Gaming and Native American Education: A Qualitative Exploration of USET
Tribes

Karla Martin[^1]

Natalie Adams, Ph.D.

Associate Professor of Educational Leadership,

Policy, and Technology Studies

> *Native Americans continue to lag behind other United States citizens
> in educational achievement, economic stability, and quality of life.
> Gaming was introduced in the late 1960s to improve the quality of life
> for Native Americans. However, little research has documented how
> gaming has affected the education of Native Americans. This study
> examined 8 of the 14 United Southeastern Tribes (USET) with gaming to
> analyze the impact that gaming has had on the quality of their tribe's
> education. Implications for the Poarch Band of Creek Indians and their
> newly established gaming industry are discussed.*

The education of Native Americans lags far behind that of the rest of
the country, although ninety percent of Native American students attend
public schools with their non-Native peers (Sparks, 2000). Native
Americans have the highest high school drop-out rate (Martinez, 1999, p.
3), 40 percent higher than the national rate (NIGC, 2004, p.22).
Further, only 13.3% of Native Americans have an undergraduate college
degree, relative to the national average of 24.4% (National Indian
Gaming Commission \[NIGC\], 2004). Such statistics point to the need for
Native American tribes to make education of its members a high priority.
Many tribes have introduced gaming as a way to generate revenues to
improve the education and overall quality of life of their tribal
members.

The Poarch Band of Creek Indians, the only federally recognized tribe in
the state of Alabama, is one such tribe. With newly established gaming
facilities, the Poarch Creek tribe is bringing in much revenue. This
revenue is being divided among different programs, one of those being
education. In March 2005, the tribal council voted to give every tribal
member, ages 10-25, an education scholarship in the amount of \$30,000.
The money is designated for books and tuition, and the scholarships went
into effect in the fall of 2005.

The purpose of this study was to determine how the gaming industry has
affected education in tribal communities. The study examined the impact
by focusing specifically on educational funding, educational services,
and educational accomplishments of members. The research questions that
guided this study were: (1) what impact has gaming had on the quality of
education of United Southeastern Tribes with gaming? and (2) what are
the implications of the findings for the Poarch Creek tribe and their
newly established gaming industry?

## Historical Context

Native Americans were the first to inhabit the United States. However,
"for generations this nation's first Americans have lived in poverty and
despair, many on small, predominantly rural Indian lands, victims of
torture, genocidal history and a failed system of Federal paternalism"
(NIGC, 2004, p. 4). Indian reservations from 1886 to 1934 lost more than
90 million acres of land due to war, removal, reservation policies, land
theft, and destruction of native species, which left Native Americans
with only 48 million acres (NIGC, 2004). Much of the land was lost due
to the passage of the Dawes Act:

> The confiscation of Indian lands became easier in 1887 with passage of
> the Dawes Act, which mandated allotment---a system that subdivided
> tribal lands and granted ownership to individual Indians. Many of
> those properties were later sold or leased to non-Indians, who now
> account for nearly half the total reservation population. (Bruchac,
> 2004, p. 89)

In the 1960s, Native Americans began fighting to reclaim their land,
heritage, and rights (Bruchac, 2004). By the final decade of the 20^th^
century, tribes had made gains, both economically and socially.

Despite the gains that Native Americans have made, there is still a
large socioeconomic gap between Native Americans and other U.S.
citizens. Many factors contribute to this gap: government policies, a
lack of productive land, too little capital for development, inadequate
health care and education, poverty, and a fractured sense of identity.
For decades, Native Americans have been the poorest ethnic group in the
United States ("Harvard...", 2005). Further, according to the NIGC's
2004 Census, which compared data on Native Americans to national
statistics, Native Americans have a higher rate of infant mortality,
diabetes, death by suicide and homicide, overcrowded homes, high school
drop-out rate, poverty, unemployment, and violent crimes. Native
Americans also have a lower life expectancy rate and proportionately
fewer higher education degrees (NIGC, 2004).

## Gaming

As a way to improve the quality of life on Indian reservations, tribes
turned to gaming in the late 1960s and early 1970s (NIGC, 2004). The
Indian Gaming Regulatory Act was passed by Congress in 1988, "affirming
Tribal government authority to use Indian gaming to promote Tribal
economic development, Tribal self-sufficiency and strong Tribal
government" (NIGC, 2004, p. 6). The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act states
that tribes should use gaming for five purposes: "(1) to fund Tribal
government services, operations and programs; (2) to promote Tribal
welfare; (3) to promote Tribal economic development; (4) to make
charitable donations; and (5) to help fund local government agencies"
(NIGC, 2004, p. 9).

