# Introduction to Risk Factors and Protective Factors

![](media/image1.jpeg){width="2.498611111111111in"
height="1.667361111111111in"}

As they grow up, youth are exposed to a number of factors which may
either increase their risk for, or protect them from, problems such as
abusing drugs or engaging in delinquent behavior.

"Risk factors" are any circumstances that may increase youths'
likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors. Conversely, "protective
factors" are any circumstances that promote healthy youth behaviors and
decrease the chance that youth will engage in risky behaviors.

Risk factors and protective factors are often organized into five
categories:

-   Individual;

-   Family;

-   School;

-   Peer group; and

-   Community.

## Risk Factors

Many of the risk factors that make it likely that youth *will* engage in
risky behaviors are the opposite of the protective factors that make it
likely that a teen *will not* engage in such behaviors. For example, one
risk factor is family management problems. If parents fail to set
standards for their teen's behavior, it increases the likelihood that
the teen will engage in substance abuse or delinquent behavior.
Conversely, a protective factor is effective parenting. If parents
consistently provide both nurturing and structure, it increases the
likelihood that a teen *will not* get involved with substance abuse or
delinquent behavior and will become involved in positive activities.

![](media/image2.jpeg){width="1.667361111111111in"
height="2.498611111111111in"}Exposure to risk factors in the relative
absence of protective factors dramatically increases the likelihood that
a young person will engage in problem behaviors. The most effective
approach for improving young people's lives is to reduce risk factors
while increasing protective factors in all of the areas that touch their
lives.

Your assessment will disclose *indicators* of the existence of risk
factors in the community. For example, law enforcement data may have
revealed high arrest rates for juveniles driving under the influence,
and in your survey of middle schools, a large number of youth
self-reported binge drinking. These are *indicators* of several risk
factors; e.g., early onset of alcohol abuse and general delinquency.

Risk factors function in a cumulative fashion; that is, the greater the
number of risk factors, the greater the likelihood that youth will
engage in delinquent or other risky behavior. There is also evidence
that problem behaviors associated with risk factors tend to cluster. For
example, delinquency and violence cluster with other problems, such as
drug abuse, teen pregnancy, and school misbehavior.

Risk factors that predict future risky behaviors by youth are shown
below. You can expand the risk factors to reveal indicators and data
sources where available.

### Individual

### [Antisocial behavior and alienation/delinquent beliefs/general delinquency involvement/drug dealing](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfi1#rfi1anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  School disciplinary                 school district records
  actions/referrals                   

  Students served in programs         school district reports
  classified as Behaviorally or       
  Emotionally Handicapped (BEH)       

  Social adjustment assessments of    local agency data
  children referred to city/county    
  social service agencies             

  Juvenile arrests for vandalism      local police department, Sourcebook
                                      of Criminal Justice Statistics

  Juvenile arrests for drug-related   local police department, Sourcebook
  offenses                            of Criminal Justice Statistics

  Juvenile arrests for                local police department, Sourcebook
  alcohol-related offenses            of Criminal Justice Statistics

  Juvenile arrests for drug           local police department, Sourcebook
  distribution-related offenses       of Criminal Justice Statistics

  Juvenile/family court               local juvenile/family court
  referral/adjudication rate          

  Suicides                            Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

  Bullying                            student surveys

  Lack of guilt and empathy            
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Gun possession/illegal gun ownership/carrying](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfi2#rfi2anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Juvenile weapons/gun violation      local police department, FBI, Crime
  arrests                             in the United States

  Juvenile gun confiscations at       local school district reports
  school                              

  Self-report of carrying gun         CDC Youth Risk Behavior Surveys
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Teen parenthood](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfi3#rfi3anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Births to mothers ages 13-19        state or local health departments,
                                      National Vital Statistics Report,
                                      2000

  Adolescent pregnancies ages 0-14    state or local health departments,
                                      National Vital Statistics Report,
                                      2000

  Adolescent pregnancies ages 15-19   state or local health departments,
                                      National Vital Statistics Report,
                                      2000

  Sexual activity among high school   Youth Risk Behavior Surveys, CDC
  students                            
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Favorable attitudes toward drug use/early onset of AOD use/alcohol/drug use](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfi4#rfi4anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Juvenile arrests for alcohol/drug   local police department
  use                                 

