, C*ladonia bellidiflora
hookeri*, *Cladonia cyanipes*, *Cladonia deformis*, *Cladonia
coccifera*, and *Cladonia gracilis chordalis*. The *Peltigera* by far
are the most abundant. Apparently the fire in this area resulted in a
replacement, perhaps temporarily, of the vegetation from a higher to a
lower order of lichens. The more important forage lichens coming in
are,- *Cladonia sylvatica sylvestris*, *Cladonia rangiferina*, *Cladonia
amaurocraea*, *Cladonia crispata*, *Stereocaulon coralloides*, and
*Cetraria islandica*. A surface fire, in this case, and favorable site
in depression or draw undoubtedly accounts for the more rapid lichen
recovery. Quadrats are being established on the area for continued
observations.\
\
Further observations on extensive burned over areas along the Richardson
Highway show as in the above an apparent displacement of vegetation as a
result of the fire from a higher to a lower lichen cover. A marked
difference in rate of lichen recovery is also shown according to site.
In depressions where better moisture conditions prevail the recovery is
most rapid. Where the ground is badly burned so as to result in drying
out of the soil the recovery is exceedingly slow. Where lightly burned
so as not to destroy the humus cover and thereby enabling the surface to
maintain moisture, the chances of recovery are greatly enhanced.\
\
An area on the Fox Road burned over in 1916, or 10 years ago, was
examined. This area lies on a steep north slope of former spruce,
lichen, and moss cover. An adjoining unburned patch of ground indicated
a former 25% cover of lichens. The burn was apparently severe, entirely
removing the spruce stand and in places exposing the soil. The area is
now being taken by a heavy reproduction of birch and aspen and species
of browse (*Ledum* mostly), *Calamagrostis*, *Equisetum*, and
*Epilobium* (fireweed). The new lichen growth is very scattering and the
largest grouth only 1.5 inches high. The species of lichens include,-
*Cladonia sylvatica sylvestris*, *Cladonia cyanipes*, *Cladonia
bellidiflora*, *Cladonia gracilis dilatata*, and *Stereocaulon
coralloides*. The original stand as shown by the adjoining unburned area
included such valuable forage lichens as,- *Cladonia sylvatica
sylvestris*, *Cladonia rangiferina*, *Cladonia crispata*, *Cladonia
degenerans*, *Cladonia amaurocraea oxyceras*, *Cladonia amaurocraea
celotea*, *Cetraria cucullata*, *Cetraria islandica*, and *Cladonia
gracilis*. In this case the lichen reproduction is exceedingly slow due
to a drying out of the soil.\
\
In the Fairbanks section, the chief climax type of the vegetative cover
falls under the classification (Boreal Forest) Spruce-Larch forest:
*Picea-Larix* Association. The sub-climax type is Birch-Aspen
(*Betula-Populus* Associes). The undercover of the Spruce-Larch forest
is often largely mosses and lichens with a scattering of shrubs. The
under-cover of the Birch-Aspen type is for the most part, grasses. The
important tundra types on the coast and in the uplands of the interior
are,-*Eriophorum-Cladonia* Association, *Carex-Cladonia* Assoc.,
*Eriophorum-Betula* Assoc., *Eriopohorum-Ledum* Assoc., and
*Cladonia-Betula* Assoc. Along drainages of the coast belt the type is
often *Alnus*, *Salix-Calamagrostis*. On sand spits and along the
beaches the characteristic association is *Elymus-Lathyrus*.\
\
Very truly yours,\
\
In charge Reindeer Experiment Station.\
\
**Keywords:** Alaska/ fire/ lichens/ plant associations/ post-fire
succession.

75\. \-- 1944. Alaska reindeer 1944 (a field report). 60 pp.\
**\
Note:** Citation and summary from:\
**Courtright, A.T. 1959.** Range management and the genus *Rangifer*: A
review of selected literature. M.Sc. This, Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks,
AK. 172 pp.\
\
Palmer\'s paper was an unpublished, typed (carbon) manuscript headed
U.S. Dept. Int., Office of Indian Affairs. No abstract available for
report; portions of Courtright\'s summary reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** \... Where fire occurs the destruction of lichens is
usually total, especially on the drier sites. Three stages of succession
take place in recovery. The primary stage comprises chiefly the crustose
lichens. The foliose and short-growth lichens come in during the
secondary stage, and the climax stage brings a return of the tall-growth
forms. The number of stages depends on the degree of injury. Recovery is
more rapid after grazing, and the first stage is usually not evident,
since the food base is not destroyed. \[See Palmer 1945, this
bibliography, for a list of lichen species characteristic of each
successional stage. A similar list was included in the current
citation.\] Depending on the type and degree of injury, the recovery may
be to a changed composition \-- recovery to the original composition of
lichens usually takes 40 to 65 years. Recovery of tall lichens is faster
on wet sites than on dry due to decreased damage of the base. Short
lichens require an opening up of the ground cover to permit ready
invasion. Full recovery of a stand of mostly short lichens requires 25
to 50 years; a tall-growth recovery may take 100 years or more. For
practical purposes of grazing management, combined recovery of both
forms to a full stand is reached in about 50 years. Replacement of some
of the tall forms by short growth lichens is offset by the greater
protein and vitamin value of the short forms. In stages of succession
and rate of recovery, the reaction of a damaged lichen stand closely
parallels that of a coniferous forest.\
\
Utilization of a range may be gauged aside from the physical depletion
of the vegetation as a whole by indicator plants. Normal plant cover for
any particular site must first be known. On sites of favorable
atmospheric moisture, the presence of a predominance of crustose and
short-growth lichens would indicate disturbance. In the case of
herbaceous and shrub vegetation, disturbance usually results in
replacement of the climax dominants, *Carex* and *Cladonia*, by a stand
of *Eriophorum*, and in some cases *Ledum*. On wet sites in the
interior, fire damage will temporarily bring in *Marchantia*, or in some
places *Epilobium*, *Equisetum*, and grasses. Elsewhere on tundra areas,
an unusual invasion of weeds and grasses probably indicates disturbance
and change of site from wet to drier aspect, as a result of fire or
trampling. Any disturbance of the physical surface has a tendency to
change the site from wet to drier aspect. A change in plant cover on
summer ranges is not serious, even if the disturbance results in
permanent loss of lichens, and replacement by grasses and weeds. On the
winter range, such change can have serious consequences. \...\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ disturbance/ fire/ lichen regeneration/ lichen
succession/ lichens/ rangeland / reindeer.

76\. \-\--. 1945. The Alaska tundra and its use by reindeer. Not
available: USDI Office of Indian Affairs.\
\
**Note:** Section entitled \"Lichen Reaction to Fire and Grazing\"
reproduced below.\
**\
Abstract:** [Lichen Reaction to Fire and Grazing]{.underline}\
Studies of burned-over lichen ranges in the interior and of depleted
lichen areas on the coast have been made by comparing them with virgin
or untouched cover. Treated plots within exclosures to simulate varied
degrees of grazing were established on the Bering Sea and Arctic coast
as early as 1920. Known burned lichen areas in the interior employed for
this study date back as far as 1900. Thus, over periods of as much as 24
and 44 years respectively, it is now possible to evaluate more
accurately the lichen reaction to fire and grazing.\
\
[Effect of Fire on Lichens]{.underline}\
Where fires occur the destruction of lichens is usually total,
especially on the drier sites. Patches or islands within the general
burn may remain untouched, particularly on the wetter sites. Where
reached by the flames the lichens are entirely killed and recovery takes
place by the invasion of new plants. Severe fires may destroy the lichen
food base as well as expose the mineral soil. In such cases recovery is
very slow. Depending on the degree of injury, the recovery in varying
measure goes through three stages of succession to reach the original
stand following destruction by fire. These are a primary, secondary and
final or climax stage.\
\
The primary stage is most pronounced on areas so severely burned as to
expose the mineral soil and less apparent on areas less seriously
injured. The primary stage comprises chiefly the crustose lichen forms.
This is followed by the secondary stage which comprises the foliose and
short growth lichens. The primary and secondary stages may be
contemporary over a general area. The third and final stage follows the
second stage in due course and comprises the tall growth lichen forms.\
\
[Effect of Grazing on Lichens]{.underline}\
On depleted lichen range, i.e., where the lichens are completely eaten
off, a similar effect is indicated as on burned-over range. This is
shown in the examination of plots on the Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean
coast as well as on pasture areas at a former reindeer experiment
station near Fairbanks. These plots had been treated or grazed off in
various years between 1920 and 1932. Protected portions had been
established for check. Survey of these areas following twelve to
twenty-four years and comparing the recovery with that on similar burned
ranges gave parallel results. In the case of grazing, however, the
lichen food base is not destroyed and the recovery is shown to be more
rapid in tall growth forms but less so in short growth forms.\
\
[Species in the Stages of Succession]{.underline}\
Species included in the various stages of lichen succession and the
groupings as given in this study are chiefly as follows:\
(1) Primary Stage\
[Crust lichens (Crustose)]{.underline} [Other lichens]{.underline}\
*Ochrolechia* sps. *Stereocaulon tomentosum*\
*Pertusaria* sps. *Stereocaulon alpinum*

> *Lepra* sps. *Cetraria nivalis*\
> *Diploschistes* sps. *Cetraria hiascens*\
> *Ephebe* sps. *Sphaerophorus coralloides*\
> *Lecanora* sps. *Thamnolia vermicularis*\
> *Baeomyses* sps. *Letharia* sps.\
> *Psoroma* sps. *Siphula* sps.\
> *Buellia* sps. *Gryophora* sps.\
> *Lecidea* sps.\
> \
> (2) Secondary state\
> [Short Growth Lichens]{.underline} [Leaf Lichens]{.underline}\
> *Cladonia squamosa* sps. *Nephroma* sps.\
> \" *decorticata Lobaria* sps.\
> \" *fimbriata* sps. *Peltigera* sps.\
> \" *verticillata Parmelia* sps.\
> \" *cornuta Cetraria chrysantha*\
> \" *cyanipes* sps. *Cetraria aculeata*\
> \" *cenotea* sps.\
> \" *digitata* sps.\
> \" *coccifera* sps.\
> \" *bellidiflora* spa.\
> \" *pyxidata* sps.\
> \" *degenerans* sps.\
> \" *defromis* sps.\
> \" *gracilescens*\
> \" *ochrochlora*\
> \" *subsquamosa*\
> \" *alpicola* sps.\
> \" *furcata* sps.\
> \" *cariosa cribosa*\
> \" gracilis dilatata\
> \" crispata\
> \
> (3) Final Stage\
> [Tall Reindeer Lichens]{.underline} [Other Tall Growth
> Forms]{.underline}\
> *Cladonia sylvatica sylvestris* *Cetraria cucullata*\
> \" *sylvatica* \" *islandica*\
> \" *rangiferina* \" *islandica platyna*\
> \" *alpestris* \" *islandica platyphylla*\
> \" *uncialis* sps. \" *richardsonii*\
> \" *amaurocraea* sps. *Alectoria jubata*\
> \" *gracilis elongata* \" *nigricans*\
> \" *delessertii* \" *ochroleuca*\
> \" *coccifera* sps.\
> \
> [Cycle of Lichen Recovery -]{.underline}\
> Detailed observations by transect and charting on 15 burned areas and
> 30 grazed areas indicate a requirement of from 40 to 65 years for full
> recovery of the destroyed or depleted lichens. The recovery may be to
> a changed composition with more short growth and less tall growth
> species present than in the original stand. The recovery in tall
> lichens requires less time on wet site than on dry site. This is due
> to less severe injury by fire because of the wet condition. On dry
> site the invasion of short lichens is a bit faster than on the wet
> site. On grazed range the lichen reaction is similar to that on
> burned-over areas but the invasion to short lichens is much less due
> to the moss mat or other vegetative base being left intact. Short
> growth lichens require an opening up of the ground cover, such as
> through fire, to permit ready invasion.\
> \
> A full recovery in lichen composition comprising chiefly short growth
> forms takes place in from 25 to 50 years, but to attain a full stand
> of tall growth forms a period of 100 or more years may be required.
> For practical purposes of grazing management, however, the combined
> recovery of tall and short lichens to a full stand may be said to be
> reached in about 50 years. The decrease in tall forms in the
> composition and replacement by short forms is offset by the greater
> protein and vitamin values of the short forms. Consequently, in
> nutritive value, complete recovery may be said to have been reached
> with a full stand of the combined forms.\
> \
> [Similarity of Lichen Recovery to that of Forest]{.underline}\
> In stages of succession and rates of recovery, the reaction of lichens
> to fire or depletion by grazing presents a close parallel to that of a
> coniferous forest. When such a forest of mature trees is destroyed by
> fire or cutting, a first invasion is to grasses, weeds, and shrubs.
> This is followed by the establishment of hardwood trees, such as,
> aspen and birch, accompanied by conifer reproduction. The final stage
> is a return to the original cover of mature conifer trees. A second
> growth stand of hardwoods and conifers may be reached in full density
> of cover in seventy years but the final or climax cover may require a
> hundred or more years for establishment. Similarly, a lichen cover,
> when destroyed by fire or grazing, goes through three stages of
> succession in recovery and at a parallel rate. What may be termed a
> second growth stand of chiefly short lichens may reach a full cover in
> 25 to 50 years and the final or climax stand of tall growth lichens
> may require 100 or more years for complete establishment. In a
> combined stand of tall and short lichens, full density may be reached
> in 40 to 65 years, or at an approximate average of 50 years.\
> \
> **Keywords:** Alaska/ fire/ forest fires/ grazing/ lichen succession/
> lichens/ post-fire succession/ reindeer/ tundra/ tundra fires.

77\. \-- 1940. Caribou versus fire in interior Alaska. Juneau, Alaska. 4
pp.\
**\
Note:** Carbon copy of typed report; entire contents reproduced here.\
\
**Abstract:** The fall run of caribou in the Fairbanks section failed to
appear this year and people are asking \"what has become of the
caribou.\" Caribou migrate each spring and fall, the latter movement
being the more spectacular because at this time animals are apt to
appear in greater massed numbers. The runs vary considerably as to
concentration of animals, character of movement, time of appearance and
the local route or routes chosen. Within its particular range the
individual herd moves in a same general direction. The routing may vary
as to location within the range belt and may vary greatly as to the
width of the advance. Within the general advance, the caribou may travel
over several different local routes. The erratic behavior of caribou in
migration is described by Murie in his caribou publication.\
\
The migratory habit of the caribou is probably incidental to seasonal
changes in vegetation and consequent need of search for palatable food
by the animals. With the herbaceous and shrub vegetation, the change is
often spotty as a result of uneven frosting or other climatic effect.
Thus, on the same unit of range, both at high and low elevation, one may
find in one patch a plant still blooming and yet in an adjoining patch
the same species with seeds already shed. (Observed in Matanuska Valley,
McKinley Park, on Big Delta River and at Fairbanks). More broadly, the
vegetative change is in seasonal growth and development from first green
growth in spring to the ripening of seed and drying of plants in fall.
The change results in varying palatability of plants for caribou
according to the season; and during winter when the herbaceous and shrub
growth is dormant the lichens offer the more succulent food. It is this
seasonal effect on the palatability of forage that undoubtedly results
to a large degree in the movement of caribou from winter to spring and
summer range and from summer to fall and winter range.\
\
In favorable season, it is conceivable that the herbaceous and shrub
vegetation may remain sufficiently palatable well into late fall and
early winter to offset the need of hurried movement to winter lichen
pasture. This may result in a slower, scattering infiltration between
seasonal ranges rather than a hurried, mass migration. A delayed or
light snow fall might be a complementary factor.\
\
A destruction of forage on the seasonal ranges by fire, it is believed,
may greatly disrupt the movement of the caribou and change the customary
local routing. Such might be the case with the Yukon-Tanana herd in the
Fairbanks section. Many range fires in interior Alaska since 1895 and
more recently in the very heart of the range occupied by the
Yukon-Tanana herd have destroyed vast areas of lichen forage. Such
accumulated destruction, by causing the caribou to seek food elsewhere,
may have diverted or otherwise effected the run in this instance or
served as a contributory cause. Continued burning of lichen range may
change the entire complexion of the former migration and unquestionably
in time will seriously effect the caribou population.\
\
A burned over lichen range may require as much as 40 or more years for
recovery. Where the fire is so serious as to destroy the lichen food
base (sphagnum, mat, humus, or soil and debris mixture) it may require
generations for recovery or the range may be permanently destroyed as
far as the lichen forage is concerned. Many of the fires in Alaska are
thus destructive. Fires in a dry season have been known to burn in the
moss layer for months.\
\
It is conjectured that destruction of winter lichen range in the Paxton
Lake region might be responsible for diverting elsewhere a former annual
run of caribou through the Big Delta section. It is reported that the
caribou run via the Big Delta to winter range in the Paxton Lake-Upper
Tanana River country took place annually for thirty years. The last big
run occurred in 1928. In recent years only stragglers have come through.
The last big run of caribou in the Forty Mile section is said to have
been in 1925. In the immediate Fairbanks area the migration has often
been in the region of Faith Creek and Chatanika. The run last year was
through the Salcha River-Lake Harding and Goodpaster section. A similar
run took place in 1927. This year only stragglers widely dispersed have
been seen between Fairbanks and Circle and on the Big Delta.\
\
Fires since 1895 in interior Alaska have burned over, it is variously
estimated, from 20,000 to 36,000 square miles. The maximum figure is
equal to approximately 10% of the interior range, which is estimated as
373,465 sq. mi. and it is equal to approximately the entire area of
southeastern Alaska, which is estimated as 35,560 sq. mi. Much of the
burned over area includes lichen range formerly occupied by caribou.
Continued burning and destruction of lichen range may reach such
proportion as to threaten the existence of the caribou in interior
Alaska. If fires are not checked, we may see the vanishing of the
caribou, not due to market hunting as in the case of the buffalo but
because of destruction of winter lichen pastures.\
\
Fire, it is claimed, drove the caribou from Kenai Peninsula and also
from lower Susitna Valley. Caribou were reported as plentiful on Kenai
Penin. in 1890. The first big fire occurred on the Peninsula in 1871, a
second one in 1891 and the third in 1910. The last caribou was seen in
1906. In Susitna Valley wide spread and recurrent fires occurred at
about the same time as on the Kenai Peninsula. Here the last caribou was
reported killed near Fish Lake by a Land Office survey party in 1914.\
\
There were many fires again this year throughout interior Alaska. Fires
along the railroad and highways were put under control by the newly
established fire service, but due to lack of funds and personnel the
hinterland fires could not be reached. One particularly bad fire in the
McGrath-Iditarod section on the Kuskokwim River burned 1,500,000 acres
according to Mr. McDonald. This area is in the heart of the Kuskokwim
country occupied by caribou as shown on Map #14 in Mr. Murie\'s caribou
publication. Dr. Phillip Smith of the Geological Survey told me the
smoke from this vast fire was so heavy and wide spread as to interrupt
airplane service and seriously interfered with an aerial photographic
survey in the Lake Manchumina region.\
\
Mr. McDonald, in charge of the fire service, stated he was receiving
only \$27,000 for his set-up and could not possibly operate effectively
on such meager funds. He had asked for \$75,000. He needs aerial patrol
and sufficient funds to enable control of fires in the back country.
Fires destroy not only range and wildlife but interfere with aerial
travel, now a big item in Alaskan development, including defense.
Control of fire and thereby protection of range is particularly
important to safeguard wildlife in the interior and this is especially
so from the viewpoint of caribou maintenance.\
\
Considering the caribou-fire relationship problem as crucial, I propose
a study of burned-over and other caribou ranges in the interior next
summer. I have in mind to investigate various aged burns and various
degrees of burned over range to determine lichen recovery. I shall also
consider grazing capacity and attempt to get a broad picture of fire
effect on the caribou occupation and the future trend. Areas to be
studied lie between Fairbanks and Livengood, between Fairbanks and
Circle, in the Goodpaster section and in the vicinity of Paxton Lake.\
\
L.J. Palmer\
.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ caribou forage/ forest fires/ interior
Alaska/ migration/ Rangifer.

78\. \-- 1926. Progress of reindeer grazing investigations in Alaska.
USDA Department Bulletin No. 1423. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D.C. 36 pp.\
**\
Note:** Major report sections are: Growth of the Reindeer Industry; Herd
Owners; Reindeer as Grazing Animals; Breeds and Types of Reindeer; Sled
Reindeer; Reindeer Meat; Feeding Experiments; Nature of Grazing Use;
Nature of the Range; Influence of Climate on Reindeer Grazing; Soil
Condition in Alaska; Forage Cover; Carrying Capacity and Range;
Management; and Summary.\
\
Short section about fire included in \"Forage Cover\" chapter (pp.
29-30); reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** [Range Fires:]{.underline} One of the greatest sources of
injury to range and losses of forage in Alaska is in fires, which in
most cases are deliberately set or are due to carelessness. Tundra fires
along the coast are common, and burned-over range areas may be
frequently found. Fires are often set by prospectors to clear off the
vegetation and thus expose the underlying ground and rock or by Eskimos
in an effort to be rid of mosquitoes. They are also caused by carelessly
leaving a camp fire burning or tossing away a lighted match or
cigarette.\
\
Possibly on account of the immensity of the country and the sparse
population the injury by fire does not appear very impressive nor a need
of its suppression important. It has not, perhaps, been called
sufficiently to people\'s attention in the past, although a Territorial
law is in effect providing penalty for the deliberate setting of range
fires. What is needed for Alaska is a general fire-prevention program,
and in that connection a wide, educational propaganda against forest and
range fires, particularly in the northern and western sections of the
Territory, reaching the Eskimos through the schools.\
\
Damage to range by fire involves not only loss of forage and trees but
also of game and fur animals, since the small ground animals as well as
the cover of vegetation are destroyed by fire. The damage to lichen
range is particularly serious. It may take a burned-over lichen area as
much as 25 years to come back; or where so badly burned that the cover
of humus is destroyed, the changed site conditions may result in a
recovered stand of inferior species, or virtually in a permanent removal
of the lichens, so far as practical grazing use is concerned. In view of
the importance of the lichen areas for winter grazing, it is vital to
all reindeer men to guard against fires; and because of the damage to
game and fur animals and to tree growth, it is the concern of everyone
that fires be prevented and fire protection sought.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ fire/ furbearers/ lichen regeneration/ rangeland /
reindeer.