Gaming was introduced initially to improve economic development. Casinos
were expected to be built mostly on poverty-stricken, rural reservations
(Barlett, Steele, Karmatz, Levinstein, Frank, & Mustafa, 2002, p. 51).
However, that has not been the case; casinos are found in all types of
settings, rural and urban. The NIGC (2004) states that today, of the 567
federally recognized Indian tribes, 223 conduct some form of gaming.
Tribal government gaming exists in 28 states with a total of 441 gaming
facilities (NIGC, 2004). In 2004, the NIGC found that tribal government
gaming generated total revenues of approximately \$18.5 billion.

There are three classes of gaming: I, II, and III. Class I gaming
includes social games with prizes of minimal value. Class II gaming
includes bingo, lotto, and pull-tabs. Class III gaming refers to
casino-style wagering and includes all forms of gaming that are not
included in Class I or Class II gaming (NIGC, 2004, p. 7). The type of
gaming that tribes are allowed to use depends upon state and federal
regulations, thus accounting for the different classes and facilities.

Gaming has generated much revenue for many Native American tribes;
however, different tribes distribute the money differently. "Only 25% of
gaming tribes distribute cash to the members. Most of the money goes to
fund general programs, such as services for elderly and young people, as
well as education and economic development" (Bartlett et al., 2002, p.
48). Bartlett et al. (2002) state, however, that in many cases
non-Indian investors get more than 40% of an Indian casino's profits,
leaving the tribe with little to distribute to employment, programs, and
tribal members.

There is much debate about the benefits and pitfalls of gaming for
tribal communities. According to census data from 1990 to 2000, "gaming
has helped alleviate poverty on Indian reservations. Specifically per
capita income rose by more than 50 percent, unemployment rates dropped
by 17 percent, and population increased 18 percent on the casino
reservations" (NIGC, 2004, p. 14). Other sources estimate that "between
1990 and 2000 per capita income grew 27 percent on Indian lands"
(Bruchac, 2004, p. 88). According to the NIGC (2004), tribal government
gaming has created more than 553,000 jobs nationwide. Tribal gaming
operations are being used to build schools, hospitals, police and fire
stations, housing, roads, and water, sewer, and sanitation facilities.
Tribal government gaming revenues are also being used to fund essential
services, provide child and elder care, and preserve Indian languages,
cultures, and traditions. Additionally, tribes are donating much-needed
resources to Indians and non-Indians alike across the country. After
decades of poverty and high unemployment on often geographically remote
reservations, Native American people now see gaming as an integral part
of tribal economies and a way to promote economic self-sufficiency for
current and future generations (NIGC, 2004). Gaming has also had a major
impact on education. "In the past two decades Indians have seen an 80%
jump in postsecondary school enrollment" (Bruchac, 2004, p. 88).

Although there are many benefits of gaming, there are some downfalls,
and gaming continues to be a controversial issue. Aubaurrea (1996)
concluded that the negative effects include alcohol and drug abuse,
gambling addiction, and fear of losing traditional values. Libal (2004)
found that the controversy tends to derive from state officials and
religious organizations that believe gambling is wrong or that it will
attract crime.

Within the Indian communities, however, people have seen how gaming has
saved the tribes from desperate financial circumstances, allowing them
to become more independent and to no longer rely entirely on the federal
government for financial support. Native Americans have seen time and
time again that the American government cannot always be relied upon to
adequately address a tribe's needs, so every opportunity for
independence is seized with enthusiasm. Indian gaming is an important
opportunity for independence (Libal, 2004).

Most of this literature is said to represent all Native Americans; in
reality, it focuses mostly on the Western tribes. There is not much
literature specifically on the southeastern tribes. Therefore, this
study focuses on these tribes to give a better representation of the
USET tribes[^2] in the research literature.