  Juvenile arrests for driving under  local police department
  the influence                       

  Juvenile arrests for liquor law     local police department
  violations                          

  Juvenile arrests for drug abuse     local police department
  violations                          

  Juvenile arrests for drunkenness    local police department

  Positive attitudes toward alcohol   Monitoring the Future Study, Volume
  or drug abuse                       1

  Early initial use of drugs          Monitoring the Future Study, Volume
                                      1

  Annual alcohol use by students      Monitoring the Future Study, Volume
                                      1

  Recent or current use of            Monitoring the Future Study, Volume
  alcohol/drugs                       1
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Early onset of aggression/violence](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfi5#rfi5anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  School disciplinary                 school and mental health center
  actions/referrals and mental health records
  referrals for aggression            

  Child (prior to age 13) court       local juvenile/family court records
  referrals for person offenses       

  School disciplinary                 school district records
  actions/referrals                   

  Students served in programs         school district reports
  classified as Behaviorally or       
  Emotionally Handicapped (BEH)       

  Social adjustment assessments of    local agency data
  children referred to city/county    
  social service agencies             

  Juvenile arrests for violent crime  Sourcebook of Criminal Justice
  and serious violent crime           Statistics
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Intellectual and/or development disabilities](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfi6#rfi6anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Students served in programs         school district reports
  classified as Behaviorally or       
  Emotionally Handicapped (BEH)       

  Standardized intelligence test      school district reports
  scores                              

  Traumatic brain injury              Elementary and Secondary Students:
                                      Programs for the Disabled
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Victimization and exposure to violence](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfi7#rfi7anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Child abuse and neglect rate        Child Protective Services

  Domestic violence arrests and       local police department and
  convictions                         criminal court

  Treatment needs assessments of      local juvenile/family court
  adolescents referred to             
  juvenile/family courts              
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Poor refusal skills](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfi8#rfi8anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

                                      CTC Survey
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Life stressors](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfi9#rfi9anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Failing a course at school          School records

  Being suspended or expelled from    School records
  school                              

  Breaking up with a                  Self-report
  boyfriend/girlfriend                

  Having a big fight or problem with  Self-report
  a friend                            

  Death of someone close              Self-report
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Early sexual involvement](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfi10#rfi10anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD)  local health department
  reports                             

  Adolescent/student surveys of       local studies and YRBS survey
  sexual activity                     
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Mental disorder/mental health problem](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfi11#rfi11anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Students served in programs         school district reports
  classified as Behaviorally or       
  Emotionally Handicapped (BEH)       

  Treatment needs assessments of      local juvenile/family court
  adolescents referred to             
  juvenile/family courts              

  Social adjustment assessments of    local agency data
  children referred to city/county    
  social service agencies             

  Juvenile arrest rate for curfew,    local police department
  vandalism, and disorderly conduct   

  Juvenile/family court               local juvenile/family court
  referral/adjudication rate for      
  curfew, vandalism, and disorderly   
  conduct                             

  Juvenile detainees diagnosed with   local juvenile/family court
  depression                          

  Emotional Disturbance               Elementary and Secondary Students:
                                      Programs for the Disabled

  Attention Deficit Hyperactivity     school district reports
  Disorder                            
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### Family

### [Family history of problem behavior/parent criminality](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rff1#rff1anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Adult criminal arrest rate          local police/sheriff department

  Adults in drug treatment programs   Medicaid claims for alcohol and
                                      substance use, state alcohol and
                                      other drug treatment agencies,
                                      local treatment programs, U.S.
                                      Bureau of the Census, Statistical
                                      Abstract of the U.S.

  Parental assessments of children    local agency data and city/county
  referred to juvenile/family courts  social service agencies

  Educational attainment              U.S. Bureau of the Census,
                                      Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

  Low adult literacy                  National Adult Literacy Survey

  Pregnant mothers using alcohol      Pregnancy Risk Assessment
                                      Monitoring System, CDC

  Babies born with fetal alcohol      Pregnancy Risk Assessment
  syndrome                            Monitoring System, CDC
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Family management problems/poor parental supervision and/or monitoring](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rff2#rff2anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Arrests for runaway by age 16       local police department

  Children living outside the         local department of social
  family/Placements in foster care    services, U.S. Bureau of the
  facilities                          Census, Statistical Abstract of the
                                      U.S.