79\. \-\--. 1941. Progress report (Caribou versus fire in interior
Alaska: A study of burned-over lichen ranges). Not Available: USDI Fish
and Wildlife Service.\
\
**Note:** 33 pp. Sections include: Introduction; Method of Study;
Occupation by Caribou; Character of Range; Lichen Occurrence;
Burned-Over Range; Effect of Fire on Lichens; Effect of Overgrazing on
Lichens; Species in the Stages of Succession; Transect Results; Rate of
Recovery; Significance.\
\
General comments are provided below, and the final paragraph of the
\"Significance\" section is reproduced. The report also includes
numerous tables of plant density in different aged burns. Much of the
material in this progress report, including effects of fire on lichens,
species encountered during different stages of lichen succession, and
comparisons of lichen succession to forest succession, is repeated in
Palmer (1945); \"The Alaska tundra and its use by reindeer.\" (See
annotation in this bibliography).\
**\
Abstract:** General comments: Lichen cover varies with environmental
conditions such as soils, moisture, and exposure, and the best lichen
growth seems to be found between1,000 and 3,500 feet elevation. Above
3,500 feet, crustose or short lichen forms predominate. In the Fairbanks
section, fair lichen growth formerly occurred in about 2/3 of the range,
and about 75% of this had burned once or twice since 1900. At least 50%
of the burned area suffered an extreme burn in which mineral soil was
exposed; this usually occurred on southern exposures. The remaining
burned sections were usually on moister northern exposures and
bottomlands where the fire was less destructive.\
\
Recovery patterns follow these general stages: aspen, birch, and willow
regenerate, followed by rebuilding of debris, moss, and lichen base or
undercover; spruce reproduction follows. Moss and lichen growth
accelerates with increased shade and moisture-holding ability, and the
aspen, birch, and willow gradually die out.\
\
Significance (last paragraph): By inference, at least knowing the winter
food requirements of caribou and reindeer, the slow growth habit of
lichens and realizing the extensive destruction of range by burning, we
may surmise that continuing fires are a serious threat to the future
maintenance of both caribou and reindeer in Alaska. Further, overgrazing
on the coastal ranges may be of similar and additional threat to a
continued reindeer industry. Of course, other factors may enter in, such
as disease and predation by man and wolves, but it is certain that
destruction of lichen forage by fire or overgrazing must be considered a
major factor in the reduction of caribou and reindeer populations. Such
reduction is reported to be taking place.\
\
**Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ fire/ interior Alaska/ lichen succession/
lichens/ reindeer/ Rangifer.

80\. \-- 1934. Raising reindeer in Alaska. Miscellaneous Publication.
No. 207. U.S. Department of Agriculture 41 pp.\
**\
Note:** Report deals primarily with reindeer herding issues. Section
pertaining to fire is reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** Range Reaction: A specific study of range reaction to fire
and grazing is being made by the quadrat method. These investigations
have not progressed far enough, however, to warrant more than general
observations.\
\
Certain ground conditions have undoubtedly been built up gradually
during recent geological periods and maintained through the protection
given by an undisturbed cover. The climate, however, has so moderated
since glacial times, that when the cover is disturbed by plowing,
mining, burning, grazing, or by other means, a marked change is likely
to take place. Thus, where a heavy S*phagnum* moss and lichen forage in
spruce climax has been built up (the moss bed perhaps 3 to 4 feet deep),
the thick mat prevents the ground from thawing. Upon disturbance, the
protection is removed, the ground thaws more rapidly, and the new set of
conditions results in the growth of a different cover. The spruce climax
will still hold, but the undercover will tend to change in character,
the moss often giving way to shrubs, grasses, and weeds. In other cases
the moss is replaced by a greatly mixed cover, including numerous
lichens of the short-growth type, particularly *Cladonia bellidiflora
hookeri*, *C. gracilis dilatata*, *C. coccifera*, and species of
*Peltigera*.\
\
Removing moss and lichens on tundra seems to make way for sedges and
grasses. Over much of the Alaskan range disturbances tend to reduce the
available soil moisture, and the trend therefore is toward replacement
of moisture-loving plants by drier-site plants. Fire causes a marked
disturbance, particularly when it eats below the surface of the ground,
into heavy humus, S*phagnum* mat, or a peaty soil. Where there is a
sheet of ice 3 to 4 feet below the tundra surface, as is often the case
along the Bering Sea and Arctic coast, or in the valleys of the
interior, disturbance by grazing, fire, mining, or water action may thaw
this ice, making the soil cave in and changing the subsequent cover.\
\
When reindeer were first introduced into Alaska, the immediate coastal
areas contained a considerable cover of lichens. In these areas lichens
have now largely disappeared, owing probably to the earlier close
confinement of the herds to the coast. The new cover consists almost
entirely of herbaceous and shrubby vegetation- sedges, low species of
browse, and grasses. On some other ranges similar changes due to grazing
and fire may be expected- changes that on the whole will probably prove
beneficial to summer pasturage but detrimental to the maintenance of
winter forage. The injury, however, may be reduced to the minimum
through the avoidance of overstocking the winter areas and through
protection against fire.\
\
The summer-range forage plants, chiefly grasses, sedges, weeds, browse,
and other herbaceous and shrubby vegetation, are eminently suited to
grazing. They are highly organized, seed-bearing plants of strong tissue
and are firmly rooted. Most of the Alaskan species are perennial,
reproducing both vegetatively and from seed. They grow rapidly, produce
substantial foliage, are not readily injured by grazing, and so supply
an annual forage crop.\
\
Lichens, on the other hand, differ from the herbaceous and shrubby
vegetation in character and in reaction to grazing. They do not furnish
a renewed forage crop from year to year, but require a long period to
recover from one season\'s cropping. They are not seed-bearing plants,
but reproduce by means of spores, or vegetatively from fragments of old
plants. Although lichens attain great age, they are of low and slow
growth. They are comparatively delicate in structure, not firmly
anchored to the soil and are easily destroyed either by trampling or
cropping, particularly under summer conditions, when they often become
dry and brittle. When moist or wet they are almost spongy in texture and
less easily injured.\
\
Lichens spread and increase rapidly, reproduction and growth occurring
whenever there are favorable conditions of high moisture, usually in
spring and fall. In a wet season the plants may continue to grow
throughout the summer; but ordinarily the summers are dry and hot, and
the lichens then lose their moisture, become brittle, and stop growing.
Growth may continue into the winter, also, in sheltered rocky situations
where the action of the sun on the frozen surface makes the ground
moist.\
\
As a rule, lichens spring up the first year after the ground has been
cleared of the matted growth, giving them a chance to begin their
development. Where the top of the plant is cropped, offshoots generally
result in a bushy, deformed top. By killing a large part of the growing
plant, cutting or cropping the lichen cover causes considerable damage.
Even light cropping or trampling may result in much damage, and heavy
trampling in summer when the plants are dry and brittle may kill all the
lichen cover. Winter ranges must, therefore, have complete protection
from grazing during the late spring, summer, and early fall-
particularly when the surface is thawed and the lichens are dry and
brittle. During the winter, on the other hand, the lichens again have a
moist consistency, and the ground is frozen together with the base of
the plant, thus affording considerable protection against ready
destruction.\
\
Quadrat observations made on the coastal tundra indicate that recovery
of lichen range following full cropping may take possibly 15 or 20
years. On higher ground, where a dry, rocky soil offers less favorable
conditions for good growth, recovery undoubtedly will take much longer-
perhaps as much as 25 or even 40 years. The rate of recovery of a lichen
range depends much on the site. Further information on forage plants is
contained in Department of Agriculture Bulletin 1423, Progress of
Reindeer Investigations in Alaska.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ disturbance/ fire/ grazing/ reindeer.

81\. Palmer, Lawrence J. and Rouse, Charles H. 1945. Study of the Alaska
tundra with reference to its reactions to reindeer and other grazing.
Research Report 10. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service; U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 48 pp.\
**\
Note:** Major report sections are: Introduction; List of Tundra Plants;
Method of Study; Types of Tundra Vegetation; Summary and Conclusions.\
\
Abstract and Summary and Conclusions sections reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** The Alaska tundra varies in width from a few miles to 200
miles along the Bering Sea and from 100-150 miles along the Arctic
coast. Plant composition is largely lichens, grasses, sedges, alpines,
and shrubs, of which 16 distinct vegetative types are described in this
report.\
\
Studies were initiated in 1920 to work out the principal range and range
requirements of the reindeer. Subsequent disturbance by grazing and
fire, accompanied by climatic changes, has resulted in general confusion
in plant mixture and occupation. Recovery of lichen range, injured by
grazing or fire, may require from 20-40 years for restoration to
original density and height. Reestablishment of vascular plants is
rapid. Moderate grazing by open herding and rotational use will permit
sustained utilization of undamaged tundra.\
\
**Summary and Conclusions:** The northern and western parts of Alaska
support a varied and abundant vegetative cover that serves as forage for
numerous native animals as well as for the introduced reindeer. The
interior of this region is occupied principally by the boreal forest,
although extensive areas of tundra prevail in the valleys and on upland
slopes. The tundra, a treeless, prairielike plain along the coast,
varies in width from a few miles to approximately 200 miles and extends
from the Aleutian Islands northward to Point Barrow and eastward along
the Arctic coast into Canada.\
\
In study of reindeer management, particular attention was given to the
tundra and to the lichen vegetation that is so important as winter
forage. This report presents the data obtained from 77 test quadrats,
some of which were observed over a period of 14 years. These plots were
distributed within the tundra belt bordering the Bering Sea and Arctic
Ocean from Nunivak Island on the south to Choris Peninsula on the
north.\
\
The vegetative types considered are beach-transition, sand-dune and
sandspit, grass-browse, wet and dry tundra (including sedge), lichen
heath, woodland, and alpine. The tundra is a patchwork of plant
societies representing varying degrees of composition and stages in
succession. Where the tundra immediately along the coast formerly
supported an abundance of lichens, now as a result of summer grazing the
lichen cover has largely been replaced by cotton-sedge, mainly
*Eriophorum callithrix*, and by shrubs. The average plant composition of
the tundra as a whole is about as follows: Lichens 30 percent, shrubs 25
percent, sedges 25 percent, and grasses, weeds, and mosses 20 percent.\
\
Of the lichens, chiefly the forms of taller growth are herein treated.
Species of *Cladonia* predominate, followed in order by those of
*Cetraria*, *Alectoria*, and *Stereocaulon*. The lichen stand is often
considerable and forms the principal winter food of the reindeer.
Sampling of numerous areas indicated a forage production of 5 to 7 tons,
air-dry weight, to an acre. Areas sampled were those in which the
lichens comprised from 50 to 90 percent of the vegetation. *Cladonia*,
because it was most abundant and of taller growth, generally gave the
largest yields.\
\
Shrubs form an important part of the tundra plant composition. On the
wet sites, prostrate willows are abundant. In drier places, ground birch
is a prominent shrub, being of taller growth in the interior. In
addition, crowberry (*Empetrum nigrum*), Alaska tea (*Ledum* ),
blueberry and cranberry (*Vaccinium*), cloudberry (*Rubus chamaemorus*),
and bearberry (*Arctous alpina*) occur frequently throughout.\
\
Moderate utilization of the beach-transition, sand-dune, and
coast-sandspit types tend to stabilize the cover to a composition of
grasses and weeds. Such cover produces more palatable spring and summer
forage than do the browse-lichen and browse-moss associations of the
adjoining tundra. Overgrazing opens the stand to invasion of mosses,
reduces the quantity of forage, and exposes the soil to erosion by wind
and rain.\
\
In the tundra-lichen types, the range is quick to react to any
disturbance. The length of time required for its recovery is directly
proportional to the degree of disturbance. Trampling has a greater
damaging effect upon lichens than has grazing or even removal of the
plant cover. Disturbance of the lichen cover on a moist site is followed
by an almost immediate invasion of vascular plants, chief of which is
cotton-sedge (*Eriophorum*). The rate of invasion is in direct
proportion to the amount of disturbance. On dry sites, the reduction of
lichens through grazing is followed by an accelerated growth of shrubs.
The recovery of lichens is more rapid on dry, than on moist, sites.\
\
In the tundra-sedge type, even moderate grazing tends to retard the
vegetation of denuded or badly depleted areas on the drier sites. Summer
grazing reduces the quantity of sedges and permits increased growth of
browse species. On moist sites, however, the vegetation readily recovers
after denudation of an area, an almost pure stand of *Carex* coming in
first. Under protection, the density of cover increases and an invasion
of grasses seems to follow. One season without protection was sufficient
to undo the progress of 4 years and render the area substantially as it
was when the studies started.\
\
The grass-browse type will bear heavy grazing. Following denudation of a
plot the recovery to grass is rapid.\
\
The heath type is unstable. After denudation of an area the initial
invaders were mosses and *Equisetum*. Opening of the stand allows an
increase in weeds. The shrubs recover slowly.\
\
In the lichen browse type, recovery is rapid under light cropping but
slow under heavy grazing. On this type open herding should be practiced
and the range should not be used during the summer and early fall when
the lichens are dry and brittle and thus easily destroyed by trampling.\
\
Opening of the woodland moss stand allows competition of the mosses with
the lichens. In this type recovery after overgrazing is slow, but a
recovered stand contains a large proportion of lichens.\
\
In the alpine-*Dryas* type recovery after denudation of an area is slow.
Invasion is by *Dryas,* weeds, *Carex,* bluegrass, and lichens.\
\
On overgrazed browse-lichen tundra the browse species are the most
aggressive in recovery followed by lichens. It is indicated that
complete recovery would require probably 25 years or more.\
\
Substantial recovery was noted on overgrazed sedge-weed tundra (moist
site) in 4 years.\
\
Very slow recovery occurred on denuded browse-grass tundra (dry site)
during a 4 year period. Invasion by grasses and sedges was most active.\
\
Further study of the complex nature of the Alaska tundra is needed. The
climax association of the Arctic tundra, ordinarily given as
*Cladonia-Carex,* is not readily verifiable, the present cover being
unstable, although this may be due, in part, to grazing. Disturbance by
grazing and fire, accompanied perhaps by climatic changes, has resulted
in a general confusion in the plant mixture and occupation. The removal
or depletion of the insulating plant cover allows the subsoil to thaw to
greater depths and opens the surface to drainage. This, no doubt,
contributes largely to alteration of site conditions and causes further
vegetative changes. The advance of tree growth on the tundra indicates
that the formation is as yet unstabilized.\
\
The wet tundra seems less stable than the dry tundra. On both the
recovery of lichens from grazing or fire injury is slow, whereas the
invasion and reestablishment of vascular plants are rapid. A depleted
lichen range under complete protection requires from 20 to 40 years for
restoration to the original density and height growth. Moderate grazing
by open herding and rotational use, however, will permit sustained
utilization of undamaged tundra range.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ climatic change/ disturbance/ Eriophorum/ fire/
grazing/ lichen-tundra/ lichens/ management/ rangeland/ reindeer/
tundra/ tundra fires/ vegetation types/ winter range.

82\. Polozova, T. G. 1986. Forest fire effect on southern subarctic
tundras in western Chukotskyy Peninsula. Botanicheskii Zhurnal.
71(12):1657-1663.\
\
**Note:** In Russian. Citation from the Cold Regions - CRREL
bibliographic database.\
\
**Abstract:** Not available.\
\
**Keywords:** forest fires/ lichens/ mosses/ post-fire succession/
soils/ tundra.

83\. Racey, Gerald D. and Armstrong, Edward R. 1996. Towards a caribou
habitat management strategy for northwestern Ontario: Running the
gauntlet. Rangifer. Special Issue No. 9:159-170.\
\
**Note:** Paper presented at the Sixth North American Caribou Workshop,
Prince George, B.C., Canada, 1-4 March 1994.\
\
Management strategy discussed in the paper includes a \"mosaic concept\"
which recognizes the importance of fire in maintaining a habitat mosaic
within the boreal forest.\
\
**Abstract:** A management strategy for woodland caribou (*Rangifer
tarandus caribou*) habitat is being developed in northwestern Ontario.
This strategy is based upon a set of draft Timber Management Guidelines
for the Provision of Woodland Caribou Habitat. These guidelines
recommend maintaining a sustainable supply of winter habitat within
large tracts of old forest, protecting calving areas and minimizing
human disturbance. Due to the large temporal and spatial scale of
caribou habitat management, an ecosystem-based approach is recommended.
Public response to the strategy shows a strong dichotomy between
environmental and utilitarian values among all the major stakeholder
groups. The major issues raised by the public include security of
industrial wood supply, quality of the knowledge base, level of
awareness of caribou, economic impacts on remote communities, concern
about environmental impacts and silvicultural know-how. The government
is responding to these concerns as the strategy evolves. Current
emphasis is placed on increasing awareness of the public, training
resource managers in caribou biology, management and habitat planning,
implementing interim habitat management prescriptions and studying the
potential impact on wood supply. The final direction for a northwestern
Ontario strategy to conserve woodland caribou habitat has yet to be
decided, although a commitment has been made to strive for the
conservation of woodland caribou populations and their habitat.\
\
**Keywords:** boreal forest/ Canada/ caribou/ forest management/ habitat
management/ *Rangifer*.

84\. Racine, Charles H. 1979. The 1977 tundra fires in the Seward
Peninsula, Alaska: effects and initial revegetation. BLM-Alaska
Technical Report 4. Bureau of Land Management, Anchorage, Alaska. Pages
1-51.\
**\
Note:** Report mostly concerned with vegetation analysis, but discusses
potential impacts of fire on the reindeer industry.\
\
**Abstract:** Abstract: During summer 1977, wildfires burned extensive
areas of maritime tundra in the Seward Peninsula. This study was
initiated in July 1978 to determine the effects of these fires on tundra
soils and vegetation and to establish permanent plots in which to
monitor postfire succession. Fifteen 10 m x 1 m permanent belt transects
were established at four different burn sites in the Seward Peninsula.
Nine of these were located along a topographic transect on a hill where
soils and vegetation had been quantitatively sampled in 1973, thereby
providing pre-fire comparisons. Two other sample sites were located in a
1971 tundra burn. Soil characteristics and plant density and cover were
determined in or near each of the 150 1 m x 1 m quadrats.\
\
Tundra burn patterns were generally patchy, with unburned communities,
unburned patches within burned communities, and in most areas of
tussock-shrub tundra, less than one half of the accumulated organic soil
layer was removed. Except where organics were removed, thaw depths were
not greatly increased but unlike the pre-fire situation, after the fire,
thaw depths reached into the mineral soils. Frost features were made
more conspicuous, if not reactivated, and soil nutrient concentrations
(K and P) increased locally. Revegetation in tussock-shrub tundra was
rapid, mainly as a result of tussock resprouting, but was much slower in
drier low shrub areas where organic soils were largely removed. Some of
the implications of these results to vegetation changes, fire management
policy, commercial reindeer herding, and off-road vehicle use are
discussed.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ post-fire succession/ reindeer/ soils/ tundra fires/
tundra vegetation .

85\. \-\--. 1981. Tundra fire effects on soils and three plant
communities along a hill-slope gradient in the Seward Peninsula, Alaska.
Arctic. 34(1):71-84.\
\
**Note:** Fire effects on vegetation, including lichen regeneration.\
\
**Abstract:** During summer 1977, wildfires burned extensive areas of
low arctic tundra in the Seward Peninsula, Alaska. The present study was
initiated in July 1978 to determine the effects of these fires on tundra
soils and vegetation. Nine 10 m x 1 m permanent belt transects were
established at regular intervals along the topographic gradient of a
burned hill-slope in the central Seward Peninsula near Imuruk Lake. Soil
characteristics and plant species density and cover were determined in
each of the 90 1-m^2^ plots on this slope during July of both 1978 and
1979.\
\
Soils and vegetation had been quantitatively sampled on this slope in
1973, thereby providing pre-fire comparisons: a sedge tussock-shrub
tundra community with mud circles occupied the poorly drained footslope
and a birch and ericaceous shrub tundra community with elongate
turf-banked frost boils had developed on the moderately well-drained
backslope. The broad, poorly-drained summit of this slope was occupied
by sedge-shrub tundra with low-centered polygons.\
\
The severity of burning in July 1977 varied along this slope with
moderate to heavy burning of the birch and ericaceous shrub tundra and
light to moderate burning of the sedge tussock-shrub tundra and
sedge-shrub tundra communities. Post-fire (1978 and 1979) changes in
plant cover, species composition and soil thaw depths are shown to vary
with position on the slope and burning severity. The relationship of
these changes to natural succession in the absence of fire is
discussed.\
\
**Keywords:** Alaska/ post-fire succession/ soils/ tundra fires/ tundra
vegetation.

86\. Racine, Charles H.; Johnson, Lawrence A., and Viereck, Leslie A.
1987. Patterns of vegetation recover after tundra fires in northwestern
Alaska, U.S.A. Arctic and Alpine Research. 19(4):461-469.\
\
**Note:** Vegetation study; includes information on lichen regeneration
and re-examines 1977 fires reported on previously by Racine.\
\
**Abstract:** Studies of lightning-caused tundra fires were carried out
between 1977 and 1983 in three areas of northwestern Alaska (Seward
Peninsula \[65° 35\' N \], Noatak River \[68° 00\'N\], and Kokolik River
\[69° 30\'N\]) representing a latitudinal gradient of 460 km. Postfire
vegetation and permafrost recovery rates were documented in both tussock
and low-shrub tundra ecosystems burned up to 10 yr prior to sampling.\
\
Within 5 to 6 yr following 1977 tundra fires, total vascular plant cover
reached 50 to 100% of the unburned control at all sites with the slowest
recovery at the northernmost Kokolik River site. This difference may be
accounted for by the greater severity of burning at the Kokolik River
sites where the fire occurred late in the season (1 August) and where
there is a longer interval between fires. Postfire increases in soil
thaw in tussock tundra appeared to stabilize or return to prefire levels
within the same 5- to 6-yr time span.\
\
Many tundra plants appear to be well adapted to fire through one or a
combination of strategies described. *Eriophorum vaginatum* tussocks may
be dependent on fire for removal of competing low shrubs and mosses.
Seed and seedling fluxes of certain species increase dramatically
following fire. A model is presented which relates species fire survival
strategies to the severity of burning and the seasonal timing of fire.\
\
**Keywords:** Alaska/ *Eriophorum*/ post-fire succession/ soils/ tundra
fires.

