<http://www.nap.edu/html/howpeople1/bk_index.html>

Inquiry-based instruction, 11-12, 56, 95, 98-99, 144-145, 205

How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and School

National Academy Press

 People\'s abilities to transfer what they have learned depends upon a
number of factors:

> 1\. People must achieve a threshold of initial learning that is
> sufficient to support transfer. This obvious point is often overlooked
> and can lead to erroneous conclusions about the effectiveness of
> various instructional approaches. It takes time to learn complex
> subject matter, and assessments of transfer must take into account the
> degree to which original learning with understanding was accomplished.
>
> 2\. Spending a lot of time (\"time on task\") in and of itself is not
> sufficient to ensure effective learning. Practice and getting familiar
> with subject matter take time, but most important is how people use
> their time while learning. Concepts such as \"deliberate practice\"
> emphasize the importance of helping students monitor their learning so
> that they seek feedback and actively evaluate their strategies and
> current levels of understanding. Such activities are very different
> from simply reading and rereading a text.
>
> 3\. Learning with understanding is more likely to promote transfer
> than simply memorizing information from a text or a lecture. Many
> classroom activities stress the importance of memorization over
> learning with understanding. Many, as well, focus on facts and details
> rather than larger themes of causes and consequences of events. The
> shortfalls of these approaches are not apparent if the only test of
> learning involves tests of memory, but when the transfer of learning
> is measured, the advantages of learning with understanding are likely
> to be revealed.
>
> 4\. Knowledge that is taught in a variety of contexts is more likely
> to support flexible transfer than knowledge that is taught in a single
> context. Information can become \"context-bound\" when taught with
> context-specific examples. When material is taught in multiple
> contexts, people are more likely to extract the relevant features of
> the concepts and develop a more flexible representation of knowledge
> that can be used more generally.
>
> 5\. Students develop flexible understanding of when, where, why, and
> how to use their knowledge to solve new problems if they learn how to
> extract underlying themes and principles from their learning
> exercises. Understanding how and when to put knowledge to use\--known
> as conditions of applicability\--is an important characteristic of
> expertise. Learning in multiple contexts most likely affects this
> aspect of transfer.
>
> 6\. Transfer of learning is an active process. Learning and transfer
> should not be evaluated by \"one-shot\" tests of transfer. An
> alternative assessment approach is to consider how learning affects
> subsequent learning, such as increased speed of learning in a new
> domain. Often, evidence for positive transfer does not appear until
> people have had a chance to learn about the new domain\--and then
> transfer occurs and is evident in the learner\'s ability to grasp the
> new information more quickly.
>
> 7\. All learning involves transfer from previous experiences. Even
> initial learning involves transfer that is based on previous
> experiences and prior knowledge. Transfer is not simply something that
> may or may not appear after initial learning has occurred. For
> example, knowledge relevant to a particular task may not automatically
> be activated by learners and may not serve as a source of positive
> transfer for learning new information. Effective teachers attempt to
> support positive transfer by actively identifying the strengths that
> students bring to a learning situation and building on them, thereby
> building bridges between students\' knowledge and the learning
> objectives set out by the teacher.
>
> 8\. Sometimes the knowledge that people bring to a new situation
> impedes subsequent learning because it guides thinking in wrong
> directions. For example, young children\'s knowledge of everyday
> counting-based arithmetic can make it difficult for them to deal with
> rational numbers (a larger number in the numerator of a fraction does
> not mean the same thing as a larger number in the denominator);
> assumptions based on everyday physical experiences can make it
> difficult for students to understand physics concepts (they think a
> rock falls faster than a leaf because everyday experiences include
> other variables, such as resistance, that are not present in the
> vacuum conditions that physicists study), and so forth. In these kinds
> of situations, teachers must help students change their original
> conceptions rather than simply use the misconceptions as a basis for
> further understanding or leaving new material unconnected to current
> understanding.

