## *Chapter 5* 

## *Energy Sources for Small-Scale Development*

####  {#section .unnumbered}

[INSERTED There is abundant supply of energy sources in Asia; however
these resources are unevenly distributed throughout the region. .
Seventy percent of the world's oil markets are located in West Asia
accounting for 65 percent of the world's reserves. In terms of natural
gas, Asia has almost 50 percent of the world's reserves with West Asia
accounting for 36 percent of the world's share; farther east, only
Bangladesh, Malaysia, China and Indonesia have significant gas reserves.
Of the world's coal reserves, 30 percent are found in Asia -- these
reserves are largely concentrated in India and China. Similarly, 30
percent of the world's exploitable hydropower is in Asia and this
potential lies in China and India, specifically.]{.mark} [Similarly,
there is a start contrast between primary energy use per capita in Asia
-- 26 gigajoules in 1997 -- and the Near East at 95 gigajoules in
1997.]{.mark}

### 5.1 Biomass Energy Sources {#biomass-energy-sources .unnumbered}

### Brief Description of the Sector {#brief-description-of-the-sector .unnumbered}

[INSERTED Asia's poor use energy primarily for cooking, with other uses
including transportation, heating, lighting and power for appliances.
Biomass, in the form of wood or charcoal used for cooking, is the main
source of energy in Asia. Traditional biomass can account for 50-90
percent of total energy in Asia.More than 80 percent of biomass energy
users live in Asia.]{.mark}

[]{.mark}

[DELETED Biomass dependence in Africa reflects several factors. One is
poverty: "modern" forms of energy, including electricity, bottled gas
and kerosene, are still beyond most people's economic reach in many
African countries. Moreover, many areas have no access to non-biomass
energy or lack the infrastructure to distribute it.]{.mark}

[DELETED THESE TWO BULLETS There are two principal reasons for this
situation:]{.mark}

-   [Although Africa possesses substantial and diverse non-biomass
    energy resources, the sources and demand for these resources are not
    distributed evenly throughout the continent. For example, 96 percent
    of oil reserves are located in North Africa, Nigeria, and Angola,
    while 95 percent of the workable coalfields are in southern
    Africa.]{.mark}

-   [The infrastructure needed to produce and distribute non-biomass
    energy is often capital-intensive. Thus, even where natural
    resources are available, production and distribution facilities are
    often absent or inadequate. For example, hydroelectric resources are
    found in both East and West Africa---but as of the early 1990s,
    sub-Saharan Africa had exploited only 4 percent of its hydroelectric
    resources for energy purposes. In general, electrification rates are
    low. Kerosene and gasoline are the only "modern" forms of energy
    with near-universal availability.]{.mark}
    ![](media/image1.jpeg){width="2.1979166666666665in"
    height="2.6618055555555555in"}

    [INSERTED Although biomass can be an environmentally sound source of
    energy, the current methods of harvesting wood and producing
    charcoal in most Asian countries are unsustainable. These practices
    are doing serious harm to Asia's natural resource base and
    environmental well-being.]{.mark}

    [INSERTED: Biomassl fuels (fuelwood, crop residue, and animal dung)
    service a large proportion of the energy use in Asia -- this is
    particularly true for rural areas. In India, for example, biomass
    fuels provide 85 to 90 percent of the domestic energy and 75 percent
    of all rural energy. Energy consumption is dominated by the domestic
    sector with cooking being the largest end-use. The main countries of
    interest for biofuels are India, China, and Indonesia given their
    abundance of raw materials. In all South Asian countries the
    consumption of biomass fuels is still increasing in absolute terms,
    even when their percent share in national energy consumption is
    decreasing.]{.mark}

[DELETE: Biomass dependence is not expected to lessen in the foreseeable
future. It is true that per-capita consumption of "modern" energy has
been declining over the past 20 years in sub-Saharan Africa. The
downward trend is expected to continue as production and distribution
infrastructures fail to keep pace with Africa's projected growth in
population. However, the population increase will almost certainly lead
to an increase in *total* consumption of both biomass and modern energy.
Over the next decade, estimates of annual growth range from 2.7 percent
to 4.5 percent, compared to 0.9--1.6 percent for the industrialized
countries. This increase will be amplified by urbanization; Africa's
urban populations are forecast to increase substantially over the next
50 years, and urban dwellers consume higher energy per capita.]{.mark}

This increased pressure on already overstressed biomass energy sources
makes energy projects all the more important. Small-scale energy
development projects are generally designed to improve public health,
protect the environment, and better the quality of life for poor
populations, especially women. They may also have ancillary benefits,
such as generating entrepreneurial opportunities. They do so by
supplying energy where it was not previously available or by
substituting perpetual or self-renewing locally available sources of
energy for those that are in limited or exhaustible supply and that, in
some cases, must be imported.