The Poarch Band of Creek Indians is part of the USET tribes. Although
Class II gaming has been legal since the time of federal recognition in
1984, gaming on this reservation began in 1985 with a bingo hall**.** In
2002, the Poarch Band of Creek Indians increased the gaming facilities
on their reservation by adding three temporary game room/entertainment
centers. These three gaming facilities include a bingo hall/game room in
Poarch, and Class II video bingo machines in Tallapoosa Entertainment
Center in Tallapoosa and Riverside Entertainment Center in Wetumpka.
Before gaming, the tribe was funded through grants and federal money.
Now, these facilities are bringing in much revenue, which is dispersed
throughout the many programs that the tribe offers. In March 2005, the
tribal council voted to distribute some of this revenue as scholarships
to tribal members ages 10-25. The tribal leaders realize that education
is important and want to help support it as much as possible. The Poarch
Band of Creek Indians believes that gaming will provide a way to improve
the life of tribal members, particularly their education.

Since gaming is so new to the Poarch Creek tribe, no data are available
regarding whether gaming has helped the tribal members. This research,
which focused on the other 13 USET tribes that have gaming, examined how
gaming on other reservations has impacted the education of its members.
The major goal of the study was to share this information with the
Poarch Creek tribe and others, in hopes that the findings can be used to
facilitate sound educational and fiscal decisions that will benefit all
tribal members.

# Method

To analyze how gaming has affected the education of Native Americans
among USET tribes, a mixed methodology design was used; data were
gathered through qualitative semi-structured interviews and quantitative
surveys.

## Surveys

A cover letter and a survey were mailed/e-mailed to the educational
directors of the 13 USET tribes. (See Appendix A for a list of the
tribes.) The cover letter introduced and explained the project, asked
for help, and provided the relevant contact information. (See Appendix B
for cover letter.) The survey consisted of six multiple-choice
questions, six questions using a Likert scale, and three short-answer
questions. (See Appendix C for survey.) Each survey asked for the
participant's name, phone number, e-mail address, and an available time
for an interview. Eight of the 13 directors returned the survey.
Responses to the surveys indicated that the majority of the tribes
introduced gaming

between 1995 and 1999, with the earliest being 1970 and the latest being
1999. The surveys indicated that four tribes have both Class II and III
gaming, three tribes have Class III gaming only, and one tribe has Class
II gaming only

. All tribes have one to three gaming facilities. According to the
surveys, the majority of the tribes said that 75%-100% of their students
attend public schools.

The data showed that the majority of the tribes designate 1%-25% of
revenue for education.

## Interviews and Field Observations

Semistructured qualitative interviews were conducted with three
participants. Each participant was either the education director or
involved with the education department of her tribe. Two interviews were
conducted by telephone and lasted approximately an hour. One hour-long
interview was conducted at the United Southeastern Tribes Conference
held in Mashantucket, Connecticut in June 2005.[^3] Four shorter,
informal interviews, not audiotaped, were also conducted at the USET
Conference. In addition to interviews, field notes were used as a form
of data collection. Because it was not feasible to write field notes
during conference sessions, the notes were written after the event.

All participants were over the age of 18 and were fully informed of the
purpose of the research. Each formal interview participant signed a
consent form. All names of participants were removed and tribes were
identified only by nation. All participants were asked the same number
of questions using an interview protocol (See Appendix D for interview
protocol).

## Data Analysis

Data analysis consisted of a comparison across surveys according to
individual survey questions. Descriptive statistics were used to report
data. Each qualitative interview was transcribed verbatim and
subsequently coded for recurring themes. The interviews and field notes
also were coded. An initial list of 43 categories was collapsed into 18
categories. Interviews were then analyzed using a constant comparative
approach that looked at common themes across all data. The three primary
themes which emerged from the data ---quality of life, per
capita/distribution payments/trust funds, and education---are discussed
later.

# Results

Analysis of the data addressed the following question: what impact has
gaming had on the quality of education of USET tribes with gaming?

## Quantitative Data

Surveys revealed several positive benefits of gaming:

1.  enabled members to attend college without incurring huge loans

2.  provided incentives to encourage students to do well in school and
    set higher goals

3.  provided more employment opportunities, better community services
    and medical clinics

4.  increased funding for other programs

5.  introduced more tourism dollars for local economies both on and off
    the reservation.

Another major benefit of gaming was that it increased tribal
independence. The Tribe 3 representative stated that "tribes are
receiving less federal funding which is something tribes need to hold on
to and fight for even with the increase in revenue. The federal
government owes tribes continuing support."

The surveys also revealed possible problems associated with gaming:

1.  unhealthy dependency on per capita payments

2.  parents misusing children's distribution payments

3.  small political struggles

4.  internal conflicts within families over money

5.  different opinions about whether distributions should go to the
    elderly and to the young.