  Number of latchkey children among   local department of social services
  referrals to child welfare agency   

  Child abuse and neglect rate        Child Protective Services, U.S.
                                      Bureau of the Census, Statistical
                                      Abstract of the U.S.

  Risk and treatment needs            local agency data
  assessments of children referred to 
  juvenile/family courts and          
  city/county social service agencies 

  Parental involvement in child's     U.S. Bureau of the Census,
  school                              Statistical Abstract of the U.S.
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Poor family attachment/bonding](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rff3#rff3anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Risk and treatment needs            local agency data
  assessments of children referred to 
  juvenile/family courts              

  Risk and treatment needs            local agency data
  assessments of children referred to 
  city/county social service agencies 
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Child victimization and maltreatment](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rff4#rff4anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Child abuse and neglect rate        Child Protective Services, U.S.
                                      Bureau of the Census, Statistical
                                      Abstract of the U.S.

  Treatment needs assessments of      local juvenile/family court
  adolescents referred to             
  juvenile/family courts              

  Unpaid child support                U.S. Bureau of the Census,
                                      Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

  Requests for social service         local agency data
  intervention city/county social     
  service agencies                    
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Pattern of high family conflict](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rff5#rff5anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  911 calls for domestic violence     local police/sheriff department

  Domestic violence arrests           Sourcebook of Criminal Justice
                                      Statistics
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Family violence](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rff6#rff6anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Murders of intimate others          local police/sheriff department

  Child abuse rate                    Child Protective Services

  Protective Orders Written           Child Protective Services
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Having a young mother](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rff7#rff7anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Births to mothers age 13 to 19      state or local health departments
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Broken home](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rff8#rff8anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Children in neighborhoods with a    Population Reference Bureau,
  high rate of female-headed families analysis of data from 2000 census
                                      by census tract

  Proportion of children in nonintact local agency data
  families referred to                
  juvenile/family courts and          
  city/county social service agencies 

  Divorce rate for parents with       data may not be available
  children under age 18               

  Children with one or more parents   data may not be available
  in jail/prison                      

  Placements in foster care           local department of social services
  facilities                          

  Number of latchkey children among   local department of social services
  referrals to child welfare agency   
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Sibling antisocial behavior](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rff9#rff9anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Risk and treatment needs            local agencies
  assessments of children referred to 
  juvenile/family courts and          
  city/county social service agencies 
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Family transitions](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rff10#rff10anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Divorce rate                        county clerk or recorder, U.S.
                                      Bureau of the Census, Statistical
                                      Abstract of the U.S.

  Change of custody orders            local juvenile/family court, local
                                      child welfare agency
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Parental use of physical punishment/harsh and/or erratic discipline practices](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rff11#rff11anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Reports to CPS of harsh physical    Child Protective Services
  punishment                          
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Low parent education level/illiteracy](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rff12#rff12anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Education level of parents          school district reports

  Families eligible for Free and      State Welfare Agency
  Reduced Lunch Program               

  Families on Temporary Assistance    State Welfare Agency
  for Needy Families                  

  Food Stamp Program Recipients       State Welfare Agency
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Maternal depression](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rff13#rff13anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Risk and treatment needs            local agencies
  assessments of parents of children  
  referred to juvenile/family courts  
  and city/county social service      
  agencies                            
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### School

### [Low academic achievement](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfs1#rfs1anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Performance composite of public     school district reports
  schools                             

  End-of-year testing/competency      school district reports
  exams by grade                      

  Reading proficiency by grade        school district reports, Digest of
                                      Education Statistics

  Math proficiency by grade           school district reports, Digest of
                                      Education Statistics

  Science proficiency by grade        school district reports, Digest of
                                      Education Statistics

  Low academic aspirations            no indicators

  Low parent college expectations for Profiles of Student Life Survey
  child                               
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Negative attitude toward school/low bonding/low school attachment/commitment to school](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfs2#rfs2anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Number of GED diplomas              Digest of Education Statistics

  Completion of four years of high    Digest of Education Statistics
  school                              
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Truancy/frequent absences](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfs3#rfs3anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Truancy rate                        local school district reports,
                                      Trends in the Well-Being of
                                      America's Children and Youth

