**BILLION DOLLAR U.S. DISASTERS**[^1]

**B. Wayne Blanchard, PhD, CEM**

**October 8, 2008**

**Working Draft**

**Part 1: Ranked approximately by Economic Loss:**

(Part 2: Listed in Chronological Order)

Bibliographical Listing of Sources Used at the end

1.  **1926 Great Miami Hurricane** (Sep 18-21). Cat.4-3, FL, AL; death
    toll uncertain; more than 800 missing. ARC report lists 373 deaths
    and 6,381 injuries. NOAA Hurricane History.

\$164.839 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop. and wealth
normalization[^2]; Blake et al, 2007, 9.

\$160.0 billion. 2005 normalized dollars; AIR model modified, in Pielke,
et al, 2008.

\$160.0 billion. If same storm "struck today (given...current
population..." Ferguson, 07.

\$157.0 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke/Landsea model;
Pielke, et al, 2008)

\$139.5 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars using Collins/Lowe model;
Pielke, et al, 2008.

\$102.0 billion. Pielke 2005.

> \$ 90.0 billion. "...had it occurred in recent times" NOAA, Hurricane
> History, 2005.
>
> \$ 87.167 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$ 77.5 billion. Time Magazine, 1998; citing Pielke and Landsea,
> adjusted to 1998.
>
> \$ 72.3 billion. Normalized to 1995 dollars; Pielke et al., 2008.

2.  **2005 Hurricane Katrina** (Aug). "Category 3 hurricane initially
    impacts the U.S. as a

> Category 1 near Miami, FL, then as a strong Category 3 along the
> eastern LA-western MS coastlines, resulting in severe storm surge
> damage (maximum surge probably exceeded 25 feet) along the LA-MS-AL
> coasts, wind damage, and the failure of parts of the levee system in
> New Orleans. Inland effects included high winds and some flooding in
> the states of AL, MS, FL, TN, KY, IN, OH, and GA....the most expensive
> natural disaster in U.S. history; approximately 1833 deaths-the
> highest U.S. total since the 1928 major hurricane in southern
> Florida." (NCDC July 2008 update) Cat 4 according to Lott and Ross,
> NCDC, 2005, p. 2.
>
> \$ 133.8 billion. Normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index; NCDC July 2008.
>
> \$ 125.0 billion. Estimate at the time; NCDC 2008
>
> \$\<100.0 billion. Preliminary estimate of damage/costs; Lott and
> Ross, NCDC, 2005, p. 2.
>
> \$ 85.050 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9
>
> \$ 84.645 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction
> Deflator; Blake, 2007, 9.
>
> \$ 82.0 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars; AIR model modified, in
> Pielke, et al, 2008
>
> \$ 81.2 billion. IIA, *Business Continuity Management*, July, 2008, p.
> 4
>
> \$ 81.0 billion. "At least" \$81B, property damage..." Blake,
> Rappaport, Landsea, 2007, 5.
>
> \$ 81.0 billion. Normalized 2005 dollars, Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.

\$ 81.0 billion. Normalized 2005 dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
Pielke, et al, 2008.

\$\> 50.0 billion. Property damage; Ferguson 2007, 4.

> \$ 44.0 billion. Water property damage estimate at the time. ISO, AIR
> Worldwide, 29Sep05.
>
> \$ 43.6 billion. Insured loss (2007 dollars). III, *Catastrophes:
> Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.
>
> \$ 43.6 billion. Insured losses \$2007. III, Top 11 Most Costly
> Hurricanes.... Sep 24, 2008.
>
> \$ 41.1 billion. Insurance claims paid. Treaster, *NYT*, October 25,
> 2007; III *CII*, Jan 2008.

\$ 39.3 billion. Private insurer losses in 2006 dollars. GAO 2007, p.
14.

\$ 31.3 billion. Federal outlays. Woolsey, 2007.

\$ 2.4 billion. Obligated in FEMA Public Assistance (PA) in Miss. FEMA
27 Feb 2008.

3.  **1900 Galveston Hurricane** (Sep 8). Category 4; TX. "...a
    fifteen-foot storm surge associated with a great hurricane inundated
    Galveston Island killing at least 8000 people according to Rappaport
    and Partagas \[1995\]." Frank 2003, p. 129.

> \$104.330 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$ 78.0 billion. 2005 normalized dollars, Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$ 71.9 billion. 2005 normalized dollars, Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$ 66.0 billion. 2005 normalized dollars; AIR model modified, in
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$ 38.0 billion. Pielke 2005.
>
> \$ 32.090 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell \`01.
>
> \$ .965 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell 2001, Table 13.
>
> \$ .928 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell, NOAA \`01.
>
> \$ .030 billion. Unadjusted 1900 dollars. Jarrell et al (NOAA), 2001;
> Sav 1974, p.8.

4.  **1992 Hurricane Andrew** (Aug). "Category 5 hurricane hits FL, LA,
    high winds damage or destroy over 125,000 homes...61 deaths." Ross
    and Lott, NCDC 2003.

> \$84.0 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars; AIR model modified, in
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$58.555 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$57.7 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$54.3 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$48.1 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake, et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$43.672 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05
>
> \$40.0 billion. 2007 normalized dollars costs using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \$39.896 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$38.3 billion. Pocock 2007

\~\$35.6 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
index); Lott 2005.

\$35.468 billion. Time Magazine, 1998; cited by Mandia, 2008.

\$34.954 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.

\$27.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003. NCDC
2007.

\$26.5 billion. Not inflation adjusted ; Blake, Rapport, Landsea, 2007,
7; Jarrell et al 2001

\$25.0 billion. Damage in South Florida. Rappaport and Partagas, 1995,
p. 13.[^3]

\$22.3 billion. 2006 dollars; GAO 2007, p. 14.

\$22.9 billion. Insured losses \$2007. III, Top 11 Most Costly
Hurricanes..., Sep 24, 2008.

\$22.9 billion. Insured loss in 2007 dollars; III, *Catastrophes:
Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.

\$18.0 billion. Insured losses then; Larson, *Time Magazine*, 1998.

\$15.5 billion. Insured loss when occurred; III, *Catastrophes:
Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.

\$ .931 billion. Gulf offshore oil platform loss, August 26^th^.
Sanders, et al., 2002, p. 180

5.  **9/11 Terrorist Attacks** (Sep 11, 2001). NY, DC, PA

\$ 80.0 billion. "Estimated damages." Gould/IBM Global Business
Services, 2007, p.4-5.

> \$ 38.0 billion. WTC loss in 2006 dollars; III, Ten Most Costly
> Large-Loss Fires in US...
>
> \$ 35.5 billion. Indexed 20 2006; Kunreuther, 2007, p. 4.
>
> \$ 33.4 billion. World Trade Center, III, Ten Most Costly Large-Loss
> Fires in US History.
>
> \$ 27.2 billion. Total direct cost; Looney 2002.
>
> \$ 22.9 billion. Insured losses in 2007 dollars; III, *Catastrophes:
> Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.
>
> \$ 18.8 billion. Insured loss when occurred; III, *Catastrophes:
> Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.
>
> \$ 16.6 billion. Insured-property attacks.
>
> \$ 14.0 billion. Private business physical assets estimated loss;
> Looney 2002.
>
> \$ 1.5 billion. State and local government enterprise estimated loss;
> Looney 2002.
>
> \$ 0.7 billion . Federal enterprises estimated loss; Looney 2002.

6.  **1915 Galveston Hurricane.** Texas, category 4. (Blake, et
    al. (2005) states Cat. 2.)

> \$71.397 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$61.7 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$57.1 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$32.0 billion. Pielke 2005.
>
> \$27.190 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$ 1.99 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC construction
> deflator. Blake et al. \`05.
>
> \$ 1.544 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.

7.  **1938 New England Hurricane (Long Island Express)** (Sep 21-22).
    Cat 3 CT, MA, NY, RI.

> \$70.0 billion. 2005 normalized dollars; AIR model modified, in
> Pielke, et al, 2008
>
> \$41.621 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$39.2 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$37.3 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$20.046 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$19.0 billion. Drag 2000
>
> \$18.0 billion. Mandia, 2008; citing Landsea/Pielke adjusted for same
> storm if in 1998.
>
> \$15.0 billion. 1998 adjusted; Mandia, 2008.
>
> \$ 6.571 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$ 5.971 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05
>
> \$ 4.748 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.
>
> \$ 3.5 billion. 2005 dollars; Powell.

\$ .308 billion. 1938 dollars, 600 deaths. NOAA, Hurricane History,
2005.

\$ .306 billion. 1938 dollars. Jarrell et al (NOAA) 2001.

8.  **1962 Hurricane Betsy** (Aug 27-Sep 13). Category 3, So. FL, LA.
    Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003.

\$68.0 billion. 2005 normalized dollars; AIR model modified, in Pielke,
et al, 2008.

\$23.0 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
Pielke, et al, 2008.

\$20.7 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
Pielke, et al, 2008.

\$15.0 billion. 1992 dollars. Pielke and Landsea, 1998.

> \$14.990 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.

\$11.853 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
Blake et al, 2007, 9.

\$10.799 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
construction. Blake et al. \`05

\$ 8.516 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.

\$ 1.42 billion. Not adjusted for inflation; Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
2007, p. 8; Jarrell \`01

9.  **1928 Great Okeechobee Hurricane, So. FL.** 1928, Category 4.
    Pielke and Landsea 1998.

> \$66.0 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars; AIR model modified, in
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$35.298 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$33.6 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$31.8 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$16.631 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$ 3.5 billion. 1992 dollars; Pielke and Landsea 1998.

10. **1988 Drought/Heat Wave** (Summer). Central/eastern U.S.; estimated
    5,000 to 10,000 deaths (includes heat stress-related); severe losses
    to agriculture, related industries; NCDC 2007)

> \$71.2 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \$61.6 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
> inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.
>
> \$40.0 billion. Estimated damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott,
> NCDC 2003.

11. **1994 Northridge Earthquake** (January 17). Magnitude 6.7; over 60
    deaths, over 5,000 injuries, over 25,000 left homeless. (GAO,
    *Natural Hazard Mitigation*, 2007, p. 16)

\$59.8 billion. Estimated direct economic loss; GAO, *Natural Hazard
Mitigation*, 2007, 16.

\$47.0 billion. Inflation adjusted economic losses. USGS,
ANNS-Reducing..., 2003.

> \$41.0 billion. Insurance Journal 2006.

\$28.0 billion. Estimated property damage 2007\$ adjusted-high range.
III, Defraying..., \`07.[^4]

\$25.0 billion. FEMA 2006.

\$20.0 billion. Total property damage, including \$12.5b insured losses
at time. III, May 2008.

\$20.0 billion. Estimated property damage when occurred-high range. III,
Defraying..., \`07.[^5]

\$19.0 billion. Kunreuther 2007, 3.

\$18.0 billion. Estimated property damage 2007\$ adjusted-low range.
III, Defraying..., \`07.[^6]

\$17.4 billion. Insured loss in 2007 dollars; I.I.I., *Catastrophes:
Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.

\$13.0 billion. Estimated property damage when occurred-low range. III,
Defraying..., 2007.[^7]

\$12.5 billion. Insured loss when occurred; I.I.I., *Catastrophes:
Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.

12. **1980 Drought/Heat Wave** (June-Sep). Central/Eastern U.S.
    Agriculture and related industries damaged. Estimated 10,000 deaths
    (includes heat stress-related. NCDC 2003.

> \$54.4 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \$48.4 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
> inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.
>
> \$48.4 (\$20.0) billion. Estimated damage/costs, agriculture, related
> industries; NCDC 2007.
>
> \$20.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.
>
> \$16.0 billion. Economic losses; Karl and Quayle, 1981.

13. **2008 Hurricane Ike** (September 12-13). Texas and Louisiana,
    Category 2.

\$52.0 billion. High range. Anticipated govt./private insurance company
costs in TX. Powell.

\$35.0 billion. Lt. Gov David Dewhurst, Senate HLS subcommittee,
23Sep08. McLean, 2008.

\$27.0 billion. Low range. Anticipated govt./private insurance company
costs in TX. Powell.

\$18.0 billion. High range. EQECAT, Inc; cited in *Business Wire*,
September 13, 2008.[^8]

\$16.0 billion. High range. Flagstone Reinsurance Holdings Limited, 13
Sept. 2008.

\$16.0 billion. Risk Management Solutions, September 14, 2008. Walsh,
*NYT*, Sep 15, 2008.

\$10.0 billion. Low range. Flagstone Reinsurance Holdings Limited, 13
Sept. 2008.

> \$12.0 billion. High range. Initial post-landfall estimated insured
> onshore losses. AIR, Sep 08.

\<\$11.5 billion. Rebuilding estimate. McLean, Bloomberg News, September
24, 2008.

\$ 9.8 billion. Insured losses estimate at time. III, Sep 24, 2008.

> \$ 8 billion. Low range. Initial post-landfall estimated insured
> onshore losses. AIR,13Sep08.
>
> \$ 8.0 billion. Low range. EQECAT, Inc; cited in *Business Wire*,
> September 13, 2008.
>
> \$ 6.0 billion. Low range. Risk Management Solutions, September 14,
> 2008.
>
> \$ 1.1 billion. Galveston damage. McKinley, NYT, 22 Sep 2008.

14. **1960 Hurricane Donna** (Aug 29-Sep 14). Cat 4, Sombrero Key, FL.,
    Eastern U.S. Pielke/Landsea, 1998.

> \$52.0 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars; AIR model modified, in
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$31.9 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$29.6 billion 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$28.159 billion. Using 2006 inflation, population/wealth
> normalization. Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$14.526 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$10.0 billion. 1992 dollars. Pielke and Landsea, 1998.
>
> \$ 3.345 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator.
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$ 3.040 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC construction
> deflator. Blake et al. \`05.
>
> \$ 2.407 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.
>
> \$ .387 billion. 1960 dollars. Jarrell et al, NOAA 2001.

15. **1947 Unnamed FL Hurricane** (1947) Cat. 4-3, Pompano Beach, FL.
    (Pielke/Landsea 1998)

> \$48.0 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars; AIR model modified, in
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$15.398 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9)
>
> \$16.8 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$14.8 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$10.015 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$ 9.0 billion 1992 normalized dollars; Pielke and Landsea 1998.
>
> \$ .930 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.

16. **1944 Unnamed FL Hurricane** (1944) Category 3; FL.

> \$40.621 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$38.7 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$35.6 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$20.331 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.

17. **1993 Midwest Flooding** (Summer). "Severe, widespread flooding in
    central U.S. due to persistent heavy rains and thunderstorms...48
    deaths." Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

\~\$30.2 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC 2008.

\~\$26.7 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.

\~\$21.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003. NCDC
July 2008 update.

\$20.0 billion. Perry (USGS) 2000.

18. **1969 Hurricane Camille** (Aug 17). Cat 5 Gulf Coast, 256 deaths.
    Pielke, Simonpietri, Oxelson 1999.

> \$24.0 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$22.286 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$21.2 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$13.219 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$ 9.781 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$ 8.899 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05
>
> \$ 7.00 billion. Unadjusted for inflation. Jarrell et al, 2001
>
> \$ 6.992 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.
>
> \$ 1.42 billion. Not adjusted for inflation; Blake, Rappaport,
> Landsea, 2007, p. 8; Jarrell \`01
>
> \$ 1.4 billion. NOAA *Hurricane History*. Perry (USGS) 2000.

19. **1954 Hurricane Hazel** (October). Category 4, NC, SC. Pielke, et
    al, 2008.

> \$23.2 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$17.339 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$16.5 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$ 8.486 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$ 1.910 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.