Open-ended questions on surveys revealed the following ways that gaming
has affected the education of tribal members:

1.  more high school and college graduates

2.  more funding to pay for education at all levels, including private
    schools and colleges

3.  more student participation in extracurricular activities for
    educational assistance to tribal members from kindergarten through
    the end of life

4.  more tribal members are able to attend college or to continue their
    college anywhere they want in the USA.

The Tribe 1 participant noted, "We now realize that we can achieve any
goal that we set for ourselves."

Figure 1 below demonstrates that on rating scale items, the majority of
the tribes "agreed" that since the introduction of gaming, the number of
high school students graduating has increased. The majority "strongly
agreed" that with gaming, the number of students graduating from college
has increased. No one "disagreed" or "strongly disagreed," and only one
remained neutral when asked if the number of students graduating from
high school and college has increased since gaming began.

Figure 1: Agreement that Graduation Rates have Improved Since the
Introduction of Gaming

![](media/image1.wmf){width="3.6881944444444446in"
height="2.602777777777778in"}

The majority of the tribes also "strongly agreed" that gaming has
positively impacted the education of their tribe overall and that the
educational goals of their tribal members have changed for the better.

## Qualitative Data 

The qualitative data corroborate the survey findings about the positive
benefits of gaming, particularly the decreased dependency on the federal
government and the improvement of all aspects of tribal life. The
interviewees also noted their concerns about gaming, most notably the
fears that tribal members were becoming too dependent on the gaming
revenues. They were particularly concerned about how this affected the
tribal youth. According to one respondent, "unfortunately a lot of kids
will graduate from high school and hang around until they are old enough
to get their trust fund. Once they have spent all of that, then they
will look at college" (Tribe 1).

The interviewees also discussed how gaming has affected education, which
will be discussed in more detail in the next section. Overall revenues
generated from gaming have allowed more resources to be put into
schools. One respondent noted that with gaming funds they have been able
to "build a school for 3 and 4 year old's with certified teachers,
teacher's aides, and cooks. They are able to feed the students and take
them on field trips" (Tribe 3). However, there is a down side to gaming
and education. Tribes are now faced with the challenge of keeping
students interested in school once they turn 18 and start receiving
their distribution payments.

# Discussion of Findings

Throughout the surveys and interviews, three primary themes emerged,
which will be discussed in this section.

## Quality of Life on Reservations

> When I was younger the joke about Indian cars was old beat up car with
> one head light. Now they are fancy, really expensive cars. (Tribe 3)
>
> Most young people get their trust fund and buy a new car. There are
> not as many people living in trailers or on food stamps or welfare.
> There is less alcoholism. We found that if you give a person a job,
> they have less time to drink. (Tribe 1)
>
> With less alcoholism, parents are taking better care of their kids,
> less domestic violence, and less of many negative things. We have
> learned that if you keep people busy, they have less time to get in
> trouble. (Tribe 1)

As these quotations illustrate, Indian tribes have seen improvement in
the quality of life, which they attribute to gaming. Members are looking
for ways to improve their lives in the long-term. Tribes are now
teaching people to take care of themselves. Gaming has given people jobs
and helped reduce poverty, as explained by the representative from Tribe
1:

> Our younger members have not experienced poverty like \[older
> members\] have. They don't understand what it is like to live with no
> running water and no electricity. They have no idea what it is like to
> be poor. So they don't understand where we've come from. We appreciate
> where we are right now; they take it for granted.

Gaming has allowed for more social services which help improve the
mental and physical health of its members. One tribal representative
stated that gaming funds allow their tribe to provide health insurance
to all their members.

Gaming has also improved the quality of work on reservations. All of the
tribes agreed that the number of college graduates returning to the
tribe to work is increasing. More jobs have been created because of the
casinos and increased revenue. Members are returning to accept jobs in
the casino, health department, administration department, tribal
schools, education department, recreation department, family services,
human resources, member benefits department, social services department,
police department, communications department, production company,
cultural center, and information technology department. Some of the
positions that the college graduates are receiving are as teachers,
LPN's, RN's, attorneys, forensic scientists, tribal judges, and
accountants. Casinos often provide on-the-job training for tribal
members. One tribe's representative stated that the casino will give
dealing classes to anyone interested in being hired as a dealer. Once
they are hired, the cost will be deducted from their paycheck. Another
tribe pays for job training if a tribal member comes to the education
department and lets them know of their employer's request for a specific
type of job training. As one interviewee noted, "with gaming funds,
education has definitely benefited. Our older members are going back to
school. They know they need an education" (Tribe 1).