  Chronic absenteeism                 Trends in the Well-Being of
                                      America's Children and Youth
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Suspension](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfs4#rfs4anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Suspension rate                     local school district reports
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Dropping out of school](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfs5#rfs5anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  School dropout rate                 local school district reports;
                                      Population Reference Bureau,
                                      analysis of data from 2000 census
                                      by census tract

  Event dropout rate (the proportion  U.S. Bureau of the Census,
  of all students enrolled in school  Statistical Abstract of the U.S.
  at the beginning of a 12-month      
  period who leave school by the end  
  of that 12-month period without     
  graduating)                         

  Status dropout rate (proportion of  U.S. Bureau of the Census,
  the population 16 to 24 years of    Statistical Abstract of the U.S.
  age who are not enrolled in high    
  school and have not graduated)      
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Inadequate school climate/poorly organized and functioning schools/negative labeling by teachers](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfs6#rfs6anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Large classes (larger than 25       school district reports
  students in ES; larger than 36      
  students in MS)                     

  Graduation rates                    local school district

  High dropout rate                   (local school district reports;
                                      Population Reference Bureau,
                                      analysis of data from 2000 census
                                      by census tract

  Excessive zero tolerance            school conduct rules/policies
  punishments                         

  Excessive suspensions and           school district reports
  expulsions                          

  Reports of corporal punishment in   school district reports
  schools                             

  Disruptive/dangerous school         school district reports
  environment (suspensions and        
  expulsions for fighting)            

  Teacher exposure to abuse by        Monitoring the Future Study
  students                            

  Violence/crime in schools           Digest of Education Statistics

  Teacher attitudes/job satisfaction   

  Physical decay of schools            

  Underfunded schools                  
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Identified as learning disabled](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfs7#rfs7anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Enrollments in Special              school district reports
  Education/Exceptional student       
  programs                            
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Frequent school transitions](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfs8#rfs8anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  New students and transfers          local school district records
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### 

### Peer

### [Gang involvement/gang membership](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfp1#rfp1anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Presence of documented gangs        local police/sheriff department,
                                      National Youth Gang Survey

  Documentation of gang membership or Risk and treatment needs
  association                         assessments of children referred to
                                      local juvenile/family courts,
                                      Sourcebook of Criminal Justice
                                      Statistics

  Perceived peer gang involvement     student surveys
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Peer ATOD use](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfp2#rfp2anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Alcohol, tobacco, and other drug    local studies and YRBS survey
  use rate                            

  Violent friends                     Monitoring the Future Study
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Association with delinquent/aggressive peers](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfp3#rfp3anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Documentation of friends/associates Risk and treatment needs
                                      assessments of children referred to
                                      local juvenile/family courts; local
                                      studies and YRBS survey
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Peer rejection](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfp4#rfp4anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Self-admission of peer rejection    local student surveys
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### Community

### [Availability/use of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs in neighborhood](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfc1#rfc1anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Juvenile/adult arrests for drug     local police department
  abuse violations                    

  Adolescent/student surveys of drug  local studies and YRBS survey
  use                                 

  Total alcoholic beverage sales by   Statistical Abstract of the U.S.
  location                            

  Trends in exposure to drug use      Monitoring the Future Study, Volume
                                      1

  Perceived availability of drugs     Monitoring the Future Study, Volume
                                      1
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Availability of firearms](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfc2#rfc2anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Juvenile arrests for weapons law    local police/sheriff department
  violations                          

  Adult arrests for weapons law       local police/sheriff department,
  violations                          Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco,
                                      Firearms and Explosives

  Illegal gun confiscations           local police/sheriff department,
                                      Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco,
                                      Firearms and Explosives

  Firearms in homes of adults         State Licensing Board and local
                                      firearm dealer reports, Sourcebook
                                      of Criminal Justice Statistics

  Firearm sales                       Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

  Gun licenses/permits issued         local police/sheriff department
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [High-crime neighborhood](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfc3#rfc3anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Juvenile arrest/adjudication rate   law enforcement agencies &
                                      juvenile/family court

  Adult arrest/conviction rate for    local law enforcement agencies &
  weapons-related charges             criminal court

  Adult arrest/conviction rate for    local law enforcement agencies &
  violent crimes                      criminal court