<http://www.phy.ilstu.edu/pte/302content/inquiry_labs/inquiry_labs.html>

<http://www.phy.ilstu.edu/pte/302content/inquiry_labs/inquiry_vs_cookbook_lab.pdf>

<http://www.phy.ilstu.edu/pte/302content/inquiry_labs/inquiry_labs2.pdf>

By Carl J. Wenning (1/08/2004)

> Physics Teacher Education Program
>
> Illinois State University
>
> Normal, IL 61790-4560
>
> Copyright 2004 Carl J. Wenning

According to the American Association of Physics Teachers publication
*Discussion of Introductory Physics Laboratory Goals* (2003), laboratory
activities should:

> • engage each student in significant experiences with experimental
> processes, including some experience designing investigation;
>
> • help students develop a broad array of basic skills and tools of
> experimental physics and data analysis;
>
> • help students master basic physics concepts;
>
> • help students understand the role of direct observation in physics
> and to distinguish between inferences based on theory and outcomes of
> experiments; and
>
> • develop collaborative learning skills.

Such skills are best developed with the use of engaging,
inquiry-oriented lab activities. Such activities would include the
following practices according to the Illinois Learning Standards'
Applications of Learning:

***Identifying problems** and investigating them; formulating and
proposing solutions supported by reason and evidence.* Asking
appropriate questions and seeking reasonable answers are at the heart of
all scientific inquiry. Following the initial steps of inquiry
(inductive reasoning), students will learn how to develop hypotheses. In
the process, they learn and apply scientific principles. They also learn
to be objective in deciding whether their solutions meet specifications
and perform as desired.

***Devising and conducting experiments** that require use of scientific
methodology to solve an identified scientific problem; conducting the
experiment using standard scientific practices.* Identified problems
must be solved by appropriate scientific means -- identification and
management of pertinent variables with a logical analysis of the
outcomes. This includes identification of dependent, independent, and
extraneous variables; variable control; data collection and analysis,
including statistics; review and understand their findings, and compare
their solutions with those of others.

***Communicating** results that include expressing and interpreting
information and ideas in concise language and using statistics as
appropriate.* Scientists must carefully describe their methods and
results to a variety of audiences, including other scientists. This
requires precise and complete descriptions and the presentation of
conclusions supported by evidence. Young science students develop the
powers of observation and description. Older students gain the ability
to organize and study data, to determine their meaning, to translate
their findings into clear understandable language, and to compare their
results with those of other investigators.

***Using technology** such as measuring instruments, electronic
equipment, computers and networks to access information, process ideas
and communicate results.* Technology is invented and improved by the use
of scientific principles. In turn, scientists depend on technology in
performing experiments, analyzing data and communicating the results.
Science students learn to use a range of technologies: instruments,
computer hardware and software, on-line services and equipment, primary
source data and images, and communication networks. They learn how
technology, in turn, is the result of a scientific design process that
includes continual refinements and improvements.

***Working on teams** to learning and contribute productively as
individuals and as members of groups.* The practical application of
science requires both individual and group efforts. Individuals bring
unique insight and focus to the work of inquiry and problem solving.
Working in groups, scientists pose questions, share hypotheses, divide
their experimental efforts, and share data and results. Science students
have the opportunity to work both ways---as individuals and as members
of teams organized to conduct complex investigations and solve problems.

***Making connections** by recognizing and applying connections of
important information and ideas within and among learning areas.*
Science has many disciplines, all interrelated. Understanding the
functioning of living things depends on knowing chemistry; understanding
chemistry depends on knowing physics. In the same way, science itself is
highly dependent on mathematics---and it also relates strongly to
medicine, geography, physical development and health, social trends and
issues, and many other topics. Science, at its best, provides knowledge
and skills that improve the understanding of virtually all subjects.

<http://www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/classroom/inquiry_based.html>

Institute for Inquiry

THE VERMONT ELEMENTARY SCIENCE PROJECT is located at Trinity College,
McAuley Hall, Burlington, VT05401 (802) 65&-3664. VESP is a grant
awarded to The NETWORK, Inc, Andover, MA by the National Science
Foundation.