87\. Rouse, W. R. and Kershaw, Kenneth Andrew. 1971. The effects of
burning on the heat and water regimes of lichen-dominated subarctic
surfaces. Arctic and Alpine Research. 3(4):291-304.\
\
**Abstract:** Areas of ground lichen in the subarctic are particularly
susceptible to fire either by man\'s activity or by natural causes.
Experimental evidence from the Hudson Bay lowlands gathered in the
summer of 1970 indicates that the burning of lichen has a pronounced
effect on the ground water regime. Soil moisture measurements made in a
mature lichen woodland with thinly spaced trees, and in areas of recent
and older burning indicate that the soil moisture under the
lichen-dominated surface was at least 40% greater than in either of the
burned areas. This suggests that a mature lichen cover offers a high
resistance to the evaporation of soil moisture. The nature of the
evaporation regime was determined using the energy budget (Bowen Ratio)
approach over each surface. These data were augmented by measurements of
the moisture content of the lichen made at three levels with the canopy.
The evidence indicates that lichen dominated surfaces act as an
effective mulch in preventing evaporation from the subsurface zone
whereas the burned areas which are able to evaporate more water into the
atmosphere when moist, also develop strong resistances to evaporation as
the soil surface layers become drier. The role of ground lichen in the
water budget of northern lands is significant because of its extensive
cover and its destruction by fire must exert an important influence on
the hydrologic and atmosphere water regimes.\
\
**Keywords:** fire/ fire ecology/ lichens/ soil moisture/ water regime.

88\. Rowe, John Stanley and \*chk pgs 1979. Large fires in the large
landscapes of the north. Pages 8- *in* Turcott, George L.; Rowe, J.
Stan; Vogl, Richard J.; Komarek, Edwin V. Sr.; Johnson, Von J., and
Mutch, Robert W., eds. Fire management in the northern environment
symposium. Anchorage, Alaska, 19 Oct 1976-21 Oct 1976. USDI Bureau of
Land Management. Anchorage, Alaska.\
**\
Note:** Abstract and section of Rowe\'s paper pertaining to lichen
plateaus are reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** Land management goals in the North ought to stem from a
land ethic, a care for the terrain. They ought to take account of the
historical forces that have produced landscape variety. The occurrences
of fires in space and in time have created a patchwork mosaic and thus,
have renewed continuously \"between-site diversity.\"\
\
Major weather systems interact with terrain to produce regional fire
patterns that have certain predictable characteristics. Fires resulting
from air mass weather often seem to be more numerous and larger than
those resulting from frontal activity. Most of the area burned in years
of average fire frequency is the result of a few lightning-ignited
fires.\
\
It is important to relate fire effects to different types of landscapes
and not just to vegetation communities. For example, inorganic
permafrost terrain is often rendered unstable by fires, especially on
slopes, while\
\
**Lichen peat plateaus:** Within the subarctic lichen woodland, and
increasingly northward, treeless lichen-covered peatlands are a
prominent kind of terrain. Such \"lichen peat plateaus\" appear as
islands in forested peat plateaus, their white and yellow surfaces of
*Cladonia* and *Cetraria* lichens contrasting with the sombre tones of
the surrounding black spruce. Usually, they occupy level areas but they
sometimes appear on the crests of low rises or on gentle side slopes. A
frequent size is several hundred metres in diameter. Occasionally, they
contain small melt-out pockets marked by tarns, but thawing and
infilling seem to be less common than on forested peat plateaus.\
\
Several surface features are of interest. A network of irregularly
spaced fissures marks the surfaces of some lichen peat plateaus, forming
raised-centre polygons. Small spruce, bog birch, and green mosses appear
in the fissures. Also, rounded erosional depressions, one half to one
metre in diameter, appear in dark clusters on some surfaces, as if a
giant shotgun had been discharged from the air. Some of the smaller
holes examined were crisscrossed with suspended shrub roots, suggesting
that the peat had oxidized away without disturbing them.\
\
Lichen peat plateaus show evidence of past burning. There are charcoal
lines in the peat and charcoal flecks in the black erosional hollows.
Furthermore, burned tree stubs can usually be found poking through the
lichen mat. At the outer edges, in the transition to treed organic
terrain, remnants of fire-killed forest often bear burn scars. It
appears that this particular kind of terrain can be the result of fire.\
\
The idea that lichen-rich peatland can be increased as a result of fire
was proposed by Ahti and Hepburn (1967) from their research in northern
Ontario. Our studies support their hypothesis that fire, by killing the
surface *Sphagnum* peat mosses, provides a favourable substratum for the
large lichens, especially in the climatically severe regions of the
subarctic. The probable sequence of events is as follows:\
\
A forested peat plateau is the first necessity because only a hot crown
fire can generate sufficient back-radiation to kill the surface
*Sphagnum* mounds. The environment thus produced is unfavourable for the
regeneration of spruce and of *Sphagnum*, possibly because of limited
propagules as well as the exposed surface conditions. Dwarf shrubs
survive the fire and resprout but after a number of years, they senesce,
particularly if fire does not reoccur. Meanwhile, the caribou lichens
thicken, and as the surface ages and the *Sphagnum* mounds settle, they
become more and more prominent. At this stage, further fires probably
perpetuate the type or extend its limits into the black spruce woodlands
at its margins.\
\
Literature Cited:\
**Ahti, T. and R.L. Hepburn. 1967.** Preliminary studies on woodland
caribou range, especially on lichen stands in Ontario. Res. Rpt.
(Wildl.) No. 74, Ontario Dept. of Lands and Forests. 134 pp.\
**\
Keywords:** Canada/ fire/ fire ecology/ fire history/ fire mosaic/
post-fire succession.

89\. Rowe, John Stanley and Scotter, George Wilby. 1973. Fire in the
boreal forest. Quaternary Research. 3:444-464.\
\
**Note:** Review paper with numerous references. Overview of fire in the
boreal forest, with brief sections on the effect of fire on lichens and
wildlife. Abstract and discussion about caribou reproduced below. Other
species of wildlife also discussed in the paper.\
\
**Abstract:** The boreal forest in North America owes much of its
floristic and faunistic diversity to periodic fires ignited by lightning
and by man since he appeared on the scene. The indirect evidences of
burning in vegetation and soils, and recent direct observations of
fires, are reviewed. Fire is shown to exert a significant effect on
vegetational composition, on soil chemical properties and thermal
regime, and on animal populations through the particular mosaic of
habitats created. In turn, fire is itself influenced by the nature of
geographic landscape ecosystems according to their surface forms,
accumulations of organic materials, and susceptibility to drought. It is
concluded that fire should be viewed as a normal ecological process in
the boreal forest. A thorough understanding of its long-term role in
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems is needed.\
\
**Caribou:** The effects of fire on species such as barren-ground
caribou (*Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus* ) are equivocal. Some caribou
herds normally depend on foliose \[?\] lichens such as *Cladonia mitis*,
*C. alpestris*, and *C. rangiferina* as their principal forage during
the winter. In addition, arboreal lichens, such as *Alectoria* spp. and
*Usnea* spp., which drape old unburned trees, are an important source of
forage for caribou, particularly during the late spring or periods when
snow is deep or crusted (Scotter 1964). Recovery of these lichens
following fire is exceedingly slow and has been reviewed by Scotter
(1963, 1971).\
\
However, fires are not detrimental to all caribou habitat. In the
southern limits of the barren-ground caribou\'s winter range, fire
sometimes destroys thick carpets of bryophytes in upland forests and in
muskegs, thereby making those forests more productive for lichens and
other forage plants. Ahti and Hepburn (1967) suggest that the lichen
supply could be increased for caribou in the northern boreal lichen belt
of Ontario by burning the *Sphagnum fuscum* peatlands, treeless bogs, or
wooded muskegs, and farther south by burning the black spruce-feather
moss forests and the black spruce muskegs.\
\
Literature Cited:\
**Ahti, T. and R.L. Hepburn 1967.** Preliminary studies of woodland
caribou range, especially on lichen stands in Ontario. Res. Rept.
(Wildl.) No. 74.\
\
**Scotter, G.W. 1963.** Growth rates of *Cladonia alpestris*, *C.
mitis*, and *C. rangiferina* in the Taltson River region, N.W.T.
Canadian J. Botany 41:1199-1202.\
\
**Scotter, G.W. 1964.** Effects of forest fires on the winter range of
barren-ground caribou in northern Saskatchewan. Canadian Wildl. Serv.
Wildl. Manage. Bull. Series 1, No. 18.\
\
**Scotter, G.W. 1971.** Fire, vegetation, soil, and barren-ground
caribou relations in northern Canada. Pages 209-230 in C.W. Slaughter,
R.J. Barney, and G.M. Hanson, eds. Proceedings, fire in the northern
environment-a symposium. USDA Pacific NW For. and Range Exp. Stn.,
Portland, Oregon.\
\
**Keywords:** boreal forest/ caribou/ fire/ fire mosaic/ soils/
wildlife/ Rangifer.

90\. Rupp, Scott, Olsen, Mark, Henkelman, Jonathan, Adams, Layne G.,
Dale, Bruce W., Joly, Kyle, Collins, William B., and Starfield, Anthony.
**IN PREP**. Simulating the influence of a changing fire regime on
caribou winter foraging habitat.

**Note:** Manuscript was "**in prep**" at the time this bibliography was
put together. Abstract presented is preliminary.

> **Abstract:** Computer simulations performed using a spatially
> explicit vegetation succession model indicate that changes in the
> frequency and extent of fire in interior Alaska may substantially
> impact the winter habitat of caribou. Simulated increases in fire
> frequency (i.e., more frequent fires) on the winter range of the
> Nelchina Caribou Herd in eastern interior Alaska suggest large
> decreases in available foraging habitat, relative to currently
> available habitat, in both the short- and long-term future. A 30%
> increase in fire frequency resulted in a 72% increase in annual total
> area burned and an associated 41% decrease in the amount of
> spruce-lichen forest found on the landscape. More importantly,
> simulations with more frequent fires produced a relatively immature
> age structure -- relative to the currently observed age structure --
> with few forest age classes older than 100 yr. These age structures
> are at the lower limits of preferred stand age classes based on
> observations of forage selectivity by caribou from the Nelchina Herd.
> Projected changes in fire regime due to climate warming and/or
> land-use change could substantially alter the winter foraging habitat
> of caribou in interior Alaska and lead to changes in winter range use
> and/or population dynamics.

91\. Russell, Don E.; Martell, Art M., and Nixon, Wendy A. C. 1993.
Range ecology of the Porcupine Caribou Herd in Canada. Rangifer. Special
Issue No. 8:1-167.\
\
**Note:** Report covers different aspects of caribou ecology, divided by
season. Sections about fire and lichens reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** [Winter: Results - Fire History]{.underline}\
Sixty-eight sites were sampled for fire history and summarized by
community type. The longest interval since a major fire event was 343
years in a *Picea mariana-Ledum-Vaccinium* community. Of sites sampled
23% had been burned in the last 50 years, 42% in the last 100 years and
63% in the last 150 years.\
\
The mean interval between fires (for those stands where at least one
fire scar was recorded) was 120 +/- 95 years. However it was evident
that not all fires caused scarring. Intensive examination of areas known
to have been burned recently revealed only dead trees and healthy,
undamaged specimens.\
\
Even though too few stands were sampled to relate age of stand to
understory vegetation characteristics, a few generalizations emerged.
All subalpine shrub communities sampled were young stands. Whether this
phenomenon resulted from a greater frequency of fires in the zone or a
greater susceptibility to scarring of trees in the subalpine than
elsewhere, was uncertain.\
\
For the purpose of our analysis stand age was divided into five age
classes for the 68 stands where age was determined. Mean total lichen
biomass declined with age class although the high variation with each
class resulted in no significant differences between classes.\
\
Although no significant differences were noted between classes, stands
in the oldest age class had about one half as much *Cladina* biomass as
those in younger age classes. *Cladonia* spp. biomass declined with age
after an initial peak between 51-125 years. Again, no significant
differences wer noted. *Cetraria* biomass, on the other hand tended to
increase with age, while *Stereocaulon* decreased significantly with age
class.\
\
[Winter: Discussion - Lichen Biomass]{.underline}\
\... Of major concern in this study was the effect of fire (or age of
stand) on the lichen component in the understory. Much controversy has
surfaced in the last 25 years over the relationship between fire and
lichens and caribou populations. What seems clear is that fire has both
long and short term benefits and drawbacks to lichen abundance and
distribution (Klein 1982). Of key importance is the perpetuation of a
mosaic of age class stands. According to the literature, lichens are
greatly reduced after fire, increase in abundance up to 125-175 years
and decrease as canopy closes and microclimate for moss and shrubs
improve. Therefore, although initially causing a decline in lichen
biomass, fires ensure that large tracts of land do not succeed to
lichen-poor forest moss communities. Our study noted a general decline
in fruticose lichen biomass with age class of stand. However, the only
species that declined significantly was *Stereocaulon*, virtually absent
in stands greater than 200 years old. Because sample size was too small
to split the youngest class into more classes, the majority of the early
recovery rate dynamics documented by Scotter (1970) could not be
assessed.\
\
Literature Cited:\
**Klein, D.R. 1982.** Fire, lichens and caribou. J. Range Manage.
35:390-395.\
\
**Scotter, G.W. 1970.** Wildfires in relation to the habitat of
barren-ground caribou in the taiga of northern Canada. Ann. Proc. Tall
Timbers Conf. 10:85-106.

92\. Saperstein, Lisa B. 1996. Winter forage selection by barren-ground
caribou: Effects of fire and snow. Rangifer. Special Issue No.
9:237-238.\
\
**Note:** Brief communication; paper presented at the Sixth North
American Caribou Workshop, Prince George, British Columbia, Canada. 1-4
March, 1994. Communication reprinted in its entirety.\
\
**Abstract:** Debate over the role of wildfire in the ecology of
barren-ground caribou (*Rangifer tarandus*) has generated both questions
and controversy. In summer 1988, a wildfire burned 84615 ha of the
Selawik National Wildlife Refuge in northwestern Alaska. Portions of the
burned area have been used historically as a migratory corridor by the
Western Arctic Caribou Herd. The objective of this study was to address
the effects of fire on caribou on a tundra range in late winter (March
through April) by comparing vegetative cover, production, and snow
characteristics at feeding and control sites in burned and unburned
habitat. I also compared the protein content and digestibility of a
sedge species collected in burned and unburned habitat.\
\
Replicate plots (30 x 30 m), each containing feeding craters and
undisturbed snow, were established in burned and adjacent unburned
tussock tundra in late March through April 1990 (n=20 burned, 20
unburned) and 1991 (n=16 burned, 16 unburned). Craters were located from
the air when possible or by following caribou trails. Plots were
randomly oriented with respect to direction and distance from edges of
craters. Within each plot, I measured snow depth and hardness at 10
points along the least disturbed edges of feeding craters and at 10
randomly located points in undisturbed snow. Randomization of
undisturbed points was achieved by randomly selecting intersections of
x, y coordinates spaced at 0.1 m intervals along two edges of the plot;
coordinates intersecting in craters were discarded. I collected
vegetation from craters in both burned and unburned plots in 1991 for
analysis of crude protein content and *in vitro* digestibility. Caribou
fecal pellets were collected and microhistologically analyzed to
estimate winter diet in the general area.\
\
In late July-August, I revisited plots and established up to 10-0.25
m^2^ quadrats within former craters and centered quadrats on the 10
randomly located points sampled in late winter. Species lists were
compiled for each quadrat and I calculated the relative frequency of
occurrence for each plant species in a plot. Percent relative frequency
was defined as follows:\
\
Relative frequency of species A= (No. quadrats containing species A/Sum
of frequency values of all species) x 100.\
\
I also clipped above-ground vegetation in 5 of the randomly located
quadrats to estimate biomass.\
\
Years were analyzed separately, and stepwise discriminant function
analysis (DFA) was used to select key variables prior to making
statistical comparisons. Based on the results of DFA, snow depth and
hardness and the relative frequencies of occurrence of lichens and
bryophytes were selected as important variables in both 1990 and 1991.
In addition, relative frequency of *Eriophorum vaginatum* was selected
as a variable in 1991.\
\
Multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) indicated that there were
significant differences in snow depth and hardness and in plant relative
frequency data between burned and unburned plots and between craters and
unused areas within plots in both years. I performed ANOVAs to determine
which variables contributed to these differences.\
\
Snow depth and hardness were the most influential factors determining
selection of feeding areas by caribou in both burned and unburned plots.
Snow was shallower and softer at edges of caribou feeding craters than
at adjacent undisturbed points in both years. There was little
difference in snow depth or hardness between burned and unburned plots.\
\
Frequencies of particular plant taxa were only significant in
influencing selection of crater sites in unburned plots in 1990k when
caribou craters had higher relative frequencies of lichens and lower
frequencies of bryophytes than unused areas. Lichens were primarily in
the genera *Cladina*, *Cetraria*, and *Cladonia*.\
\
Relative frequency and biomass of most vascular plants were reduced in
burned plots, with the exception of post-disturbance species. Biomass
and relative frequency of *Eriophorum vaginatum* were greater in burned
plots than in unburned plots in 1991. Also, protein and *in vitro*
digestibility levels were significantly enhanced in samples of this
species collected from burned plots in 1991. Bryophytes had greater
relative frequencies in burned plots than in unburned plots, but species
composition differed between the two areas. Bryophytes in unburned plots
consisted mostly of *Sphagnum* spp. and feather mosses; in burned plots,
post-disturbance species in the genera *Ceratodon*, *Polytrichum*, and
*Marchantia* dominated. Although lichen biomass was significantly
reduced in burned plots in both years, lichens composed 74% and 59% of
caribou diet in 1990 and 1991, respectively.\
\
Both long- and short-term consequences should be considered when
examining the effects of fire on the foraging behavior of caribou.
Post-fire increases in protein content, digestibility, and availability
of *E. vaginatum* make burned tussock tundra an attractive feeding area
for caribou in late winter. These benefits are likely short-lived,
however. Lowered availability of lichens and increased relative
frequency of bryophytes will persist for a much longer period.\
\
**Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ lichens/ *Rangifer*/ snow/ tundra fires.

93\. \-\--. 1993. Winter forage selection by barren-ground caribou:
Effects of fire and snow. University of Fairbanks-Alaska. Fairbanks, AK.
79 pp.\
**\
Note:** M.Sc. Thesis.\
\
**Abstract:** Snow depth and hardness were the most influential factors
in selection of feeding areas by caribou (*Rangifer tarandus*) in late
winter in northwestern Alaska. Following a 1988 fire, plots were
established in late March through April in burned and unburned tussock
tundra in 1990 and 1991. Snow in both burned and unburned plots was
shallower and softer at edges of caribou feeding craters than at
adjacent undisturbed points in both years. There was little difference
in snow depth or hardness between burned and unburned plots, although
caribou cratered in shallower snow in burned plots than in unburned
plots in 1990. Crater area was greater in unburned plots in 1990, but
there was no difference in crater area between burned and unburned plots
in 1991. Frequencies of particular plant taxa were only significant in
determining selection of crater sites in unburned plots in 1990, when
caribou craters had higher relative frequencies of lichens and lower
frequencies of bryophytes than unused areas. Fire reduced relative
frequency and biomass of most plant taxa, with the exception of
post-disturbance species, which occurred primarily in burned plots.
Lichens were reduced in burned plots, and lichens composed 59-74% of the
late winter diet of caribou, as determined by microhistological analysis
of fecal pellets. Biomass and relative frequency of *Eriophorum
vaginatum* was greater in burned plots than in unburned plots in 1991,
and protein and *in vitro* digestibility levels were enhanced in samples
of this species collected from burned plots in late winter.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ *Rangifer*/ snow/ tundra fires/ winter
range.

94\. Saperstein, Lisa B. and Klein, David R. 1992. Characteristics of
caribou feeding craters in burned and unburned habitat on the Selawik
flats, Alaska. Rangifer. 12(3):169-170.\
\
**Note:** Expanded abstract; poster presented at the First Arctic
Ungulate Conference, Nuuk, Greenland. 3-8 September, 1991. Abstract
presented in its entirety.\
\
**Abstract:** There has been debate over whether fire has a negative
effect on caribou winter range. In June and July 1988, a wildfire burned
84,615 ha of the Selawik National Wildlife Refuge, located in northwest
Alaska. Portions of the burned area have been used historically as a
migration corridor by the Western Arctic Caribou Herd. The objective of
this study was to assess possible effects of the fire on caribou use of
vegetation in early spring. To accomplish this, the following variables
were measured inside and outside of the burn perimeter: 1) density of
feeding areas, 2) snow depth and hardness at feeding craters and at
random undisturbed points, 3) presence-absence of representative plant
species, and 4) above ground plant biomass.\
\
Replicate plots (30 x 30 m), each containing cratered and undisturbed
snow, were established in April 1990 (n=20 burned, 20 unburned) and 1991
(n=16 burned, 16 unburned). Ten points were randomly located at
undisturbed areas within each plot; these are referred to as \"random
points.\" Random points, and the least disturbed crater edges
(\"cratered points\") were sampled for snow depth and hardness using a
Rammsonde Penetrometer. Four transects, each 50 km in length and
consisting of both burned and unburned habitat, were flown in late April
of both years to estimate feeding area density. Feeding areas (one large
or numerous smaller craters) were counted and a t-test was performed to
compare density in burned and unburned habitat.\
\
Each following summer, 0.25 x 0.25 m quadrats were established on the 10
random points and on 10 points located within former craters. Species
lists were compiled for each quadrat and all vegetation except for moss
and liverworts was clipped in five of the random quadrats to estimate
biomass. Vegetation was sorted into current and previous years growth,
dried, and weighed.\
\
Snow data were analyzed using ANOVA. These data were then combined with
relative frequency of plant species and analyzed using MANOVA to test
for overall differences due to burning and use (craters vs random).
Stepwise regression and discriminant analysis were used to select key
variables prior to performing the MANOVA.\
\
Snow was shallower and harder in 1991 than in 1990. Burned plots had
shallower snow than unburned plots only in 1990, but this may be an
artifact due to caribou foraging on exposed *Eriophorum vaginatum*
tussocks on windswept ridges in the burn. There were no other
differences in snow cover due to fire history. In both years, snow near
craters was softer and shallower than at random points. Flight transect
data suggested that there were more feeding areas in unburned than in
burned habitat in 1990 (p\<0.05). There may have been more feeding areas
in unburned habitat in 1991 as well, but sample size (n=4) was
insufficient for statistical testing.\
\
Stepwise discriminant analysis selected snow depth and hardness, and the
relative frequencies of *Cetraria* spp., *E. vaginatum*, and bryophytes
to be entered in the MANOVA for 1990 data. *Cladonia*/*Cladina* spp.
were not included due to culticolinearity with *Cetraria* spp., but
these genera include important winter forage species. The overall MANOVA
was significant for the burn effect (p\<0.0001) and the use effect
(p\<0.0019). In the absence of snow variables, *E. vaginatum* and
lichens were found significantly more often in unburned quadrats, while
bryophytes were more common in burned, random quadrats (p\<0.05, ANOVA).
Lichens and *E. vaginatum* had greater biomass in unburned plots
(p\<0.05, ANOVA).\
\
Caribou appear to select sites to crater based on a combination of the
following: the presence of soft, shallow snow, the presence of lichens
and *E. vaginatum*, and a minimal amount of bryophytes. Observations
suggest that caribou my detect and crater for burned lichens. Fire
history has little or no effect on snow cover, but it reduces the
occurrence and biomass of early spring forage species and lichens, and
increases the occurrence of bryophytes and other species that are not
used by caribou in spring.\
\
**Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ snow/ tundra fires/ winter range/
Rangifer.