The tribes noted there are still some hurdles to overcome. Teenage
pregnancy, for example, is still an issue for many tribes. Getting
students to go directly from high school to college is another
challenge; students want to take time off after completing high school,
and because they get distribution payments, they can afford to do so.
Another concern is that, in contrast to times past when local
politicians were not concerned with the lives of Native Americans, now
that significant money is involved, the politicians are interested in
what Native Americans are doing.

## Per Capita/Distribution Payments/Trust Fund

A common way that gaming revenues are distributed is through per capita
payments. Per capita or distribution payments are equal payments that a
tribe will give to its enrolled tribal members. The amount and time of
distribution varies according to tribe. Most tribes will not allow
children to receive payments until they are 18. However, some tribes
give the payments to the parents and others place the payments in a
trust fund. Trust funds are a way to hold money, usually per capita
payments, until an individual reaches a certain age. "The trust fund is
a wonderful and horrible thing" (Tribe 1). This statement represents the
ambivalence many tribes have regarding the per capita and trust fund
forms of distribution. All of the tribal representatives agreed that a
disadvantage of the per capita/distribution payment is that it is hard
to keep students interested in graduating from high school once they
turn 18, because they start receiving per capita payments. They are also
concerned that per capita payments could create a dangerous dependency
on the tribe. For example, with per capita payments, the elderly's
income has increased so they are not considered low income and are not
eligible for Medicare or food stamps. Their dependency has switched from
the state and federal government to the tribe, making them more
vulnerable to any economic changes within the tribe.

A disadvantage of a trust fund is that when tribal members turn 21, they
may have a large trust fund and instead of attending college, may spend
all their money on frivolous purchases. Some of the interviewees felt
that the trust fund has actually worked against improving the education
of tribal members:

> It is hard for them to understand the importance of education. They
> just think they are going to get that distribution check for the rest
> of their life, and they don't understand that's just extra. This is
> not for you to live on. It could be gone tomorrow. (Tribe 1)

## Positive Benefits of Gaming on Education

With gaming funds, tribes have been able to provide more services to
members in the area of education. The tribe is able to give incentives
for good grades and attendance. The following are two examples of ways
that tribes are able to do this:

> We are able to give students K-6 a \$25 gift card to Barnes and Nobles
> for making perfect attendance. Students with a B average or higher are
> given a \$25 cash reward. Students are given \$200 for making the
> dean's list. The amounts increase as the students progress in school.
> The tribe will pay tuition for any student that gets accepted into
> private school. (Tribe 1)
>
> We were able to establish a school and academic program for 3 and 4
> year olds. They have hired certified teachers, a teacher's aide, and a
> cook. They are able to feed the students breakfast and lunch and take
> them on field trips. (Tribe 3)

The tribe is able to provide assistance to students throughout the year
without worrying about running out of funds. In some instances, new
schools have been built that are tribally controlled. Also, tribes are
able to provide school supplies for students K-12:

> They are able to allot \$1,500 to each student K-12 each year for
> camps, field trips, conferences, and anything school related. All
> required education expenses are paid whether students are attending
> public or private schools or vocational college, community college, or
> universities. Tribes are able to provide required uniforms for
> students. (Tribe 3)

Indeed, many tribes do not designate a specified amount of money for
education. Rather, they spend whatever money is needed to take care of
the educational needs of their members. Funding and distribution of
revenue for education is determined in many different ways as explained
by the Tribe 1 participant:

> There is no specific percentage of the budget given to education.
> Every department submits a budget to the budget review committee and
> their budget is either approved or not. There is no certain percent
> designated for education, instead there is really no cap on what we'll
> spend on education.

Others follow the guidelines of the federal gaming commission in
allotting money for education:

> The federal gaming commission advises the tribe on how to spend the
> tribal and casino funds. The education department is given 1%-25% of
> gaming revenue. There have been no current changes made in the budget.
> (Tribe 3)

One positive benefit is that tribes agree there is a lower percent of
high-school drop-outs since gaming. However, it is still a primary
concern of tribes to keep the young people interested in school once
they turn 18 and receive their distribution payments. All tribes have
concerns about high school retention and do not know how to fix it. Some
agree that there are very high standards for graduation, while others
say that students just don't take school seriously.