20. **2005 Hurricane Wilma** (Oct). "Category 3 hurricane hits SW
    Florida resulting in strong damaging winds and major flooding across
    southeastern Florida. Prior to landfall, Wilma as a Category 5
    recorded the lowest pressure (882 mb) ever recorded in the Atlantic
    basin.... estimated 35 deaths." (NCDC July 2008 update)

> \$21.63 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$21.5 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake, 2007, 9
>
> \$20.6 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars using Pielke & Landsea
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$17.1 billion. Normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index; NCDC July 2008.
>
> \$16.0 billion. Estimate of approximate damage/costs; NCDC July 2008
> update.

\$12.9 billion. Indexed to 2006. Kunreuther 2007, 3.

\$10.9 billion. Insured losses, \$2007. III, "Top 11 Most Costly
Hurricanes...", Sep 24, 2008.

\$10.9 billion. Insured loss in 2007 dollars; III, *Catastrophes:
Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.

\$10.9 billion. III, September 24, 2008.

\$10.3 billion**.** Insured loss when occurred; III, *Catastrophes:
Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.

21. **1972 Hurricane Agnes** (June 19-25). Cat 1, FL, VA, NY, some NE
    States; (NOAA, Hurricane History.

> \$18.749 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$18.4 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$17.5 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$12.904 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$12.424 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$12.0 billion. 1998 dollars. Pocock.
>
> \$11.29 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05
>
> \$ 8.602 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.
>
> \$ 3.2 billion. Perry (USGS) 2000.
>
> \$ 3.1 billion. At the time; Pocock.
>
> \$ 2.1 billion. NOAA, Hurricane History; Jarrell, et al (NOAA) 2001.
>
> \$ 2.1 billion. Not adjusted for inflation; Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
> 2007, p. 8.

22. **1955 Hurricane Diane** (August). (NC, PA, NJ, NY, CN, RI) 20K
    destroyed/damaged structures; 200 deaths. Rozario 2007.

> \$18.07 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$17.8 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$17.2 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$12.335 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$ 7.7 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.

\$ 6.997 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC construction
deflator. Blake et al. \`05.

\$ 5.540 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.

\~\$ 1.0 billion. At the time; Rozario 2007.

\$ .832 billion. Unadjusted for inflation. Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.

23. **1989 Hurricane Hugo** (Sept.). "Category 4 hurricane devastates
    South and North Carolina with \~ 20-foot storm surge and severe wind
    damage after hitting Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands...86
    deaths (57\--U.S. mainland, 29\--U.S. Islands)." Ross/Lott, NCDC
    2003.

> \$17.5 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$16.088 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$15.3 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$15.3 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \$13.9 billion. Damage/costs at the time, Virgin Islands and PR --
> high range. NCDC 2003.
>
> \$13.48 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake, 2007, 9.
>
> \$12.6 billion. 1998 dollars. Pocock 2007.
>
> \$12.25 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05
>
> \$11.307 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$10.9 billion. Carolinas -- high range. Rosas and Lott, NCDC 2003;
> NCDC 2007.
>
> \$ 9.739 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.
>
> \$ 9.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time, Virgin Islands and PR -- low
> range. NCDC 2003.
>
> \$ 9.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. NCDC 2007; Pocock, "actual
> costs".

\$ 7.4 billion. Indexed to 2006; Kunreuther 2007. p. 3.

> \$\~7.1 billion. Carolinas -- low range. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC
> 2007.

\$ 7.0 billion. Insured loss in 2007 dollars; III, *Catastrophes:
Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.

\$ 7.0 billion. Insured losses, \$2007. Top 11 Most Costly
Hurricanes.... Sep 24, 2008.

\$ 7.0 billion. Not adjusted for inflation; Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
2007, p. 8; Jarrell \`01

\$ 4.2 billion. Insured loss when occurred; III, *Catastrophes:
Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.

24. **2004 Hurricane Charley** (August). Cat 4, SW FL landfall; at least
    35 deaths (NCDC 2007). Results "in major wind and some storm surge
    damage in FL along with some damage in the states of SC and NC...at
    least 34 deaths." Lott and Ross, NCDC, 2005.

\$17.135 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
Blake et al, 2007, 9.

\$16.5 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC 2008.

> \$16.3 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars using Pielke & Landsea
> model; Pielke, 2008.
>
> \$16.3 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars using Collins and Lowe
> model; Pielke, 2008.
>
> \$16.3 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake, 2007, 9.

\~\$15.0 billion. Damages/costs; Lott and Ross, NCDC, 2005.

\$15.0 billion. Estimate in damage/costs; NCDC 2007; Blake, Rappaport,
Landsea, 2007, 8.

\$ 8.6 billion. Indexed to 2006; Kunreuther 2007, p. 3.

\$ 8.2 billion. Insured losses \$2007. III. "Top 11 Most Costly
Hurricanes...", Sep 24, 2008

\$ 8.2 billion. Insured loss in 2007 dollars; III, *Catastrophes:
Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.

\$ 7.5 billion. Insured loss when occurred; III, *Catastrophes:
Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.

25. **2005 Hurricane Rita** (Sep). "Category 3 hurricane hits
    Texas-Louisiana border coastal region, creating significant storm
    surge and wind damage along the coast, and some inland flooding in
    the FL panhandle, AL, MS, LA, AR, and TX. Prior to landfall, Rita
    reached the third lowest pressure (897 mb) ever recorded in the
    Atlantic basin.... 119 deaths reported-most being indirect (many
    related to evacuations)." NCDC July 2008 update.

> \$ 17.1 billion. Normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC July 2008.
>
> \$\~16.0 billion. Estimate in damage/costs, NCDC July 2008 update.
>
> \$ 11.865 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9
>
> \$ 11.808 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction
> Deflator; Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$ 11.3 billion. Not adjusted for inflation, Black, Rappaport,
> Landsea, 2007, p. 8/
>
> \$ 10.4 billion. Indexed to 2006; Kunreuther 2007, p. 3.
>
> \$ 10.0 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars using Pielke & Landsea
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$ 10.0 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars using Collins and Lowe
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$ \<8.0 billion (Preliminary estimate in damage/costs; Lott and Ross,
> NCDC, 2005)
>
> \$ 6.0 billion. Insured losses, \$2007. III, "Top 11 Most Costly
> Hurricanes..., Sep 24, 2008.
>
> \$ 5.9 billion. Insured loss in 2007 dollars; III, *Catastrophes:
> Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.
>
> \$ 5.8 billion. Property insurance claims in TX and LA. (KWTX-TV
> Online, 24 Sep 2007.
>
> \$ 5.6 billion. Insured loss when occurred; III, *Catastrophes:
> Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.
>
> \$ 4.0 billion. For FL residents displaced by Hurricane Rita; Woolsey,
> 2007.

\$ 2.0 billion. FEMA expenditures by 24Sep2007; FEMA Sep 24, 2007 Press
Release.

26. **1954 Hurricane Carol** (August). Category 3, NE U.S., Ct, NY, RI;
    Pielke, et al, 2008.

> \$16.940 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$16.1 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$15.1 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$10.929 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$ 6.4 billion. 2004 dollars. Grammatico, 2003.
>
> \$ 4.345 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$ 3.949 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05
>
> \$ 3.124 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.
>
> \$ .500 billion. At time. Grammatico, 2003.
>
> \$ .461 billion. 1954 dollars. Jarrell, et al (NOAA) 2001.

27. **2004 Hurricane Ivan** (Sep). Cat 3; NW FL, AL (landfall); at least
    57 deaths; wind/flood damage in GA, SC, NC, VA, LA, MS, WV, MD, TN,
    KY, OH, DE, NJ, PA, and NY. NCDC 2007.

> \$16.247 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$15.5 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars using Pielke & Landsea
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$15.5 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars using Collins and Lowe
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$15.451 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake, 2007, 9.
>
> \$15.4 billion. Normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC July 2008.
>
> \$14.2 billion. Not adjusted for inflation; Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
> 2007, p. 8.

\>\$14.0 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.

\<\$14.0 billion. Damage/costs estimate; Lott and Ross, NCDC, 2005.

> \$14.0 billion. Damage/costs; NCDC 2007.
>
> \$13.6 billion. Indexed to 2006; Kunreuther 2007, p. 3.
>
> \$ 7.8 billion. Insured losses, \$2007. III, "Top 11 Most Costly
> Hurricanes...", Sep 24, 2008.
>
> \$ 7.8 billion. Insured loss in 2007 dollars; III, *Catastrophes:
> Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.
>
> \$ 7.1 billion. Insured loss when occurred; III, *Catastrophes:
> Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.
>
> \$ 2.6 billion. Damage in parts of Florida, Louisiana and Texas;
> Woolsey, 2007.

28. **1949 Unnamed FL Hurricane** (1949). Cat. 3; Palm Beach, FL; Pielke
    and Landsea 1998)

> \$15.398 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$14.7 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$13.5 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$ 7.038 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$ 2.6 billion**.** 1992 Dollars; Pielke and Landsea 1998.

29. **2008 Hurricane Gustav** (September 1). Cat 2, LA coast near
    Cocodrie.

> \$7-15 billion (\$4.5-10B total property damage, \$2.5-5B lost
> economic activity; BayouBuzz)

\~\$10 billion (Preliminary estimates of property insurance claims.)
(Mason, 9 Sep 2008)[^9]

\$4.5-\$10 billion (Property damage in LA, including insured and
uninsured losses:

-   \$2 billion to \$4.5 billion for homes, vehicles and personal
    property

-   \$1 billion to \$2.5 billion for commercial structures, property and
    inventory

-   \$1.5 billion to \$3 billion for other property (e.g., agriculture,
    timber and fisheries losses; public infrastructure; public
    facilities) (LED, September 8, 2008)

\$4-10 billion insured losses;[^10] (Insure.com, 2Sep08)

\$3 - 7 billion. Estimated onshore insured losses\...primarily in LA.
(EQECAT, 2 Sep 2008)

\$2.5 - 4.5 billion. Revised initial industry loss estimate. (Risk Mgmt.
Solutions, Sep 08)

\$2 - 4.5 billion. Estimated insured losses to onshore properties. (AIR
Worldwide, 1Sep08)

\$1.8 - 4.4 billion. Estimated insured losses to offshore assets. (AIR
Worldwide, 1Sep08)

\$1.8 billion. Insured losses in LA. III, citing ISO's Property Claims
Service, Sep 24, 2008.

\$.5 -.6 billion. Damage/repair costs of Entergy electrical facilities.
(Entergy, 19 Sep 2008)

30. **1961 Hurricane Carla** (September 10). Category 4; TX Coast; 46
    deaths; NOAA 1993.

> \$14.920 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$14.2 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$13.5 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$ 8.522 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$ 2.604 billion. 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator; Blake
> et al, 2007, p. 9.

\$ 2.550 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.

\$ 2.366 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC construction
deflator. Blake et al. \`05.

\$\~2.0 billion. 1990 dollars. NOAA 1993.

\$ .408 billion. 1961 dollars. Jarrell et al (NOAA) 2001.

31. **1919 Unnamed FL, TX Hurricane.** Category 4: FL, TX; Pielke, et
    al, 2008)

> \$13.847 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$13.8 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$12.9 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$ 6.448 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.

32. **1944 Northeast "Great Atlantic" Hurricane** (Sep 9-16). Cat. 4;
    390 deaths (340 at sea); Cotterly 2002); CT, NC, NY, RI, VA;
    Category 3. Pielke, et al, 2008.

> \$13.381 billion Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization.
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$13.2 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$12.1 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$ 7.790 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$ 5.927 billion. 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator; Blake
> et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$ 5.386 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05
>
> \$ 1.221 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.

\~\$ 1.0 billion. 1990 dollars. Cotterly 2002.

33. **1945 Unnamed FL Hurricane.** Category 3. Pielke, et al, 2008.

> \$12.956 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$12.3 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$10.1 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$ 7.611 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.

34. **1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake** (Oct 17). Magnitude 6.9; 63 people
    killed. USGS 1999.

> \$11.7 billion. Estimated property damage (insured/uninsured) 2007\$;
> I.I.I, Earthquakes, \`08).
>
> \$10.0 billion. Estimated property loss -- high range; USGS 1999.
>
> \$ 9.0 billion. Inflation adjusted economic losses. USGS.
> ANSS-Reducing..., 2003.
>
> \$ 7.0 billion. Estimated property damage (insured/uninsured); I.I.I.,
> Earthquakes, May 2008.
>
> \$ 6.0 billion. Estimated property loss -- low range; USGS 1999.

35. **1979 Hurricane Frederic** (Sep 12). Cat. 3; Gulf Coast (AL, MS);
    Pielke/Landsea 1998.

> \$11.5 billion. 2005 Normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$10.781 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$10.3 billion. 2005 Normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$ 7.587 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized,
> Landsea model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$ 7.2 billion. Pocock.
>
> \$ 6.922 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$ 6.291 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05
>
> \$ 4.965 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.
>
> \$ 2.3 billion. Pielke/Landsea 1998.
>
> \$ 2.3 billion. Not adjusted for inflation; Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
> 2007, p. 8; Jarrell \`01.

36. **2002 Widespread Drought** (Spring-early Fall). "Moderate to
    Extreme drought over large portions of 30 states including the
    western states, the Great Plains, and much of the eastern U.S..."
    Lott and Ross, NCDC, 2005; NCDC 2007.

> \$11.4 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \<\$10.0 billion. Estimate of actual damages/costs. Ross 2003;
> Lott/Ross 2005; NCDC 2007.

37. **1998 Southern Drought/Heat Wave** (Summer). Severe drought/heat
    wave from TX/OK east to Carolinas; damage to agriculture and
    ranching; at least 200 deaths. Ross/Lott 2003.

> \$11.3 billion. High-range costs normalized to \$2007 using GNP
> inflation index. NCDC \`08
>
> \$ 9.9 billion. High-range damage/costs 2002\$ normed (GNP
> inflation-wealth index). NCDC 03.
>
> \$ 9.0 billion. High-range damage/costs to agriculture and ranching at
> the time; NCDC 2003
>
> \$ 8.3 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
> inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.
>
> \$ 7.6 billion. Low-range costs normalized to \$2007 using GNP
> inflation index. NCDC \`08
>
> \$ 6.6 billion. Low-range damage/costs 2002\$ normed (GNP
> inflation-wealth index). NCDC 03.
>
> \$ 6.0 billion. Low-range damage/costs to agriculture and ranching at
> the time; NCDC 2003.

38. **1906 San Francisco Earthquake** (April 18).[^11] "On April 18,
    1906, at 5:12 in the morning, an earthquake estimated at 8.25 on the
    Richter scale shook San Francisco, and lasted about one minute. What
    followed was a series of catastrophic fires that burned for three
    days and destroyed more than 500 blocks within the city."
    Evans 2006. "Almost 300 miles of the San Andreas Fault
    ruptured...affecting portions of 19 counties, from Mendocino in the
    north to Sacramento in the east and Monterey in the south. The
    ground shaking and ensuing fires caused more than 3,000 deaths,
    destroyed over 28,000 buildings, and left homeless about 225,000 of
    Northern California's one million residents." Moehle 2007. "After
    the quake, a committee of adjusters established that 10% of the
    damage was due to the quake and 90% to fire. Blazes broke out in
    many parts of town, initially fuelled by natural gas mains ruptured
    by the quake, but many others were the result of arson, campfires
    lit by refugees, and from the vain attempts by the military to quell
    the fires by blasting buildings to create fire breaks. With broken
    water mains there was little authorities could do to fight the
    blazes..." (*Lloyd's Market* Issue 2, 2006.

\~\$11.0 billion. 2007 dollars;[^12] (III, 2008, citing National
Geophysical Data Center).

\<\$10.0 billion. Direct losses \$24M, fire losses \$500m, akin to over
\$10B today. Wells 2006.