95\. Schaefer, James A. Fire and woodland caribou. Winnipeg, Manitoba,
31 Oct 1984.\
**\
Note:** Paper presented at the Northern Studies Symposium, University of
Manitoba, Winnipeg. Information about the paper derived from ASTIS
bibliographic database. Document not seen by ASTIS; citation from
Northern Scientific Training Program Bibliographies. Abstract attributed
to the author.\
\
**Abstract:** This project seeks to determine the effects of wildfire on
woodland caribou through an intensive investigation of the range of a
known population of woodland caribou. Taiga range is being appraised by
estimating the relative capacities of recently-burned (i.e. 1980)
woodland and by mature habitats able to support caribou, and by
quantifying patterns of caribou habitat utilization. The summer and fall
of 1984 were devoted largely to estimating productivity within the study
area.\
**\
Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ fire/ habitat use/ taiga / Rangifer.

96\. \-\-- 1988. Fire and woodland caribou habitat in southeastern
Manitoba. Pages 163-165 *in* Cameron, Raymond D.; Davis, James L., and
McManus, Laura M., eds. Proceedings of the third North American caribou
workshop. Chena Hot Springs, Alaska, 1987. Wildlife Technical Bulletin.
No. 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Juneau, Alaska.\
**\
Note:** Expanded abstract; reproduced in its entirety.\
\
**Abstract:** The effects of fire on the Aikens Lake population of
woodland caribou (*Rangifer tarandus caribou*) were studied over a
2-year period. The population had been studied intensively (Stardom
1975, Darby and Pruitt 1984) prior to a 1980 fire which essentially
consumed its entire pre-fire range. Appraisal of habitat was the primary
objective of this study: quantity, quality, and accessibility of forages
were estimated in recently burned (5-year) stands, and compared with
those in intermediate (37-year), and old-growth (\>90-year) condition.
Appraisal measurements were correlated with patterns of habitat
utilization by caribou over 2 winters.\
\
Comparative range evaluation was based on a vegetation map depicting 4
strata of upland plant communities. Productivity of forage was
determined in each community by harvesting and weighing the current
growth of vascular plants and the standing crop of arboreal and
terrestrial lichens. Relative quality of forages in summer and winter
was inferred from (1) published digestibility studies of *Rangifer,* and
(2) the relationship between digestibility and content of acid detergent
fiber.\
\
Estimating the relative accessibility of forage consisted of 2 aspects:
snow conditions and the density of windfallen trees (deadfalls).
Standard snow profiles were obtained over 2 winters to calculate values
of the Varrio Snow Index (VSI); straightline transects were established
to tally the intersection rate and stacking height of windfallen trees.\
\
Results indicate that burned habitats have undergone a decline in the
quality and accessibility of winter forages due to the combustion of
*Cladina* lichens, an increase in snow thickness and hardness, and the
accumulation of deadfalls. These alterations imply increased energetic
costs for caribou to obtain the more scattered and less accessible
forage after fire.\
\
Overwintering Aikens caribou exploited the remnant lichen supply, but
abandoned their burned range in late winter. Five and one-half years
after fire, the population occupied an area entirely exclusive of its
pre-fire range and essentially outside the 1980 burn. A synergistic
effect of snow accumulation and windfallen trees is implicated. The
effects on caribou distribution can be modeled with an evaluative index
that combines VSI and deadfall frequency.\
\
In the oldest growth stands (160 years), lichen and vascular plant
abundance was diminished. Yet these habitats exhibited the most
favorable nival conditions and may be important refuges during late
winter.\
\
This study underscores earlier contentions that both short- and
long-term effects should be considered when evaluating the impacts of
fire on caribou habitat. Taiga range is unsuitable for woodland caribou
in its early and intermediate successional stages (up to 50 years
following fire); yet periodic fire may be necessary to maintain optimal
lichen resources. Moreover, the eventual effects of burning may not be
immediately evident. Fires frequently leave unburned or partially burned
inclusions which provide some remnant lichen forage, and because
deadfalls will not accumulate for a few years, the detrimental effects
of fire may not be fully realized for at least 5 years after a burn.\
\
For woodland caribou, abandonment of range appears to be the fundamental
adaptation to burning of their taiga habitats; thus, local fire history
must be considered in the development of a management strategy. Current
knowledge suggests that an average of 4 km^2^ of sufficiently mature
(\>50 years old) winter habitat is required for each woodland caribou.
Protection of range from fire may be necessary if alternative,
lichen-dominated stands are unavailable.\
\
The author wishes to thank the Canadian Committee of the 4th
International Reindeer/Caribou Symposium whose travel grant made
possible the presentation of this paper.\
\
Literature Cited:\
Darby, W.R. and W.O. Pruitt, Jr. 1984. Habitat use, movements and
grouping behavior of woodland caribou, *Rangifer tarandus caribou*, in
southeastern Manitoba. Can. Field-Nat. 98:184-190.\
\
Stardom, R.R.P. 1975. Woodland caribou and snow conditions in southeast
Manitoba. Pages 324-341 in J.R. Luick, P.C. Lent, D.R. Klein, and R.G.
White, eds. Proc 1st Intl. Reindeer/Caribou Symp. Biol. Pap. Univ. of
Alaska, Fairbanks. Spec. Rep. No. 1.\
**\
Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ fire/ caribou forage/ lichens/ *Rangifer*/
snow/ winter range.

97\. \-\--. 1987. Fire and woodland caribou (*Rangifer tarandus
caribou*): An evaluation of range in southeastern Manitoba. University
of Manitoba. Winnipeg, Manitoba.\
**\
Note:** M. Sc. Thesis. Citation and abstract from ASTIS bibliographic
database.\
\
**Abstract:** The effects of fire on the Aikens Lake population of
woodland caribou were studied over a two-year period. Quantity, quality,
and accessibility of forage were determined in recently-burned (5-year
old) habitats, and compared to those in intermediate (37 years) and
old-growth (90+ year) condition. These measures were correlated to
patterns of habitat utilization by Aikens caribou over two winters.
Forage productivity was determined by harvesting current growth of
vascular plants and biomass of lichens. Quality of forage was inferred
from content of acid detergent fibre and published digestibility studies
of *Rangifer*. Accessibility of forage was estimated from the Varrio
Snow Index (VSI), and from intersection frequency of windfallen trees.
Burned habitats have suffered a decline in the quality and accessibility
of winter forages due to the loss of *Cladina* lichens, the increase in
snow thickness and hardness, and the accumulation of deadfalls. The
oldest stands (160 years) showed decreased forage abundance but the most
favorable nival conditions. Aikens caribou exploited the remnant lichen
supply within the burn, but abandoned burned range in late winter; a
synergistic effect between the accumulation of snow and deadfalls is
implicated. This behavior can be modeled with an index that combines VSI
and deadfall frequency.\
**\
Keywords:** boreal forest/ Canada/ caribou/ caribou forage/ deadfall/
fire ecology/ lichens/ *Rangifer*/ snow.

98\. Schaefer, James A. and Pruitt, William O. Jr. 1991. Fire and
woodland caribou in southeastern Manitoba. Wildlife Monographs.
116:1-39.\
\
**Abstract:** The effects of fire on the Aikens Lake population of
woodland caribou (*Rangifer tarandus caribou*) were studied over a
2-year period. Quantity, quality, and accessibility of forages were
determined in recently-burned (5-yr-old) habitats and compared to those
in intermediate (37 yrs) and old-growth (90-160 yrs) stands. These
measures were correlated with patterns of habitat use by Aikens caribou
over 2 winters. Forage productivity was determined by harvesting the
current growth of vascular plants and standing crop of arboreal and
terrestrial lichens. Quality of forage was inferred from the content of
acid detergent fiber and published digestibility studies of *Rangifer.*
Accessibility of forage was estimated from the Värriö Snow Index,
including hardness and thickness of snow cover, and from the
intersection frequency of windfallen trees. Principal components
analysis revealed that original floristic distinctions between jack pine
(*Pinus banksiana*) and mixed forest communities persisted after fire.
Compared to old-growth stands (90 yrs), most burned upland habitats
exhibited enhanced productivity of summer forages but a decline in
quality and accessibility of winter forages. This deterioration of
winter habitat for caribou resulted from the loss of lichens (*Cladina*
spp.) in the predominant jack pine communities, the increase in both
thickness and hardness of snow cover, and the accumulation of deadfalls.
The oldest stands (160 yrs) showed the lowest forage productivity,
including lichens, but had the most favorable nival conditions. Caribou
winter travel and feeding were significantly skewed towards use of
lakes, old-growth uplands and bogs, and away from burned uplands. In
both winters of study, Aikens caribou continued to exploit the remnant
lichen supply in old-growth bogs and crown-burned habitats within the
limits of the 5-year-old burn. In late winter, however, caribou shifted
their activity entirely outside the recent burn in favour of stands
GTEQ55 years old. The heightened accumulations of snow and deadfalls are
implicated in this late-winter range abandonment. The winter range of
the population, 5.5 years after fire, was mutually exclusive with its
prefire range. Taiga in southeastern Manitoba is not suitable for
woodland caribou in its recently-burned and intermediate stages (up to
50 yrs following fire). Yet fire may be necessary to maintain optimal,
long-term lichen resources. Due to the remnant lichen supply in burned
areas and the delay in the accumulation of windfallen trees, the
short-term detriments of fire may not be fully realized until 5 years or
more after burning. Woodland caribou adapt to these short-term effects
by abandoning their range. Local fire history\--in particular, proximity
to alternative, lichen-rich stands\--must be considered in the
management of woodland caribou habitat.\
\
**Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ forest fires/ jack pine/ lichens/
*Rangifer*/ snow/ taiga.

99\. Schimmel, Johnny and Granstrom, Anders. 1996. Fire severity and
vegetation response in the boreal Swedish forest. Ecology 77
(5):1436-1450.\
\
**Note**: Excerpts from abstract reproduced below\
\
**Abstract**: variation in depth of burn will have a long-lasting impact
on the vegetation; The precise response patterns of boreal vegetation in
burn depth will depend on characteristics of the species present; The
results indicate that in boreal forest, depth of burn is a more
important variable than fire front intensity for the understory
vegetation, in contrast to the situation in ecosystems with little
accumulation of organic material on the mineral soil\
\
**Keywords**: boreal forest/ burn depth/ disturbance/ fire intensity/
regenerating strategies/ seed bank

100\. Scotter, George Wilby. 1967. Effects of fire on barren-ground
caribou and their forest habitat in northern Canada. Trans. N. Amer.
Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 32:246-259.\
\
**Note:** Check original publication before citing this reference.\
\
**Abstract:** The destruction of winter rangelands by fire has been
suggested by several writers as one possible cause for the decline of
the caribou herds. This study evaluates the effects of fire on four key
wintering areas within the coniferous forest, or taiga, of northern
Canada. It was begun by the writer for the Canadian Wildlife Service in
1959 as part of an intensive caribou research project. Some of the
primary objectives of the study, as reported here, were (1) to determine
what portion of the winter range has burned and whether the amount has
increased in recent years, (2) to determine the effects of fire on the
usable standing crops of terrestrial forage and arboreal lichen, and (3)
to determine the effects of fire on range use by barren-ground caribou
and moose (*Alces alces*). Although damage by fire to winter range of
caribou occurred before the white man came to North America, the
increased rate of forest destruction by fire accompanying settlement and
exploitation, as well as possible changes in the summer weather
patterns, has contributed to the loss of habitat for barren-ground
caribou. Fires adversely effect the standing crop of both terrestrial
and arboreal forage utilized by the caribou. Lichens appear to be more
seriously affected by fire than other forage plants because of their
slow growth rates. In considering only two big-game species, fire
appears to reduce the quantity of winter range for barren-ground caribou
and improve it for moose on upland forests of the study areas. Based on
the pellet group data collected during this study, the biomass of
caribou per acre of mature forest appears higher than that of moose on
early subclimax forests on upland sites. Thus in terms of meat
production, the upland forests may be best suited to barren-ground
caribou use. Referring to the winter range of caribou in interior
Alaska, Leopold and Darling (1953a) wrote, \...fire had played so
dominant a part in destroying the lichen range that we feel quite safe
in attaching to that one factor the major blame for caribou decrease
(quote). Research data from northern Canada may not justify the same
bold conclusion. Data are insufficient to determine the extent to which
forest fires have influenced directly the recent decline of the
barren-ground caribou population. With the effect of fire on the
standing crop of forage, plant succession, and animal use there can be
little doubt that forest fires have been one of the principal causes of
the decline. Regardless of the reason for the recent decline, the
present winter range, with its vast fire-destroyed areas, will not
permit a large increase in numbers for several years. The reduced
carrying capacity of the winter range does not appear to be the factor
limiting the caribou population at the present low levels, however. And
yet it may well have been the factor which caused the reduction of
caribou numbers until men, wolves, and other factors were effective in
maintaining the population at low levels. More prevention and control of
forest fires would seem desirable in light of the small caribou
population and the long-term destruction of winter range by fire.\
\
**Keywords:** arboreal lichens/ Canada/ caribou/ forest fires/
*Rangifer*/ winter range.

101\. \-\--. 1968. Effects of forest fires on the lichen winter habitats
of barren-ground caribou in northern Canada. Utah State University.
Logan, Utah. 136 pp.\
**\
Note:** Ph.D dissertation.\
\
**Abstract:** The devastation of the winter habitat by forest fires has
been suggested as a possible cause of the caribou decline. Four areas in
northern Canada were selected for studying the effects of fire on lichen
rangelands. A literature review, forest cover maps, fire control
records, and examinations of the forests themselves indicate that fire
is a natural phenomenon and not a new factor in the ecology of the
region. During a period that extended from 1961 through 1964 there were
1,250 known forest fires that burned over 5,005,872 acres of potential
winter range. The cover-map data on forest age classes suggested that
the amount of destruction in recent years has increased 1.4 times over
the three age classes from 16 to 75 years of age, where the annual rate
of fire destruction was almost constant, and 3.1 times over the
76-120-year age class. Destruction rate in the three age classes from 16
to 75 years of age was 2.2 times greater than in the 76 to 120-year age
class.\
\
The standing crop of usable forage was determined for six forest age
classes. The average standing crop of usable air-dried forage was 177,
348, 589, 752, 783, and 1,085 pounds per acre in the 1 to 10, 11 to 30,
31 to 50, 51 to 75, 76-120, and 120-plus-year age classes. The standing
crop of high-value lichens in the same age classes was 1, 15, 147, 319,
291, and 560 pounds per acre. This reduction of lichens is critical
because of their slow succession, their slow growth rates, and their
importance as winter forage for barren-ground caribou.\
\
In northern Saskatchewan, the standing crop of arboreal lichens within
10 feet of the ground was estimated to be 605 pounds per acre in mature
black spruce forests and 339 pounds per acre in mature jack pine
forests. Destruction of these extremely slow-growing plants by fire must
be considered a serious loss of caribou winter forage.\
\
Effects of forest fires on chemical and physical soil properties were
determined in the northern Saskatchewan study area. Four recently
burned-over areas were compared with adjacent areas covered with mature
forests. Mid-day summer temperatures at the 1-inch and 3-inch depths in
the burned-over soils averaged 10.5 and 9.8 degrees Fahrenheit higher
than the temperatures under unshaded areas in mature forests. Erosion
following fire was slight. Total exchange capacity decreased on three of
the four burned-over soils, when compared with those of mature forests.
Exchangeable hydrogen was reduced and available phosphorus increased on
each of the burned-over soils. Exchangeable calcium increased on three
of the four burned-over soils. On the burned-over areas, acidity
decreased at 1-inch depths and 3-inch depths.\
\
Burning did not affect all game populations alike as shown by the
densities per acre of barren-ground caribou and moose pellet groups. In
forests over 120 years old, 722 caribou pellet groups per acre were
found compared with only 18 per acre on the 1 to 10-year age class.
There were 49 moose pellet groups per acre in the 11 to 30-year age
class and only three per acre in forests over 120 years old. Moose
apparently preferred habitats in early stages of succession while
barren-ground caribou favored those in later stages of succession.\
\
Because of the effects of fire on the standing crop of forage and plant
succession, there can be little doubt that forest fires were one of the
principal causes of the decline in caribou numbers. More prevention and
control of forest fires would seem essential to increasing caribou
numbers to a high level.\
**\
Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ forest fires/ jack pine/ lichens/ biomass/
*Rangifer*/ winter range.

102\. \-- 1964. Effects of forest fires on the winter range of
barren-ground caribou in northern Saskatchewan. Wildlife Management
Bulletin. Series 1. No. 18. National Parks Branch, Dept. of Northern
Affairs and National Resources, Ottawa. 111 pp.\
**\
Note:** No abstract; summary and conclusions section reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** The number of barren-ground caribou inhabiting the
coniferous forests and tundra of Northern Canada has declined rapidly in
recent years. This reduction has placed hardships on many Indians and
Eskimos who rely on barren-ground caribou for food and various other
provisions. In an effort to arrest the decline, the Canadian Wildlife
Service of the Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources
began intensive barren-ground caribou investigations in 1948. Since the
destruction of climax biota by forest fires had been suggested as one
cause for the decline of barren-ground caribou, the Service started a
preliminary study to evaluate the effects of fire on a key wintering
area in northern Saskatchewan in July, 1959.\
\
Comments on forest fires in the journals of early explorers, and the
presence of charcoal in soil profiles indicate that the relationship
between forest fires and caribou is not a recent one. Vegetation maps of
the study area, however, indicate that the acreage burned per year by
forest fires has increased 1.4 times in the last 15 years compared with
the previous 60 years and 3.1 times when compared with the period
extending from 1840 to 1884.\
\
One of the most obvious effects of forest fires on the winter range of
barren-ground caribou is reduction of forage in both quantity and
quality. Forage production was determined for six forest age classes.
Black spruce and seral white birch stands produced an average of 290,
492, 604, 641, 830, and 942 pounds of air-dry forage per acre in the 1
to 10, 11 to 30, 31 to 50, 51 to 75, 76 to 120, and over 120 year age
classes respectively. Accumulated production of high value lichens,
which are the preferred winter food of barren-ground caribou, was 1, 12,
61, 66, 205, and 264 pounds per acre, air-dry weight, in the six age
classes, respectively. Grass, grass-like plants, and herbs produced 185
pounds of forage per acre in the 1 to 10 year age class, but less than
15 pounds per acre in subsequent age classes. Shrub production was low
during the first post-fire age class and was fairly constant at
approximately 400 pounds per acre throughout the others. Production in
jack pine forest may follow the same general trend as in black spruce
forest, but the type was too limited in extent to draw any definite
conclusions.\
\
Burning of the winter range results in only a temporary reduction in
range productivity, with the exception of high value \"reindeer
lichens.\" In northern Saskatchewan, a century or more is required for
fire-destroyed \"reindeer lichens\" to reach their former abundance.
Annual growth rates of *Cladonia alpestris* and *C. rangiferina* were
approximated at 4.1 and 4.9 millimetres, respectively. The two lichens
were found infrequently in forests younger than 30 years of age.\
In mature coniferous forests, arboreal lichens may make substantial
contributions to the winter diet of barren-ground caribou, particularly
under severe weather conditions. Approximately 628 pounds of accessible
arboreal lichens per acre were present in mature black spruce forests
compared with 375 pounds per acre of accessible arboreal lichens in
mature jack pine forests. A quantity of those lichens is not available
to barren-ground caribou since the lichens are interwoven with the
needles and branches of the conifers. Lichens on fallen trees, lichens
dislodged by wind or snow, and lichens growing within 10 feet of the
ground were considered accessible to the animals. As a food source,
*Alectoria jubata* is thought to be the most important arboreal lichen
in the study area.\
\
The first, second, and third stages of secondary plant succession
following forest fires are described. The first stages of succession
were characterized by rapid changes in species composition. Floristic
changes were less rapid as the stages of succession advanced.\
\
The results of investigations of soil properties indicated that several
changes were wrought by forest fires. Fire increased water infiltration
rates on soils in one area which formerly supported a black spruce
forest. Summer temperatures of exposed mineral soils in burned-over
areas were higher at 1-inch and 3-inch depths than in unburned areas.
Soils on burned areas may be subject to greater daily and seasonal
temperature extremes than soils supporting mature forests. Soil erosion
appeared to be a minor problem. On recent burns, acidity of soil was
reduced for several years. Exchangeable calcium increased and total
exchange capacity decreased on three of four burned-over soils. Amounts
of exchangeable hydrogen were reduced, while amounts of available
phosphorus increased in each of the burned-over soils. No trends were
indicated for total nitrogen, or exchangeable potassium, magnesium, and
sodium following forest fires. Destruction of unincorporated organic
matter by forest fires was a serious loss. The full effect of these
changes in soil properties on plant life will not be fully understood
until ecological studies on plant requirements have been made.\
\
Pellet-group counts and aerial surveys indicate that barren-ground
caribou prefer climax forests and advanced successional stages of forest
growth. Moose showed a preference for early successional stages of
forest growth, particularly the post-fire stage 10 to 30 years after a
fire. Neither species, however, limited itself to any one age class.
Other mammals and birds were influenced by changes in habitat following
forest fires.\
\
From the results of this preliminary study on only one winter range
area, it is impossible to determine the extent to which forest fires
have influenced the decline of the barren-ground caribou population.
But, if the effect of fire on plant productivity, plant succession, and
growth rates of \"reindeer lichens\" are similar throughout the winter
range, than there would be little doubt that forest fires have been one
of the principal causes of the decline. Regardless of the reason for the
decline, the present winter range, with its vast fire-destroyed areas,
will place a restriction on caribou numbers for at least a few decades.\
**\
Keywords:** arboreal lichens/ biomass/ boreal forest/ Canada/ caribou/
fecal pellets/ fire/ fire history/ forest fires/ lichens/ population
decline/ post-fire succession/ *Rangifer*/ soils/ wildlife/ winter
range.