  Adult arrest/conviction rate for    local law enforcement agencies,
  DUI                                 Sourcebook of Criminal Justice
                                      Statistics

  Adult arrest/conviction rate for    local law enforcement agencies,
  drug-related charges                Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

  Adult arrest/conviction rate for    local law enforcement agencies,
  alcohol-related charges             Sourcebook of Criminal Justice
                                      Statistics

  Adult arrest/conviction rate for    local law enforcement agencies,
  property crimes                     Sourcebook of Criminal Justice
                                      Statistics

  Presence of documented gangs        local police/sheriff department,
                                      National Youth Gang Survey

  Alcohol-related traffic fatalities  Sourcebook of Criminal Justice
                                      Statistics

  Use of weapons in murders           Sourcebook of Criminal Justice
                                      Statistics

  Murder rate                         FBI, Crime in the United States
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Community instability](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfc4#rfc4anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Unemployment rate                   U.S. Bureau of the Census,
                                      Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

  Net migration rate                  U.S. Naturalization and Immigration
                                      Service/U.S. Bureau of the Census,
                                      Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

  Rental residential properties as    U.S. Bureau of the Census/Real
  proportion of all housing           Estate Board, Statistical Abstract
                                      of the U.S.

  Nonenforcement of building          local Housing and Urban Development
  violations/condemned buildings      office

  Frequent moves of families with     Trends in the Well-Being of
  children                            America's Children and Youth

  New home construction               U.S. Bureau of the Census,
                                      Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

  Home ownership rates                U.S. Bureau of the Census,
                                      Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

  Property vacancy                    U.S. Bureau of the Census,
                                      Statistical Abstract of the U.S.
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Low community attachment](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfc5#rfc5anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Prevalence of homeless              National Coalition for the Homeless
  families/individuals                

  Population voting in congressional  U.S. Bureau of the Census,
  or Presidential elections           Statistical Abstract of the U.S.
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Economic deprivation/poverty/residence in a disadvantaged neighborhood](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfc6#rfc6anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Median family income                U.S. Bureau of the Census,
                                      Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

  Unemployment rate                   U.S. Bureau of the Census,
                                      Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

  Families/persons/children living    U.S. Bureau of the Census,
  below poverty level                 Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

  Families on Temporary Assistance    State Welfare Agency, U.S. Bureau
  for Needy Families                  of the Census, Statistical Abstract
                                      of the U.S.

  Food Stamp Program recipients       State Welfare Agency, U.S. Bureau
                                      of the Census, Statistical Abstract
                                      of the U.S.

  Families eligible for Free and      State Welfare Agency, U.S. Bureau
  Reduced Lunch Program               of the Census, Statistical Abstract
                                      of the U.S.

  Female family householder with no   U.S. Bureau of the Census,
  spouse present                      Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

  Children in working-poor families   Kids Count Data Book

  Individuals/children without health U.S. Bureau of the Census,
  insurance                           Statistical Abstract of the U.S.
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Neighborhood youth in trouble](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfc7#rfc7anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Juvenile overall arrest rate        local police department

  Juvenile/family court               local juvenile/family court
  referral/adjudication rate          
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Feeling unsafe in the neighborhood](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfc8#rfc8anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Juvenile violent crime              YRBS survey

  Juvenile/adult violent              local police/sheriff department
  crime/homicide arrests              

  Presence of documented gangs        local police/sheriff department
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Social and physical disorder/disorganized neighborhood](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=rfc9#rfc9anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Poor external housing conditions    local Housing and Urban Development
                                      office, U.S. Bureau of the Census,
                                      Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

  Graffiti, vandalism, and littering  local police/sheriff department

  Unrepaired homes                    photographs

  Hate crimes                         local police/sheriff department

  Broken light fixtures in public     U.S. Bureau of the Census,
  halls                               Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

  Absence of Neighborhood Watch       local police/sheriff department
  organizations                       

  Nonenforcement of building code     city/county government agency
  violations/condemned buildings      

  Projection of homeless families     National Coalition for the Homeless

  Public drunkenness                  local police/sheriff department
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

## Protective Factors

Researchers know less about protective factors than they do about risk
factors because fewer studies have been done in this area. However, they
believe protective factors operate in three ways. First, they may serve
to buffer risk factors, providing a cushion against negative effects.
Second, they may interrupt the processes through which risk factors
operate. For example, a community program that helps families learn
conflict resolution may interrupt a chain of risk factors that lead
youth from negative family environments to associate with delinquent
peers. Third, protective factors may prevent the initial occurrence of a
risk factor, such as child abuse. For example, infants and young
children who are easy-going may be protected from abuse by eliciting
positive, rather than frustrated, responses from their parents and
caregivers.