\~\$ 8.2 billion. 2006 dollars. Frantz 2005.

> \$ 7.8 billion. 2006 dollars. III, Ten Most Costly Large-Loss Fires in
> U.S. History.
>
> \$ 5.0 billion. Property damage modern equivalent, 2006. Lloyd's
> Market, Issue Two, 2006.
>
> \$ 5-6 billion. In insurance claims in 2008 dollars for similar event
> today. III, 2008.
>
> \$ .524 billion. At time. Wells 2006.
>
> \$ .4 billion. 1906 dollar. Frantz 2005.
>
> \$ .35 billion. At time. III, Ten Most Costly Large-Loss Fires in U.S.
> History.
>
> \$108 billion. Computer model of estimated impact for 2005 exposures.
> III, Defraying..\`07.[^13]

39. **2003 Northeast Blackout** (Aug 14). "...a cascading outage of
    transmission and generation facilities in the North American Eastern
    Interconnection resulted in a blackout of most of New York state as
    well as parts of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, and Ontario, Canada."
    (Andersson, 2005)

> \$10.3 billion. High range. ICF Consulting 2003.

\$10.0 billion. High range. U.S.-Canada Power System Outage Task Force,
2004, p. 1)

> \$ 6.8 billion. Low range. ICF Consulting 2003.

\~\$ 6.0 billion. White House, *National Strategy for Homeland
Security*, 2007, 1:11.

\$ 4.0 billion. Low range. U.S.-Canada Power System Outage Task Force,
2004, p. 1.

40. **2004 Hurricane Frances** (Sep 5). Cat. 2; east-central FL; at
    least 48 deaths (NCDC 2007). Causes "significant wind, storm surge,
    and flooding damage in FL, along with considerable flood damage in
    the states of GA, SC, NC, and NY due to 5-15 inch rains." (Lott and
    Ross, NCDC, 2005)

> \$10.168 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$ 9.9 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \$ 9.7 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars using Pielke & Landsea
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$ 9.684 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$ 9.6 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars using Collins and Lowe
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$\~9.0 billion. Estimated damage/costs; Lott and Ross, NCDC, 2005;
> NCDC 2007.
>
> \$ 8.9 billion. Not adjusted for inflation; Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
> 2007, p. 8.
>
> \$ 5.5 billion. Indexed to 2006; Kunreuther 2007, p. 3.
>
> \$ 5.0 billion. Insured losses \$2007. III, "Top 11 Most Costly
> Hurricanes...", Sep 24, 2008.
>
> \$ 5.0 billion. Insured loss in 2007 dollars; III, *Catastrophes:
> Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.
>
> \$ 4.6 billion. Insured loss when occurred; III, *Catastrophes:
> Insurance Issues*, Jan 2008.

41. **2008 Iowa Flooding (Summer)**

\~ \$10 billion. *Gazette Online* (Iowa), August 6, 2008.

42. **1933 Unnamed VA/NC Hurricane.** Category 2 (Pielke, et al, 2008)

> \$9.8 billion (Normalized to 2005 dollars using Collins and Lowe
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008)
>
> \$8.603 billion (Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9)
>
> \$8.2 billion (Normalized to 2005 dollars using Pielke & Landsea
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008)

43. **1995 TX/OK/LA/MS Severe Weather and Flooding** (May). "Torrential
    rains, hail, and tornadoes across TX-OK and southeast LA- southern
    MS, with Dallas and New Orleans areas (10-25 inch rains in 5 days)
    hardest hit...32 deaths." Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

> \$8.2 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.

\~\$6.8 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.

\$7.1 billion. Damage normalized 2002\$, GNP inflation/wealth index/high
range. NCDC \`03.

\$6.5 billion. Damage normalized 2002\$, GNP inflation/wealth index/low
range. NCDC \`03.

\$6.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time, high range. Ross/Lott NCDC
\`03. Perry/USGS 2000.

\$5.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time, low range. Ross/Lott, NCDC
\`03. Perry/USGS 2000

44. **1964 Hurricane Dora** (Sep 7-15) Category 2/3.

> \$8.066 billion. Using 2006 inflation, pop., wealth normalization;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$3.747 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized, Landsea
> model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$1.964 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05.
>
> \$1.540 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.

45. **2004 Hurricane Jeanne** (Sep 26). Cat. 3; east-central FL; at
    least 28 deaths (NCDC 2007). Causes "considerable wind, storm surge,
    and flooding damage in FL, with some flood damage also in the states
    of GA, SC, NC, VA, MD, DE, NJ, PA, and NY. Puerto Rico also
    affected...at least 28 deaths" (Lott and Ross, NCDC, 2005)

> \$7.7 billion. Normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation index.
> NCDC July 2008.
>
> \$7.508 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$7.5 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars using Pielke & Landsea
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$7.5 billion. Normalized to 2005 dollars using Collins and Lowe
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$7.0 billion. Estimated damage/costs; NCDC 2007.
>
> \$\>6.9 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
> inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.
>
> \$\<6.9 billion. Estimate of damage/costs; Lott and Ross, NCDC, 2005.
>
> \$6.9 billion. Not adjusted for inflation; Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
> 2007, p. 8.

\$4.1 billion . Indexed to 2006; Kunreuther 2007, p. 3.

\$4.0 billion. Insured losses \$2007. III, "Top 11 Most Costly
Hurricanes...", Sep 24, 2008.

\$4.0 billion. Estimated insured loss in 2007 dollars; III,
*Catastrophes,* Jan 2008.

\$3.6 billion. Estimated insured loss when occurred; III,
*Catastrophes:* Jan 2008.

46. **1993 Eastern Seaboard Storm/Blizzard** (March) **\"Storm of the
    Century,\"** "Superstorm." Tornadoes, high winds, heavy snows (2-4
    feet); approximately 270 deaths, (NCDC 2007)

> \$7.6 billion. Damage 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
> index)-high est. NCDC \`03.
>
> \$7.0 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
> inflation-wealth index). Lott 2005.
>
> \$6.0 billion. Damage/costs -- high range estimate. Lott/NCDC 1993;
> NCDC 2007.
>
> \$6.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time -- high range. Ross and Lott,
> NCDC 2003.
>
> \$5.0 billion. Damage/costs -- low range estimate. NCDC 2007.
>
> \$3.8 billion. Damage 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
> index)-low range. NCDC \`03.
>
> \$3.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time -- low range. Ross and Lott,
> NCDC 2003.
>
> \$1.6 billion. Insured property damage estimates at the time.
> Lott/NCDC 1993.

47. **1983 Hurricane Alicia** (Aug 18-21). Category 3; TX; 21 deaths
    (NCDC 2003)

> \$7.5 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$7.2 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$5.9 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
> index); Lott 2005.
>
> \$4.825 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$4.397 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized, Landsea
> model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$4.384 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05
>
> \$3.421 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.
>
> \$3.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003;
> NCDC 2007.
>
> \$2.0 billion. Not adjusted for inflation. Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
> 2007, p. 8.
>
> \$2.0 billion. Not adjusted for inflation. Jarrell, et al (NOAA) 2001.

48. **1999 Hurricane Floyd** (Sep). "Large category 2...makes landfall
    in eastern NC, causing 10-20 inch rains in 2 days, with severe
    flooding in NC and some flooding in SC, VA, MD, PA, NY, NJ, DE, RI,
    CT, MA, NH, and VT...77 deaths." Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC 2008.

> \$7.4 billion. Costs, 2007 dollars normalized using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC July \`08.
>
> \$6.8 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$6.7 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$6.5 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
> index); Ross/Lott \`03.
>
> \$6.342 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$6.0 billion. At least estimate damage/costs at the time. Ross/Lott,
> NCDC 2003.
>
> \$6.0 billion. Perry (USGS) 2000.
>
> \$5.764 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05
>
> \$4.880 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized, Landsea
> model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$4.666 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.
>
> \$4.5 billion. Not inflation adjusted. Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
> 2007, p. 8; Jarrell et al, \`01
>
> \$2.0 billion. Insurance Services Office, March 11, 2002.

49. **1988 Hurricane Georges** (Sep). Category 2 Puerto Rico, Florida
    Keys, and Gulf coasts of LA, MS, AL, and FL panhandle; 16 deaths.
    Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC July 2008.

> \$7.4 billion. 2007 normalized dollars costs using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \~\$6.5 billion. Damage 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
> index); NCDC 2005.
>
> \$5.9 billion. Estimated damage/costs at the time. Ross/Lott, NCDC,
> 2003; NCDC 2007.

\$4.4 billion. Indexed to 2006; Kunreuther 2007, p. 3.

> \$3.8 billion. Insured losses \$2007. III, "Top 11 Most Costly
> Hurricanes...", Sep 24, \`08.
>
> \$3.8 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.

\$3.758 billion. Estimated insured loss, 2007 dollars; III,
*Catastrophes: Insurance* Jan 2008.

> \$3.6 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$3.6 billion. Unadjusted for inflation. Jarrell et al (NOAA) 2001.
>
> \$3.0 billion. Insurance Services Office, March 11, 2002.

\$2.955 billion. Estimated insured loss when occurred; III,
*Catastrophes: Insurance* Jan 08.

\$2.494 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.

\$2.310 billion. Not adjusted for inflation. Jarrell et al. (NOAA),
2001.

\$1.155 billion. Not adjusted for inflation; Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
2007, p. 8.

50. **1995/96 Southern Plains Severe Drought** (Fall 1995/Sum.1996). TX
    and OK most severely affected. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

> \$6.8 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.

\~\$6.0 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.

> \$5.0 billion. Approximate damage/costs at the time. Ross/Lott, NCDC
> 2003; NCDC 2007.

51. **2001 Tropical Storm Allison** (June). "The persistent remnants of
    Tropical Storm Allison produce rainfall amounts of 30-40 inches in
    portions of coastal Texas and Louisiana, causing severe flooding
    especially in the Houston area, then moves slowly northeastward;
    fatalities and significant damage reported in TX, LA, MS, FL, VA,
    and PA...at least 43 deaths." Lott and Ross, NCDC 2005; see, also
    Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

> \$6.6 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$6.414 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$6.4 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$5.839 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05.
>
> \$5.6 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC July \`08.
>
> \$5.1 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
> inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.

\~\$5.1 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
index); Ross/Lott 2003.

\<\$5.0 billion. Zeitler, August 13, 2002.

> \$5.0 billion. Estimated damage/costs; Lott and Ross/NCDC 2005; NCDC
> 2007.
>
> \$5.0 billion. Not adjusted for inflation; Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
> 2007, p. 8.

\~\$5.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

> \$4.1 billion. Indexed to 2006 dollars; Kunreuther 2007, p. 3.
>
> \$2.5 billion. Insurance Services Office, March 11, 2002.

52. **1996 Hurricane Fran** (Sep). Category 3; NC and VA; "over 10-inch
    24- hour rains on some locations and extensive agricultural and
    other losses; 37 deaths." Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

> \$6.6 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \$6.2 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$5.8 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.

\>\$5.8 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
index); Lott 2005.

\$5.0 billion. Damage/costs at time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC
2007.

> \$4.979 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$4.525 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05.
>
> \$3.735 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized, Landsea
> model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$3.670 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.
>
> \$3.5 billion. Pocock.
>
> \$3.2 billion. Unadjusted for inflation. Jarrell et al (NOAA), 2001
>
> \$2.11 billion. Estimated insured loss, 2007 dollars; III,
> *Catastrophes: Insurance*, Jan 2008.
>
> \$1.6 billion. Estimated insured loss at occurrence; III,
> *Catastrophes: Insurance*, Jan 2008.

53. **1995 Hurricane Opal** (Oct). Cat 3; FL panhandle, AL, W. GA, E.
    TN, and Western Carolinas causing storm surge, wind, and flood
    damage; 27 deaths. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003.

"Opal made landfall in the Florida panhandle along the Okaloosa-Santa
Rosa county line about 6 PM CDT October 4, 1995 with maximum sustained
winds of 125 miles per hour (mph).... Over 100,000 people were evacuated
before the storm made landfall, and about 40,000 were housed temporarily
in Red Cross shelters....The storm surge was estimated to be as high as
15-20 feet just east of Miramar Beach. Coastal flooding occurred along
the Gulf Coast from Gulf Shores, Alabama to Tampa, Florida.
Approximately 3300 structures were destroyed, and over 18,000 were
damaged....400,000 customers were left without power in the Atlanta
area, and well over a half-million in Georgia overall. Over 500,000 were
without power in the Florida panhandle, with 95% without power at one
time in Okaloosa County. Over 1 million customers in the Southeast area
were still without power 2 days after the storm...." (NCDC, *Hurricane
Opal*, Nov. 1995)

> \$6.3 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$6.1 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$4.758 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$4.324 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05
>
> \$4.1 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \$3.617 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized, Landsea
> model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$3.6 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
> index); Lott 2005.
>
> \$3.520 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.
>
> \$3.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC
> 2007; Jarrell 2001
>
> \$3.0 billion. Not inflation adjusted; Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
> 2007, p. 8.
>
> \$2.1 billion. Insurance Services Office, March 11, 2002.

54. **1916 Unnamed Hurricane.** Category 3; AL, MS; Pielke, et al, 2008)

> \$6.3 billion (Normalized to 2005 dollars using Collins and Lowe
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008)
>
> \$5.3 billion (Normalized to 2005 dollars using Pielke & Landsea
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008)

55. **2006 Widespread Drought** (Spring-Summer). "Rather severe drought
    affected crops especially during the spring-summer, centered over
    the Great Plains region with other areas affected across portions of
    the south and far west- including states of ND, SD, NE, KS, OK, TX,
    MN, IA, MO, AR, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, MT, WY, CO, NM, CA....some
    heat-related deaths but not beyond typical annual averages." (NCDC
    July 2008 update)

> \$6.2 billion. Normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation index.
> NCDC July 2008.
>
> \<\$6.0 billion. Estimate of damages/costs. NCDC 2008

56. **1955 Hurricane Ione**. Category 3, NC; Pielke, et al, 2008)

> \$6.0 billion (Normalized to 2005 dollars using Collins and Lowe
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008)
>
> \$3.7 billion (Normalized to 2005 dollars using Pielke & Landsea
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008)

57. **1932 Freeport Hurricane.** Category 4; TX; **(**Pielke, et al,
    2008)

> \$5.9 billion (Normalized to 2005 dollars using Pielke & Landsea
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008)
>
> \$5.7 billion (Normalized to 2005 dollars using Collins and Lowe
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008)

58. **1970 Hurricane Celia**. Category 3; South TX. Pielke, et al, 2008.

> \$5.7 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008)
>
> \$5.6 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008)
>
> \$4.024 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized, Landsea
> model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$3.038 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$2.761 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05.
>
> \$2.015 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.
>
> \$ .453 billion. 1970 dollars. Jarrell et al (NOAA) 2001.

59. **2003 Hurricane Isabel** (Sep) Cat 2; eastern NC landfall;
    considerable storm surge damage NC, VA, MD; wind damage and some
    flooding due to 4-12 inch rains, NC, VA, MD, DE, WV, NJ, NY, and PA;
    at least 55 deaths. NCDC 2007.

> \$5.6 billion. 2007 normalized 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC July 08.
>
> \$5.0 billion. Estimated damages/costs; (Lott and Ross, NCDC, 2005;
> NCDC 2007.
>
> \$4.0 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$4.0 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.

\<\$4.0 billion. Damages/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC, 2003.

> \$3.985 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$3.643 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05.
>
> \$3.37 billion. Not adjusted for inflation; Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
> 2007, p. 8.