103\. \-\-- 1978. Fire and caribou in northern Canada. Pages 12-13 *in*
Dube, D. E., eds. Proceedings - Workshop on fire ecology in resource
management. Edmonton, Alberta, 6 Dec 1977-7 Dec 1977. Information
Report. NOR-X-210. Northern Forest Research Center.\
**\
Note:** Report reproduced in its entirety.\
\
**Abstract:** The devastation of the winter habitat by forest fires has
been suggested as a possible cause of the decline of barren-ground
caribou. Four areas in northern Canada were selected for studying the
effects of fire on lichen rangelands. A literature review, forest cover
maps, fire control records, and examination of the forests themselves
indicate that fire is a natural phenomenon and not a new factor in the
ecology of the region. During a period that extended from 1961 through
1964, there were 1,250 known forest fires that burned-over 5,005,872
acres of potential winter range. The cover-map data on forest age
classes suggested that the amount of destruction in recent years has
increased.\
\
The standing crop of usable forage and high-value lichens was determined
for six forest age classes. Destruction of the extremely slow-growing
arboreal lichens by fire must be considered a serious loss of caribou
winter forage.\
\
Burning did not affect all game populations alike, as shown by the
densities per acre of barren-ground caribou and moose pellet groups. In
forests over 120 years old, 722 caribou pellet groups per acre were
found compared with only 18 per acre on the 1- to 10-year age class.
There were 49 moose pellet groups per acre in the 11- to 30-year age
class and only three per acre in forests over 120 years old. Moose
apparently preferred habitats in early stages of succession, but
barren-ground caribou favored those in later stages of succession.\
\
\[references provided, mostly consisting of Scotter's previous reports,
but not reproduced here\].\
**\
Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ fire/ lichens/ *Rangifer*/ winter range.

104\. \-\-- 1972. Fire as an ecological factor in boreal forest
ecosystems of Canada. Pages 15-24 *in* Fire in the environment symposium
proceedings. Denver, Colorado, 1 May 1972-5 May 1972. USDA Forest
Service.\
**\
Note:** Portions pertaining to caribou or lichens reproduced below.
Paper includes 7 photographs of different stages of forest succession.\
\
**Abstract: Bryophytes and Lichens:** Bryophytes are abundant in the
boreal forest region, reproducing by spores or vegetatively. Species
such as *Ceratodon purpureus*, *Polytrichum commune*, *P. juniperinum*,
*P. piliferum*, and *Marchantia polymorpha* invade burned-over areas
rapidly following fire.\
\
Lichens, which are highly flammable when dry, add to the fire hazard in
upland sites. Lichen colonization following a fire is initiated by
crustose species soon after a fire, but many of the forge species
important for caribou and reindeer require several years for
regeneration. The presence of arboreal lichens adds to the
susceptibility of the trees to destruction by fire.\
**Wildlife:** Effects of fire on animals are both direct and indirect.
Direct effects involve destruction or injury of animals which is
dramatic but less important than destruction of habitat. It is necessary
to remember that faunal succession exists just as does plant succession.
There is an optimum habitat for every animal and that habitat is
restricted to a particular stage of plant succession. Therefore both the
short-term and long-term effects of fire on animals should be
considered.\
\
As already suggested, fires influence animals by killing individuals but
this is seldom, if ever, an important influence on the population as a
whole. Reliable data on direct loss of animals because of wildfire in
the boreal forest do not appear to be available.\
\
Indirect short-term effects of forest fires are caused by the reduction
of food and shelter for many animals. As a consequence there can be a
shortage of food for species favoring early successional stages for a
short time or for the so called \"climax species\" such as caribou for a
much longer period of time.\
\
Following the period when food and shelter are deficient, there may be
great increases in forage production which is superior in quality to
that found in mature forests. For example, the crude protein content of
browse species, collected by the author from near the east arm of Great
Slave Lake, was always higher in recent burns than in mature forests
adjacent to burns. \...\
\
\... While fires create a habitat that is favorable to species
preferring early and middle successional stages of forest succession, it
adversely affects the habitat of \"climax species\" such as
barren-ground caribou. Caribou normally feed during the winter on
foliose (?) lichens such as *Cladina mitis*, *C. alpestris*, and *C.
rangiferina*. Such lichens form the principal, but by no means the total
forage, of these animals during the winter months. Recovery of these
lichens following fire is exceedingly slow and has been reviewed by
Scotter (1964, 1967, 1971). In addition, arboreal lichens, such as
*Alectoria* spp. and *Usnea* spp., are an important source of forage for
caribou, particularly during the late spring or periods when snow is
deep or crusted (Scotter 1964). Despite the fact that fire has the
potential of markedly reducing the carrying capacity of the lichen
winter range for supporting barren-ground caribou, there is little
evidence that caribou numbers are presently being limited by the amount
of winter forage available.\
\
Fires are not detrimental to all caribou habitat. In the southern limits
of the barren-ground caribou\'s winter range, fire sometimes destroys
thick carpets of bryophytes in upland forests thereby making them more
productive for lichens and other forage plants. Fires also improve
certain muskeg areas by destroying *Sphagnum* spp. and other bryophytes
which are replaced with forage more preferred by caribou. Ahti and
Hepburn (1967) suggested that lichen supply could be increased for
caribou in the northern boreal lichen belt of Ontario by burning
*Sphagnum fuscum* peatlands, treeless bogs, or wooded muskegs; and
farther south by burning the black spruce-feather moss forests and black
spruce muskegs.\
\
Literature Cited:\
**Ahti, T. and R.L. Hepburn. 1967.** Preliminary studies on woodland
caribou range, especially on lichen stands in Ontario. Res. Rpt.
(Wildl.) No. 74, Ontario Dept. of Lands and Forests. 134 pp.\
\
**Scotter, G.W. 1964.** Effects of forest fires on the winter range of
barren-ground caribou in northern Saskatchewan. Can. Wildl. Serv.,
Wildl. Mange. Bull. Ser. 1, No. 18.\
\
**\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. 1967.** Effects of fire on barren-ground caribou
and their forest habitat in northern Canada. Trans. North Amer. Wildl.
Nat. Res. Conf. 32:246-259.\
\
**\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. 1971.** Fire, vegetation, soil, and
barren-ground caribou relations in northern Canada. Pages 209-230 in
Slaughter, C.W., R.J. Barney, and G.M. Hansen, eds. Fire in the northern
environment - a symposium. Pac. NW For. Range Exp. Sta.\
**\
Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ fire/ forest fires/ lichens/ post-fire
succession/ wildlife/ Rangifer.

105\. \-\-- 1971. Fire, vegetation, soil, and barren-ground caribou
relations in northern Canada. Pages 209-226 *in* Slaughter, C. W.;
Barney, Richard J., and Hansen, G. M., eds. Fire in the northern
environment - a symposium. University of Alaska-Fairbanks, 13 Apr
1971-14 Apr 1971. U.S. Forest Service Pacific Northwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station. Portland, Oregon.\
**\
Note:** Abstract and conclusions reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** The devastation of the winter habitat by forest fires has
been suggested as a possible cause of the decline of barren-ground
caribou. Four areas in northern Canada were selected for studying the
effects of fire on lichen rangelands. A literature review, forest cover
maps, fire control records, and examination of the forests themselves
indicate that fire is a natural phenomenon and not a new factor in the
ecology of the region. During a period that extended from 1961 through
1964, there were 1,250 known forest fires that burned-over 5,005,872
acres of potential winter range. The cover-map data on forest age
classes suggested that the amount of destruction in recent years has
increased.\
\
The standing crop of usable forage and high-value lichens was determined
for six forest age classes. Destruction of the extremely slow-growing
arboreal lichens by fire must be considered a serious loss of caribou
winter forage.\
\
Burning did not affect all game populations alike as shown by the
densities per acre of barren-ground caribou and moose pellet groups. In
forests over 120 years old, 722 caribou pellet groups per acre were
found compared with only 18 per acre on the 1- to 10-year age class.
There were 49 moose pellet groups per acre in the 11- to 30-year age
class and only three per acre in forests over 120 years old. Moose
apparently preferred habitats in early stages of succession, but
barren-ground caribou favored those in later stages of succession.\
\
**Conclusions:** Although fire damaged winter range of barren-ground
caribou before white man came to North America, its destruction rate has
increased with the growth of settlement and exploitation. In addition,
changes in the summer weather pattern may have contributed to the loss
of potential habitat. Fires adversely affect the standing crop of
terrestrial and arboreal forage, apparently affecting lichens more
seriously than other forage plants because their reestablishment is
delayed and their growth rates are slow.\
\
Fire appears to reduce the winter range for barren-ground caribou and
increase it for moose on upland forests studied. The biomass of caribou
per acre of mature forest appears higher than that of moose on early
subclimax forests on upland sites. Thus, for meat production, the upland
lichen forests may be best suited to barren-ground caribou.\
\
Research data from northern Canada are insufficient to determine the
extent to which forest fires have directly influenced the recent decline
of the barren-ground caribou population. But forest fires so affect the
standing crop of forage, plant succession, and animal use that they may
have been among the principal causes of the decline. The present winter
range, with its vast fire-destroyed areas, will not permit an increase
in numbers to the level of 60 or 70 years ago. Reduced potential
carrying capacity does not appear to be the factor limiting the caribou
population to the present low levels yet may have reduced it to the
point at which men, wolves, and other factors could keep the numbers
low.\
**\
Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ fire/ lichens/ moose/ *Rangifer*.

106\. Scotter, George Wilby\* 1965. Study of the winter range of
barren-ground caribou with special reference to the effects of forest
fires. Progress Report. 3. Canadian Wildlife Service, Edmonton. 81 pp.\
**\
Note:** Citation from BOREAL bibliographic database.\
\
**Abstract:** Studies in northern Saskatchewan and Manitoba.\
**\
Keywords:** boreal forest/ Canada/ caribou/ forest fires/ *Rangifer*/
reindeer/ wildlife.

107\. Scotter, George Wilby 1971. Wildfires in relation to the habitat
of barren-ground caribou in the taiga of northern Canada. Pages 85-105
*in* Komarek, E. V., eds. Proceedings Annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology
Conference: No. 10. Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada, 20 Aug 1970-21
Aug 1970. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. 10. Tall Timbers
Research Station. Tallahassee, FL, 336.\
\
**Abstract:** NO ABSTRACT AVAILABLE. SECTIONS INCLUDE: The Study Areas;
Methods (Survey of History and Extent of Forest Fires, Determining
Effects of Fire on the Standing Crop of Forage, Determination of Range
Use by Caribou and Moose); Results (History and Extent of Fires on
Caribou Ranges, Effects of Fire on the Forage Supply, Effects of Fire on
Range Use by Caribou and Moose); Discussion; and Conclusions.\
\
FROM THE TEXT: The Canadian Wildlife Service\'s intensive caribou
research program included an evaluation of the effects of fire on four
key upland wintering areas within the taiga. Some primary objectives
were: (1) to determine the portion of burned winter range and whether it
has increased in recent years; (2) to determine the effects of fire on
the usable standing crops of terrestrial forage and arboreal lichens;
and (3) to determine the effects of fire on range use by barren-ground
caribou and moose (*Alces alces*).\
\
FROM THE CONCLUSIONS: Although damage by fire to winter range of
barren-ground caribou occurred before the white man came to North
America, the increased rate of forest destruction by fire accompanying
settlement and exploitation, as well as possible changes in the summer
weather pattern, has contributed to the loss of potential habitat. Fires
adversely affect the standing crop of both terrestrial and arboreal
forage utilized by the caribou. Lichens appear to be more seriously
affected by fire than other forage plants because of their delay in
re-establishment and slow growth rates. In considering only two big-game
species, fire appears to reduce the quantity of winter range for
barren-ground caribou and improve it for moose on upland forests of the
study areas. Based on the pellet group data collected during this study,
the biomass of caribou per acre of mature forest appears higher than
that of moose on early subclimax forests on upland sites. Thus, for meat
production, the upland lichen forests may be best suited to
barren-ground caribou. Referring to the winter range of caribou in
interior Alaska, Leopold and Darling (1953a) wrote . . . fire had played
so dominant a part in destroying the lichen range that we feel quite
safe in attaching to that one factor the major blame for caribou
decrease. Research data from northern Canada may not justify the same
bold conclusion. Data are insufficient to determine the extent to which
forest fires have influenced directly the recent decline of the
barren-ground caribou population. With the effect of fire on the
standing crop of forage, plant succession and animal use there can be
little doubt that forest fires may have been one of the principal causes
of the decline. Regardless of the reason for the recent decline, the
present winter range, with its vast fire-destroyed areas, will not
permit an increase in numbers to the level of 60 or 70 years ago.
However, the reduced potential carrying capacity of the winter range
does not appear to be the factor limiting the caribou population to the
present low levels. And yet it may well have been the cause of the
reduction of caribou numbers until men, wolves, and other factors were
effective in maintaining the population at low levels.\
**\
Keywords:** boreal forest/ Canada/ caribou/ distribution/ fire history/
forest fires/ habitat types/ *Rangifer*/ wildlife/ winter range.

108\. Sharpe, M. 1986. Post-fire succession in the lichen woodlands of
the Schefferville area, Quebec. McGill University. Montreal, Quebec.\
**\
Note:** B. Sc. Thesis.\
\
**Abstract:** The post-fire recovery sequence in 21 spruce-lichen
woodland and spruce-moss stands in the Schefferville area, Quebec is
described. Black spruce was the dominant species in the woodlands (69%
of the basal area) while white spruce was more abundant in the closed
forests (67%). Seven of the woodland stands were over 150 yrs of age,
while four were over 200 yrs, indicating a relatively long fire cycle.
Early successional sites (up to 150 yrs) were characterised by *Ledum
groenlandicum*, *Betula glandulosa*, *Vaccinium angustifolium*,
*Cladonia deformis*, and a relatively high proportion of *Larix
laricina* and *Picea mariana*. Mature woodlands were dominated on the
ground by *Cladina stellaris*, with *Cladina mitis*, *Cladina
rangiferina*, *Empetrum nigrum*, *Stereocaulon paschale*, and *Dicranum
fuscescens* also present. In the spruce-moss stands, the lichens are
replaced by the mosses *Hylocomium splendens*, *Ptilium crista
castrensis*, and *Polytrichum* spp. The lichen woodlands in the
Schefferville area maintain their open structure despite the low fire
frequency. Some of the spruce-moss stands may have succeeded from
woodlands through increasing canopy closure, but most probably represent
fast growth and early divergence from the woodland successional
sequence.\
**\
Keywords:** Canada/ fire ecology/ lichens/ post-fire succession/ taiga.

109\. Sirois, Luc and Payette, Serge. 1991. Reduced postfire tree
regeneration along a boreal forest-forest-tundra transect in northern
Quebec. Ecology. 72(2):619-627.\
\
**Abstract:** The large 1950s fires that burned \> 5500 km² of land
across a south-to-north climatic gradient in northern Quebec provided an
opportunity to evaluate the role of fire in forest-tundra development on
a demographic basis. The tree population density before and \~30 yr
after fire was estimated by censusing trees in plots of 400 m² located
in upland and lowland within four representative ecoregions of northern
Quebec. The analysis of tree recruitment before and after fire, in 410
randomly selected sites along a transect crossing the upper boreal
forest and forest-tundra zones, indicated that wildfires induced
substantial depletion of tree populations. Taken as a whole, fires have
significantly reduced the density of black spruce populations in
forest-tundra uplands, but not in the lowlands. A reduction in tree
population density of GTEQ 75% was observed in 22% of upper boreal
forest sites, and 45% and 93% of sites located in the forest and shrub
subzones, respectively, of the forest-tundra zone. Complete excursion of
tree populations by fire was observed in 43% of upland sites in the
northern part of the transect, while complete removal was a rare event
in the southern part. Sustained reduction of tree population density
after several destructive fires appears as one of the main deforestation
processes in the subarctic zone. This leads to the patchy distribution
of forest stands and scattered tree populations typical of the
forest-tundra biome. Comparisons with paleoecological data suggest that
the impact of the 1950s fires contributed to the expansion of the forest
tundra into the upper boreal forest. The ecological impact of these
fires was probably similar to those fires responsible for development of
the forest tundra during the Holocene. It is suggested that the
fire-climate interaction should be considered in order to predict the
ecological impact of warming climate on high-latitude forest
ecosystems.\
\
**Keywords:** Canada/ climatic change/ deforestation/ forest fires/
forest tundra/ lichen woodland/ *Picea*/ post-fire succession/
subarctic.