All tribes are in agreement that the number of students attending
college has increased since gaming was introduced on their reservation.
Before gaming, one tribe had four members who attended college. Today
they have 100 members attending some form of college, something that was
unheard of before gaming. Another tribal representative noted that
before gaming the tribe had about 25 members attending college, and
after gaming they have 35-37 students attending college.

> Gaming has definitely changed the way people look at education. It is
> more accessible for everyone now. Where members thought it was
> something they would like to do but they could never do, now they know
> they have the means to do it, it is more or less up to them if they
> are going to do it or not. (Tribe 1)

All tribal representatives interviewed stated that tribal members are
strongly encouraged to attend college and also to obtain a master's
degree, Ph.D., J.D., or M.D. Local colleges have specifically designed
classes and degrees to train students in Indian gaming, hospitality, and
tourism. All of the tribes' scholarship programs guarantee tuition money
and some a stipend so that students attending college do not have to
work. The Tribe 1 participant stated, "We want them to concentrate on
their studies and not have to worry about where their money is coming
from." In most cases, every student is allotted the same amount of
money, no matter what school they attend. Most tribal members attend
college in-state; however, some go out of state and attend some of the
most prestigious universities in the country. In most tribes, particular
features of the scholarship program have changed each year, and the
amount of funding per student has also increased each year. "Now we give
undergraduate students \$6,000 per semester and a \$4,000 stipend for
independent students and a \$1,000 stipend for students living with
their parents per semester. Before, we would pay \$3000 toward tuition
and give a \$2000 stipend" (Tribe 1). Some tribes increase the amount of
funding for both tuition and stipends as the student attends higher
levels of college. However, there are usually some stipulations for
receiving funding. The most common is requiring the students to maintain
a minimum grade point average each semester or year. None of the tribes
has an age limit for funding. The majority of people attending college
are in their late 20's and early 30's. Two opinions stated were that
members have spent their trust fund and begun looking at college or they
have had low-paying jobs for the last 10 years and have now realized
that they need to pursue an education and attend college.

According to the data collected from this study, the number of college
graduates returning to the tribe to work is increasing. More jobs have
been created because of gaming and the increased revenue. Interviewees
say that 20-70% of college graduates return to the tribe to work.

## Implications for Tribes Considering Gaming

The purpose of this study was to identify implications for the Poarch
Creek tribe and their newly established gaming industry and any other
tribes considering gaming. The primary implication has to do with
distributing money through the form of per capitas. The per capita
payment is a common way of distributing funds of many tribes who have
gaming. As this study indicates, a tribe should be very careful in
setting up per capita distributions because they have the potential to
work against many of the goals for improving education. The tribal
council needs to spend ample time thinking about and planning for the
distribution of money. Most tribes suggested that students should
graduate from high school before receiving a distribution payment. This
presents a legal problem, however; one tribal representative stated that
they tried to make payments contingent upon graduation but the IRS said
that they would not be able to impose this condition because each tribal
member at the age of 18 has a legal entitlement to his or her money.
Most tribes' representatives suggested that tribes should not give the
distribution payments to minors or their parents, but instead place
children's distribution payments in trust funds. Most tribes agreed that
giving huge per capita payments is not a good practice, not only because
it created problems today, but because it is not a very future-oriented
strategy:

> That's great for the person here and now, but how is that helping
> their tribe seven generations from now? What are we gonna look back
> and say? Geez, back in the early 2000's they were all rich and now
> look at us, we're poor again. (Tribe 1)

A more fiscally sound practice would be to distribute the trust fund
money in increments when members are, say, 21, 25, and 30. Lastly,
educational workshops about financial planning are essential.

Another implication of the surveys is that tribes need to consider
funding the educational needs of their members throughout their lives.
One tribe provides money to its K-12 students to cover school-related
activities. Another excellent example can be found in the Pequot
Childcare Center, which provides educational services for children ages
6 months to 8 years. In addition to traditional education, they also
teach the younger tribal members about the culture and language of their
tribe. Research indicates that to improve the poor statistics of Native
American education, we must modify the way students are taught and teach
them to respect their culture (Sparks, 2000). "The teaching of native
cultures is one of the most important and one of the most significant
areas of Indian education that, unfortunately, has been given low
priority" (Martinez, 1999, p. 3). All of the tribes surveyed noted that
there was no age limit for receiving financial aid to attend college.
One lesson learned from this study is that there should be no age
restriction on educational benefits.