**When students are doing inquiry based science, an observer will see
that:**

**Children View Themselves as Scientists in the Process of Learning.**\
1. They look forward to doing science.\
2. They demonstrate a desire to 1earn more.\
3. They seek to collaborate and work cooperatively with their peers.\
4. They are confident in doing science; they demonstrate a willingness
to modify ideas, take risks, and display healthy skepticism.

**Children Accept an \"Invitation to Learn\" and Readily Engage in The
Exploration Process.**\
1. Children exhibit curiosity and ponder observations.\
2. They move around selecting and using the materials they need.\
3. They take the opportunity and the time to \"try out\" their own
ideas.

**Children Plan and Carry Out Investigations.**\
1. Children design a way to try out their ideas, not expecting to be
told what to do.\
2. They plan ways to verify, extend or discard ideas.\
3. They carry out investigations by: handling materials, observing,
measuring, and recording data.

**Children Communicate Using a Variety of Methods.**\
1. Children express ideas in a variety of ways: journals, reporting out,
drawing, graphing, charting, etc.\
2. They listen, speak and write about science with parents, teachers and
peers.\
3. They use the language of the processes of science.\
4. They communicate their level of understand-ing of concepts that they
have developed to date.

**Children Propose Explanations and Solutions and Build a Store of
Concepts.**\
1. Children offer explanations from a \"store\" of previous knowledge.
(Alternative Frameworks, Gut Dynamics).\
2. They use investigations to satisfy their own questions.\
3. They sort out information and decide what is important.\
4. They are willing to revise explanations as they gain new knowledge.

**Children Raise Questions**\
1. Children ask questions (verbally or through actions).\
2. They use questions to lead them to investigations that generate
further questions or ideas.\
3. Children value and enjoy asking questions as an important part of
science.

**Children Use Observation.**\
1. Children observe, as opposed to just looking.\
2. They see details, they detect sequences and events; they notice
change, similarities and differences, etc.\
3. They make connections to previously held ideas.

**Children Critique Their Science Practices.**\
1. They use indicators to assess their own work\
2. They report their strengths and weaknesses.\
3. They reflect with their peers.

<http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses/html/6c.html> K-4

<http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses/html/6d.html#csa58> 5-8

## Science Content Standards: 5-8

### Science as Inquiry

### GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STANDARD

Fundamental abilities and concepts that underlie this standard include

***ABILITIES NECESSARY TO DO SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY***

**IDENTIFY QUESTIONS THAT CAN BE ANSWERED THROUGH SCIENTIFIC
INVESTIGATIONS.** Students should develop the ability to refine and
refocus broad and ill-defined questions. An important aspect of this
ability consists of students\' ability to clarify questions and
inquiries and direct them toward objects and phenomena that can be
described, explained, or predicted by scientific investigations.
Students should develop the ability to identify their questions with
scientific ideas, concepts, and quantitative relationships that guide
investigation.

**DESIGN AND CONDUCT A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION.** Students should
develop general abilities, such as systematic observation, making
accurate measurements, and identifying and controlling variables. They
should also develop the ability to clarify their ideas that are
influencing and guiding the inquiry, and to understand how those ideas
compare with current scientific knowledge. Students can learn to
formulate questions, design investigations, execute investigations,
interpret data, use evidence to generate explanations, propose
alternative explanations, and critique explanations and procedures.

**USE APPROPRIATE TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES TO GATHER, ANALYZE, AND INTERPRET
DATA.** The use of tools and techniques, including mathematics, will be
guided by the question asked and the investigations students design. The
use of computers for the collection, summary, and display of evidence is
part of this standard. Students should be able to access, gather, store,
retrieve, and organize data, using hardware and software designed for
these purposes.

**DEVELOP DESCRIPTIONS, EXPLANATIONS, PREDICTIONS, AND MODELS USING
EVIDENCE.** Students should base their explanation on what they
observed, and as they develop cognitive skills, they should be able to
differentiate explanation from description\--providing causes for
effects and establishing relationships based on evidence and logical
argument. This standard requires a subject matter knowledge base so the
students can effectively conduct investigations, because developing
explanations establishes connections between the content of science and
the contexts within which students develop new knowledge.