110\. Skoog, Ronald Oliver. 1968. Ecology of the caribou (*Rangifer
tarandus granti*) in Alaska. University of California, Berkeley.
Berkeley, California. 699 pp.\
**\
Note:** Ph.D. dissertation. Includes information on many aspects of
caribou ecology, and focuses on the Nelchina Herd (reflected in
abstract). Abstract and section related to fire reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** Alaska\'s caribou population consists of six regional
subpopulations and eleven herds. For each region the author hypothesizes
a [center of habitation]{.underline}, which consists of optimal caribou
habitat, supports the main herd, and acts as a focal point for
population buildup and dispersal. As density increases the movements
become more erratic and extensive, and the animals begin to utilize
marginal areas. If other population \"controls\" are not evoked,
eventually an emigration to other regions occurs. After the decline,
remnant herds may be found in certain portions of the region, but the
main sub-population remains at the [center]{.underline}. A herd is
defined as any group of caribou which uses one calving area repeatedly
over a period of years, distinct from the calving area of any other
group. An historical review of caribou distribution and numbers revealed
a considerable flux of animals between all six regions. It was believed
that the population shifts noted merely reflected the normal vagility of
this species, which becomes accentuated at densities between 5 and 10
animals per square mile. Population highs were evident during the
1860\'s and 1920\'s, and lows during the 1890\'s and 1940\'s. The exact
causes for these changes in numbers are not known, but food shortage was
not an important factor. Caribou densities have remained far below the
carrying capacity suggested by the forage available. The estimate for
caribou numbers (calves excluded) in Alaska for June, 1964, was 600,000
animals.\
\
This study was based upon 12 years of field-work, 1952-1964, although
the main study period encompassed 1955-1962. Emphasis was placed on the
Nelchina herd in southcentral Alaska. The population data obtained from
that herd constitute the central theme of this dissertation, and the
results are summarized below.\
\
1) The Nelchina range is a highly diversified region, having a variety
of climatic conditions and vegetation types and thus offering a number
of different habitats to caribou. Twelve major vegetation types have
been identified, four of which- Dwarf Birch, Dwarf Heath, Sedge Meadow,
and Willow- comprise about 51 per cent of the range vegetation and are
of most importance to the caribou. Overgrazed areas are few, and
abundant year-round forage remains.\
\
2) The seasonal distribution centers about the traditional calving
grounds. With increasing densities the movements have become more
extensive, and the herd has split seasonally into several major groups.
Excursions outside the normal range have occurred, and a shift in
winter-use has occurred to the northwest and east.\
\
3) Sex-ratios were as follows: Secondary (at birth), 51 per cent males;
Tertiary (at 12-months), 55 per cent males; Quaternary (at 24-months),
50 per cent males; Quinary (at 10-years+), 23 per cent males. In 1962,
males comprised 39 per cent of all animals 1-year+ , 35 per cent of
those 2-years+, and 30 per cent of those 3-years+.\
\
4) The peak of rutting activity occurred about October 6. The fertility
rate was found to be 72 per cent of all females 1-year+, 84 per cent of
those 2-years+, and 89 per cent of those 3-years+. Natality was assumed
equal to the fertility rate. The peak of calving occurred about May 25.
Each October calves comprised an average of 21 per cent of the herd.\
\
5) During the first year of life, an average of 40 per cent of the
calves died; of those, 70 per cent died between June and October.
Mortality among animals older than calves averaged 14 per cent annually:
hunters, 8 per cent; wolf predation, 2 per cent; and other mortality, 4
per cent.\
\
6) Total numbers increased from 40,000 animals to 71,000, at an average
annual rate of 9 per cent. Yearling production averaged 22 per cent. The
maximum annual increase for the herd under \"natural\" conditions (i.e.,
disregarding hunter losses) would have been 20 per cent.\
\
7) Weather, predation, and emigration were considered to be the main
factors controlling caribou numbers in Alaska.\
\
[Factors Influencing Movements]{.underline}\
*Exogenous Factors*\
Banfield (1954) has discussed in detail the effects of forest fires upon
the movements of barren-ground caribou in northern Canada. He noted
their avoidance of burned areas during migrations and attributed some of
the major population shifts to extensive fires on winter ranges. In
Alaska these effects are not so evident, because the principal burned
areas are restricted mostly to regions not normally frequented by
caribou (i.e., the broad river valleys of the Tanana, Yukon, and
Kuskokwim Rivers). In other sections the burns are quite discontinuous
in distribution due to the interspersion of extensive alpine areas,
tundra, meadows, and wet black-spruce (*Picea mariana*) muskeg. \...\
\
POPULATION CHANGES\
[Influential Factors]{.underline}\
*Fire*\
The devastation by fire of the forests over the interior of Alaska has
been widespread. Lutz (1956) reviewed thoroughly the fire history in
this region since the intrusion of the white man, and concluded (p.
14-15) that at least 2,000 square miles of spruce forest burned annually
between 1898 and 1955. From his account it is evident that most of the
interior forests have burned at least once in that time. Leopold and
Darling (1953: 56-57) noted that about 80 per cent of the white spruce
(*Picea glauca*) had been burned. One might suppose a similar proportion
of the extensive black spruce stands has burned as well, although the
frequently wetter sites probably would make this species less
vulnerable. Nevertheless, no one flying over the interior of Alaska can
help but be impressed with the vast acreage that has been touched by
fire in recent times.\
\
Most of the extensively burned sections of Alaska, however, occur in
lowland areas not used commonly by caribou, such as the river valleys of
the Kuskokwim, Yukon, Porcupine, Tanana, and Susitna Rivers, plus their
associated \"Flats.\" Other areas have been burned also, of course, but
these usually are not extensive in terms of linear miles, and thus are
not necessarily barriers to caribou movements. Nelchina caribou, for
example, commonly traverse burned sections on the Lake Louise Flat, and,
lately, along the Copper River. Similar movements by caribou of the
Fortymile herd (Region V) also have been observed by the writer. In
Alaska, the wide interspersion of alpine areas, rivers, lakes and bogs
limits both the extent and the effects of fire on the main caribou
ranges. A vast area remains untouched by fire on the arctic slopes,
along the Brooks and Alaska Ranges, in the highlands of Regions V and
VI, and in other alpine/tundra areas. The only instances where extensive
tundra fires are known to have occurred were on the Seward Peninsula
during the late 1890\'s and early 1900\'s, and these caused severe
damage to the lichen cover near the mining operations (Jackson,
1898-1904). Elsewhere the tundra seems to have been unaffected; the
alpine areas also have been immune, because the fires invariably stop at
or near timberline. In addition there are numerous stands of spruce
scattered throughout interior Alaska, which for some reason have
escaped, and continue to support excellent stands of lichen. By far the
most valuable supply of lichens in interior Alaska, however, occurs in
the wide-spread dwarf birch (*Betula glandulosa*) zone lying immediately
above timberline, on the gentle alpine slopes. My travels throughout all
six caribou regions of Alaska have indicated that there remains abundant
winter forage, in spite of the loss due to fire. Much of this forage
occurs in areas not being utilized by caribou at present. Perhaps a
brief account of each of the six regions would be desirable.\
\
The Alaska Peninsula (Region I) has not been affected much by fire
because the forested areas are limited mostly to north of the Naknek
River system. The caribou herd has remained south of this line since
prior to 1900. Practically the entire forested area along the Kvichak
River, and much along Lake Iliamna, was destroyed by fire in 1935
(Heintzleman 1936: 592; Lutz 1956: 16). In 1960 I noted that the effects
of fire were still quite evident and that lichens were particularly
scarce. At the same time, however, lush stands of lichens were present
along the highlands south of Lake Iliamna to Naknek Lake, which are not
being utilized by caribou. The Alaska Peninsula herd winters mostly in
the Lake Becharof area to the south, where lichens are rather scarce;
the diet is mostly sedge. Farther south, forage lichens are extremely
scarce, and the diet is almost exclusively sedges and grasses. The
burned area along the Kvichak River and the shores of Lake Iliamna very
definitely constitutes a barrier of sorts to caribou movement between
the mainland and the Alaska Peninsula, because of the general lack of
forage there. There is no indication, however, that caribou ever
\"tested\" this barrier.\
\
In western Alaska (Region II) spruce forest comprises the major
vegetation type over much of the area. As one might suppose, fires have
been widespread, although mostly limited since the 1940\'s to the areas
surrounding the relatively few towns and mining operations remaining.
Black-spruce bogs are rather common and some of these support good
lichen stands, especially in the Lake Minchumina area where the McKinley
herd frequently winters. Burned sections extend throughout the Kuskokwim
Mountains, however, and these may have inhibited a buildup of caribou
there. Alpine areas there are limited, and caribou must utilize the
spruce forests for part of their subsistence, as the Beaver herd does
today. On the other hand, the extensive spruce forest would indicate
rather marginal habitat for a sustained, year-round population, and
therefore the effect of fire probably is secondary. If the population to
the east ([center of habitation]{.underline}) were to reach high
densities, however, it would require these spruce forests for winter
range. At present the potential utilization has been severely restricted
because of fire damage. The abundant lichen and sedge stands present
along the Alaska Range are more than adequate for the population now.\
\
Northwestern Alaska (Region III) has not been affected much by fire
except in the southeastern quadrant. This burned area extends northward
from the Yukon River to encompass much of the Koyukuk River valley as
far as Bettles. There, extensive fires have occurred periodically during
the past 50 years, and the lichen cover generally is poor, as viewed
from the air. In spite of that caribou have wintered there several times
during the 1960\'s; presumably the black-spruce bogs and the alpine
areas supplied the forage, which must have been mostly sedges in this
case. Extensive stands of lichen are present in the spruce along both
sides of the Kobuk River, however, and the herd has been utilizing these
since the late 1940\'s. Fire has been uncommon along the Kobuk. Prior to
the 1940\'s the herd wintered exclusively to the north, frequently on
the arctic coastal plain; the animals must have subsisted mostly on
sedges, because forage lichens are quite scarce north of the Baird and
Endicott Mountains.\
\
Northeastern Alaska (Region IV) has been burned extensively from the
Yukon River-Black River-Porcupine River flats northward onto the south
slopes of the eastern Brooks Range (southwest quadrant). Fortunately,
this section has not been utilized much by caribou in historical times,
although once again the [potential]{.underline} utilization value has
been reduced. Sedge areas remain abundant, however, in the lake-pond-bog
terrain. In the Yukon, fires have burned portions of the Old Crow Flats,
an important wintering area for these caribou. Perhaps this loss has
caused the animals to move into the alpine areas farther south, although
these appear to have been utilized frequently in the past anyway.
Abundant alpine vegetation remains in this region, and the loss of
winter forage by fire thus seems insignificant relative to the
population present.\
\
East central Alaska (Region V) was more or less the center for the gold
mining industry during the late 1800\'s and the first 20 years of this
century. Fires have been a common phenomenon since prior to 1890.
Earlier I had computed (Skoog 1956: 28) the extent of fire damage to the
main portion (35,000 square miles) of the Fortymile herd\'s range;
between 1920 and 1955 approximately 20 percent of this area had burned.
In addition, of course, much had burned previous to that time as well.
In fact, considering the great amount of activity in the region prior to
1920, it seems likely that fires were more common then. In 1959 a range
reconnaissance by the author revealed that many of these old burns were
reforested, and in some the forage lichens had returned to rather fair
growth (20-50% cover; 1\"-2\" height). Alpine areas are abundant, but in
the Alaska portion of this region lichens are not particularly abundant
except in the dwarf birch zone; alpine sedge meadows, however, are
numerous. Limited flights over the mountains of adjacent Yukon seemed to
indicate a similar vegetation distribution. The rapid increase of this
caribou population prior to 1930 during the midst of intense mining
activity suggests that fires, hunting, and the other disturbances
accompanying this industry development had little effect on numbers or
distribution. The northward shift of this population during the 1930\'s
occurred after these disturbances had been reduced considerably. The
loss in winter forage due to fires could have been a factor in this
shift, although the high population density seems a more likely cause.\
\
Fires in south central Alaska (Region VI) have been limited mostly to
the terrain adjacent to the Tanana, Copper, and Susitna Rivers. These
areas have not supported permanent caribou populations in historical
times, although periodically caribou have passed through them. Large
fires on the Kenai Peninsula were thought to have been the principal
factor in the loss of caribou there (Palmer 1941). This opinion seems
valid, because the limited alpine areas suitable for caribou winter
grazing would force the animal to rely heavily upon the spruce forests.
On the other hand, as discussed earlier, I consider the Kenai to be a
marginal habitat for a sustained caribou population, so perhaps the
fires merely hastened what might be considered an inevitable decline.
The Lake Louise Flat, extending eastward and southeastward to and beyond
the Copper River, has been subjected to widespread fires periodically
since before the white man arrived. Glenn stated (Glenn and Abercrombie
1899: 59) as he approached the Lake Louise Flat in 1898, \"We entered
what we called the \'burned district,\' which seemed to extend as far as
the country is visible toward the Copper River, and to the northward
almost to the Alaska Range\... none of the Indians we encountered
remembered it as being in any other condition than it is at the present
time.\" He noted, however, the lichen cover and growth were quite good
throughout the Flat. Several fires since that time, plus numerous
winters of grazing by caribou, have left the lichen cover in rather poor
condition; yet there is still abundant forage and the caribou still
utilize the Flat for early winter feeding. Elsewhere in the region
winter forage is abundant, and excellent lichen stands occur both in the
dwarf birch zone and in other alpine areas. A large proportion of this
region lies near or above timberline, and hence fires have not
significantly damaged the caribou range.\
\
The actual effect of fire upon caribou distribution and numbers is
somewhat difficult to evaluate. It is obvious, of course, the animals
cannot subsist within recently burned forests (burns less than about 10
years old), except in certain bog/muskeg types. Where the burns are
extensive they can inhibit caribou movements. In much of Alaska,
however, the irregular topography and the interspersion of fire
\"barriers\" have permitted many areas containing abundant winter forage
to escape destruction. These areas, including in particular the
alpine/tundra zones, comprise a considerable acreage. This situation is
in contrast to much of the rather flat taiga of northern Canada, where
fires can sweep for miles across the continuous spruce forests.
Additionally one must consider the fact that fire long has been a major
factor in the ecology of the boreal forests (Lutz 1956, Scotter 1960),
although it is acknowledged as well that the [rate]{.underline} of fire
destruction increased considerably during the first half of this century
due to modern man\'s activities. Nevertheless, the caribou would seem to
be admirably adapted to the irregularities of this destructive
\"ecological\" force by being able to utilize a variety of plant foods
and to shift its distribution as necessary to find adequate forage.\
\
One cannot deny that fire destroys valuable winter habitat. By
eliminating the forage lichens in spruce forests, fires reduce the
[potential]{.underline} carrying capacity of the total range. This
aspect has been reviewed thoroughly by Leopold and Darling (1953) and by
Scotter (1960). Yet, all who have discussed caribou-range relationships
have implied that lichens are [required]{.underline} by caribou and that
the relative abundance of these plants sets the carrying capacity of the
range. There seems to be adequate information available to dispute this
idea.\
\
\[Several pages discussing situations where caribou have survived where
lichens were scarce or absent were omitted\]\
\
\... In conclusion it can be stated that fire has indeed destroyed
rather large expanses of potential winter range in Alaska. It must be
stressed again, however, that many of the burns are located in areas
which caribou have used but infrequently during historical times, even
when the population was high. Theoretically, the carrying capacity of
the [total]{.underline} caribou range has been reduced temporarily due
to this destruction of winter forage. In reality, the caribou population
seems to have maintained densities much lower than the maximum dictated
by food alone, and hence the reduction in total range becomes less
meaningful. The fact that Alaska caribou [are not dependent]{.underline}
upon the lichen growth in spruce forests and [can]{.underline}
[utilize]{.underline} the extensive sedge forage on the tundra, alpine
meadows, bogs, and lake-shores greatly mitigates the losses due to fire.
The maintained low densities and periodic population shifts have assured
an adequate food supply thus far. It is possible that fire has been a
factor in the population shifts noted, by causing the animals to seek
new food sources in unburned areas. It is doubtful, however, that fire
has influenced much the fluctuations in numbers that have occurred,
because food has not been the central factor in this case.\
\
Literature Cited:\
**Glenn, E.F. and W.R. Abercrombie 1899.** Reports of explorations in
the Territory of Alaska, 1898. U.S. Adjutant-General\'s Office, Military
Information Division, Washington, D.C. 464 pp.\
\
**Heintzleman, B.F. 1936.** Alaska. Pages 581-598 *in* The western
range. U.S. Congress, Senate, 74th Cong., 2nd Sess., Document 199. 620
pp.\
\
**Jackson, S. 1892-1908.** Annual reports on introduction of
domesticated reindeer into Alaska, with maps and illustrations. Nos.
1-16 (2-3 and 4-5 combined in single volumes). U.S. Office Education,
Published as U.S. Congress (Senate) documents, Washington, D.C.\
\
**Leopold, A.S. and F.F. Darling 1953.** Wildlife in Alaska. Ronald
Press Company, New York. 129 pp.\
\
**Lutz, H.J. 1956.** Ecological effects of forest fires in the interior
of Alaska. U.S. Dept. Agr., Tech. Bull. 1133. 121 pp.\
\
**Palmer, L.J. 1941.** Caribou versus fire in interior Alaska. U.S.
Biol. Survey, Prog. Rept., 14 pp.\
\
**Scotter, G.W. 1960.** \[Citation not included in dissertation\].\
\
**Skoog, R.O. 1956.** Range, movements, population, and food habits of
the Steese-Fortymile caribou herd. Univ. of Alaska, M.S. thesis. 145
pp.\
.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ boreal forest/ caribou/ caribou distribution/
carrying capacity/ fire/ forest fires/ habitat/ lichens/ migration/
reindeer/ winter range/ Rangifer.

111\. \-\--. 1956. Range, movements, population, and food habits of the
Steese-Fortymile Caribou Herd. University of Alaska-Fairbanks.
Fairbanks, Alaska. 145 pp.\
**\
Note:** M. Sc. thesis. Abstract and comments about fire and caribou
reproduced below.\
\
**Abstract:** The Steese-Fortymile caribou (*Rangifer arcticus stonei*
Allen) form one of the most economically important herds in Alaska. This
study of the herd took place from September, 1952, to December, 1955,
under the auspices of the Alaska Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit at
the University of Alaska and of the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration
branch of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Project W3R.\
\
The Steese-Fortymile range occupies about 35,000 square miles of
east-central Alaska and the Yukon Territory, lying mainly between the
Tanana and Yukon Rivers. The terrain is mountainous, but not rugged;
roads and towns are scarce, and a maximum of 60,000 people live on the
fringes. Seven major plant communities comprise the range vegetation,
three of them covering 60 to 70 per cent of the area and furnishing the
bulk of the food for caribou. The carrying capacity is computed to be
70,000 to 90,000 caribou.\
\
The erratic and continual movements of caribou characterize this game
species. Their movements vary from day to day and season to season. Most
of the traveling takes place during the early morning and late
afternoon; major seasonal movements take place in the spring and fall.
Past and present data provide a general picture of the movement pattern
of this herd throughout the year.\
\
The Steese-Fortymile herd dwindled from a peak of about 500,000 animals
in the late 1920\'s to a low of 10,000 to 20,000 in the early 1940\'s.
The decline is attributed to a population shift. The present population
contains at least 50,000 animals and is increasing steadily.
Reproduction was high during the years 1950 to 1955. The rut takes place
during the first two weeks of October; most of the calves are born
during the latter half of May, following a gestation period of about 33
weeks. Valuable information on caribou behavior during the calving
period is presented. Counts taken in May show that at least 50 per cent
of the calves survive the first year. Wolf and man are the most
important mortality factors affecting this herd. The total annual
mortality, excluding calves, is estimated at eight per cent. Sex and age
data from composition counts and hunter-checking-station operations
indicate that this herd is young and that the sex ratio approaches
100:100. The annual increment for the herd is computed to be 10 to 15
per cent.\
\
Caribou are cursory feeders and eat a wide variety of plants. The main
periods for resting and feeding occur during the middle portions of the
day and night. The caribou\'s diet hinges upon the available food
supply, and thus varies with the seasons. In winter, the diet consists
mostly of lichens, grasses, and sedges, with browse plants of some
importance; data from 23 stomach-samples are presented. In spring, the
new shoots of willow, dwarf birch, grass, and sedge are most important;
information is based only on field observations. In summer, a wide
variety of plants are eaten; willow and dwarf-birch foliage are of
greatest importance, followed closely by grasses and sedges; data from
27 stomach-samples are presented. In fall, the diet shifts from a
predominance of woody plants and fungi in late August to one of lichens,
grasses, and sedges in late September; data from 70 stomach-samples are
presented.\
\
The problems of data-gathering are discussed, as related to management
practices. The contributions made by this report are outlined, and the
important information still needed for proper caribou management is
listed.\
\
[Carrying Capacity]{.underline}\
\... The Steese-Fortymile range grows an abundance of the browse and
sedges, but frequent fires during the past half-century have destroyed
much of the lush lichen growths once prevalent. Palmer (1941) believes
that caribou require at least 50 per cent lichens in their diet for
maintenance of condition during the winter months. Because lichens
apparently play such an important role during the winter, a caribou on
this depleted range needs much more land for forage than does a reindeer
in western Alaska.\
\
Palmer (1941) indicated that fair lichen growth formerly occurred on
about two-thirds of the Steese-Fortymile range, but that fires since
1900 had burned over, once or twice, about 75 per cent of the lichen
forage. This former lichen growth might have been similar to that of
western Alaska in 1945. On a range having such a growth, which is
considered a lichen index of 1, a caribou requires a maximum of about 85
acres during the winter when on a diet of almost 100 per cent lichens.
Fires, however, have reduced the lichen index on the Interior range to
.25. Solving the proportion 1/.25=x/85 results in the value of 340 acres
as the winter requirement for each caribou of the Steese-Fortymile herd.
But a caribou supposedly needs only a 50 per cent diet of lichens, so
the winter requirement might then be lowered to 170 acres. The addition
of Palmer\'s estimated summer requirement of 15 acres brings the yearly
range requirement of each caribou to 185 acres. The three plant
communities which furnish the bulk of the caribou\'s food cover an area
of from 13,400,000 to 16,700,000 acres. Therefore, the range should be
able to support in the vicinity of from 70,000 to 90,000 caribou.\
\
This estimate for range capacity arises primarily from Palmer\'s belief
that caribou require at least a 50 per cent lichen diet during the
winter. Information from Nunivak Island, however, tends to contradict
that belief. There, the reindeer long ago used up the available lichens
and now exist largely on a sedge diet during the winter; yet they manage
to maintain their vigor. If caribou can live satisfactorily on a winter
diet of sedges, the range could conceivably support a denser population
than that indicated above. But caribou seem to prefer lichens at that
time of year (Palmer 1941), and, not being herded or confined as are the
reindeer, may well move to find the plant-type they desire, even if it
means finding a new range. Supposedly, a lack of lichens forced caribou
from the Kenai Peninsula during the last decade of the nineteenth
century, after extensive fires had destroyed most of the lichen growth.
Exact information, however, is lacking, and so the problem of the
influence of food supply upon the caribou remains for future
investigations.\
\
Literature Cited:\
**Palmer, L.J. 1941.** Caribou versus fire in interior Alaska. Unpub.
manuscript in files of the U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serve. 14 pp.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ carrying capacity/ fire/ lichens/ reindeer/
Steese-Fortymile Caribou Herd/ winter range/ Rangifer.

112\. Spindler, Michael A. 1989. Draft. Distribution and abundance of
caribou on Selawik National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, 1984-1989 .
Progress Report SNWR 89-5. Kotzebue, Alaska. 30 pp. (additional 50+
pages of telemetry locations attached).\
**\
Note:** Draft report, not known if final report produced.\
\
**Abstract:** The Selawik NWR caribou surveys were conducted primarily
to evaluate effects of the Waring Mountains Burn and to assess potential
conflicts with possible reindeer grazing. Survey results are presented
in four separate sections: (1) distribution, (2) Refuge population
estimates, (3) Waring Mountains Burn caribou-fire study, and (4)
radio-telemetry. Aerial surveys have shown considerable annual and
seasonal variability in extent of caribou distribution and timing of
movements. Typically, in the last five years Selawik NWR has been used
intensively by caribou for a few months during spring and fall migration
as the herd moves between the Utukok River calving grounds and the
Nulato Hills wintering grounds. Three prominent routes have been used:
(1) from the Noatak River mouth along the north shores of Kobuk Lake and
Selawik Lake thence across the western Selawik Flats to the Selawik
Hills; (2) from the Squirrel River and Kalarichuk Hills past Kiana to
just east or west of Selawik, and thence across the western or central
Selawik Flats to the Selawik Hills; and (3) Across the Kobuk River near
Onion Portage past Ambler and Shungnak thence parallel to the
north-south flowing portion of the Kugarak River, thence across the
Kugarak or Rabbit Rivers to cross the Selawik River between Upinigvik
and Ingruksukruk Creek, thence either east to Purcell Mountains and the
upper Selawik River or south to the upper Huslia River. From
radio-telemetry two general types of movements were noted for individual
caribou during migration: a \"leapfrog\" from one intensive use area to
another, or a steady, gradual, evenly spaced movement. Population
estimation transects showed that Selawik NWR hosted 1%-32% of the total
Western Arctic Caribou Herd during migration, depending on the month and
year. Maximum number estimated was 72,800 in September 1987. Wintering
caribou abundance was much less, with a minimum of about 1,000 and a
maximum of about 10,000 using the refuge between mid-November and late
February. The Hotham Peak area has wintered caribou in all of the five
years of study. The Kuchuk Creek-Kugarak River area and upper Selawik
River areas have had wintering caribou in three out of the past five
winters.\
\
Transects over the Waring Mountains Burn in 1988-89 showed that
September and May caribou densities were similar in the burned and
unburned habitats but were more than twice as high in the edge habitat,
the border between the burn and unburned area. Density was also highest
at the edge in early June, but it was twice as high in the unburned as
compared to the burned.\
\
Recommendations for future caribou work were presented.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ fire ecology/ habitat use/ Kobuk River/
migration/ *Rangifer*/ Selawik National Wildlife Refuge/ Selawik River/
taiga/ tundra/ tundra fires.