60. **1903 Unnamed Hurricane**. Category 1; FL; (Pielke, et al, 2008)

> \$5.2 billion (Normalized to 2005 dollars using Pielke & Landsea
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008)
>
> \$4.2 billion (Normalized to 2005 dollars using Collins and Lowe
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008)

61. **1964 Hurricane Cleo**. Cat. 2; Miami, FL; (Pielke/Landsea 1998)

> \$5.2 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008)
>
> \$4.7 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008)
>
> \$2.936 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized, Landsea
> model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$2.7 billion. 1992 dollars. Pielke/Landsea 1998.

62. **2007 Great Plains and Eastern Drought.** "Entire year 2007. Severe
    drought with periods of extreme heat over most of the southeast and
    portions of the Great Plains, Ohio Valley, and Great Lakes area,
    resulting in major reductions in crop yields, along with very low
    stream-flows and lake levels. Includes states of ND, SD, NE, KS, OK,
    TX, MN, WI, IA, MO, AR, LA, MS, AL, GA, NC, SC, FL, TN, VA, WV, KY,
    IN, IL, OH, MI, PA, NY. Preliminary estimate of well over \$5.0
    billion in damage/costs; some deaths reported due to heat but not
    beyond typical annual averages."

\<\$5 billion (NCDC, July 2008 Update)

63. **1995 CA Winter Storms and Flooding** (Jan-March). 28 dead. NOAA,
    CA Top 15 Weather Events of 1900s, 2007. "Frequent winter storms
    cause 20-70 inches rainfall and periodic flooding across much of
    California...27 deaths." NCDC July 2008 update.

> \$5.0 billion**.** Est. indirect costs, costs to state's economy
> (Galloway, *CA Challenge*, 2007, 1)[^14]
>
> \$4.1 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \$3.0 billion. Damage/costs. NCDC July 2008 update.
>
> \$3.0 billion. Perry (USGS) 2000.
>
> \$1.841 billion (Calculated econ. losses. (NOAA, CA Top 15 Weather
> Events of 1900s, 2007)

64. **1941 Unnamed Hurricane** (1941). Cat 3, Homestead, FL. (Pielke and
    Landsea 1998)..

> \$5 billion (1992 dollars). (Pielke and Landsea 1998).

65. **2000 Drought/Heat Wave** (Spring-Summer). South-central and SE
    States; "causing significant losses to agriculture and related
    industries...estimated 140 deaths nationwide." Ross and Lott, NCDC
    2003; Lott and Ross, NCDC 2005; Ross and Lott, NCDC 2007.

> \$4.8 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \>\$4.2 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
> inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.
>
> \<\$4.0 billion. Damage/costs (Lott and Ross/NCDC 2005; NCDC 2007)

66. **1997 Northern Plains (Red River of the North) Flooding**
    (April-May). Severe flooding ND, SD, MN due to heavy spring
    snowmelt; 11 deaths. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC July 2008 update.
    Perry (USGS 2000) notes 8 deaths.

> \~\$4.8 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP
> inflation index. NCDC 2008
>
> \~\$4.1 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
> index); NCDC 2003.
>
> \~\$3.7 billion. Damage/costs at the time. NCDC 2003; NCDC 2007; NCDC
> July 2008.
>
> \$2.0 billion. Perry (USGS) 2000.

67. **1950 Hurricane King.** Category 3; FL; \$3.7-\$4.4B (2008
    dollars); (Pielke, et al, 2008)

> \$4.4 billion (Normalized to 2005 dollars using Pielke & Landsea
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008)
>
> \$3.7 billion (Normalized to 2005 dollars using Collins and Lowe
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008)

68. **1983 Florida Freeze** (Dec). Severe freeze central/northern
    Florida; citrus industry particularly damaged. Ross and Lott, NCDC
    2003.

> \~\$4.2 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP
> inflation index. NCDC July \`08.
>
> \~\$4.0 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
> inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.

\~\$2.0 billion. Damage to citrus industry at the time. Ross/Lott, NCDC
2003.NCDC 2007.

69. **1985 Hurricane Juan** (Oct-Nov). Cat 1; LA, SE U.S; severe
    flooding; 63 deaths. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

> \$4.2 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$3.9 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$3.417 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$3.105 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05.
>
> \$2.9 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \$2.892 billion. 2000 inflation; population/wealth normalized, Landsea
> model. Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$2.8 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
> index); Lott 2005.

\$2.418 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.

\$1.5 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC
2007.

> \$1.5 billion. Not adjusted for inflation; Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
> 2007, p. 8; Jarrell \`01.

70. **1994 Southeast Ice Storm** (Feb). "Intense ice storm with
    extensive damage in portions of TX, OK, AR, LA, MS, AL, TN, GA, SC,
    NC, and VA...9 deaths." Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003.

> \~\$4.2 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP
> inflation index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \~\$3.7 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
> inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.

\~\$3.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC
2007.

71. **1957 Hurricane Audrey** (August). Category 4; LA, TX; Pielke, et
    al, 2008)

> \$4.1 billion (Normalized to 2005 dollars using Collins and Lowe
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008)
>
> \$3.8 billion (Normalized to 2005 dollars using Pielke & Landsea
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008)

72. **1967 Hurricane Beulah**. Category 3; TX: (Pielke, et al, 2008)

> \$4.0 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Pielke & Landsea model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$4.0 billion. 2005 normalized dollars using Collins and Lowe model;
> Pielke, et al, 2008.
>
> \$1.113 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.

73. **1996 Northeast Blizzard of \'96 Followed by Flooding** (Jan).
    "Very heavy snowstorm (1-4 feet) over Appalachians, Mid-Atlantic,
    and Northeast; followed by severe flooding in parts of same area due
    to rain and snowmelt...187 deaths." Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

\$4.0 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC 2008.

\~\$3.5 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.

\$3.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC
2007; Pocock 2007.

74. **1971 San Fernando, CA Earthquake.** Magnitude 6.5.

\$4.0 billion. Inflation adjusted economic losses. USGS,
ANNS-Reducing..., 2003,

\$2.831 billion. Estimated property damage in 2007 dollars. I.I.I.,
Earthquakes, May 2008.

\$ .553 billion. Estimated property damage then. III, Earthquakes, May
2008.

75. **1991 Oakland CA Firestorm** (Oct). 25 deaths; low humidity/high
    winds. Ross/NCDC 2003.

\~\$3.9 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC July \`08.

\~\$3.5 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.

> \$2.516 billion. 2006 dollars; III, *Catastrophes: Insurance Issues*,
> Jan 2008.

\~ \$2.5 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003;
NCDC 2007.

> \$2.2 billion. 2006 dollars. III, Ten Most Costly Large-Loss Fires in
> US History; cites NFPA.
>
> \$2.024 billion. 2003 dollars. NFPA, *Key Dates in Fire History*.
>
> \$1.7 billion**.** At occurrence. III, *Catastrophes: Insurance
> Issues*, Jan 2008.
>
> \$1.5 billion. At time. III, Ten Most Costly Large-Loss Fires in U.S.
> History; citing NFPA.

76. **1996-1997 Pacific Coast Northwest Flooding** (Dec 1996-Jan 1997).
    "Torrential rains (10-40 inches in 2 weeks) and snowmelt produce
    severe flooding; portions of CA, WA, OR, ID, NV, MT ...36 deaths."
    Ross and Lott, NCDC, 2003.

> \$3.9 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \$3.4 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
> inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.

\$3.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC, 2003; NCDC
2007.

\$2-3 billion. Perry (USGS) 2000.

77. **2001 Nisqually (Washington/Oregon) Earthquake** (February 28)

> \$3.9 billion. High range. Public/business/household property;
> Thurston County WA 2004,40.
>
> \$2.687 billion. Estimated property damage in 2007 dollars. I.I.I.,
> Earthquakes, May 2008.
>
> \$2.3 billion. Estimated property damage at the time. I.I.I.,
> Earthquakes, May 2008.
>
> \$2.0 billion. Thurston County, WA OEM, 2004, p. 40.
>
> \$1.5 billion. Damage to \~300K residences, Puget Sound. Thurston
> County WA OEM, \`04

78. **1926 Unnamed FL Hurricane** (Not Great Miami Hurricane). Cat 2.
    Pielke, et al, 2008)

> \$3.7 billion (Normalized to 2005 dollars using Pielke & Landsea
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008)
>
> \$3.6 billion (Normalized to 2005 dollars using Collins and Lowe
> model; Pielke, et al, 2008)

79. **1995 California Flooding** (Jan-March). "Frequent winter storms
    cause 20-70 inch rainfall and periodic flooding across much of
    CA\...27 deaths." Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC 2007.

\>\$3.6 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.

\<\$3.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC
2007.

80. **2003 Severe Storms and Tornadoes** (Early May). "Numerous
    tornadoes over Midwest, MS valley, OH/TN valleys and portions of
    southeast; modern record one-week total of approximately 400
    tornadoes reported... 51 deaths; (Lott and Ross/ NCDC 2005; NCDC
    \`08)

> \>\$3.4 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
> inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.
>
> \<\$3.4 billion. Damages/costs; Lott and Ross; NCDC, 2005; NCDC July
> 2008 update.
>
> \<\$3.1 billion. Damages/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

81. **1990 California Freeze** (Dec). "Record-setting low temperatures
    for extended period during critical growing period. Temperatures not
    above 25 degrees in parts of San Joaquin Valley for three to five
    days and all time record low temperatures were set at Sacramento,
    Stockton, and Bakersfield. Many records were set for duration of
    freezing temperatures....agricultural industry was devastated as
    acres of trees-not just fruit-were destroyed. Thirty-three counties
    were disaster-declared." (NOAA. *California\'s Top 15 Weather Events
    of 1900s.*)

> \$3.4 billion "calculated damages in direct and indirect economic
> losses including damage to public buildings, utilities, crop damage,
> and residential burst pipes...." (*CA Top 15*...)

82. **1964 Alaskan Earthquake (9.2, near Anchorage), West Coast
    Tsunami** (27 March 1964).

\$3.3 billion. Estimated property damage in 2007 dollars. (III,
Earthquakes, May 2008)

\$1.6 billion. USGS 2001

\$2.0 billion. Inflation adjusted economic losses. USGS,
ANSS-Reducing..., 2003.

\$ .5 billion. \~ property damage at time of occurrence (I.I.I.,
Earthquakes, May 2008)

83. **1962 Nor\'easter of 1992** (Dec). "Slow-moving storm batters
    northeast U.S. coast, New England hardest hit...19 deaths." Ross and
    Lott, NCDC 2003.

\$3.0 billion. High range. 2007 normalized dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC \`08.

\$2.0 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
index); Lott 05.

\$1.5 billion. Low range. 2007 normalized \$ using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC 2008.

\$2.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time -- high range. Ross/Lott, NCDC
2003; NCDC 2007.

\$1.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time --low range. Ross/Lott, NCDC
2003; NCDC 2007.

84. **1980 Mt. St. Helens Volcano Eruption, WA** (May 18, 25, June 12).
    60 deaths. (Pocock)

\$3.0 billion. Pocock 2007.

\$1.1 billion. USGS, citing International Trade Commission study for
U.S. Congress.

\~\$1.0 billion. Thurston County, WA OEM, 2004, p. 103)

\$ .9698 billion. Sanders 2000, p. 155; cites WA State Dept. of Commerce
and Econ. Dev.

\$ .86 billion. Foxworthy.

85. **1896 St. Louis/East St. Louis, MO, Tornado** (May 27). "Formed
    about 6 miles west of the Eads Bridge.  From the NW edge of Tower
    Grove Park, this complex combination of tornado and downburst
    widened to over a mile and moved east.  It collapsed or swept away
    parts of houses, factories, saloons, hospitals, mills, railroad
    yards, and churches.   The 36-acre Lafayatte Park was turned into
    \"a wasteland of stripped trees and stumps\".  A barograph dropped
    to 26.74\".  On the east end of the Eads Bridge (built as tornado
    proof after an 1871 tornado) a 2 by 10 inch white pine planks was
    driven through the 5/16\" thick wrought iron plate.  No significant
    damage was done to the steel span of the bridge.  Tornado was
    apparently at maximum intensity  when it crossed the river into East
    St. Louis.  This tornado killed a total of 255 people and injured
    1,000." NWS NFO, St. Louis, MO 2005. 

\$2.916 billion. High range-1997 inflation adjusted,[^15] normalized for
wealth; Brooks 2000)

\$2.2 billion. Low range, 1997 inflation adjusted[^16] and normalized
for wealth; Brooks 2000)

86. **1995 Hurricane Marilyn** (Sep). Cat 2, U.S. Virgin Islands, PR; 13
    deaths. Ross/ Lott 2003.

> \$2.9 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \$2.5 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
> index); Lott 2005.
>
> \$2.1 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003;
> NCDC 2007.
>
> \$1.624 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.
>
> \$1.5 billion. Unadjusted for inflation. Jarrell et al (NOAA) 2001.
>
> \$1.19 billion. Estimated insured loss, 2007 dollars; III,
> *Catastrophes: Insurance*, Jan 2008.
>
> \$ .875 billion**.** Estimated insured at occurrence; III,
> *Catastrophes: Insurance*, Jan 2008.

87. **1985 Hurricane Elena** (Aug-Sep). Cat 3, Florida to Louisiana; 4
    deaths. Ross, NCDC 2003.

\$2.848 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
Blake et al, 2007, 9.

\$2.588 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
construction. Blake et al. \`05.

\$2.5 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC 2008.

\$2.4 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
index); Lott 2005.

\$2.015 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.

\$1.3 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Loss, NCDC 2003; NCDC
2007.

\$1.25 billion. Not adjusted for inflation; Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
2007, p. 8; Jarrell \`01.

88. **2003 Southern California Wildfires** (Late Oct early Nov 2003).
    "Dry weather, high winds, and resulting wildfires in So. CA. More
    than 743,000 acres of brush/timber burned, over 3700 homes
    destroyed...22 deaths." Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003; Lott and Ross,
    NCDC 2005; NCDC 2007.

\~\$2.8 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC 2008.

\>\$2.5 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.

\<\$2.5 billion. "At least" damage/costs at the time. Ross/Lott \`03;
Lott/Ross \`05; NCDC \`07.

89. **1986 Southeast Drought/Heat Wave** (Summer). "Severe summer
    drought in parts of the southeastern U.S. with severe losses to
    agriculture...estimated 100 deaths." NCDC 2003.

\$2.8 billion. High range. Costs normalized 2007 \$ using a GNP
inflation index. NCDC \`08.

\$2.6 billion. High range. Normalized to 2002\$, GNP inflation/wealth
index. NCDC '03.

\$2.3 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
index); Lott 2005.

\$1.9 billion. Low range. Costs normalized 2007 \$ using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC \`08.

\$1.8 billion. Low range. Normalized to 2002\$, GNP inflation/wealth
index. NCDC '03.

\$1.5 billion. High range. Damage/costs at the time. NCDC 2003. NCDC
2007.

\$1.0 billion. Low range. Damage/costs at time. NCDC 2003; NCDC 2007.

90. **1871 Great Chicago Fire** (Oct 8-9). NFPA, *Key Dates in Fire
    History*.

\$2.800 billion. 2006 dollars. III, Ten Most Costly Large-Loss Fires in
U.S. History.

\$2.568 billion. 2003 dollars. NFPA, *Key Dates in Fire History*.

.168 billion. At time. III, Ten Most Costly Large-Loss Fires in U.S.
History.

91. **1992 Hurricane Iniki** (Sep 11). 7 deaths. Cat 4; Hawaiian island
    of Kauai; (NCDC 2003)

> \$2.7 billion. 2007 normalized dollars using a GNP inflation index.
> NCDC 2008.
>
> \$2.563 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.

\~\$2.4 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
index); Lott 2005.

> \$2.3 billion. Estimated insured loss 2007 dollars; III,
> *Catastrophes: Insurance*, Jan 2008.