Protective factors that protect youth against delinquency and substance
abuse are shown below. You can expand the protective factors to reveal
indicators and data sources where available.

### Individual

### [Positive/resilient temperament](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfi1#pfi1anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Prosocial orientation               CTC Student Survey
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Religiosity/valuing involvement in organized religious activities](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfi2#pfi2anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Religious involvement               Profiles of Student Life Survey

  Religious identity                  AddHealth Survey
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Social competencies and problem-solving skills](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfi3#pfi3anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Interpersonal competence            Profiles of Student Life Survey

  Youth with driver's licenses and    Traffic Safety Facts, 1998
  incident rates                      

  Youth employment                    U.S. Department of Education's
                                      National Report Card, 1998

  Conflict resolution skills           

  Peaceful conflict resolution        Profiles of Student Life Survey

  Life skills                          
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Perception of social support from adults and peers](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfi4#pfi4anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Community values children           Profiles of Student Life Survey
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Healthy sense of self](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfi5#pfi5anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Feelings of self-worth              Profiles of Student Life Survey

  Personal power                      Profiles of Student Life Survey
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Positive expectations/optimism for the future](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfi6#pfi6anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Positive view of personal future    Profiles of Student Life Survey

  Sense of purpose                    Profiles of Student Life Survey
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [High expectations](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfi7#pfi7anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Achievement motivation              Profiles of Student Life Survey

  Healthy/conventional beliefs and     
  clear standards                     

  Positive values scale               Profiles of Student Life Survey
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### Family

### [Good relationships with parents/bonding or attachment to family](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pff1#pff1anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Attachment and commitment to        CTC Student Survey
  parents and family                  

  Number of activities engaged in     AddHealth Survey
  with parent                         

  Effective parenting                  

  Prenatal care                       Kids Count 2000, CDC

  Youth reports of family love and    CTC Student Survey
  support                             

  Parents' clear rules and            CTC Student Survey
  consequences                        

  Necessary immunizations received    Kids Count 2000, CDC

  Parental involvement in child's      
  school                              

  Proportion of families who eat       
  meals together                      

  Parental supervision                AddHealth Survey
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Opportunities and reward for prosocial family involvement](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pff2#pff2anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Parental involvement in child's      
  school                              

  Parental involvement in              
  after-school activities/coaching    
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Having a stable family](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pff3#pff3anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Proportion of intact families        

  Rate of biological parent families  Population Reference Bureau,
                                      analysis of data from 2000 census
                                      by census tract
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [High family expectations](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pff4#pff4anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Parental educational level          school district reports

  Good examples of parents as role    Profiles of Student Life Survey
  models                              

  Level of parental involvement in    U.S. Bureau of the Census,
  child's school                      Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

  Percentage of youth applying to      
  college                             

  Percentage of youth applying for     
  scholarships                        
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### School

### [School motivation/positive attitude toward school](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfs1#pfs1anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Proportion of students completing    
  four years of high school           

  Proportion of students involved in   
  extracurricular activities          
  including sports                    

  School attendance                    
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Student bonding and connectedness (attachment to teachers, belief, commitment)](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfs2#pfs2anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  ADA record                           

  Teacher attitudes/job satisfaction   

  Percentage of 12^th^ graders who     
  find schoolwork is meaningful       

  Percentage of 12^th^ grade students  
  who believe that school learning    
  will be important later in life     

  Teachers care about students and     
  treat students fairly               

  Students feel they are a part of     
  the school                          

  Students feel close to people at     
  their school                        

  Students are happy to be at school   

  Students feel safe at school         
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Academic achievement/reading ability and mathematics skills](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfs3#pfs3anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Performance composite of public     school district reports
  schools                             

  End-of-year testing/competency      school district reports
  exams by grade                      

  Reading proficiency by grade        school district reports, Digest of
                                      Education Statistics