# Summary and Conclusions

This research project was conducted to answer two questions: 1) what
impact has gaming had on the quality of education of USET tribes with
gaming? and (2) what are the implications of the findings for the Poarch
Band of Creek Indians and their newly established gaming industry? The
data collected using both qualitative and quantitative methods showed
that gaming has affected Native Americans in three major areas: quality
of life, per capita/trust funds, and education. The primary finding of
this study is that tribes need to spend a significant amount of time and
study all the issues before implementing any form of distribution
payment. Per capita distributions and trust funds are two of the most
commonly used ways of dividing gaming revenue; however, this study
indicates that both can create potential problems that actually work
against many of the goals tribes have set for improving the quality of
life. Further, tribes would be wise to consider educational pursuits as
a life-long goal and provide funding for its members at all ages.

# References

Abaurrea, L. (1996). Native Americans are cashing-in with gambling
casinos on the reservation. Retrieved June 9, 2005 from
<http://www2.sims.berkeley.edu/academics/courses/is190-1/s96/abaurrea/assign5.htm>

Barlett, D.L., Steele, J.B., Karmatz, L., Levinstein, J., Frank, M.,
Mustafa, N., & Frank, M. (2002). Who gets the money? *Time, 160*(25),
48-56.

Bruchac, J. (2004). Ripples of renewal. (2004). *National Geographic,
206*(3), 88-89.

Harvard releases report on American Indian socio-economic change from
1990-2000. (2005). *Black Issues in Higher Education, 21*(25), 21-23.

Libal, A. (2004) *North American Indians today*. Broomall, PA: Mason
Crest.

Martinez, P. (1999). Arizona antidote to Indian dropout rates: Tucson
charter school mixes a classic curriculum with Native American
traditions. *Christian Science Monitor, 91*(111), 3.

National Indian Gaming Association. (2004). *Tribal government gaming:
An analysis of the economic impact of Indian gaming in 2004.* Retrieved
March 8, 2005 from <http://www.indiangaming.org/>

Sparks, S. (2000). Classroom and curriculum accommodations for Native
American students. *Intervention in School & Clinic, 35*(5), 259-263.

# Appendix A

**USET Tribes with Gaming**

  -------------------------------------- --------------------------------
  Catawba Indian Nation                  The Mohegan Tribe

  Chitimacha Tribe of Louisiana          Oneida Indian Nation

  Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana           Poarch Band of Creek Indians

  Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians       Seminole Tribe of Florida

  Manshantucket Pequot Tribal Nation     Seneca Nation of Indians

  Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida St. Regis Mohawk Tribe

  Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians    Tunica-Biloxi Tribe of Louisiana
  -------------------------------------- --------------------------------

# Appendix B

**Consent Form for a Study Regarding Gaming and Native Americans**

Dear Tribal Official/Education Director,

Please allow me to introduce myself. My name is Karla Martin and I am a
member of the Poarch Band of Creek Indians in Poarch, AL. I am also a
McNair Scholar at The University of Alabama. As a McNair Scholar, I am
expected to conduct research on a topic that I feel is important. Gaming
has become an important topic on our reservation. Currently we have 3
gaming facilities.

I know that your tribe has also introduced gaming. I would like to find
out how gaming has impacted the education and educational goals of your
members. To do this, I would like to interview you at a time and place
convenient for you. If I need to, I can interview you on the phone. The
interview will last approximately 45 minutes. I have made up questions
and will ask the same questions to every tribal official and/or
education director. Each participant will be given a copy of the form
for his or her records. If given permission, I will tape record the
interviews. The names of the participants will not be revealed to
anyone; all recordings will be kept confidential and locked in a secure
place. Your tribe will not be identified by its name; rather I will use
the broader nation's name.

I hope that you will allow me to interview you about the effects of
gaming on the education of Native Americans with gaming. Participation
in this research does not pose any foreseeable risks to you. There are
no direct benefits to you for participating but you will be contributing
to the researcher's knowledge on the effects of gaming on Native
American Education. This information is very important and will benefit
all USET tribes, especially the Poarch Band of Creek Indians.

For more information, please feel free to contact me. If you have any
questions about research participants' rights, you may feel free to
contact Carpantato (Tanta) Myles, Research Compliance Officer for the
Institutional Review Board at The University of Alabama. Tanta's phone
number is 348-5746 and e-mail address is <cmyles@fa.ua.edu>. I hope that
you will agree to participate in this study.

Sincerely,

Karla Martin

P.O. Box 865294

Tuscaloosa, AL 35486

\(205\) 792-0761

<marti114@bama.ua.edu>

I agree to participate in the study of Native Americans and Gaming
according to the guidelines discussed above.