\$2.190 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.

\~\$1.8 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003. NCDC
2007.

> \$1.8 billion. Not inflation adjusted; Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
> 2007, p. 8; Jarrell 2001.
>
> \$1.6 billion. Estimated insured loss at occurrence; III,
> *Catastrophes: Insurance*, Jan 2008.

92. **1991 Hurricane Bob** (August). Cat 2; mainly coastal NC, Long
    Island, New England; 18 deaths. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

> \$2.593 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
> construction. Blake et al. \`05.
>
> \$2.538 billion. Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9.
>
> \$2.3 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \$2.1 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
> index); Lott 2005.
>
> \$2.004 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
> Jarrell et al, NOAA \`01.
>
> \$1.5 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott NCDC 2003; NCDC
> 2007.
>
> \$1.5 billion. Not adjusted for inflation; Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
> 2007, p. 8; Jarrell \`01.

93. **2000 Western Fire Season** (Spring-Summer). "Severe fire
    season...due to drought and frequent winds, with nearly 7 million
    acres burned...no deaths reported." Ross/Lott 2003.

> \$2.4 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index. NCDC 2008.

\>\$2.1 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
index); Ross/Lott, 03.

\<\$2.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time (includes fire suppression).
Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003.

94. **2000 Phillips Semiconductor Plant Lightning Strike,** Albuquerque,
    NM**.** "Another example of the potential impact of a disruption in
    the supply chain involves the European electronics manufacturer
    Ericsson -- *once* one of the world's leading producers of cellular
    telephones. In March of 2000 a lightning bolt struck the Phillips
    semiconductor manufacturing plant in Albuquerque, New Mexico and
    ignited a fire in a single furnace. The fire was extinguished within
    ten minutes, however, not without contaminating millions of chips as
    well as the "clean rooms" needed to fabricate them. The plant was
    effectively shut down for months. Unlike Ericsson's competitor
    Nokia, which demanded that Phillips provide chips from an alternate
    source in Europe, Ericsson relied on assurances that the plant would
    be back on-line within a few weeks and too late discovered that this
    was not true. Ericsson lost \$2.34 billion and was forced to
    withdraw from the cell phone market...and they have never returned."
    (Kelly, 2008)

\$2.34 billion (Kelly, 2008)

95. **2005 Hurricane Dennis** (July). "Category 3 hurricane makes
    landfall in western Florida panhandle resulting in storm surge and
    wind damage along the FL-AL coasts, along with scattered wind and
    flood damage in GA, MS, and TN....at least 15 deaths." (NCDC July
    2008 update)

> \$ 2.33 billion (Using 2006 DOC Implicit Price Construction Deflator;
> Blake et al, 2007, 9)
>
> \$ 2.3 billion (Not adjusted for inflation; Blake, Rappaport, Landsea,
> 2007, p. 8)
>
> \$ 2.1 billion (Normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
> index; NCDC July 2008)

\<\$ 2.0 billion (Preliminary estimate, damage/costs; NCDC 2008)

\>\$ 2.0 billion (Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005)

\<\$ 2.0 billion (Preliminary estimate, damage/costs; Lott and Ross;
NCDC 2005)

96. **1985 Florida Freeze** (Jan). Damage to the citrus industry; no
    deaths. Severe freeze central/northern Florida. (NCDC 2007)

> \~\$2.3 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP
> inflation index. NCDC 2008.
>
> \~\$2.2 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
> inflation-wealth index); Lott 2005.

\$1.2 billion. NCDC 2007.

97. **1982/Early 1983 Western Storms and Flooding**. "Storms and
    flooding related to El

Nino, especially in the states of WA, OR, CA, AZ, NV, ID, UT, MT...at
least 45 deaths."

Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

\~\$2.3 billion. Normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation index.
NCDC July \`08.

\~\$2.2 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
index); Ross/Lott, 03.

\~\$1.1 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003;
NCDC 2007.

98. **1982/Early 1983 Gulf States Storms and Flooding**. "Storms and
    flooding related to El

> Nino, especially in the states of TX, AR, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL...at
> least 50 deaths. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

\~\$2.3 billion. Normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation index.
NCDC July \`08.

\~\$2.2 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
index); Ross/Lott, 03.

\~\$1.1 billion. Damage/costs at the time. NCDC 2003; NCDC, 2005; NCDC
2007.

99. **1978 Blizzard of '78,** Eastern U.S., particularly northeast, 1978

\$2.3 billion (Drag, 2000; citing NOAA, Natural Disaster Survey...)

\$1.0 billion (Pocock)

100. **1966 Hurricane Inez**. Cat.1, S. FL (Pielke/Landsea 1998).

\$2.2 billion (1992 dollars; Pielke/Landsea 1998)

101. **2007 Southern CA Wildfires** (Oct)**.** "...well over 1 billion
     in destroyed and damaged

> property, and nearly \$900 million in lost business and productivity."
> (San Diego Foundation, Dec 5, 2007, p. 8.)

\~\$2.1 billion. San Diego Foundation, Dec 5, 2007, p. 8.

\~\$1.0 billion. Treaster, NYT, October 25, 2007.

102. **1975 Hurricane Eloise** (Sep 14-27)**.** Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin
     Islands, Northwest

> Florida, inland eastern states. Cat 3. Blake, et al. 2005.
>
> "Hurricane Eloise caused flooding in Puerto Rico and the Eastern
> States during September. The hurricane passed near the north coast of
> Puerto Rico causing torrential rains across the island. As much as 23
> in. fell in Maricao during a 24-hour period (National Oceanic and
> Atmospheric Administration, 1975). Several rivers had maximum
> discharges that were the highest of record and had recurrence
> intervals of 50 to 100 years. Hurricane Eloise made landfall in
> southeastern Louisiana on September 22. The hurricane then followed a
> northeasterly path across Mississippi and Alabama and along the East
> Coast. Floods occurred from Louisiana to Maryland. Damages were
> estimated at \$415 million. Counties in New York, Pennsylvania,
> Maryland, Florida, and Alabama were declared disaster areas." USGS,
> Summary of Significant Floods in US, PR, VI..., 2008.

\$2.008 billion. 2004 inflation adjusted, DOC IPC Deflator for
construction. Blake, 2005.

\$1.489 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
Jarrell (NOAA) 2001.

\$0.490 billion. 1975 dollars. Jarrell (NOAA) 2001.

\$0.415 billion. At time. USGS, Summary of Significant Floods in US, PR,
VI, 2008.

103. **2002 Western Fire Season** (Spring-Fall). "Major fires over 11
     western states from the

> Rockies to the west coast, due to drought and periodic high winds,
> with over 7.1 million acres burned... 21 deaths." Ross/Lott 2003; Lott
> and Ross, NCDC 2005; NCDC 2007).

\>\$2.0 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott.

\<\$2.0 billion. Damages/costs at the time. Ross/Lott 2003; Lott/Ross
2005; NCDC 2007.

104. **2007 Spring Freeze** (April) "Widespread severe freeze over much
     of the east and

> midwest (AL, AR, GA, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, MS, MO, NE, NC, OH, OK, SC,
> TN, VA, WV), causing significant losses in fruit crops, field crops
> (especially wheat), and the ornamental industry. Temperatures in the
> teens/20\'s accompanied by rather high winds nullified typical
> crop-protection systems...no deaths reported." (NCDC, July 2008
> update)

\<\$2 billion in damages/costs (NCDC, July 2008 update)

105. **1989 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill, Prince William Sound, Alaska,**
     March 24.

> \$2 billion (Estimated clean-up cost to Exxon; (Zechman 2007)

106. **1999 Tornadoes** **OK, KS, TX, TN** (May 3). Outbreak of F4-F5
     tornadoes, Oklahoma

City area hardest hit; 55 deaths. (NCDC 2007)

\~\$2.0 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC \`08

\>\$1.7 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
index); Lott 2005

\<\$1.6 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC
2007.

\$1.2 billion. NewspaperArchive.com Accessed September 20, 2008

\<\$1.0 billion. Pocock 2007

\$1.0 billion. Oklahoma City alone "based on press reports after the
fact."(Brooks 2000)

107. **1995 Mayfest Hailstorm/Thunderstorm, Fort Worth, TX** (May) \$1B
     (Wall, 2005)

> \<\$2 billion. Calianese, et at., May 30, 2002.[^17]
>
> \<\$1.0 billion. Wall, April 28, 2005.

108. **Black Hills Flood, Wall SD.** Sav 1974, p. 21.

> **\<**\$2 billion. Sales tax revenue loss. Sav 1974, p. 21.[^18]

109. **2001 Midwest and Ohio Valley Hail and Tornadoes** (April 10).
     "Storms, tornadoes,

> hail in the states of TX, OK, KS, NE, IA, MO, IL, IN, WI, MI, OH, KY,
> WV, and PA, over a 6-day period...with the most significant losses due
> to hail; at least 3 deaths." Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC July 2008
> update.

\<\$1.9 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003;
Lott/Ross, NCDC \`05.

\$1.9 billion. "...in loss burdened by the insurance industry." Beatty
2002[^19]

> \$1.9 billion. Referenced as "St. Louis Hailstorm," Insurance Services
> Office, 11Mar02.
>
> \$1.4 billion. Insurance claims as of Aug 2002; Glass, August 12,
> 2002.[^20]

110. **1998 Minnesota Severe Thunderstorms/Hail** (May). "Very damaging
     severe

thunderstorms with large hail over wide areas of MN...1 death."
Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003.

> \~\$1.9 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP
> inflation index. NCDC \`08.
>
> \>\$1.7 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
> index); NCDC \`03.

\<\$1.5 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC
2007.

111. **1996/1997 California New Year\'s Flood**. "Significant rainfall
     fell throughout central

> and northern California from December 26, 1996 through January 3,
> 1997, with the heaviest and warmest rains on New Year\'s Eve/Day. Snow
> levels were above 10,000 feet. Several towns were inundated.
> Three-hundred square miles were flooded, including the Yosemite
> Valley, which flooded for the first time since 1861-62. For weeks
> after the rains stopped rivers continued to flow out of their banks
> and major roads remained impassable due to flood damage and mudslides.
> Along I-80\...rainfall recorded for the event totaled 3.71 inches at
> Sacramento\...9.57 inches at Auburn\...and 29.73 inches at Blue
> Canyon. Forty-eight counties were disaster-declared, including all 46
> counties in northern California. Calculated damages: 8 dead..." (NOAA.
> *California\'s Top 15 Weather Events of 1900s.*)
>
> \$1.8 billion economic losses including 23K homes, 2K businesses
> damaged or destroyed. (NOAA. *California\'s Top 15 Weather Events of
> 1900s.*)

112. **1998 Northeast/New England Ice Storm** (Jan). Intense ice storm
     hits Maine, NH, VT,

and NY, with extensive forestry losses. Over 16 deaths. Ross/Lott, NCDC
2003.

\<\$1.8 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC \`08

\>\$1.5 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
index); NCDC \`03.

\<\$1.4 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC
2007.

113. **1887 Yellow Fever Epidemic, Mississippi Valley** (August)

> \$1.800 billion. 2000 dollars. Blanchard, Using Sahr CPI Conversion
> Factors 2000 .
>
> \$0.100 billion. At the time. PBS. *The Great Fever*. 2006

114. **1927 St. Louis Tornado** (September 29). "Tornado formed in
     Webster Groves and

> moved ENE across a corner of Forest Park into downtown St. Louis.  In
> downtown St. Louis, the path widened from 100 to 600 yards, with
> microburst damage extending out over a mile wide.  A few multi-story
> dwellings were destroyed and partly swept away (possibly F4), and some
> non-residential buildings were completely blown away.   Over 200 city
> blocks were torn apart.  Tornado then moved into Illinois."  (NWS WFO,
> St. Louis, 2005) 

\$1.797B. Adjusted for inflation, normalized for wealth to 1997
(Brooks/Doswell, 2000)

115. **2003 Storms and Hail** (Early April). "Severe storms and large
     hail over the southern

> plains and lower MS River valley, with Texas hardest hit, and much of
> the monetary losses due to hail...3 deaths. (NCDC 2008)

\>\$1.6 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott.

\<\$1.6 billion. Damages/costs. NCDC July 2008 update.

\<\$1.6 billion. Damages/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC, 2003.

116. **1999 Arkansas-Tennessee Tornadoes** (Jan). Two outbreaks, 6-day
     period, 17 deaths.

Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC July 2008 update.

\~\$1.6 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC \`08.

\~\$1.4 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
index). NCDC 05.

\~\$1.3 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003;
NCDC 2007.

\$1.3 billion. Pocock 2007

117. **2002 Severe Weather Eastern US** (April 27-May 3). Severe weather
     included

> supercell thunderstorms, hail storms, and tornadoes, causing
> widespread damage in 17 states. Insured property damage, as reported
> by Property Claims Services, with the majority occurring in the states
> of KY, MD, VA and TN. (Willis 2002)
>
> \$1.54 billion. Willis 2002.

118. **2007 East/South Severe Weather** (April). "Flooding, hail,
     tornadoes, and severe

> thunderstorms across numerous states (CT, DE, GA, LA, ME, MD, MA, MS,
> NH, NJ, NY, NC, PA, RI, SC, TX, VT, VA) in mid-April, including 3
> \"killer\" tornadoes. Over \$1.5 billion in damages/costs; 9 deaths."
> (NCDC July 2008 update)
>
> \<\$1.5 billion. Damages/costs. NCDC July 2008 update.

119. **2006 Midwest/Southeast Tornadoes** (April). "Severe weather and
     numerous tornadoes

> affecting the states of OK, KS, MO, NE, KY, OH, TN, IN, MS, GA, and AL
> on April 6-8 with 3 \"killer\" tornadoes in TN....; 10 deaths." (NCDC
> July 2008)
>
> \<\$1.5 billion in damages/costs; (NCDC July 2008)

120. **1989 Northern Plains Drought** (Summer). "Severe summer drought
     over much of the

northern plains with significant losses to agriculture...no deaths
reported." (NCDC 2003.

\>\$1.7 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC \`08.

\>\$1.5 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott.

\~\$1.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

121. **1985 Hurricane Gloria**. Eastern U.S.; Cat. 3. Jarrell Et al
     (NOAA) 2001.

\$1.451 billion. 2000 adjusted via DOC construction price deflator.
Jarrell (NOAA) 2001.

\$. 900 billion. Jarrell Et al (NOAA) 2001.

122. **1993 Southern California Wildfires** (Fall). Dry weather, high
     winds, wildfires; 4

deaths. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

\~\$1.4 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC \`08.

\~\$1.3 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott.

\$1.0 billion. NOAA. *California\'s Top 15 Weather Events of 1900s*.

\~\$1.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003;
NCDC 2007.

123. **2007 California Freeze** (Jan) "Widespread agricultural freeze -
     for nearly two weeks in

> January, overnight temperatures over a good portion of California
> dipped into the 20\'s, destroying numerous agricultural crops; with
> citrus, berry, and vegetable crops most affected. \$1.4 billion
> estimated in damage/costs; 1 fatality reported." (NCDC July 2008)
>
> \~\$1.4 billion damage/costs (NCDC July 2008 update)

124. **1993 Southeastern Drought/Heat Wave** (Summer). At least 16
     deaths. (NCDC 2003)

\~\$1.4 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC \`08.

\~\$1.3 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott.

\~\$1.0 billion. Damage/costs to agriculture at time. Ross/Lott NCDC
2003; NCDC 2007.

125. **1994 Western Fire Season** (Sum-Fall). Severe fire season;
     western states; dry weather;

death toll undetermined. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

\~\$1.4 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC \`08.

\~\$1.2 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott.

\~\$1.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003;
NCDC 2007.