  Math proficiency by grade           school district reports, Digest of
                                      Education Statistics

  Science proficiency by grade        school district reports, Digest of
                                      Education Statistics
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Opportunities and rewards for prosocial school involvement](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfs4#pfs4anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Student involvement in class        CTC Student Survey
  activities and policies             

  Youth involvement in                CTC Student Survey
  extracurricular activities          

  Availability of school clubs and     
  organizations                       
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [High-quality schools/clear standards and rules](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfs5#pfs5anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Adherence to school policies and    Indicators of School Crime and
  rules                               Safety

  Drug-free schools policy            National Center for Education Stats

  No violence or guns policy          National Center for Education Stats

  Safe and drug-free schools zone      

  Strong leadership and                
  administrative support              

  A well-organized, safe environment   

  Frequent monitoring of student       
  progress and consistent             
  reinforcement of good performance   

  A school-wide program of staff       
  development                         

  A high level of parent               
  participation in their children's   
  school life                         
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [High expectations of students](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfs6#pfs6anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  School achievement                  NA

  Youth who plan to go to college     U.S. Department of Education Fast
                                      Facts

  Scholarships available               

  Percentage of students who expect    
  to graduate from high school        

  Percentage of 10^th^ grade students  
  who expect to obtain a bachelor's   
  degree                              

  Parent college expectations for      
  child                               
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Presence and involvement of caring, supportive adults](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfs7#pfs7anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Teacher retention rate              U.S. Department of
                                      Education---Characteristics of
                                      Stayers, Movers, and Leavers

  Teacher morale                      U.S. Department of
                                      Education---Satisfaction Among
                                      America's Teachers

  Active PTA in school district        

  Parental support for school         Digest of Education Statistics,
                                      1997

  Safe and caring school environment  U.S. Department of Education
                                      Indicators of School Crime and
                                      Safety, 1999

  A shared sense of purpose and        
  values among staff that fosters     
  collaboration, mutual support, and  
  positive relationships between      
  teachers and students               
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### Peer

### [Involvement with positive peer group activities and norms](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfp1#pfp1anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Level of participation in prosocial Profiles of Student Life Survey
  activities                          

  Positive peer models                Profiles of Student Life Survey

  Valuing participation in             
  civic/altruistic activities         
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Good relationship with peers](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfp2#pfp2anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Interpersonal competence            Profiles of Student Life Survey

  Peaceful conflict resolution        Profiles of Student Life Survey
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Parental approval of friends](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfp3#pfp3anchor)

> There are no indicators or data sources for this protective factor.

### Community

### [Economically sustainable/stable communities](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfc1#pfc1anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Median household income              

  Rate of home ownership               

  Employment rate                      

  Employment security                  

  Availability of neighborhood         
  resources                           

  Families/children living above       
  poverty                             

  Mobility rate in neighborhood        
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Safe and health-promoting environment/supportive law enforcement presence](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfc2#pfc2anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Community safety                     

  Availability of community policing   

  Citizen perception of safety         

  Availability of safe, appealing,     
  well-maintained recreation areas    

  Maintenance of business/commercial   
  districts                           

  Supervision of youth activities at   
  recreational areas and playgrounds  

  Air quality                          

  Civic maintenance                   garbage pickup, condition of
                                      sidewalks, streets and roads

  Percentage of children and           
  adolescents with health insurance   

  Percentage of parents with health    
  insurance                           

  Percentage of children and           
  adolescents who had a visit for     
  well child care (preventive         
  clinical services) in past year     

  Percentage of children and           
  adolescents who saw a dentist for   
  oral health check-up in past year   

  Availability of health service       
  providers in community              
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Positive social norms](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfc3#pfc3anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Incentives offered for community     
  service and volunteerism            

  Well-kept homes, commercial and      
  recreational areas                  

  Percentage of eligible citizens who  
  vote                                

  Neighborhood Watch                   
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Opportunities and rewards for prosocial community involvement/availability of neighborhood resources](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfc4#pfc4anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Community service opportunities and Nation's Report Card
  volunteerism                        

  Meaningful ways for youth to        Profiles of Student Life Survey
  participate in community activities 