113\. Strang, R. M. 1973. Succession in unburned subarctic woodlands.
Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 3:140-143.\
\
**Abstract:** A preliminary comparison of burned and unburned tracts in
the northern boreal forest of the lower Mackenzie River valley indicates
that, without periodic fires, trees will be eliminated and the climax
vegetation will be a moss/lichen association. The implications for land
management are adumbrated.\
\
**Keywords:** boreal forest/ Canada/ climax vegetation/ fire/ forest
management/ lichens/ mosses/ plant associations .

114\. Swanson, David K. 1996. Fruticose lichen distribution in the Kobuk
Preserve Unit, Gates of the Arctic National Park, Alaska. Technical
Report NPS/AFA RNR/NRTR-96/28. National Park Service, Anchorage, Alaska.
22 pp.\
\
**Abstract:** The distribution of fruticose lichens in the upper Kobuk
River valley is strongly influenced by soil conditions and disturbance;
lichen cover is highest where disturbance is infrequent and poor soils
reduce competition by vascular plants. Lichen cover is low on flooded
soils as a result of burial by sediment and enhanced competition by
deciduous vascular plants on rich floodplain soils. Lichen cover is also
low on steep mountain slopes as a result of snow avalanche disturbance
or dense vascular vegetation. Lichen cover is high on dry, stable
infertile soils unless there has been a recent burn. These soils occur
mainly on bedrock ridges and on Pleistocene glacial deposits in the
study area. Lichen cover increases for at least 100 years after fire on
dry, unflooded soils; *Polytrichum* spp. moss and *Cladonia* spp.
lichens dominate during the first half-century after fire, while
*Cladina rangiferina* and *C. stellaris* lichens dominate thereafter.
Wet soils generally have low to moderate lichen cover, probably as a
result of competition by mosses and sedges. Exceptions include 1) palsas
and peat plateaus, where droughty conditions due to drainage of water
into thermokarst pits, and very acid soils allow lichens to dominate;
and 2) sloping unforested areas in the lowland forest-tundra ecotone of
the western part of the study area, where moss competition is apparently
reduced due to lack of a tree overstory.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ fire/ lichens/ soils .

115\. \-\--. 1996. Susceptibility of permafrost soils to deep thaw after
forest fires in interior Alaska, U.S.A., and some ecologic implications.
Arctic and Alpine Research. 28(2):217-227.\
\
**Note:** Vegetation/soils study. Abstract and portion of discussion on
vegetation reproduced here.\
\
**Abstract:** Some soils with permafrost thaw deeply and become drier
after forest fires in interior Alaska, while others change little. Soils
with permafrost on the coldest and wettest landscape positions (concave
to plane, lower slope positions, and north-facing midslopes) usually
failed to thaw deeply after fires in the study area. Soils with
permafrost on warmer and drier positions (convexities, crests and
shoulders, and east-, west-, or south-facing midslopes) thawed deeply in
some instances and not in others, presumably as a function of fire
severity or frequency. The driest soils (those on convex, upper slope
positions, usually with sand and gravel at shallow depth) lack
permafrost regardless of time since fire. Postfire vegetation changes on
soils that fail to thaw are weaker than on soils that thaw deeply after
fire or were dry and originally free of permafrost. Soils with
permafrost that fail to thaw show little postfire increase in cover of
the plants browsed by moose. More cover and forage for voles are present
on soils with permafrost and soils that thaw deeply after fires than on
those that are always dry and permafrost free.\
\
**Discussion excerpt:** In contrast to the vascular plants, the
moss-lichen layer on dry sites is heavily impacted by fire and recovers
slowly; hence the cover by nonvascular plants 10-50 yr after fire
differs markedly from that present \>100 yr since fire. This is probably
due to the fact that the live mosses and lichens are readily consumed by
fire along with the dry surface organic horizons, and then the
late-successional species require considerable time to recolonize the
area. Black and Bliss (1978) also noted that succession in spruce-lichen
woodlands is visible mainly in the moss/lichen layer.\
\
The prefire vegetation on sites that thawed due to fire probably
resembled that of the unburned (\>100 yr) frozen sites, perhaps with
greater abundance of some dry-site plants, such as *Cladina* lichens.
Thus comparison of the vegetation on the thawed sites with that of both
unburned frozen and unburned dry sites gives some idea of the changes
brought about by fire and thaw. Both presumed precursors show moderate
similarity to the thawed vegetation, with the dissimilarity concentrated
in the nonvascular layer. The deep burns that lead to thaw apparently
destroy the moss-lichen layer, and subsequent recovery of that layer is
slow. The vascular plants are more similar between the thawed and the
two unburned site groups, mainly as a result of rapid resprouting of
shrubs and reseeding by black spruce. However, in contrast to the frozen
sites, after a fire on thawed sites aspen or birch could become
established by seeding, or resprout and spread from old, persisting
trees. The changes in soil conditions favoring the growth of these more
nutrient- and heat-demanding deciduous trees on thawed sites include the
change in soil moisture and temperature regimes due to the thaw itself,
as well as the significant release of nutrients after burning of the
thick organic surface layer (Dyrness and Norum 1983). As discussed above
for dry sites, however, complete replacement of black spruce forest by
deciduous forest is unlikely.\
\
Literature cited:\
Black, R.A. and L.C. Bliss 1978. Recovery sequence of *Picea
mariana-Vaccinium uliginosum* forests after burning near Inuvik,
Northwest Territories, Canada. Can. J. Bot. 56:2020-2030.\
\
Dyrness, C.T. and R.A. Norum 1983. The effects of experimental fires on
black spruce forest floors in interior Alaska. Can. J. For. Res.
13:879-893.\
\
**Keywords:** Alaska/ fire/ interior Alaska/ non-vascular plants/
post-fire succession/ soils.

116\. Swanson, J. David and Barker, Marilyn H. 1992. Assessment of
Alaska reindeer populations and range conditions. Rangifer.
12(1):33-43.\
\
**Note:** Paper presented at the First Arctic Ungulate Conference, Nuuk,
Greenland, 3-8 September 1991. Abstract and paragraph about fire
presented here.\
\
**Abstract:** Populations of reindeer (*Rangifer tarandus*) have
fluctuated greatly since their introduction to Alaska in 1891. In the
1930\'s, reported numbers exceeded 600,000. Presently, 38,000 reindeer
graze 6.2 million ha of rangeland and woodland in Western Alaska (from
66° 54\'N to 52° 07\'N latitude). Condition of winter range producing
fruticose lichens (*Cladina rangiferina*, *Cladina arbuscula*, *Cladina
stellaris*, *Cetraria cucullata*, *Cetraria islandica*) is of major
concern. Monitoring programs have been established for vegetation, fire,
reindeer, and wildlife. Reindeer have overgrazed lichen resources on
some Bering Sea Islands. Wildfires have had the greatest impact on
lichen range depletion on the mainland. Overgrazing has been a problem
in localized areas. Moose (*Alces alces*) and muskox (*Ovibos
moschatus*) rarely contribute to major lichen depletion. 60-80% of the
mainland and 5-30% of most island winter lichen ranges are presently
estimated to be in good to excellent ecological condition. Procedures
for assessing condition of the lichen ranges are being further refined.\
\
**Page 37, information on the Seward Peninsula**: Lightning-caused fires
in stands yielding high lichen biomass have resulted in loss of lichen
forage. For example, in 1977, approximately 360,000 ha of mostly winter
lichen range burned. Assessment of those areas two years after the fire
revealed that *Calamagrosits canadensis* yielded \>3,000 kg/ha (air-dry)
annual production. Cover and biomass of *Eriophorum vaginatum* and
*Ledum decumbens* have increased; however, to date, lichens have not
made any significant recovery. The vegetation on the northern part of
the peninsula is characterized by a complex pattern of seral stages as a
result of fires. Unburned climax stands of lichens occur in many areas
on the peninsula. In unburned and ungrazed decadent stands total lichen
biomass accumulation has been found to exceed 27,000 kg/ha (Swanson *et
al*., 1985). (Decadent lichen stands contain over-mature lichens with
\>75% dead lichen biomass). Although lichen forage is lost for the long
term by fire, it is a natural cyclic event which occurs periodically on
most Seward Peninsula tundra ranges. The resultant reduction of lichens
by fire and subsequent plant succession stages are complex. Lichen
recover and appropriate grazing system information is being collected
for burned areas.\
\
**Keywords:** Alaska/ winter range/ lichens/ population dynamics/
sampling techniques.

117\. Thomas, Donald C. 1991. Adaptations of barren-ground caribou to
snow and burns. Pages 482-500 *in* Butler, C. and Mahoney, S. P., eds.
4th North American caribou workshop. St. John\'s, Newfoundland, 31 Oct
1989-3 Nov 1989. Newfoundland and Labrador Wildlife Division, Dept. of
Environment and Lands. Newfoundland, 529 pp.\
\
**Abstract:** Movements of the Beverly Herd of barren-ground caribou
(*Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus*) were monitored intensively over 4
winters starting in 1982. The main concentrations moved 9-16 km/day in
early winter and slowed progressively as snow thickened. The herd\'s
movement patterns apparently has adapted to avoid greater average snow
depths in late winter in the eastern half of the range. Most movements
were not a response to snow characteristics at the time, though caribou
generally avoided areas with \>65 cm of snow. Unusual movements occurred
in 1979-80 when a ground-fast, icy layer occurred in parts of the winter
range. Such icy layers occurred in at least 3 of 8 winters but were not
range wide. Caribou freely crossed individual burns up to 25 km in width
throughout the winter but avoided large regions mostly burned in the
previous 50 years because of scarcity of forage therein. Wide-ranging
movements and winter tundra use in the 1980s may have been a response to
high burn rates since 1969 combined with high herd numbers.\
**\
Keywords:** Beverly Herd/ Canada/ caribou/ fire/ fire history/
*Rangifer*/ snow/ winter range.

118\. \-- 1998. Fire-caribou relationships: (V) Winter diet of the
Beverly herd in northern Canada, 1980-87. Technical Report Series. No.
313. Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, Edmonton,
Alberta. 41 pp.\
**\
Note:** Fifth in a series of 8 reports on fire-caribou relationships.\
\
**Abstract:** I explored variability associated with the
microhistological technique and with population and environmental
variables in assessing diet of barren-ground caribou (*Rangifer tarandus
groenlandicus*) in the 1980s on winter range in north-central Canada.
Variables with little or no effect on relative densities of total lichen
fragments included duplicate samples; age, sex and physical condition of
the caribou; season (December *vs.* March); and year at a given
location. Delayed necropsies and expression of rumen fluids through
cheesecloth reduced lichen densities in the residual rumen material.
Variability was observed among three major habitat types. Decreases in
lichens and increased use of shrubs and graminoids occurred in the
sequence: forest, forest-tundra ecotone, and tundra. Differences in
fragment densities in paired, composite rumen and fecal samples (n=20
comparisons) were small for *Cladina*-type lichens and total lichens,
which usually comprised 72-88% and 84-95% of the samples, respectively.
Relationships between rumen and fecal data sources for minor and trace
forages often were inconsistent and highly variable because of
inadequate microscopic sampling (number of fields). *Cetraria*-type
lichens were overestimated in fecal samples, whereas *Peltigera* and
*Usnea* types were grossly underestimated. A review of error sources in
using the macrohistological technique indicates probable gross
underestimates of lichens in the diet. Microhistological analysis of
feces of caribou on winter range may be the most accurate technique
provided that mosses comprise a small proportion of the diet.\
**\
Keywords:** Beverly Herd/ Canada/ caribou/ caribou diet/ fecal pellets/
lichens/ microhistological analysis/ *Rangifer*/ rumen.

119\. \-- 1998. Fire-caribou relationships: (VII) Fire management on
winter range of the Beverly herd: final conclusions and recommendations.
Technical Report Series. No. 315. Minister of Public Works and
Government Services Canada, Edmonton, Alberta. 100 pp.\
**\
Note:** Seventh in a series of 8 reports on fire-caribou relationships.\
\
**Abstract:** This report consists of a series of conclusions and
recommendations concerning winter ecology of caribou and effects of fire
on winter range of the Beverly herd of barren-ground caribou (*Rangifer
tarandus groenlandicus*). The herd summers mostly in the drainage of the
Thelon River, Northwest Territories (NWT), and winters from northern
Saskatchewan and the northwest corner of Manitoba to the Great Slave
Lake region of NWT. A study in 1980 through 1988 focused on caribou diet
and forage digestibilities, on fat reserves and physical characteristics
in early and late winter, on winter movements and distribution in
relation to burns, snow characteristics, and regeneration of lichens in
forests after fire. Performance and behavior of caribou, as measured by
fat reserves and responses to burns and snow, was considered to be the
best indicator of the state of winter range. Main conclusions were that
lichens comprised the main forage of the herd in winter; that range was
not limiting current herd numbers; that fat reserves remained about
constant from December to March, while the herd was on winter range;
that fire had markedly influenced winter distribution of the herd
because lichens preferred by caribou were absent or sparse in young
forests; that caribou were not reluctant to travel through burns of
various sizes and ages; that snow affected use of habitat on regional
and local scales; that the herd used areas of greater snowfall early in
winter before snow restricted forage availability; that 41-60 years were
necessary after fire to recover adequate cover and biomass of lichen
species generally favored by caribou; and that highest use was made of
forests 151-250 years post fire. Zones of priority for fire suppression
were mapped based on current caribou management plans. A change in
caribou management strategies to more-intensive management, for example
to optimum sustained yield, would necessitate a change in
recommendations for fire management and herd monitoring.\
**\
Keywords:** Beverly Herd/ body condition/ Canada/ caribou/ caribou
management/ fire/ fire management/ lichens/ *Rangifer*/ snow/ winter
range.

120\. \-- 1998. Fire-caribou relationships: (VIII) Background
information. Technical Report Series. No. 316. Minister of Public Works
and Government Services Canada, Edmonton, Alberta. 104 pp.\
**\
Note:** Eighth in a series of 8 reports on fire-caribou relationships.\
\
**Abstract:** (Identified as a Forward, not a true abstract): This
report was drafted in 1980, added to in 1982, and edited and printed in
1998. It was initiated in response to two initiatives. In 1977, a review
of fire management in northern Manitoba was requested by Joe Robertson,
a Conservation Officer who worked for many years in northern Manitoba
for the Department of Natural Resources. In 1980, Rich Golden, a manager
in the same department initiated a multi-agency panel to review fire
management and Steve Kearney and I were assigned the task of reviewing
the literature.\
\
The 1980 survey estimate of 38,000 to 40,000 for the Kaminuriak herd
initiated a start to a status report for the Committee on the Status of
Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). There was a possibility that
the herd would be classified as \"rare\" or \"threatened.\"\
\
The much higher survey results for the Kaminuriak herd in 1982 caused
both initiatives to be suspended. The Manitoba government decided not to
attempt to control fire on the forested winter range of the Kaminuriak
herd.\
\
This report is presented here because it contains some historical
information that is difficult to obtain by most scientists. Some of the
publications and reports referred to here are out of print and many of
them are unknown to most researchers. It also presents data by earlier
researchers in new ways.\
\
There are conflicting viewpoints about the value of historical
information. On the one hand, it provides information on such things as
maximum and usual distribution of caribou, which is important in
defining historic range. We may even try to establish cause and effect
of changes in distribution, numbers, or recruitment using demographic,
climatological, fire history, or hunting data. On the other hand,
historical data may have little value in predicting future events if
global warming or higher variability in weather variables continue to
occur. Additionally, the range is gradually being influenced by
industrial developments and human activities.\
**\
Keywords:** Canada/ caribou/ fire management/ historic range/ Kaminuriak
Herd/ *Rangifer*/ winter range.

121\. \-\--. 1982. The winter ecology of barren-ground caribou in
north-central Canada: a short review of current knowledge. NA:19 pp.\
\
**Note:** Photocopy of unpublished article. Abstract from ASTIS
bibliographic database, but attributed to author.\
\
**Abstract:** This is a brief review of some of the things that are and
are not known about caribou winter range, caribou in the winter, and the
relationships between them. It is written for scientists. \... Most of
the remarks apply only to the winter ranges of barren-ground caribou in
the Beverly and Kaminuriak herds. \...\[Topics discussed include range
carrying capacity, use of burned areas, distribution and movement
patterns, and diet and behavior, as they relate to better caribou
management.\] \...\
\
**Keywords:** Beverly Herd/ Canada/ caribou/ caribou diet/ distribution/
Kaminuriak Herd/ *Rangifer*.

122\. Thomas, Donald C. and Armbruster, H. J. 1998. Fire-caribou
relationships: (VI) Fire history of winter range of the Beverly Herd.
Technical Report Series. No. 314. Minister of Public Works and
Government Services Canada, Edmonton, Alberta. 94 pp.\
**\
Note:** Sixth in a series of 8 reports on fire-caribou relationships.\
\
**Abstract:** Burns were mapped on forested winter range of the Beverly
herd of caribou. The general study area was north of 58°N in
Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Manitoba to forest limits and between 102°W
and 114°W. Burn ages were obtained from numerous sources including all
jurisdictions responsible for fire management. Age reliability for burns
over 20 years old was excellent in NWT but only fair in the provinces
where decade classes are more appropriate than specific years of fires
before 1970. Ages were obtained on the ground at more than 484 sites,
most of them in Northwest Territories.\
\
Proportions of potential caribou range older than 50 years was
calculated for forest areas within each of 31 map sheets, scale
1:250,000. Areas of large lakes, tundra, and outside \"normal\" range
were excluded from potential caribou range. Small lakes, that generally
comprise 14-21% of landscape in the Precambrian Shield portion of winter
range, were included as potential caribou range because some of them are
enclosed in burns.\
\
In western sections of winter range, average interval between burns
increased from 69 years around Thekulthili Lake, to 95 years around
Nonacho Lake, and 137 years near the forest limit in the Porter Lake
region. The longest average interval, 144 years, was in eastern sections
of winter range around Selwyn Lake. Length of fire cycles appeared to be
linked to several factors including climate (for example, distance from
the forest limit); surface materials (bedrock to thick till types);
topography (lowland wet areas *vs.* uplands); and forest type, which is
an expression of the other factors plus fire.\
**\
Keywords:** Beverly Herd/ Canada/ caribou/ fire/ fire history/
*Rangifer*/ winter range.

123\. Thomas, Donald C.; Barry, S. J., and Alaie, G. 1996. Fire -
caribou - winter range relationships in northern Canada. Rangifer.
16(2):57-67.\
\
**Note:** Proceedings of the Second International Arctic Ungulate
Conference, Fairbanks, Alaska, 13-17 August, 1995.\
\
**Abstract:** We needed data on temporal changes in caribou forages
after fire and relative use of age-classes of forests by caribou to help
devise a fire suppression priority strategy for caribou winter range in
north-central Canada. Consequently, from 1983 through 1986, we estimated
abundance of vegetation and relative use by caribou at 197 sites in
western and eastern study areas on the winter range of the Beverly herd
of caribou (*Rangifer tarandus*). Species of lichens attained peak
biomass at different periods after fire - as early as 40-60 years for
*Cladonia* spp. to \>150 years for *Cladina rangiferina* and *Cetraria
nivalis*. Biomass of the primary \"caribou lichen,\" *Cladina mitis*,
increased rapidly from 21-30 years after fire to 41-50 years and
attained maximum biomass at 81-90 years in the west and 41-60 years in
the east. However, total lichen biomass increased with age of forest to
100-150 years because biomass of *Stereocaulon* spp. did not peak until
after 100 years. The biomass of \"caribou lichens\" (*Cladina* spp. and
*Cetratia nivalis*) stabilized after 61-80 years in the west and 41-60
years in the east. The biomass of terrestrial lichen species can be
predicted from their cover. Caribou lichen abundance apparently was only
one of several factors that caused caribou to use stands 151-250 years
after fire more than other age classes.\
\
**Keywords:** Beverly Herd/ Canada/ fire/ habitat/ lichens/ post-fire
succession/ *Rangifer*.

124\. Thomas, Donald C. and Beverly and Qamanirjuaq Caribou Management
Board. 1996. A fire suppression model for forested range of the Beverly
and Qamanirjuaq herds of caribou. Rangifer. Special Issue No.
9:343-350.\
\
**Note:** Proceedings of the Sixth North American Caribou Workshop,
Prince George, British Columbia, Canada, 1-4 March, 1994.\
\
**Abstract:** A fire suppression model was developed for forested winter
range of the Beverly and Qamanirjuaq (formerly Kaminuriak) herds of
barren-ground caribou (*Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus*) in
north-central Canada. The model is a balance between total protection,
as voiced by some aboriginal people, and a let-burn policy for natural
fires advocated by some ecologists. Elements in the model were caribou
ecology, lichen recovery after fire, burn history, community priorities
for caribou hunting, and fire cycle lengths. The percent ratio of
current productive caribou habitat to the goal for the habitat
determines whether fire should be suppressed in a specific area. The
goals for productive caribou habitat, defined as forests older than 50
years, were scaled by fire cycle length and community priority ranking.
Thus, the model is an example of co-management: traditional knowledge
combined with science in a joint forum, the Beverly and Qamanirjuaq
Caribou Management Board.\
\
**Keywords:** Beverly Herd/ Canada/ caribou management board/
co-management/ fire/ Kaminuriak Herd/ *Rangifer*.