Printed Name

Signature Date

# Appendix C

**Survey Concerning Gaming and the Education of Native Americans**

TRIBE:

What year was gaming introduced on your reservation?

**I. Gaming and Education: Please circle the response that best reflects
your tribe. Feel free to provide any additional comments that may be
helpful.**

1.  What type of gaming does your tribe have?

    a.  Class I

    b.  Class II

    c.  Class III

    d.  Class I and II

    e.  Class I and III

    f.  Class II and III

> Comments:

2.  Currently, how many gaming facilities does your tribe have?

    a.  1-3

    b.  4-6

    c.  7-10

    d.  more than 10

> Comments:

3.  What percent of gaming revenue is specifically designated for
    education?

    a.  0%

    b.  1%-25%

    c.  26%-50%

    d.  51%-75%

    e.  more than 75%

> Comments:

4.  What percent of tribal students attend reservation schools?

    a.  0%

    b.  1%-25%

    c.  26%-50%

    d.  51%-75%

    e.  75%-100%

> Comments:

5.  What percent of tribal students attend public schools?

    a.  0%

    b.  1%-25%

    c.  26%-50%

    d.  51%-75%

    e.  75%-100%

> Comments:

6.  What percent of tribal students attend private schools?

    a.  0%

    b.  1%-25%

    c.  26%-50%

    d.  51%-75%

    e.  75%-100%

> Comments:

**II. Use this scale to answer the following questions.**

SA A N D SD

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

1.  Since gaming was introduced at my tribe, the number of tribal
    students graduating from [high school]{.underline} has increased.

> SA A N D SD
>
> Comments:

2.  Since gaming was introduced at my tribe, the number of tribal
    students graduating from [college]{.underline} has increased.

> SA A N D SD
>
> Comments:

3.  Gaming has positively impacted the education of our tribe.

> SA A N D SD
>
> Comments:

4.  Since gaming has been introduced at my tribe, the educational goals
    of our members have changed for the better.

> SA A N D SD
>
> Comments:

5.  Since gaming has been introduced at my tribe, the quality of life
    has increased for our tribal members.

> SA A N D SD
>
> Comments:

6.  Since gaming has been introduced, the unemployment rates of our
    tribal members have decreased.

> SA A N D SD
>
> Comments:

**III. Please provide feedback for the following questions.**

1.  How has gaming helped your tribe?

2.  What problems, if any, have developed as a result of gaming?

3.  How has gaming impacted the education in your tribe?

I would like to interview you by phone to gain more information about
gaming and education. If you would be interested in participating in a
short phone interview, please indicate below:\
\
Name

Phone number\
\
E-mail

Best time to call you:

# Appendix D

**Interview Protocol**

1.  When was gaming introduced on your reservation?

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1.  What do you see as the positive benefits of gaming? Negative?

2.  Was there any controversy surrounding the introduction of gaming on
    your reservation?

3.  If so, how was the controversy handled?

4.  How are decisions made about where the revenue from gaming is
    distributed?

5.  Can you give me a breakdown of how the money is distributed?

6.  What changes have been made in how the revenue is distributed? When?

7.  What ways has gaming improved education?

8.  What ways has gaming hurt education?

9.  Has gaming changed the way that tribal members think about
    education?

10. What differences have you noticed about life on the reservation
    since gaming was introduced?

11. What is the average high school dropout rate of tribal members
    before and after gaming?

12. What is the average number of tribal members attending college
    before and after gaming?

13. What percent of college graduates come back to the tribe to work?

14. What kinds of jobs do they take on?

15. Does the tribe offer any job training to make tribal members more
    employable to the casino industry to help prepare tribal members for
    the gaming industry?

16. In your opinion has gaming helped improve the quality of life for
    your tribal members?

> Specifically the education of tribal members?

What advice would you give another tribe who was considering introducing
gaming

[^1]: Karla Martin is a member of the Poarch Band of Creek Indians.

[^2]: There are many differences between the USET tribes and the western
    tribes. This study is a representation of only the USET tribes with
    gaming and cannot be generalized to the western tribes.

[^3]: I, Karla Martin, attended the USET Conference as both a presenter
    and participant. During the conference, I toured the Pequot
    Childcare Center and the Mohegan Sun Casino and participated in
    numerous informal discussions with tribal leaders and education
    directors.