  Availability of prosocial           CTC Student Survey
  activities                          

  Rewards for prosocial community     from the National Survey of
  involvement                         Children's Health
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [High community expectations](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfc5#pfc5anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Availability of student              
  scholarships                        

  Incentive programs for graduating    
  high school                         

  High school graduation rates        U.S. Department of Education Fast
                                      Facts

  Use of public education campaigns    

  Adult literacy                       
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

### [Neighborhood/social cohesion](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm?factorID=pfc6#pfc6anchor)

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  **Indicators**                      **Data Sources**

  Availability of caring supportive   Profiles of Student Life Survey
  adults in community                 

  Availability of supportive          CTC Student Survey
  neighbors in community              

  Positive relationships with adults  CTC Student Survey
  outside family                      

  Neighborhood associations/community  
  coalitions                          

  People help each other              from the National Survey of
                                      Children's Health

  People watch out for each other's   from the National Survey of
  children in the neighborhood        Children's Health

  People can count on each other      from the National Survey of
                                      Children's Health

  People trust to help each other's   from the National Survey of
  children                            Children's Health
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

Recent scientific studies have shown that community resources also can
influence individual teenagers' positive traits. For example, young
people are more likely to be a part of youth organizations and sports
teams if their parents perceive that the community is safe and that it
has good neighborhood and city services (such as police and fire
protection or trash pickup). Similarly, youth are more apt to be exposed
to good adult role models other than their parents when communities have
informal sources of adult supervision, when there is a strong sense of
community, when neighborhoods are perceived to be safe, and when
neighborhood and city services are functioning.

[Bibliography](http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factorsbibliography.htm)

# Risk and Protective Factors Bibliography

Arthur, M. W., J. D. Hawkins, J. A. Pollard, R. F. Catalano, A. J.
Baglioni, Jr. (2002), "Measuring Risk and Protective Factors for
Substance Use, Delinquency, and Other Adolescent Problem Behaviors. The
Communities That Care Survey," *Evaluation Review*, 26(6):575-601.

Catalano, R. F., J. D. Hawkins (1996), "The Social Development Model: A
Theory of Antisocial Behavior." In J. D. Hawkins (ed.), *Delinquency and
Crime: Current Theories* (pp. 149-197), New York: Cambridge University
Press.

Guo, J., J. D. Hawkins, K. G. Hill, R. D. Abbott (2001), "Childhood and
Adolescent Predictors of Alcohol Abuse and Dependence in Young
Adulthood," *Journal of Studies on Alcohol*, 62(6):754-762.

Hawkins, J. D., R. F. Catalano, et al. (1992), *Communities That Care*,
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Hawkins, J. D., M. L. Van Horn, M. W. Arthur (2004), "Community
Variation in Risk and Protective Factors and Substance Use Outcomes,"
*Prevention Science*, 5(4):213-220.

Howell, J. C. (2003), *Preventing and Reducing Juvenile Delinquency: A
Comprehensive Framework*, Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

Howell, J. C., A. Egley, Jr. (2005), "Moving Risk Factors Into
Developmental Theories of Gang Membership," *Youth Violence and Juvenile
Justice: An Interdisciplinary Journal*, 3(4):334-354.

Kegler, M. C., R. F. Oman, S. K. Vesely, K. R. McLeroy, C. B. Aspy, S.
Rodine, L. Marshall (2005), "Relationships Among Youth Assets and
Neighborhood and Community Resources," *Health Education and Behavior*,
32(3):380-397.

Kirby, L. D., M. W. Fraser (1997), "Risk and Resilience in Childhood."
In M. W. Fraser (ed.), *Risk and Resilience in Childhood* (pp. 10-33),
Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.

Stouthamer-Loeber, M., R. Loeber, E. Wei, D. P. Farrington, P. H.
Wikstrom (2002), "Risk and Promotive Effects in the Explanation of
Persistent Serious Delinquency in Boys," *Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology*, 70(1):111-123.

Stouthamer-Loeber, M., E. Wei, R. Loeber, A. S. Masten (2004),
"Desistance From Persistent Serious Delinquency in the Transition to
Adulthood," *Development and Psychopathology*, 16:897-918.

**Acknowledgement:**

The source of this information is The Community Guide to Helping
America's Youth at
<http://guide.helpingamericasyouth.gov/programtool-factors.cfm>, last
referenced 01/19/07.