Development projects often focus on improving the efficiency of cooking
with wood or wood-derived fuel---e.g., by promoting improved
cookstoves---or by replacing biomass with an alternative energy source,
such as biogas or solar energy, for biomass energy. Other projects focus
on providing alternative sources of electricity---solar, micro-hydro or
biogas---to power modern lighting, appliances, and remote
telecommunication, especially for rural communities that lack access to
electrical grids. The availability of dependable electricity can let
householders, especially adult women, develop additional income by
working at home after dark. Lighting also facilitates education, and it
is a valued convenience, making activities such as cooking and bathing
easier at night. Photovoltaic systems are used to provide electricity to
rural health posts for small cold-chain refrigeration systems used to
store vaccines. They also provide power for health post's radio
communication and night lighting.

This module discusses various approaches to the problem of
fuelwood-driven deforestation. It also addresses possible environmental
damage from other energy projects, such as those involving solar dryers
and ovens as well as photovoltaic, biogas, micro-hydro and wind power.
Social impacts are treated to a lesser extent. Micro-hydro power is
discussed in a special sub-section.

### Potential Environmental Impacts and Their Causes  {#potential-environmental-impacts-and-their-causes .unnumbered}

**Deforestation. [INSERTED: ]{.mark}**[Bioenergy crops are very
land-intensive. For example, they typically require roughly 100 times
more land than solar photovoltaics (PV) to produce the same electricity
output. This important fact means that individual bioenergy projects are
limited to small- to medium-scale operations. The Asia and Pacific
region account for almost 20 percent of global forests (compared to only
1percent in the Near East); however deforestation and forest degradation
occurred at an alarming rate of 1percent a year between
1990-2000.]{.mark} [**DELETED:** During this century, Africa's forest
area has been cut in half. Between 1990 and 1995 alone, Africa lost over
18.5 million hectares of forest---3.5 percent of its total forest cover.
This is equivalent to an annual deforestation rate of 0.7 percent, the
highest of any continent in the world.]{.mark}

[DELETE The vast majority of this loss occurred in tropical Africa,
though rates varied considerably from country to country. Niger lost no
forest, while Kenya's forest cover declined at a rate of 0.3 percent a
year, Tanzania lost 1 percent per year, and Sierra Leone lost a shocking
3 percent per year. While such factors as agricultural expansion and
increases in human population are the major underlying causes of
deforestation in Africa, consumption of wood for fuel is also a
significant factor. As noted above, population increases will raise the
pressure on biomass
resources.]{.mark}![](media/image2.png){width="3.033333333333333in"
height="2.275in"}

[INSERTED: Woodfuel -- woody biomass i.e. stems, brances, twigs etc..
and other residues from logging and wood processing activities, as well
as charcoal from these sources - is and will continue to be an important
energy source in South and Southeast Asia. The consumption of fuelwood
and charcoal as a percentage of the total energy consumption ranges from
9 (Malaysia) to 89 (Laos) percent in these two sub-regions. In
Bangladesh, and Pakistan, and to a lesser extent Nepal, present national
aggregated woodfuel conumption may exceed national supply and these
shortages may worsen by 2010]{.mark}. [DELETED production in Africa has
increased significantly during the last two decades and is projected to
continue growing. In 1994, 84 percent of wood from trees was used as
fuel. In the mid-1990s, it was estimated that 32 percent of the total
African population lived in areas where biomass resources cannot be
sustained under present use practices. The demand for charcoal and
fuelwood by urban populations is a major contributor to deforestation,
particularly in arid and semi-arid]{.mark} [regions. The deforestation
in turn is driving down agricultural productivity (e.g., loss of soil
from increased erosion, destruction of watersheds) and biodiversity
(e.g., loss of wildlife habitat and species diversity). Unsustainable
extraction of fuelwood also contributes to the greenhouse effect by
releasing stored carbon and reducing the region's capacity to sequester
carbon.]{.mark}

In [Asia]{.mark} great distances often separate the location of biomass
energy and consumers. As forests fall, the distance widens, raising the
price of charcoal and fuelwood. Also, as householders, especially women
and children, walk longer distance to find fuelwood, they lose time for
other productive activities, including school. [INSERTED: In Nepal, for
instance a woman spends close to 2.5 hours a day in firewood
collection.]{.mark}

Land tenure complicates the problem further. In [developing
countries]{.mark}, ownership of resources, including tenure over trees
and forest lands, remains vested in the state, a holdover from
centralized colonial control over resources. In others, individual
farmers and communities may be unaware of recent laws devolving
ownership to them. These conditions can discourage the planting of trees
and the sustainable use of fuelwood.

**Health impacts.** In addition to environmental impacts, the burning of
wood, charcoal and other biomass in poorly ventilated houses or areas
exposes users to [INSERTED large amounts of gases and aerosols,
including carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides. Aerosol
components tend to contain organic compounds similar to those in tobacco
and are thus toxic.]{.mark} Continuous exposure of this type can
seriously damage human health, particularly that of women and children,
who often spend much time indoors and are therefore exposed for longer
periods.

### Sector Program Design---Some Specific Guidance  {#sector-program-designsome-specific-guidance .unnumbered}

If your organization is planning new activities to develop renewable
energy development activities, it may be helpful to ask the following
questions before you start designing them.

-   Has the World Bank or another international organization completed
    an energy-sector or biomass analysis for the country? What are the
    current patterns of energy use in the immediate project area?