**THINK CRITICALLY AND LOGICALLY TO MAKE THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
EVIDENCE AND EXPLANATIONS.** Thinking critically about evidence includes
deciding what evidence should be used and accounting for anomalous data.
Specifically, students should be able to review data from a simple
experiment, summarize the data, and form a logical argument about the
cause-and-effect relationships in the experiment. Students should begin
to state some explanations in terms of the relationship between two or
more variables.

[See the example entitled
\"Pendulums\"](http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses/html/pendulums6d.html)

**RECOGNIZE AND ANALYZE ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS AND PREDICTIONS.**
Students should develop the ability to listen to and respect the
explanations proposed by other students. They should remain open to and
acknowledge different ideas and explanations, be able to accept the
skepticism of others, and consider alternative explanations.

**COMMUNICATE SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURES AND EXPLANATIONS.** With practice,
students should become competent at communicating experimental methods,
following instructions, describing observations, summarizing the results
of other groups, and telling other students about investigations and
explanations.**\[[See Teaching Standard
B](http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses/html/3.html#tsb)\]**

**USE MATHEMATICS IN ALL ASPECTS OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY.** Mathematics is
essential to asking and answering questions about the natural world.
Mathematics can be used to ask questions; to gather, organize, and
present data; and to structure convincing explanations.**\[[See Program
Standard
C](http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses/html/7.html#spc)\]**

***UNDERSTANDINGS ABOUT SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY***

-   Different kinds of questions suggest different kinds of scientific
    investigations. Some investigations involve observing and describing
    objects, organisms, or events; some involve collecting specimens;
    some involve experiments; some involve seeking more information;
    some involve discovery of new objects and phenomena; and some
    involve making models.

-   Current scientific knowledge and understanding guide scientific
    investigations. Different scientific domains employ different
    methods, core theories, and standards to advance scientific
    knowledge and understanding.

-   Mathematics is important in all aspects of scientific inquiry.

-   Technology used to gather data enhances accuracy and allows
    scientists to analyze and quantify results of investigations.

-   Scientific explanations emphasize evidence, have logically
    consistent arguments, and use scientific principles, models, and
    theories. The scientific community accepts and uses such
    explanations until displaced by better scientific ones. When such
    displacement occurs, science advances.

-   Science advances through legitimate skepticism. Asking questions and
    querying other scientists\' explanations is part of scientific
    inquiry. Scientists evaluate the explanations proposed by other
    scientists by examining evidence, comparing evidence, identifying
    faulty reasoning, pointing out statements that go beyond the
    evidence, and suggesting alternative explanations for the same
    observations.

-   Scientific investigations sometimes result in new ideas and
    phenomena for study, generate new methods or procedures for an
    investigation, or develop new technologies to improve the collection
    of data. All of these results can lead to new investigations.

## Science Content Standards: 9-12

### Science as Inquiry

### GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STANDARD

Fundamental abilities and concepts that underlie this standard include

***ABILITIES NECESSARY TO DO SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY***

**IDENTIFY QUESTIONS AND CONCEPTS THAT GUIDE SCIENTIFIC
INVESTIGATIONS.** Students should formulate a testable hypothesis and
demonstrate the logical connections between the scientific concepts
guiding a hypothesis and the design of an experiment. They should
demonstrate appropriate procedures, a knowledge base, and conceptual
understanding of scientific investigations.

**DESIGN AND CONDUCT SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS.** Designing and
conducting a scientific investigation requires introduction to the major
concepts in the area being investigated, proper equipment, safety
precautions, assistance with methodological problems, recommendations
for use of technologies, clarification of ideas that guide the inquiry,
and scientific knowledge obtained from sources other than the actual
investigation. The investigation may also require student clarification
of the question, method, controls, and variables; student organization
and display of data; student revision of methods and explanations; and a
public presentation of the results with a critical response from peers.
Regardless of the scientific investigation performed, students must use
evidence, apply logic, and construct an argument for their proposed
explanations.