126. **1994 Texas Flooding** (Oct). "Torrential rain (10-25 inches in 5
     days), and thunderstorms

cause flooding across much of southeast Texas...19 deaths." Ross/Lott,
NCDC 2003.

\~\$1.4 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC \`08.

\~\$1.2 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott.

\~\$1.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003;
NCDC 2007.

127. **1994 Tropical Storm Alberto** (July). "Remnants of slow-moving
     Alberto brought

> torrential 10-25 inch rains in 3 days, widespread flooding, and
> agricultural damage in parts of GA, AL, and FL panhandle...32 deaths."
> Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

\~\$1.4 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC \`08.

\~\$1.2 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott.

\~\$1.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003;
NCDC 2007.

\$0.500 billion. 1994 dollars. Jarrell et al (NOAA) 2001.

128. **1990 Southern Plains (Trinity, Red, Arkansas Rivers) Flooding**
     (May). 13 deaths.

Torrential rains cause flooding TX, OK, LA, AR. (Lott/Ross 2005; NCDC
2007)

\>\$1.4 billion. (Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott.

\<\$1.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003.

\$1.0 billion. Perry (USGS) 2000.

129. **1925 Tri-State Tornado** (MO, IL, IN), March 18. \$1.392B. Brooks
     and Doswell, 2000

\$1.392B. Adjusted for inflation, normalized for wealth to 1997
Brooks/Doswell, 2000.

130. **1996 Pacific Northwest Severe Flooding** (Feb). Very heavy,
     persistent rains

(10-30 inches) and melting snow over OR, WA, ID, West MT; 9 deaths.
(NCDC 2008)

\~\$1.3 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC 108

\~\$1.2 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott.

\~\$1.0 billion. Damage/costs. NCDC 2007. Perry (USGS) 2000.

131. **1872 Great Boston Fire** (MA). Nov. NFPA, *Key Dates in Fire
     History*.

\$1.300 billion. 2006 dollars. III, Ten Most Costly Large-Scale Fires in
U.S. History.

\$1.146 billion. NFPA, Key Dates in Fire History.

\$ .075 billion. At time. III, Ten Most Costly Large-Scale Fires in U.S.
History.

132. **1998 Southeast Texas Flooding** (Oct-Nov). Severe flooding in SE
     TX from 2 heavy rain

events, with 10-20 inch rainfall totals; 31 deaths. Ross/Lott 2003; NCDC
2008 update.

\~\$1.3 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC \`08

\~\$1.1 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
index). NCDC \`03.

\~\$1.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross and Lott, NCDC 2003;
NCDC 2007.

133. **1998 Hurricane Bonnie** (Aug). Cat 3, strikes eastern NC, VA,
     "extensive

> agricultural damage due to winds and flooding, with 10-inch rains in 2
> days in some locations...3 deaths." Ross/Lott NCDC 2003; NCDC July
> 2008 update.

\~\$1.3 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC \`08.

\~\$1.1 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
index). NCDC \`03

\~\$1.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC
2007.

\$ .720 bill. Unadjusted for inflation. Jarrell et al, NOAA 2001.

134. **1998 Southeast Severe Weather** (Winter-Spring). El Nino related
     tornadoes, flooding in

southeastern states; at least 132 deaths. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC
July 2008.

\~\$1.3 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC \`08

\>\$1.1 billion. Damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP inflation-wealth
index); NCDC \`03.

\<\$1.0 billion. Damage/costs at the time. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC
2007.

135. **1997 MS and OH River Valleys Flooding, Tornadoes** (March).
     Tornadoes and severe

flooding AR, MO, MS, TN, IL, IN, KY, OH, WV; 67 deaths. Ross/Lott, NCDC
2003.

> \~\$1.3 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP
> inflation index. NCDC \`08.
>
> \~\$1.1 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
> inflation-wealth index); Lott.
>
> \$1.0 billion. Estimated damage/costs. Ross/Lott, NCDC 2003; NCDC
> 2007; Pocock.

136. **1982/83 California El Niño Storms**. 6,661 homes and 1,330
     businesses damaged or

> destroyed. Multiple strong storms; high wind, heavy rain and heavy
> snowfall across CA; led to direct wind damage, higher tides, immediate
> flooding to coastal and valley locations, mudslides in coastal
> mountain areas, record snowfall in the Sierra Mountains, and resulting
> spring snowmelt river flooding. In one 36-hour period, 25 inches of
> rain fell in the Santa Cruz (coastal) mountains while 8.5 feet of snow
> fell in the Lake Tahoe region. Forty-six counties were
> disaster-declared. Calculated Damages: 36 dead, 481 injured (NOAA.
> *California\'s Top 15 Weather Events of 1900s.*)

\$1.209 billion economic losses. (NOAA. *California\'s Top 15 Weather
Events of 1900s.*)

\$1.1 billion (*NOAA Magazine* 2002)

137. **1985 Shenandoah, James, Roanoke Rivers Flooding** (Nov). VA, WV;
     69 deaths.

Excessive regional rain. Perry (USGS) 2000.

> \$1.25 billion. Perry (USGS) 2000.

138. **1999 Eastern Drought/Heat Wave** (Summer). "Very dry summer and
     high

> temperatures, mainly in eastern U.S., with extensive agricultural
> losses...estimated 502 deaths." (NCDC July 2008 update)

\$1.2 billion. Costs normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation
index. NCDC \`08.

\>\$1.1 billion. Est. damage/costs 2002\$ normalized (GNP
inflation-wealth index); Lott.

\<\$1.0 billion. Damage/costs. NCDC 2007.

139. **1989 Phillips Petroleum Plant Fire**. Pasadena, TX. NFPA, *Key
     Dates...Fire History*.

\$1.200 billion. 2006 dollars. III, Ten Most Costly Large-Loss Fires in
U.S. History.

\$1.113 billion. 2003 dollars. NFPA, *Key Dates in Fire History*.

\$ .839 billion. Property Damage Losses. Sanders, et al., 2002, p. 179.

\$ .750 billion. At time. III, Ten Most Costly Large-Loss Fires in U.S.
History.

140. **1979 Wichita Falls, TX Tornado** (April 10).

> \$1.141B (Adjusted for inflation, normalized for wealth to 1997
> Brooks/Doswell, 2000)

141. **1953 Worcester, MA Tornado** (June 9) \$1.140B
     adjusted/normalized (Brooks 2000)

\$1.140 billion (Adjusted for inflation, normalized for wealth to 1997;
Brooks 2000)

142. **1975 Omaha, NE Tornado** (May 6) \$1.127B (Brooks and Doswell
     2000)

\$1.127 billion (Adjusted for inflation, normalized for wealth to 1997;
Brooks 2000)

\$ .250 billion ("Raw;" (Brooks and Doswell 2000)

143. **1966 Topeka, KS Tornado** (June 8). \$1.126 B (Brooks and Doswell
     2000)

\$1.126 billion (Adjusted for inflation, normalized for wealth to 1997;
Brooks 2000)

\$ .100 billion ("Raw;" (Brooks and Doswell 2000)

144. **1936 Gainesville, GA Tornado** (April 6). \$1.111B (Brooks and
     Doswell, 2000)

> \$1.111 billion (Adjusted for inflation, normalized for wealth to
> 1997; Brooks 2000)
>
> \$ .013 billion ("Raw;" Brooks and Doswell 2000)

145. **2005 Drought** (Spring-Summer). "Rather severe localized drought
     causes significant

> crop losses (especially for corn and soybeans) in the states of AR,
> IL, IN, MO, OH, and WI." (Lott and Ross; NCDC 2005; NCDC 2007; NCDC
> July 2008 update)

\$1.1 billion. Normalized to 2007 dollars using a GNP inflation index.
NCDC July \`08.

\<\$1.0 billion. Preliminary est. damage/costs (Lott and Ross; NCDC
2005; NCDC 2007)

146. **1904 Baltimore Conflagration** (Feb 7).

\$1.100 billion. 2006 dollars. III, Ten Most Costly Large-Loss Fires in
U.S. History.

\$ .05 billion. At time. III, Ten Most Costly Large-Loss Fires in U.S.
History.

147. **2007 Western Wildfires** (Summer-Fall) "Continued drought
     conditions and high winds

> over much of the western US (AK, AZ, CA, ID, UT, MT, NV, OR, WA)
> resulting in numerous wildfires; with national acreage burned
> exceeding 8.9 million acres (mainly in the west) and over 3,000 homes
> and structures destroyed in southern California alone. Well over \$1.0
> billion in damages/costs; at least 12 deaths. (NCDC, July 2008 Update)

\<\$1 billion. (NCDC, July 2008 Update)

148. **1970 Lubbock, TX Tornado** (May 11) \$1.081B (Brooks and Doswell
     2000)

\$1.081 billion (Adjusted for inflation, normalized for wealth to 1997;
Brooks 2000)

\$ .135 billion ("Raw;" Brooks and Doswell 2000)

149. **2000 Los Alamos NM Wildland Fire** (May 4). NFPA, *Key Dates in
     Fire History.*

\$1.200 billion. 2006 dollars. III. Ten Most Costly Large-Loss Fires in
U.S. History.

\$1.068 billion. NFPA, *Key Dates in Fire History*.

\$1.000 billion. At time. III. Ten Most Costly Large-Loss Fires in U.S.
History.

150. **2006 Midwest/Ohio Valley Tornadoes** (April). "Significant
     outbreak of tornadoes and

> severe weather affecting the states of IL, IN, IA, AR, MO, KY, and TN
> on April 2nd with 5 \"killer\" tornadoes....27 deaths." (NCDC July
> 2008)
>
> \~\$1.1 billion in damages/costs; (NCDC July 2008)

151. **1924 Lorain-Sandusky, OH Tornado** (June 28) \$1.023B. Brooks and
     Doswell, 2000

\$1.023 billion (Adjusted for inflation, normalized for wealth to 1997;
Brooks 2000)

\$ .012 billion ("Raw;" Brooks and Doswell 2000)

152. **2006 Wildfires** (Entire year 2006). "Numerous wildfires mainly
     over the western half of

> the country due to dry weather and high winds, burning nearly 10
> million acres (new record for period since 1960), with the most
> affected states being AK, AZ, CA, CO, FL, ID, MT, NM, NV, OK, OR, TX,
> WA, WY. Well over \$1.0 billion in overall damages/costs; at least 28
> fatalities, including 20 firefighters." (NCDC July 2008 update)

\<\$1.0 billion in overall damages/costs (NCDC July 2008 update)

153. **2006 Severe Storms and Tornadoes** (March). "Outbreak of
     tornadoes over portions of

> the Midwest and South during a week-long period-affecting the states
> of AL, AR, KY, MS, TN, TX, IN, KS, MO, & OK....at least 10 deaths.
> (NCDC 2008)

\<\$1.0 billion damage/costs (NCDC 2008)

154. **2006 Northeast Flooding** (June). "Severe flooding over portions
     of the northeast due to

> several weeks of heavy rainfall, affecting the states of NY, PA, DE,
> MD, NJ, and VA.... at least 20 deaths reported." (NCDC July 2008)
>
> \<\$1 billion in damage/costs (NCDC July 2008)

155. **1991 "The Perfect Storm" (Halloween Nor'easter of 1991)**
     October. (Drag, 2000)

\$1 billion (Drag, 2000)

156. **2007 Washington State Flooding** (Early Dec) Killed a half-dozen
     people, displaced

hundreds from their homes, and hurt businesses." (Ammons, *Seattle
Times*, 29Jan08)

\~\$1 billion in damage (Ammons, *Seattle Times*, 29Jan08)

157. **1962 "Columbus Day Wind Storm"** (October 12). WA, OR. "Total
     property damage in

> the region was estimated at \$235 million (1962 dollars). The storm
> blew down 15 billion board feet of timber worth \$750 million (1962
> dollars); this is more than three times the timber blown down by the
> May 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens..." (Tetra Tech/KCM, 1995, p.
> 16-3).

\~\$1 billion (Tetra Tech/KCM, 1995, p. 16-3).

\$.985 billion in 1962 dollars (Tetra Tech/KCM, 1995, p. 16-3).

158. **1979 Three Mile Island** (March 28). Harrisburg, PA nuclear power
     plant failure. Enzler,

*Environmental* Disasters, 2006)

\~\$1 billion Enzler, *Environmental* Disasters, 2006)

\$.975 billion dollars clean-up cost in 1980s dollars Enzler,
*Environmental Disasters*,)

159. **1947 Grand Camp Explosion, Texas City, TX** (April 16).

\~\$1 billion estimate.[^21]

160. **1974 Eastern US Super Tornado Outbreak** (184) Apr 3-4.
     Wartenberg/Narcisco 2008

> . \~\$1.0 billion.. Wartenberg/Narcisco 2008
>
> \$ .600 billion. Wartenberg/Narcisco 2008

**Soon To Be Billion Dollar Disasters When Adjusted for Inflation**

**1995 Hurricane Erin**. (Early Aug) Cat. 2. Made landfall at Vero Beach
on east-central

> Florida coast on August 2 at Cat. 1. Crossed Florida into Gulf of
> Mexico and made landfall again near Pensacola, northwest Florida coast
> as Cat. 2. Weakened to tropical storm in southeastern MI on 3^rd^ and
> 4^th^**;** and then a tropical depression as it moved north into WV on
> 5^th^ and 6^th^. Much of the damage in FL attributable to tree
> downings, crop and ship damages, in addition to some 2000 homes
> damaged. 6 drowning deaths in Gulf of Mexico and off Florida Atlantic
> coast. Rappaport (NWC) November 1995.
>
> \$0.990 billion. 2008 inflation adjusted dollars.
>
> \$0.923 billion. 2006 inflation adjusted dollars.
>
> \$0.700 billion. 1995 unadjusted dollars. Jarrell, et al (NOAA) 2001.
>
> \$0.375 billion. American Insurance Services Group est. of insured
> loss. NHC Nov 1995.

**1951 Kansas and Neosho River Basins Flood, KS** (July). Perry (USGS)
2000

> \$.800 billion. Perry (USGS) 2000.

**1989 Tropical Storm Allison** (June 27-July 1). TX, LA, Mid-Atlantic
states flooding.

11 deaths attributable to Allison (TX, LA, MS).

\$0.872 billion. 2005 inflation adjusted dollars.

\$0.560 billion. 1989 dollars.

\$0.500 billion. 1989 dollars. Jarrell et al (NOAA) 2001.

**1998 Tropical Storm Frances.** N TX. \$500M. Jarrell et al (NOAA)
2001.

**1979 Tropical Storm Claudette**. N TX. \$400 million. Jarrell et al
(NOAA) 2001.

**1994 Tropical Storm Gordon**, S & Central FL, NC. \$400 million.
Jarrell et al (NOAA) 2001.

**1979 Hurricane David**. FL, Eastern U.S., category 2. \$320M. Jarrell
et al, NOAA 2001.

**1982 Hurricane Iwa, Hawaii** (Nov 23-24). Category 1. Islands of
Kauai, Niihau, Oahu hardest hit. 1 death; 2,345 buildings damaged or
destroyed; 500 people left homeless; winds up to 110 mph; 7,000 sought
shelter. *UPI*, "One Dead in Hawaii Storm...," Nov 25, 1982.

> \$0.774 billion. 2006 dollars.
>
> \$0.312 billion. 1982 dollars. Jarrell et al, NOAA 2001.
>
> \$0.308 billion. FEMA estimate at time. USGS, *Summary of Significant
> Floods*..., 1991)
>
> \$0.250 billion. 1982 dollars. NWS Central Pacific Hurricane Center,
> 1982,

**2008 Hurricane Ike Ohio** (September 14). UPI, October 7, 2008.

\$675 million. 2008 dollars. UPI, October 7, 2008.