125\. Thomas, Donald C. and Kiliaan, H. P. L. 1998. Fire-caribou
relationships: (I) Physical characteristics of the Beverly Herd,
1980-87. Technical Report Series. No. 309. Minister of Public Works and
Government Services Canada, Edmonton, Alberta. 178 pp.\
**\
Note:** First in a series of 8 reports on fire-caribou relationships.\
\
**Abstract:** We investigated adequacy of forested winter range of the
Beverly herd of barren-ground caribou (*Rangifer tarandus
groenlandicus*) to support the then-current population. A concern was
that forest fires in the past 20 years, and particularly in 1979, had
destroyed too much range. Range condition was evaluated indirectly by
comparing over-winter changes in condition variables of the Beverly herd
with those measured in 1966-68 in the adjacent Kaminuriak herd, when
only a small percentage of that herd\'s winter range had burned in the
previous 50 years or so. Samples were obtained from 856 female and 402
male caribou in December (1982-1986) and March (1980-87). The
over-winter trends in condition indicated stability (females) and slight
decreases (males) in total body weight, approximate stability in
back-fat depths, and increases in kidney fat. In a comparable study in
the late 1960\'s, declines occurred in all those variables in the
adjacent Kaminuriak herd. We concluded, therefore, that winter range of
the Beverly herd was adequate for the population in the 1980s. Condition
indices based on kidney fat should be adjusted to compensate for body
size of caribou by using body weight or femur lengths rather than kidney
weights. For unknown reasons, kidney weights increased sharply and then
decreased over the period of this study. Therefore, we prefer a body
size index such as femur length that is easily and accurately measured
and is independent of the nutritional state of an animal. Antler weight
changes reflected varying environmental conditions during the non-winter
period. Condition of caribou in December was affected by degree of
warble fly (*Oedemagena tarandi*) harassment as reflected by numbers of
warble larvae. Changes in condition during winter were less pronounced
than during the remainder of an annual cycle. Two segments of the
Beverly herd sampled in March 1984 differed significantly in condition
indices and pregnancy rates. Therefore, the two groups varied in fat
reserves at the rut in October. There was no indication that parasites
and diseases other than warble flies were a factor in the well-being of
the herd.\
**\
Keywords:** Beverly Herd/ body condition/ Canada/ caribou/ fire/
Kaminuriak Herd/ *Rangifer*/ winter range.

126\. Thomas, Donald C. and Kiliaan, H. P. L 1998. Fire-caribou
relationships: (II) Fecundity and physical condition of the Beverly
Herd. Technical Report Series. No. 310. Minister of Public Works and
Government Services Canada, Edmonton, Alberta. 96 pp.\
**\
Note:** Second in a series of 8 reports on fire-caribou relationships.\
\
**Abstract:** This report details reproductive processes in
barren-ground caribou (*Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus*) and how they
are influenced by variables that reflect physical condition of caribou.
Samples were obtained from 856 female caribou in the Beverly herd
between March 1980 and 1987.\
\
The pregnancy rate increased from 12% in yearlings (1.5-2 years old) to
91% in females over 11 years old. Fecundity (pregnancy rates) varied
considerably in all age classes over the eight winters. In yearlings, it
varied from zero to 33%; in females over 4 years old, from 78 to 100%.
About 55% of calves were produced by age classes 3 through 6 years. Two
of 854 reproductive tracts had developmental problems rendering those
females barren, that is, incapable of producing young. One resorption
was suspected in 420 pregnancies examined in March. Late conceptions, as
assumed from occurrence of fetuses weighing less than 800 grams in mid
March, occurred in 4.8% of females, including one estimated to have
conceived in January.\
\
The sex ratio of fetuses sampled in March was related to age of mother
but not to her fatness. Young females (2-4 years) produced more female
fetuses (61 M:100 F), whereas the opposite occurred in old (10+ years)
females (207 M: 100 F).\
\
There was a strong relationship between fecundity and weight, back fat
depth, kidney fat, femur marrow fat, mandibular water content, antler
weights, and indices based on two or more of those variables.\
\
Poor relationships were the rule for regressions based on means of
condition variables and fecundity in individual samples from December
for age classes 2.5-3, 3.5-4, and older than 4 years. The few regression
points (five), the sometimes small sample sizes, and atypical results in
the December 1982 sample were responsible for poor correlations. Some
correlation coefficients as high as 0.96 were obtained for females 2.5
years old in December samples. Significant relationships between
fecundity and most condition variables were found in the seven March
samples and 12 combined December and March samples for females in age
classes 2.5-3, 3.5-4, and older than 4 years. Exceptions were femur
marrow fat and mandibular water content, which produced no and few
significant fits, respectively. Fecundity was best predicted from
combinations of condition variables including back fat depths and kidney
fat, or those fat variables plus body weight, and possibly those
combinations plus antler weights (not tested). An alternative approach
was to compare sample means with curves depicting the relationship
between means for condition variables and pregnancy rates of females
older than 1 and/or 2 years in December and/or March, as appropriate.
Strong relationships were found for all condition variables with this
approach. Further statistical treatments of these data will be pursued
and published.\
**\
Keywords:** Beverly Herd/ body condition/ Canada/ caribou/ pregnancy
rate/ *Rangifer*.

127\. Thomas, Donald C. and Kiliaan, H. P. L. 1998. Fire-caribou
relationships: (IV) Recovery of habitat after fire on winter range of
the Beverly Herd. Technical Report Series. No. 312. Minister of Public
Works and Government Services Canada, Edmonton, Alberta. 115 pp.\
**\
Note:** Fourth in a series of 8 reports on fire-caribou relationships.\
\
**Abstract:** The cover and biomass of surface vegetation was measured
at 197 sites located on winter range of the Beverly herd of
barren-ground caribou (*Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus*). The primary
objective was to explore the relationship between abundance of caribou
forages and time since fire, between those two factors and indices of
caribou use, and between plant cover and biomass (dry weight). Various
species of lichens attained peak biomass at various periods after
fire\--as early as 40-60 years for *Cladonia* spp. (except *Cl.
uncialis*), to as late as 220-240 years for *Stereocaulon* spp. Total
lichen biomass increased with age of forest until 180 years. Biomass was
about constant after 60 years for lichen species given weighted values
according to their perceived importance to caribou and seemingly
preferred by caribou. *Cladina mitis* was considered to be the most
important lichen for caribou throughout the winter range. It reached
maximum biomass and height at 60-80 years after fire. *Stereocaulon*
spp. was several times more abundant in eastern portions of the winter
range than in the west. It was lightly grazed and then seemingly only
incidentally because other species of lichens such as *Cetraria nivalis*
were associated with it. The biomass of low evergreen shrubs that were
eaten in small amounts by caribou did not change appreciably with age of
forest. There were, with one exception, significant correlations at the
site level between estimated cover and biomass of caribou forages. It is
feasible, therefore, to assess caribou ranges relatively quickly by
estimating cover of forages known to be important to caribou. Arboreal
lichen abundance increased with time after fire until about 70 years and
then stabilized. Caribou pellet groups were detectable for 2-3 years and
3-5 years in mesic and xeric sites, respectively. Forest stands became
productive in terms of caribou forage as early as 40-50 years after fire
but data for densities of pellet groups and field observations indicated
that caribou made most use of forest stands 151-250 years old. Use of
forests under 50 years old was negligible. In contrast, forests 21-40
years post-fire contained the highest density of moose (*Alces alces*)
pellets. There was no clear relationship between age of forest and
pellet densities of hare (*Lepus americanus*) or grouse/ptarmigan
(*Canachites canadensis*/*Lagopus lagopus*). In western sites, there
were trends towards greatest use by hares of forests in age classes
41-150 years; by grouse/ptarmigan, 41-100 years post fire.\
**\
Keywords:** Beverly Herd/ biomass/ Canada/ caribou/ caribou forage/
fire/ lichens/ plant cover/ *Rangifer*.

128\. Thomas, Donald C.; Kiliaan, H. P. L., and Trottier, T. W. P. 1998.
Fire - caribou relationships: (III) Movement patterns of the Beverly
Herd in relation to burns and snow. Technical Report Series. No. 311.
Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, Edmonton,
Alberta. 176 pp.\
**\
Note:** Third in a series of 8 reports on fire-caribou relationships.\
\
**Abstract:** Movements and distribution of the Beverly herd of
barren-ground caribou ( *Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus*) were
monitored intensively each winter from 1982-83 through 1986-87 and
sporadically in other years since 1979-80. Caribou in the main
concentration typically entered the forest from mid October to mid
November and departed it from mid March to mid April. The main
concentrations, consisting of all elements except mature (\>3 year)
bulls, stayed in the Northwest Territories (NWT). Only relatively small
numbers of caribou entered the northwestern corner of Saskatchewan, with
the exception of 1979-80 when the main herd spent most of the winter
around north Wollaston and Pasfield lakes. The herd ranged more widely
east and west than previously recorded, occupying the outer 150 km (94
miles) of the Transitional Forest Zone (Taiga Shield) from Nueltin Lake
(100°W) to Gordon Lake (113°W) near Yellowknife, a distance of 800 km
(500 miles). Within the forest, caribou ranged from the limit of trees
to a depth of about 150 km (94 mi) in the west to 200 km (120 mi) in the
east. The Beverly herd spent part of each winter on the tundra, which
coincides with their withdrawal from the Boreal Forest Zone,
approximately 200 km from tree line.\
\
The most common movement pattern was for the main concentration to spend
the early part of winter in eastern portions of the winter range and to
travel to the western half of the range before January. This movement
pattern appeared to be a behavioral adaptation to avoid deeper snow in
the east in late winter. The northwestern winter range was used every
year with the greatest concentrations around Nonacho Porter, Eileen, and
Tent lakes in the Snowdrift River Valley.\
\
The herd moved at a rate of 9-16 km/day (6-10 miles/day) in November and
early December and slowed progressively as the snow deepened. Most
movements during the study did not appear to be a response to the
current snow characteristics except that caribou were reluctant to move
into areas with more than about 65 cm of snow. However, distribution may
have been affected in 1979-80 when a ground-fast, icy layer occurred at
least in parts of the winter range. Such hard-snow layers also were
detected in two of five winters during this study. Distribution of the
icy layers was localized and caribou were able to find feeding spots
even within the zone of hard snow.\
\
Caribou freely crossed burns of all sizes but spent little time in them.
One large (161,000 ha) burn may have deflected, split, slowed, and
temporarily stopped a migration in October 1982. Caribou tended to stay
out of large (\>10,000 ha) burns if they were on the periphery of winter
distributions. Travel through burns was on a few parallel trails or on
water systems and lowlands. Surface crusting in burned areas in late
March and April slowed travel unless there were existing trails or the
temperature rose above freezing. The main concentration of caribou did
not winter in areas that were extensively burned. It was concluded that
the withdrawal from former southern and southwestern range was caused
primarily by historically unprecedented burn rates in the 1970s and 80s
and , to a lesser extent, in the 1940s and 1950s.\
**\
Keywords:** Beverly Herd/ Canada/ caribou/ distribution/ fire/
*Rangifer*/ snow/ winter range.

129\. Timoney, K. P.; La Roi, G. H., and Dale, M. R. T. 1993. Subarctic
forest-tundra vegetation gradients: the sigmoid wave hypothesis. J. Veg.
Sci. 4(3):387-394.\
\
**Note:** Check original publication before citing this reference.\
\
**Abstract:** Spatial changes in tree and upland tundra cover in
response to a complex environmental gradient and to landscape factors
were investigated in the high subarctic forest tundra of NW Canada.
Vegetation and terrain studies provided ground truth for a grid of 1314
air photos which covered 24% of the Canadian high subarctic and some of
the adjacent low subarctic and low arctic. Across the high subarctic,
gradual spatial change in % cover of tree and upland tundra vegetation
is typical at both high and low cover values, with more rapid change
occurring at intermediate cover. Cover gradients of zonal tree and
tundra vegetation in the forest-tundra region in general follow a
sigmoid pattern. Tundra and tree patch sizes increase in area and
variability with higher tundra and tree cover, respectively.\
\
**Keywords:** boreal forest/ Canada/ fire/ snow/ treeline.

130\. Tsvetkov, V. F. 1972. Forest fires and young growth in the lichen
taiga of the Kola Peninsula. Lesnoi Zhurnal. 5:34-37.\
\
**Note:** In Russian. Citation from CRREL bibliographic database. No
abstract available.\
\
**Keywords:** forest fires/ lichens/ taiga .

131\. Uggla, E. 1974. Fire ecology in Swedish forests. Pages 171-190
*in* Komarek, E. V., eds. Proceedings Annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology
Conference: Number 13. Tallahassee, FL, 22 Mar 1973-23 Mar 1973. Tall
Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. 13. Tall Timbers Research Station.
Tallahassee, FL, 521 pp.\
**\
Note:** Check original publication before citing this reference.\
\
**Abstract:** NO ABSTRACT AVAILABLE. SECTIONS INCLUDE: Introduction;
Temperatures During Controlled Burning (Soil Temperatures, Tree Layer
Temperatures, Air Temperatures); Forest Fire Areas in Lapland; Effects
of Fire on a Thin Layer of Raw Humus; and Comparative Studies of Burned
and Unburned Clearings.\
\
FROM THE INTRODUCTION: In Scandinavia, prescribed burning is practiced
on inactive raw-humus sites mainly in the sparsely-populated northern
areas. It is now generally accepted that on ground that is not too dry a
properly conducted prescribed burn is the most efficient method of
accelerating the ripening of the humus of a clearing (E. V. Komarek
1970). However, forest fires on poor, dry soils can have devastating
effects, resulting, for instance, in soil degeneration. In this paper I
shall only try to give a short summary of some investigations which I
hope will illustrate both the unfavourable and the favourable effects of
forest fires and prescribed burning.\
**\
Keywords:** lichens/ livestock grazing/ prescribed fires/ Sweden.

132\. Van Daele, Lawrence J. and Johnson, Donald R. 1983. Estimation of
arboreal lichen biomass available to caribou. Journal of Wildlife
Management. 47(3):888-890.\
\
**Note:** Short communication.\
\
**Abstract:** Not available.\
\
**Keywords:** arboreal lichens/ *Rangifer*/ fire/ logging/ biomass.

133\. Van Waggoner, K. and See, Marianne 1985. Effects of fire on a
dwarf shrub-sedge tussock community in interior Alaska BLM-Alaska Open
File Report. BLM/AK/OF-85/10. 11 pp.\
**\
Note:** BLM internal report. No abstract available. Sections reprinted
here: Background, Objectives, Effects of Fire on Lichens, and Effects of
Fire on Caribou.\
\
**Abstract:** Background: In 1977 the Bear Creek Fire burned
approximately 142,000 hectares. It burned with differing severities and
intensities, and burned many vegetation types. Since the area was
accessible via the FAA airstrip at Farewell, BLM managers and resource
specialists realized that the Bear Creek Burn provided an excellent
opportunity to study the effects of fire on natural resources in
Interior Alaska. This is the seventh report on fire effects.\
\
Objectives: The immediate, short-term objective of this study is to
determine the extent of recovery of a dwarf shrub-sedge tussock plant
community after fire. Our long-term objectives in this area are to
monitor ecological succession and recovery of vegetation after fire, to
evaluate the effects of caribou grazing on winter ranges, and to
determine how the Bear Creek fire affects caribou distribution. The
sampling results reported in this paper are to be used as baseline data
to meet the long-term objectives.\
\
Effects of Fire on Lichens: Rowe and Scotter (1973) characterize the
post-fire lichen recovery in three general stages: (1) colonization by
crustose lichens that bind soil; (2) dominance of fast growing but small
*Cladonia* species; and (3) replacement of these colonizing species by
slow growing *Cladina* lichens. The number of years in each time period
varies with the dominant species and the geographic location, but Rowe
and Scotter feel that Ahti\'s (1959) time scale for Newfoundland
correctly describes the general sequence occurring after a fairly severe
fire. Ahti delineates a *Cladonia* (horn lichen) phase between 10 and 30
years post-fire; a first reindeer lichen phase dominated by *Cladina
mitis*, *C. rangiferina*, and *C. uncialis* between 30 and 80 years
after fire; and a second reindeer lichen phase beginning after 80 years,
which is dominated by *Cladina alpestris* (*Cladina stellaris*). Kershaw
and Rouse (1976) stated that generalization should not be made. There
has been almost no recovery of lichens from the Bear Creek Fire. This
could be consistent with the 10 to 30 year development phase described
above.\
\
Effects of Fire on Caribou: On the burned sites, the fire consumed
nearly all of the lichens, an important component of caribou winter
diet. However, unburned inclusions on the burned area have been used by
caribou during winter on the burn since 1979 (Hinkes 1979). Hinkes
reported that the diet of animals feeding within the burn was composed
of 60 to 77 percent lichens. Our observations and observations by others
familiar with the burn area and the caribou population concur that this
fire has had little impact on caribou. We believe this is due to two
factors: the fire burned in such a manner that many unburned islands
were left, and the caribou herd was far below the range\'s carrying
capacity at the time of the burn. Because the study area is utilized by
caribou, the exclosures should enable us to evaluate the effects of
grazing subsequent to fire.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ fire/ lichens/ winter range/ Rangifer.

134\. Viereck, Leslie A. 1983. The effects of fire in black spruce
ecosystems of Alaska and northern Canada. pp. Pages 201-220 *in* Wein,
Ross W. and MacLean, David A. The role of fire in northern circumpolar
ecosystems. John Wiley and Sons; New York.\
\
**Note:** Sections within chapter are: 11.1 Introduction; 11.2 Climate;
11.3 Fire regime in the black spruce type; 11.4 Adaptation to fire; 11.5
Effect of severity of burn; 11.6. Revegetation following fire in the
black spruce type; 11.6.1 The black spruce-feather moss type; 11.6.2 The
black spruce-lichen woodland; 11.7 Relationship with other vegetation
types; 11.8 Succession and climax; 11.9 Effects of fire on ecosystem
components and processes; 11.10 Summary; and 11.11 References. Includes
extensive list of references.\
\
**Abstract:** Fire in the black spruce ecosystem of northern Canada and
Alaska is characterized by large and frequent fires that usually kill
the overstory trees and most, if not all, of the vegetation aboveground.
Most species within the black spruce ecosystem show adaptations to fire,
and black spruce stands are usually perpetuated by fire. Depending on
the site, revegetation follows one of two primary patterns, although
under some conditions there may be intervening stages of birch, aspen,
or lodgepole pine. In general, the succession on dry sites develops as
open lichen woodland with a nearly continuous cover of fruticose
lichens. On moist sites, the development is that of a closed forest with
a forest floor dominated by dense feather mosses and with a buildup of
an organic mat. The final or climax vegetation that develops depends on
site and climate and may vary from treeless bogs through feather moss
types to open lichen woodlands. In some areas, balsam fir replaces the
black spruce. Fire reduces the organic layer on the forest floor and
causes higher soil temperatures, an increase in available nutrients, and
an increase in productivity for a period following fire.\
\
**Keywords:** Alaska/ boreal forest/ Canada/ fire/ lichens/ mosses/
*Picea*.

135\. \-\--. 1973. Wildfire in the taiga of Alaska. Alaska Quaternary
Research. 3:465-495.\
\
**Note:** Overview of fire in the taiga ecosystem with numerous
references. Major sections are: I. Introduction (A. Vegetation, B.
Environmental factors, C. Fire); II. Ecological Effects on Vegetation
(A. Successional sequence and relationships, B. Present mosaic of
vegetation, C. Autoecological relationships); III. Effect on Soil (A.
Permafrost, B. Soil nutrients); IV. Effects on Hydrology and Siltation;
V. Effects on Wildlife (A. Caribou, B. Moose, C. Sheep and goats, D.
Small mammals, E. Fur bearers, F. Black bear, G. Showshoe hares, H.
Waterfowl, I. Grouse); VI. Effects on Insects; VII. Effects on
Recreation and Esthetic Values; VIII. Discussion; IX. Recommendations
for the Future; X. Action for the Present.\
\
**Abstract:** The taiga of Alaska consists of a vegetation mosaic
resulting primarily from past wildfires. Today, both lightning- and
man-caused wildfires burn an average of 400,000 hectares annually,
creating vast areas of successional ecosystems. However, although the
number of reported fires is increasing, fire control is becoming more
effective in limiting the average size of fires and the total area
burned. One of the important influences of fire in the taiga ecosystem
is its effect on permafrost and the soil nutrient cycle. Construction of
firelines in permafrost areas has a greater effect on soil erosion and
siltation than does the fire itself. Some wildlife species, such as
moose and snowshoe hare, depend upon fire and its resultant successional
plant communities, whereas fire may have deleterious effects on caribou
winter range. Fire has both positive and negative effects on esthetic
and recreational values. Fire has always been a part of the Alaskan
taiga ecosystem; if it is totally excluded from the environment, some
major ecological changes will result. Fire-suppression alternatives are
discussed and additional research on fire effects suggested.\
\
**Keywords:** Alaska/ caribou/ fire ecology/ fire history/ fire
management/ fire mosaic/ forest fires/ post-fire succession/ soils/
taiga/ wildlife/ Rangifer.

136\. Viereck, Leslie A. and Schandelmeier, Linda A. 1980. Effects of
fire in Alaska and adjacent Canada - a literature review. BLM-Alaska
Technical Report 6. Bureau of Land Management, Anchorage, Alaska. 124
pp.\
**\
Note:** Includes sections on fire effects on caribou and lichens.\
\
**Abstract:** Alaskan land and resource managers are moving from a
policy of fire control to one of fire management. To use fire as a tool
to reach resource management objectives, managers need information on
fire effects and the role of fire in the northern environment. The
authors searched and reviewed all the available literature on fire
effects in Alaska and adjacent Canada, in both the northern forest
(taiga) and the tundra. They report and interpret this literature,
discussing fire effects information sources, fire history and fire
regimes, and the effects of fire on soils, watersheds, vegetation, and
animal life. They also point out information gaps that need to be
filled.\
**\
Keywords:** Alaska/ birds/ boreal forest/ Canada/ caribou/ fire
bibliography/ fire ecology/ forest fires/ furbearers/ moose/ post-fire
succession/ *Rangifer*/ soils/ tundra fires/ vegetation types/ wildlife.

137 Ward, Paul C., and Mawdsley, William. 2000. Fire management in the
boreal forests of Canada. Kasischke, Eric S., and Stocks, Brian J. eds.
in Fire, climate change, and carbon cycling in the boreal forest.
Springer-Verlag, New York. pp. 66-84.

> **Abstract:** The vast boreal forest ecosystem is composed of
> fire-dependent and fire-adapted species. Case studies are used to
> highlight fire management programs and problems. Fire is an important
> consideration for wildlife management, especially for the conservation
> of woodland caribou habitat which is a major issue in the country.

138\. Zvonkova, A. A. 1984. Changes in specific composition and
abundance of moss-lichen covers in relation to forest fires in pine
forests of the north. pp. 96-101 *in* Chertovskoi, V. G. ed. Study and
preservation of vegetation in the north.\
\
**Note:** In Russian; citation from the Cold Regions - CRREL
bibliographic database.\
\
**Abstract:** Not available.\
\
**Keywords:** forest fires/ lichens/ mosses/ post-fire succession/
taiga.