**USE TECHNOLOGY AND MATHEMATICS TO IMPROVE INVESTIGATIONS AND
COMMUNICATIONS.** A variety of technologies, such as hand tools,
measuring instruments, and calculators, should be an integral component
of scientific investigations. The use of computers for the collection,
analysis, and display of data is also a part of this standard.
Mathematics plays an essential role in all aspects of an inquiry. For
example, measurement is used for posing questions, formulas are used for
developing explanations, and charts and graphs are used for
communicating results.

**FORMULATE AND REVISE SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATIONS AND MODELS USING LOGIC
AND EVIDENCE.** Student inquiries should culminate in formulating an
explanation or model. Models should be physical, conceptual, and
mathematical. In the process of answering the questions, the students
should engage in discussions and arguments that result in the revision
of their explanations. These discussions should be based on scientific
knowledge, the use of logic, and evidence from their investigation.

**RECOGNIZE AND ANALYZE ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS AND MODELS.** This
aspect of the standard emphasizes the critical abilities of analyzing an
argument by reviewing current scientific understanding, weighing the
evidence, and examining the logic so as to decide which explanations and
models are best. In other words, although there may be several plausible
explanations, they do not all have equal weight. Students should be able
to use scientific criteria to find the preferred explanations.

**COMMUNICATE AND DEFEND A SCIENTIFIC ARGUMENT.** Students in school
science programs should develop the abilities associated with accurate
and effective communication. These include writing and following
procedures, expressing concepts, reviewing information, summarizing
data, using language appropriately, developing diagrams and charts,
explaining statistical analysis, speaking clearly and logically,
constructing a reasoned argument, and responding appropriately to
critical comments. **\[[See Teaching Standard B in Chapter
3](http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses/html/3.html#tsb)\]**

***UNDERSTANDINGS ABOUT SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY***

-   Scientists usually inquire about how physical, living, or designed
    systems function. Conceptual principles and knowledge guide
    scientific inquiries. Historical and current scientific knowledge
    influence the design and interpretation of investigations and the
    evaluation of proposed explanations made by other scientists.
    **\[[See Unifying Concepts and
    Processes](http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses/html/6b.html)\]**

-   Scientists conduct investigations for a wide variety of reasons. For
    example, they may wish to discover new aspects of the natural world,
    explain recently observed phenomena, or test the conclusions of
    prior investigations or the predictions of current theories.

-   Scientists rely on technology to enhance the gathering and
    manipulation of data. New techniques and tools provide new evidence
    to guide inquiry and new methods to gather data, thereby
    contributing to the advance of science. The accuracy and precision
    of the data, and therefore the quality of the exploration, depends
    on the technology used. **\[[Content Standard E (grades
    9-12)](http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses/html/6e.html#cse912)
    \]**

-   Mathematics is essential in scientific inquiry. Mathematical tools
    and models guide and improve the posing of questions, gathering
    data, constructing explanations and communicating results. **\[[See
    Program Standard
    C](http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses/html/7.html#spc)\]**

-   Scientific explanations must adhere to criteria such as: a proposed
    explanation must be logically consistent; it must abide by the rules
    of evidence; it must be open to questions and possible modification;
    and it must be based on historical and current scientific knowledge.

-   Results of scientific inquiry\--new knowledge and methods\--emerge
    from different types of investigations and public communication
    among scientists. In communicating and defending the results of
    scientific inquiry, arguments must be logical and demonstrate
    connections between natural phenomena, investigations, and the
    historical body of scientific knowledge. In addition, the methods
    and procedures that scientists used to obtain evidence must be
    clearly reported to enhance opportunities for further investigation.

<http://www.nwrel.org/msec/science_inq/4traits.html>

NW Regional Educational Laboratory

Mathematics and Science Education Center

©2007 Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory

> 101 SW Main St., Suite 500
>
> Portland, Oregon 97204-3213
>
> 1-800-547-6339
>
> 503-275-9500

### Connecting

Connecting is the process where students develop skills and habits of
mind such as curiosity and an understanding of the types of questions
science can and cannot answer. For an inquiry investigation to be
meaningful to students, and for students to ask worthwhile questions, it
is important to connect the topic being studied to students\' previous
experiences.