\$553 million. 2008 dollars, insured losses. Wartenberg and Narcisco,
Oct 7, 2008.

> \$500 million. Ohio damages. AP, "Hurricane Ike... Dump
> \$500M...Ohio." 27Sep08.

**If Today Additional Considerations**

**1811 New Madrid Earthquake** (Dec 6). Magnitude \~7.2-8.1. USGS,
Historic \`Quakes, 2008.

> \$100 billion. Estimate of losses if happened in 1996. National
> Earthquake...1996.[^22]

\$ 88 billion. Computer model, estimated impact for 2005 exposures. III,
Defraying\`07.[^23]

**1836 Charleston, SC Earthquake** (August 31). Magnitude 7.3. I.I.I.,
Defraying..., 2007.

\$38 billion. Computer model of estimated impact for 2005 exposures.
III, Defraying\`07.[^24]

**1838 San Francisco Earthquake** (June 1). Magnitude 7.2. I.I.I.,
Defraying..., 2007.

\$11 billion. Computer model of estimated impact for 2005 exposures.
III, Defraying\`07.[^25]

**1843 Marked Tree, AR Earthquake** (January 17). Magnitude 6.5. I.I.I.,
Defraying..., 2007.

\$12 billion. Computer model of estimated impact for 2005 exposures.
III, Defraying\`07.[^26]

**1868 Hayward, CA Earthquake** (October 21). Magnitude 6.8.
Defraying..., 2007.

\$25 billion. Computer model of estimated impact for 2005 exposures.
III, Defraying\`07.[^27]

**1877 Portland OR Earthquake** (October 12). Magnitude 6.3. I.I.I.,
Defraying..., 2007.

\$11 billion. Computer model of estimated impact for 2005 exposures.
III, Defraying\`07.[^28]

**1886 Fort Tejon, CA Earthquake** (January 9). Magnitude 7.9. I.I.I.,
Defraying..., 2007.

\$27 billion. Computer model of estimated impact for 2005 exposures.
III, Defraying\`07.[^29]

**1911 San Jose, CA Earthquake** (July 1). Magnitude 6.6. I.I.I.,
Defraying..., 2007.

\$9 billion. Computer model of estimated impact for 2005 exposures. III,
Defraying\`07.[^30]

**Monthly averaged insured disaster losses in the U.S. 1980-2006.
\$1billion.** (GAO, *Climate Change*, May 2007, p. 4)

**Ongoing: Weekly** averaged **total disaster losses** 1989 to the
present \-- **\$1 billion**. (Mileti, 5)

# **Part 2:**

# **Billion Dollar U.S. Disasters -- Chronologically Listed**

# 

**2008 Hurricane Ike Ohio** (September 14). \$675 million. UPI, October
8, 2008.

**2008 Hurricane Ike Texas and Louisiana** (Sep 12-13). \$8 to \$18
billion.

**2008 Hurricane Gustav** (Early Sep). \$4-10 billion insured losses.
(Insure.com, 2Sep08)

**2008 Iowa Flooding.** \~\$10B (Gazette Online, Iowa, August 6, 2008)

**2007 Great Plains and Eastern Drought.** Entire Year. \<5\$B (NCDC,
July 2008 update)

**2007 Washington State Flooding** (Early Dec). (Ammons, *Seattle
Times*, 29Jan08)

**2007 Southern California Wildfires,** Oct**.** (SD Foundation, 2007;
Treaster, NYT, 2007)

**2007 Western Wildfires** (Summer-Fall 2007) \<\$1 billion. (NCDC, July
2008 update)

**2007 Spring Freeze** (April 2007) \<\$2 billion (NCDC, July 2008
update)

**2007 East/South Severe Weather** (April 2007) \<\$1.5 billion (NCDC,
July 2008 update)

**2007 California Freeze** (January 2007) \~\$1.4 billion (NCDC, July
2008 update)

**2006 Wildfires** (Entire year 2006). \<\$1.0 billion (NCDC 2007; NCDC
July 2008 update)

**2006 Widespread Drought** (Spring-Summer). \~\<\$6.0 billion
damages/costs. (NCDC 2008)

**2006 Northeast Flooding** (June 2006). \<\$1.0 billion. NCDC July 2008
update

**2006 Midwest/Southeast Tornadoes** (April). \<\$1.5 billion. NCDC July
2008.

**2006 Midwest/Ohio Valley Tornadoes** (April). \~\$1.1 billion. NCDC
July 2008.

**2006 Severe Storms/Tornadoes** (March). \<\$1.0 billion (NCDC 2008)

**2005 Hurricane Wilma** (Oct) Cat 3. \$16-17B. (NCDC 2008; Kunreuther
2007, 3)

**2005 Hurricane Rita** (Sep). (NCDC 2007; Kunreuther 2007, p. 3;
KWTX-TV; Woolsey)

**2005 Hurricane Katrina** (August). Cat 3; \$125-133.8 billion. NCDC
July 2008

**2005 Hurricane Dennis** (July 2005). Cat 3; \<\$2-2.1 billion (NCDC
July 2008 update)

**2005 Drought** (Spring-Summer). \<\$1-1.1 billion. (NCDC July 2008)

**2004 Hurricane Jeanne** (Sep 26). Cat 3 (NCDC 2007; Kunreuther 2007
\>\$6.9-7.7B

**2004 Hurricane Ivan** (Sep). Cat 3. (NCDC 2008; Kunreuther 2007;
Woolsey) \>\$14.-15.4B

**2004 Hurricane Frances** (Sep). Cat 2. (NCDC 2008; Kunreuther 2007, p.
3)\<\$9-9.9B

**2004 Hurricane Charley** (Aug). Cat 4. (NCDC 2007; Kunreuther 2007, p.
3) \~\$15.-16.5B

**2003 Southern California Wildfires** (Late Oct/early Nov 2003). (NCDC
2008). \<\$2.5-2.8B

**2003 Hurricane Isabel** September 2003. Category 2; (NCDC 2008)
\~\$5.0-5.6B

2003. **Northeast Blackout** (Aug 14). (ICF Consulting 2003; White
      House, *NSHS*, 2007, 1:11)

**2003 Severe Storms and Tornadoes** (Early May 2003). NCDC July 2007.
\<\$3.4 billion

**2003 Hail** and **Storms** (Early April). \$ 1.6 billion in
damages/costs. (NCDC 2008)

**2002 Widespread** **Drought** (Spring-early Fall). Over \$10.0-11.4B.
NCDC July 2008 update.

**2002 Western Fire Season** (Spring-Fall). Over \$2-2.3B. (NCDC July
2008 update.

**2002 Severe Weather Eastern US** (April 27-May 3). (Willis, 2002)

**2001 9/11 Terrorist Attacks** (Sep 11). (Looney 2002; Kunreuther,
2007, p. 4.)

**2001 Tropical Storm Allison** (June 2001). Kunreuther 2007, p. 3; NCDC
July 2008; \$5-5.6B

**2001 Midwest and Ohio Valley Hail and Tornadoes** (10Apr2001). (NCDC
2008) \$1.9-2,2B

**2001 Nisqually (Washington/Oregon) Earthquake** (Feb 28). (III,
Earthquakes, May 2008)

**2000 Drought/Heat Wave** (Spring-Summer 2000). \<\$4-4.8 billion. NCDC
July 2008.

**2000 Western Fire Season** (Spring-Summer 2000). Over \$2-2.4 billion.
NCDC July2008.

**2000 Wildland Fire,** Los Alamos, NM, May 2000. \$1.068B. NFPA, Key
Dates in Fire Hist.

**2000** **Phillips Semiconductor Plant Lightning Strike, Albuquerque,
NM** (March) **\--** \$2.34B.

**1999** **Hurricane Floyd** (Sep). Cat 2; 77 deaths. \$6-7.5 billion
damage/costs; NCDC 2008.

**1999 Eastern Drought/Heat Wave** (Summer). \$1-1.2 billion. NCDC July
2008 update.

**1999 Tornadoes** **OK, KS, TX** (May 3). F4-F5. \$1.6-2 billion. NCDC
July 2007 update.

**1999 Arkansas-TN Tornadoes** (Jan). Two outbreaks 6-day period;
\$1.3-1.6B. (NCDC 2008)

**1998 SE Texas** **Flooding** (Oct-Nov). \$1.0-1.3 billion. 31 deaths
(NCDC July 2008 update)

**1998 Hurricane Georges** (Sep). Cat 2; PR, FL Keys, coasts of LA, MS,
AL, FL. \$5.9-7.4B.

**1998 Tropical Storm Frances.** N TX. \$500M. Jarrell et al (NOAA)
2001.

**1998 Hurricane Bonnie** (Aug). Cat 3; eastern NC, VA, \$1-1.3 billion.
(NCDC July 2008)

**1998 Southern Drought/Heat Wave** (Summer). TX/OK to Carolinas.
\$6-9B. NCDC 2008.

**1998 Minnesota Severe Storms/Hail** (May). \$1.5-1.9 billion. NCDC
July 2008 update.

**1998 Southeast Severe Weather** (Winter-Spring). Tornadoes, flooding;
SE states; \$1-1.3B

**1998 Northeast Ice Storm** (Jan). Maine, NH, Vermont, and NY,
\$1.4-1.8B (NCDC 2008)

**1997/8 California El Nino Storms** (1997-1998). \$1.1 billion..."
(*NOAA Magazine* 2002)

**1997 Northern Plains (Red River)Flooding** (Apr/May). Dakotas, MN.
\$3.7-4.8B. NCDC \`08.

**1997 MS and OH Valleys Flooding and Tornadoes** (March). \$1-1.3B.
(NCDC July 2008)

**1996/7 West Coast Flooding** (Dec 1996-Jan 1997). \~\$3-3.9 billion.
NCDC July 2008 update.

**1996/7 California New Year\'s Flood** (1996/1997). \$1.8B. (NOAA. *CA
Top 15 Weather Events.*

**1996 Hurricane Fran** (Sep). Cat. 3; NC, VA, \$5-6.4 billion. NCDC
July 2008.

**1996 Pacific Northwest Severe Flooding** (Feb). OR, WA, ID, W. MT;
\$1-1.3B. (NCDC \`08)

**1996 Blizzard of \'96/Flooding** (Jan). Appalachians, Mid-Atlantic,
Ntheast. \$3-4B. NCDC 08.

**1995/6 Southern Plains Severe Drought** (Fall 1995-Summer 1996).
\$5-6.8B. (NCDC 2008)

**1995 Winter Storms -- California**. \$1.841B (NOAA, CA Top 15 Weather
Events of 1900s)

**1995 Hurricane Opal** (Oct). Cat 3; FL panhandle, AL,GA, TN, SC, NC.
\$3-4.1B. (NCDC 08)

**1995 Hurricane Marilyn** (Sep). Cat 2, U.S. Virgin Islands;
\$2.1-2.9B. (NCDC 2008)

**1995 Hurricane Erin**. (Early Aug) Cat. 2; Landfall twice in FL.
\$700M. Jarrell (NOAA)2001.

**1995 TX/OK/LA/Miss Severe Weather and Flooding** May 1995. \$5.82B.
NCDC 2008.

**1995 Mayfest Hailstorm/Thunderstorm, Fort Worth, TX** (May 5, 1995)
\$1B (Wall, 2005)

**1994 Texas Flooding** (Oct). \$1-1.4 billion damage/costs; 19 deaths.
NCDC July 2008 update.

**1994 Western Fire Season** (Summer-Fall). \$1-1.4B. NCDC July 2008
update.

**1994 Tropical Storm Alberto** (July). GA, AL, FL panhandle; \$1-1.4
billion NCDC 2008.

**1994 Southeast Ice Storm** (Feb). TX, OK, AR, LA, MS, AL, TN, GA, SC,
NC, VA. \$3-4B

**1994 Northridge Earthquake** (Jan 17). Magnitude 6.7**.** \$41B
(Insurance Journal 2006).

**1994 Tropical Storm Gordon**, S & Central FL, NC. \$400 million.
Jarrell et al (NOAA) 2001.

**1993 California Wildfires** (Oct). \$1-1.4B. (NOAA. *CA Top 15 Weather
Events of 1900s*)

**1993 Midwest Flooding** (Summer). \$21-30.2 billion; 48 deaths. (NCDC
July 2008 update)

**1993 Southeastern Drought/Heat Wave** (Summer). \$1-1.4 billion. NCDC
July 2008 update.

**1993 Eastern Seaboard Storm/Blizzard** (March). \"Storm of the
Century\" \$5B. NCDC 2007.

**1992 Nor\'easter of 1992** (Dec). NE coast, New England hardest hit;
\$1-2B. NCDC 2008.

**1992 Hurricane Iniki** (Sep). Cat 4; Hawaiian island of Kauai;
\~\$1.8-2.7B. NCDC 2008.

**1992 Hurricane Andrew** (Aug). Cat 5; FL, LA, \$27-40 billion. NCDC
July 2008 update.

**1991 Oakland Firestorm** (Oct). \$2.5 (3.9) billion damage/costs; 25
deaths. NCDC 2008.

**1991 "The Perfect Storm" (Halloween Nor'easter of 1991)** October.
\$1B. (Drag, 2000)

**1991 Hurricane Bob** (Aug). Cat 2; NC, Long Island, New England;
\$1.5-2.3B. (NCDC 2008)

**1990 California Freeze** (Dec). \$3.4 billion. NOAA. *CA Top 15
Weather Events of 1900s.*

**1990 Trinity, Red, AR Rivers** **Flooding** (May). TX, OK, LA, AR;
over \$1.B. NCDC 2007.

**1989 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill, Prince William Sound, Alaska,** March 24,
1989. \$2 billion.