To promote connecting, a teacher introduces students to a phenomenon and
gives students time to explore and build background knowledge about this
phenomenon. Students are also asked to link their observations to their
previous understandings and are invited to explain their understandings
of the phenomenon being studied. Students are then asked to use this
knowledge to create or refine questions to investigate.

### Designing

Designing is the process students use to create a method for collecting
data to answer their questions. Designing develops scientific skills and
habits of mind such as consistency, attention to detail, and
understanding the need to collect fair and adequate data.

During the design phase, teachers give students time to conduct a trial
run of their methods, promote the use of detail and clarity of
directions, and point out the need to collect sufficient data that
answer the question posed.

### Investigating

Investigating is the process of collecting, organizing, and displaying
data. It develops scientific inquiry skills and habits of mind such as
attention to detail, recognizing the need for reproducible results, and
deciding which types of data are of greatest value in answering the
questions posed.

During the investigation phase of an inquiry, teachers allow students to
revise their procedures as needed, recording changes as they are made.
It is important for teachers to show students the importance of
collecting and recording the actual data generated. It is also important
for teachers to model multiple ways of presenting data and the
usefulness of each in answering specific types of questions. Students
should be asked to select the forms of presentation which best clarify
their data and help to answer the questions they have posed.

### Constructing Meaning

Constructing meaning is the process of analyzing the data which have
been collected, examining patterns and trends in the data, and using
them to formulate explanations. Constructing meaning also involves
examining the quality of data produced and evaluating their usefulness
in answering the questions that were posed. It develops scientific
skills and habits of mind such as critical and reflective thinking,
communication, respect for evidence, and flexibility in thinking.

To promote these skills it is important for a teacher to raise student
awareness of the many types of patterns that can be found in nature and
to model the language used in explaining patterns. Students should be
invited to explain general and specific trends in their data, and be
guided back to their background information to compare these patterns
with their original thinking. In promoting construction of meaning it is
also important for a teacher to introduce students to the common places
where errors occur in data collection. Students should be asked to
explain problems that may have occurred during their data collection and
possible solutions to these problems.

<http://wolfweb.unr.edu/homepage/crowther/ejse/crowedit4.html>

5E's

**The Lesson Plan Format** - **5E Learning Cycle** (BSCS / Bybee)

**ENGAGEMENT (Introducing a Lesson)**

Whether you begin in a very directed or less directed manner will depend
on the complexity of the concept and the background of the children.
Sometimes you will want to use a hands-on experience to create interest
and arouse questions, then lead children into a exploration to develop a
concept for which they have some background knowledge. Sometimes,
because you feel that children lack the background knowledge, you will
begin in a very guided manner to carefully introduce the concept and
later, when children have become familiar, move to a more exploratory
activity. The direction that you take should come from the decisions
that you make during preplanning.

Regardless of the direction that you take, your introduction should
engage children, arouse curiosity, and set a direction for the lesson.
The children should, by the end of your introduction have an idea about
the focus of the lesson and what they will be doing. The introductory
activity should also help you reaffirm your thinking about your
student\'s background knowledge and readiness for the experience.

**EXPLORATION**

This is the bulk of the lesson where children are immersed in
exploration of topics or concepts. This is the primary activity of the
lesson. Students work with one another to explore ideas through hands-on
activities. The teacher is the facilitator and observes and listens to
students as they interact. The teacher asks probing questions of the
students so that they clarify their own understanding of major concepts.
Additional questions may be asked to redirect students' investigations
when necessary. Adequate time for thorough investigation is critical at
this time.