**1989 Tropical Storm Allison** (June 27-July 1). TX, LA, Mid-Atlantic
states flooding. \$560M.

**1989 Hurricane Hugo** (Sep). Cat. 4; SC & NC; 86 deaths. \$7.1-15.3
billion. NCDC 2008.

**1989 Northern Plains Drought** (Summer). \$1-1.7B. NCDC July 2008
update.

**1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake** (Oct 17). Mag. 6.9; \$6-\$10B property
loss. USGS 1999.

**1989 Phillips Petroleum Plant Fire**. Pasadena, TX, \$1B (2003
dollars). NFPA *Key Dates*...

**1988 Drought/Heat Wave** (Summer). Central and eastern US; \$40-71.2B.
NCDC 2008.

**1986 Southeast Drought/Heat Wave** (Summer). \$1-2.8 billion. \~100
deaths. NCDC 2008.

**1985 Shenandoah, James, Roanoke Rivers Flooding** (Nov). \$1.25B; 69
deaths. Perry 2000.

**1985 Hurricane Elena** (Aug-Sep). Cat. 3; FL to LA; \$1.3-2.5B. NCDC
July 2008 update.

**1985 Hurricane Gloria**. Eastern U.S.; category 3; \$900 million.
Jarrell Et al (NOAA) 2001.

**1985 Hurricane Juan** (Oct-Nov). Cat. 1; LA and Southeast U.S.,
\$1.5-2.9B. NCDC 2008.

**1985**

**1985 Florida Freeze** (January). \$2-2.2 B. Lott/Ross, NCDC, 2005.
\$\$1.2-2.3B. NCDC 2008.

**1983 Hurricane Alicia** (Aug 18-21). Cat 3, Texas; 21 deaths. \$3-6.3
billion. NCDC 2008.

**1983 Florida Freeze** (Dec). \~\$4B. Lott and Ross, NCDC, 2005.
\$1.2-2.3B. NCDC 2008.

**1982/3 Gulf States Storms and Flooding** (1982-early 1983).
\$1.1-2.3B. NCDC July 2008.

**1982/3 Western Storms and Flooding** (1982-early 1983). (NCDC 2007).
\$1.1-2.3B. NCDC 08.

**1982 Hurricane Iwa, Kaua'i, Hawaii** (Nov 24). Category 1. \$312M
damage.

**1980 Mt. St. Helens Volcano Eruption** (May 18, 25, June 12). 60
deaths, \$3 billion. (Pocock)

**1980** **Drought/Heat Wave** (June-Sep). Central/Eastern U.S.
\$20-55.4B. NCDC July 2008.

**1979 Hurricane Frederic** (12 Sep 1979). Gulf Coast; \$2.3 billion.
(Pielke/Landsea 1998)

**1979 Wichita Falls, TX Tornado** (April 10, 1979). \$1.141B
(Brooks/Doswell, 2000)

**1979 Three Mile Island** (March 28, 1979). Harrisburg, PA nuclear
power plant failure. \~\$1B

**1979 Tropical Storm Claudette**. N TX. \$400 million. Jarrell et al
(NOAA) 2001.

**1979 Hurricane David**. FL, Eastern U.S., category 2. \$320M. Jarrell
et al, NOAA 2001.

**1978 Blizzard of '78,** \$2,3 billion (Drag, 2000; citing NOAA,
Natural Disaster Survey...)

**1975 Omaha, NE Tornado** (May 6, 1975). \$1.127 billion. Brooks and
Doswell 2000.

**1975 Hurricane Eloise.** Northwest Florida. Cat 3. \$2.008B (2004
dollars). Blake 2005.

**1974 Eastern US Super Tornado Outbreak** (184) Apr 3-4. \~\$1B.
Wartenberg/Narcisco \`08

**1972 Hurricane Agnes** (June 19-25). Cat 1, FL, VA, NY, NE States;
(NOAA, Hurr. History)

**1972 Black Hills Flood, Wall SD. \<**\$2 billion sales tax revenue
loss. Sav 1974, p. 21.

**1971 San Fernando, CA Earthquake**, Magnitude 6.5; \$553M then; \$2.8M
2007\$ (III 2008)

**1970 Hurricane Celia** (1970). Category 3; TX. Pielke, et al, 2008)

**1970 Lubbock, TX Tornado** (May 11, 1970) \$1.081B (Brooks and Doswell
2000)

**1969 Hurricane Camille.** Cat. 5, Gulf Coast, (Pielke, et al. 1999;
NOAA Hurricane History)

**1967 Hurricane Beulah** (1967). Category 3; TX: \$4B (2008 dollars);
(Pielke, et al, 2008)

**1966 Hurricane Inez** (Sep 21-Oct 10). Category 1, South Florida
(Pielke and Landsea 1998)

**1966 Topeka, KS Tornado** (June 8, 1966) \$1.126 B (Brooks and Doswell
2000)

**1964 Hurricane Dora** (Sep 7-15). Category 2/3.

**1964 Hurricane Cleo** (Aug 20-Sep 5). Category 2, Miami, FL. (Pielke
and Landsea 1998)

**1964 1964 Alaskan Earthquake** (March 27, 1964). **\$1.6 billion.**
(USGS 2001)

**1962 "Columbus Day Wind Storm"** October 12, 1962, WA, OR. **\~\$1B.**

**1962 Hurricane Betsy** (Aug 27-Sep 13). Cat. 3, Southern FL. (Pielke
and Landsea, 1998)

**1961 Hurricane Carla** (September 10, 1961). Texas Coast; (NOAA 1993)

**1960 Hurricane Donna** (Aug 29-Sep 14). Cat.4, Sombrero Key, FL.
(Pielke/Landsea, 1998)

**1957 Hurricane Audrey**. Category 4; LA, TX; \$3.8-\$4.1B (2005
dollars) Pielke, et al, 2008)

**1955 Hurricane Diane.** Northeast (PA, NJ, NY, CN, RI, MA) (Rozario
2007)

**1955 Hurricane Ione** (1955). Category 3, NC; \$3.7B-\$6.0B (2005
dollars) Pielke, et al, 2008)

**1953 Worcester, MA Tornado** (June 9, 1953) \$1.140B
adjusted/normalized (Brook 2000)

**1951 Kansas and Neosho River Basins Flood, KS** (July). \$800 million.
Perry (USGS) 2000

**1950 Hurricane King.** Category 3; FL; \$3.7-\$4.4B (2008 dollars);
(Pielke, et al, 2008)

**1949 Unnamed 1949 Hurricane** (1949). Category 3, Palm Beach. (Pielke
and Landsea 1998)

**1947** **Unnamed 1947 Hurricane** (1947). Cat. 4, Pompano Beach, FL.
.Pielke/Landsea 1998.

**1947 Grand Camp Explosion, Texas City, TX** (April 16). \~1 billion

**1945 Unnamed FL Hurricane.** Category 3. Pielke, et al, 2008.

**1944 Great Atlantic Hurricane of 1944** (September 9-16, 1944).
Category 4; (Cotterly 2002)

**1944 Unnamed Florida Hurricane** (Pielke, et al, 2008)

**1941 Unnamed 1941 Hurricane** (1941). Cat. 3, Homestead, FL. (Pielke
and Landsea 1998)

**1938 New England Hurricane (Long Island Express)** (NOAA, Hurricane
History) (Powell).

**1936 Gainesville, GA Tornado** (April 6, 1936) \$1.111B (Brooks and
Doswell, 2000)

**1935** **Unnamed FL Hurricane.** Category 2. Pielke, et al, 2008)

**1932 Freeport Hurricane of 1932.** Category 4; TX; (Pielke, et al,
2008)

**1928 Southern Florida Hurricane** **(Great Okeechobee Hurricane)**

**1927 St. Louis tornado.** \$1.8B. Brooks and Doswell, 2000

**1926 Miami Hurricane** (September 18-21, 1926). (NOAA Hurricane
History).

**1926 Unnamed FL Hurricane of 1926** (Not Miami)**.** Cat 2
\$3.6-\$3.7B (05\$) (Pielke, 2008)

**1925 Tri-State Tornado** (MO, IL, IN), March 18, 1925. \$1.392B.
Brooks and Doswell, 2000

**1924 Lorain-Sandusky, OH Tornado** (June 28, 1924) \$1.023B. Brooks
and Doswell, 2000

**1919 Unnamed Hurricane.** Category 4: FL, TX; \$12.9-\$13.8B (2005 \$)
(Pielke, et al, 2008)

**1916 Unnamed Hurricane of 1916.** Category 3; AL, MS; Pielke, et al,
2008)

**1915 Galveston Hurricane**. **\$32 billion**. (Pielke 2005)

**1906 San Francisco 1906 Earthquake**. \$11 billion (about), 2007
dollars.

**1904 Baltimore Conflagration** (Feb 7). \$1.1B, 2006 dollars; \$50M at
time. III, Ten Most.

**1903 Unnamed Hurricane of 1903**. Category 1; FL; (Pielke, et al,
2008)

**1900 Galveston Hurricane**. **\$38 billion**. (Pielke 2005)

**1896 St. Louis/East St. Louis, MO, May 27, Tornado**. \$2.2B-\$2.916B
(Brooks, 2000)

**1872 Great Boston Fire** (MA). Nov. 1872 \$1.146 billion. (NFPA, Key
Dates in Fire History)

**1871 Great Chicago Fire.** Oct. 1871, \$2.568 billion (2003 dollars).
NFPA, Key Dates in...

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[^1]: This document started as a short handout in a 1999 Introduction to
    Emergency Management class at Shenandoah University in Winchester
    VA, taught by the author. It took on new life and revamping with the
    publication of the 2005 National Climate Data Center paper on
    *Billion Dollar Disasters*, and then with the May 2006 NCDC *Billion
    Dollar U.S. Weather Disasters update*, which included 70
    weather-related U.S. billion dollar disasters. The most recent
    update, July 22, 2008, covers 78 weather-related disasters. This
    document expands upon that work in three ways (1) adding weather
    related billion dollar disasters prior to 1980, (2) adding
    other-than weather-related U.S. billion dollar disasters -- such as
    the Northridge Earthquake and the 9/11 Terrorist Attacks \-- and (3)
    adding other at-hand statistics on the same disasters treated by the
    NCDC.

[^2]: Authors state that "normalization reflects inflation, changes in
    personal wealth and coastal county populations to 2005, (Pielke et
    al. 2007) then including an estimate to 2006 dollars by increasing
    totals by 5%." Elsewhere Pielke, et al have stated that "The result
    of normalizing the data will be to produce the estimated impact of
    any storm as if it had made landfall today. Pielke, Roger A. Jr, et
    al. "Evaluation of Catastrophe Models Using a Normalized Historical
    Record: Why it is needed and how to do it." *Journal of Insurance
    Regulation*, October 28, 1999, p. 4.

[^3]: Rappaport and Partagas (1995), citing Doig (1992) write that "An
    estimate indicates that a 20 mile northward shift of Andrew's track
    would have resulted in two to three times that much damage
    \[\$25B\]" p. 13.

[^4]: Cites AIR Worldwide Corporation.

[^5]: Cites AIR Worldwide Corporation.

[^6]: Cites AIR Worldwide Corporation.

[^7]: Cites AIR Worldwide Corporation.

[^8]: "EQECAT, Inc., the leading authority on extreme-risk modeling,
    Saturday morning said, based on current storm information provided
    by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
    initial post-landfall estimated insured onshore losses from
    Hurricane Ike could range from \$8 billion to \$18 billion,
    primarily in the Texas counties of Brazoria, Harris, Galveston,
    Chambers and Jefferson. This estimate is based upon initial
    observations of Hurricane Ike wind, wave and flood patterns.
    EQECAT's estimates may be updated as additional information about
    the storm becomes available. Hurricane Ike caused significant
    flooding in and around Galveston Bay." (*Business Wire*, September
    13, 2008)

[^9]: Mason adds that "Estimates of economic losses due to business
    disruptions for tourism, chemicals, oil refining and extraction, and
    other industries are in the \$35 billion range..." and that personal
    outlays for refugee shelter in hotels and motels hundreds of miles
    outside New Orleans will only add to those figures.

[^10]: Insure.com notes another possible 'up to \$3 billion insured
    losses for damage to offshore oil platforms and wells and production
    losses."

[^11]: "The forecast property loss to buildings for a repeat of the 1906
    earthquake is in the range of approximately \$90--120 billion;
    7,000--10,000 commercial buildings in the region are estimated to be
    closed due to serious damage; and about 160,000--250,000 households
    calculated to be displaced from damaged residences. Losses due to
    fire following earthquake, as well as losses to utility and
    transportation systems, would be in addition to these estimates."
    Kircher 2006. Wells (2006) states that "Current loss estimates
    resulting from a large earthquake hitting San Francisco or other
    metropolitan area in the United States range from \$30 billion to
    \$200 billion." Moehle (2007): "Considering all loss components, the
    total price tag for a repeat of the 1906 earthquake is likely to
    exceed \$150 billion" (p. 3). "The San Francisco Department of
    Building Inspection Community Action Plan for Seismic Safety
    estimates that an earthquake on a similar scale today would result
    in a total loss of \$200bn and an insurance industry loss of
    \$45-60bn." (*Lloyd's Market*, Issue 2, 2006)

[^12]: \$524M actual losses in 1906 (\$24M direct quake, \$500M fire);
    insured losses were \$235M, or about \$5.2B 2007\$

[^13]: Cites AIR Worldwide U.S. earthquake model which "makes use of the
    firm's exposure database and takes into account the current number
    and value of exposed properties in 2005 when the study was
    conducted."

[^14]: Cites: State of California, Department of Water Resources,
    *Alternatives for Increasing Flood*

    *Insurance Participation for Communities Behind Levees in
    California.* May 2006.

[^15]: Using the Consumer Price Index which "expresses the cost of goods
    relative to some fixed point in time."

[^16]: Using the Consumer Price Index which "expresses the cost of goods
    relative to some fixed point in time."

[^17]: Cites Moller 2002.

[^18]: Sav writes that "...communities surrounding a disaster area are
    affected in several ways. For example, the Black Hills flood (1972)
    affected tourism and tax revenues of nearby communities that were
    virtually untouched by the flood itself. Flooding did not occur in
    the town of Wall, South Dakota, but Wall did experience a dec1ine in
    tourism and a decrease of \$50,000 in sales tax revenues for the
    third quarter of 1972. For a four county area, a loss of \$455,000
    in tax revenues was reported. Further estimates indicate a total
    decrease of \$2 billion in sales tax revenues during the second and
    third quarters for the four counties." Cites: 3U.S. Congress,
    Senate, Committee on Public Works, To Investigate the Adequacy and
    Effectiveness of Federal Disaster Relief Legislation, Part 2,
    Hearings, before the 93^rd^ Cong., 1st sess., March 30 and 31, 1973,
    p. 340-341.

[^19]: Cites Property Claims Services, March 2002)

[^20]: Glass notes that "This does not include commercial losses at the
    Ford Motor Company Plant in St. Louis County where nearly 400 SUVs
    were totaled, or at Lambert St. Louis International Airport where
    tens of aircraft were damaged. These losses make this HP supercell
    one of the costliest hailstorms in U.S. History rivaling the Mayfest
    Storm of May 1995 in Dallas."

[^21]: Sanders, et al, write that: "Aggregate property loss amounted to
    almost \$100 million, or more than \$700 million in today's monetary
    value. Even so, this figure maybe too low, because this estimate
    does not include 1.5 million barrels of petroleum products consumed
    in flames, valued at approximately \$500 million in 1947 terms.
    Refinery infrastructure and pipelines, including about fifty oil
    storage tanks, incurred extensive damage or total destruction. The
    devastated Monsanto plant alone represented about \$20 million of
    the total. Even though the port's break-build cargo-handling
    operations never resumed, Monsanto was rebuild in little more than a
    year, and the petrochemical industry recovered quickly. One-third of
    the town's 1,519 houses were condemned, leaving 2,000 person
    homeless and exacerbating an already serious postwar housing
    shortage." (p. 169)

[^22]: "The National Research Council has estimated that a repeat of the
    1811 New Madrid earthquake could result in hundreds to thousands of
    lives lost and over \$100 billion dollars of damage in a 26-state
    area." National Earthquake Strategy Working Group, *Strategy for
    National Earthquake Loss Reduction*, "A Severe National Threat
    (USGS)," 1996.

[^23]: Cites AIR Worldwide U.S. earthquake model which "makes use of the
    firm's exposure database and takes into account the current number
    and value of exposed properties in 2005 when the study was
    conducted."

[^24]: Cites AIR Worldwide U.S. earthquake model which "makes use of the
    firm's exposure database and takes into account the current number
    and value of exposed properties in 2005 when the study was
    conducted."

[^25]: Cites AIR Worldwide U.S. earthquake model which "makes use of the
    firm's exposure database and takes into account the current number
    and value of exposed properties in 2005 when the study was
    conducted."

[^26]: Cites AIR Worldwide U.S. earthquake model which "makes use of the
    firm's exposure database and takes into account the current number
    and value of exposed properties in 2005 when the study was
    conducted."

[^27]: Cites AIR Worldwide U.S. earthquake model which "makes use of the
    firm's exposure database and takes into account the current number
    and value of exposed properties in 2005 when the study was
    conducted."

[^28]: Cites AIR Worldwide U.S. earthquake model which "makes use of the
    firm's exposure database and takes into account the current number
    and value of exposed properties in 2005 when the study was
    conducted."

[^29]: Cites AIR Worldwide U.S. earthquake model which "makes use of the
    firm's exposure database and takes into account the current number
    and value of exposed properties in 2005 when the study was
    conducted."

[^30]: Cites AIR Worldwide U.S. earthquake model which "makes use of the
    firm's exposure database and takes into account the current number
    and value of exposed properties in 2005 when the study was
    conducted."