**EXPLANATION**

This is the meat of the lesson. Here is where you will carefully develop
a specific questioning sequence that relates to the new knowledge that
you identified as your purpose of the lesson. The sequence of questions
in this portion of the lesson is most important. Here is where your
knowledge of children development and learning theory really becomes
important. This is the place to reflect on stages of learning, moving
from concrete to abstract, from the known to the new. You will also want
to refer to people who support inquiry and carefully guide children\'s
exploration of a topic or concept while you probe their thinking and
provide feedback.

During lesson development you are the one who is responsible for knowing
the content well enough that you can flexibly respond to what children
do and say during the lesson development. Your knowledge of various ways
to teach will be needed to decide if you must revise your lesson plan in
midstream. Your knowledge of management will be needed to help you
redirect children who do not follow the \"group\" as you expected, yet
need to be engaged for learning. All of these possibilities make
teaching complex and often difficult to do well.

**ELABORATION**

Depending upon the time that you have allocated for the lesson and the
manner in which the lesson development proceeds, you will eventually
need to bring the lesson to closure. If you completed the lesson
development as you planned. then closure is really an elaboration of
what was done and learned during the lesson. It is most helpful here if
students are the ones who verbalize what was learned. It is also
appropriate here to move students toward possible applications for what
was learned. If the lesson development did not go as planned, then
closure may merely be a temporary stopping point, with less elaboration,
until you can resume tomorrow.

Learning theorists tell us that it helps us to retain new knowledge if
we can link it to what is already known and can chunk it in related
pieces. This is the purpose that closure serves. We must help children
make \"chunks\" out of the new information and relate it to what they
already know so that the new knowledge can successfully stored, then
retrieved at a later time.

Closure is important to retention of information and concepts. It is
important, then, to watch the timing of the lesson so that ample time
will be reserved for the closure. Remember, you will always have
tomorrow. What you try to stuff into children\'s heads in the fleeting
moments of a lesson probably won\'t be retained anyway. The time would
be better spent in a good closure, saving other new information for
another lesson.

**EVALUATION**

Evaluation should not wait until the lesson is over. You should be
evaluating all along. You will have a sense of how the lesson is
proceeding. As you gain experience, you should find it easier to watch
the responses of children. In the initial stages it may be difficult for
you to do this with much accuracy. But still, you will have a sense of
the lesson, which is part of evaluation.

If you planned your lesson to carefully reflect your stated purpose or
objective, then evaluation should follow naturally. The type of
activities that you plan should allow you to answer the question, \"What
did children learn about my objective and how did they demonstrate that
learning?\"

The value of evaluation comes in the closeness of match between your
purpose and the activities in which you engage children. One of the most
frequent problems that inexperienced teachers have is selecting
developmentally appropriate activities that match the proposed
objective. This again takes us back to careful preplanning and really
knowing what is to be taught and how it might be best learned.

Evaluation of the children\'s learning should also lead you into
evaluating your planning and presentation of the lesson. Here is where
objectivity on your part is needed. Every lesson that you teach will not
be wonderful and you will need to be objective about your inexperience
and what you still need to learn and/or practice. It is hard to move
what we know in our heads into our behavior, especially teaching
behavior that is so new to us.

Initially, it may be hard for you to be critical of yourself. Perhaps
you will need to remind yourself that you are a learner, that you are
just beginning, and should not expect that after a few lessons that you
will reach perfection. What Lucy Calkins says of writers may also be
true for evaluating our teaching, that we should be \"passion hot and
critic cold.\" We should revel in what we do well, but we should also be
our own critics, striving to find a more informed way to work with
children. As we gain experience, we also need to be open to the
evaluation of others who have more and varied experiences in teaching.

At the close of a lesson, you should take time to step back and look
objectively as you reflect upon your lesson. The reflecting that you
will do should help you go back and hear yourself as \"teacher,\" to
revisit the lesson as you presented it to inform your evaluation of
yourself. One of your goals this semester should be to become a more
objective evaluator of yourself.

 

Required Lesson Format:

Introduction

Title and name of designer

Objective and Proficiencies (NSES Standards)

Background knowledge

Teacher

Student

Materials List

Safety procedures

Lesson Body

Engagement

Exploration

Explanation

Elaboration

Evaluation

Closure

Clean-up