-   Could existing tax or incentive programs be used, publicized or
    modified to increase the use of renewable resources and decrease
    dependence on petroleum-based fuels and wood energy?

-   Have local communities been consulted? (Their suggestions and needs
    may be of critical importance in developing the project.)

-   What are the long-term aspirations of rural communities regarding
    energy? Will fuelwood alone accommodate these aspirations? If a
    community is interested in developing small industry/enterprises
    (such as agroprocessing), could it consider other forms of energy?

-   Who will be the project's customers? Will the project benefit local
    households or other sectors?

-   If it is a fuelwood project, how accessible will the fuelwood be to
    the area where it is to be consumed? What transportation costs are
    related to the project?

-   What are the socioeconomic incentives and constraints associated
    with the project (e.g., tree-tenure systems, community ownership,
    credit availability, etc.)?

### Environmental Mitigation and Monitoring---Issues and Guidance {#environmental-mitigation-and-monitoringissues-and-guidance .unnumbered}

Potential adverse environmental impacts, along with guidance on
mitigation and monitoring issues, are considered below for fuelwood,
solar energy, biogas, ethanol, and windpower. Micro-hydro is treated in
the section that follows.

#### Fuelwood Initiatives {#fuelwood-initiatives .unnumbered}

-   *Assess biomass (including the availability of, and demand for,
    fuelwood)*. Establish baseline conditions and identify patterns of
    deforestation over time. Provide information on promising energy
    initiatives in the area. Where available, remote-sensing Global
    Positioning Systems (GPS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
    mapping techniques can be used for this purpose.

-   *Develop a biomass strategy based on the assessment*. The strategy
    should identify areas requiring technical assistance, policy
    reforms, and practical incentive and disincentive systems, and
    indicate where conditions support the use of economical energy
    sources other than fuelwood.

-   *Develop action plans*. Action plans, at both the local and national
    levels, should combine measures aimed at increasing production
    (e.g., agroforestry), reducing consumption (e.g., improved cooking
    stoves), and enhancing protection of remaining forest resources
    (e.g., developing tree nurseries). Include incentives for tree
    planting and disincentives for use of fossil fuels. Foster
    multisector planning to manage fuelwood resources.

-   *Ensure community participation*. Ensure that the local community
    has early input into project design and implementation.
    (Insufficient farmer, family and community participation is a common
    weakness of fuelwood projects that makes them much harder to
    sustain.)

-   *Reflect economic value*. Adjust fuelwood and charcoal prices to
    reflect the true value of forest resources by applying natural
    resource and environmental accounting. Often the biological,
    economic and social values of forest resources are not incorporated
    into the total price of fuelwood.

-   *Protect resources*. Protect existing sources of fuelwood in natural
    forests by involving neighboring communities in sustainable forest
    management and sharing of forest resources.

-   *Provide for ownership of fuelwood resources*. Where needed,
    participate in a policy dialogue to establish legislation that
    provides for private or communal ownership and management of
    fuelwood resources.

-   *Select tree species*. If trees are to be planted for fuelwood,
    select the most appropriate ones, drawing on local and
    national-level expertise. The short rotation required for
    fast-growing, exotic tree species allows increased production of
    fuelwood; however, their rapid growth can also accelerate the
    depletion of soil nutrients or water resources. Consider using
    fertilizer for plantations of rapidly growing species. Match species
    to local soil and climatic conditions. In areas of low or sporadic
    rainfall, avoid species that require much water.

-   *Assess potential for improved cookstoves*. Commercializing of
    improved charcoal cookstoves is another means of encouraging people
    to conserve fuelwood. Typically built of metal with an insulating
    clay lining, these stoves trap heat, causing charcoal to burn more
    efficiently, thereby significantly reducing charcoal consumption.

Many tree species serve multiple wood and non-wood purposes, with
fuelwood being a secondary product. For example, pruned branches from
some *Prosopis* species can be used for firewood, while the trees
themselves can be used as living fences.

### 5.2 Alternative Energy Development {#alternative-energy-development .unnumbered}

Renewable energy technologies must satisfy several criteria. These
should be simple, affordable systems adaptable to
small-industry/private-enterprise development at the community level.
While the installed cost of an alternative energy technology may be a
constraint, operating costs tend to be much lower than with conventional
energy systems. Credit schemes can, in some cases, help address the
capital cost barrier, and thus allow long-term cost advantages to be
realized. This section will consider solar, biogas, ethanol and wind
power. Hydropower is another important alternative energy source, but
since its potential impacts are fairly complex, it will be discussed
separately in the next section of the chapter.

**Solar Energy.** The sun is an important source of clean and abundant
energy in many parts of [Asia and the Near East. But the]{.mark} use of
solar energy is not yet widespread, for both technical and economic
reasons. ![](media/image3.jpeg){width="2.2534722222222223in"
height="2.035416666666667in"}

Adverse environmental impacts associated with solar energy include
pollution caused during the manufacture of solar devices, acid battery
spillage and improper disposal of batteries. These impacts, which are
usually manageable, should be weighed against solar power's potential to
reduce deforestation and improve air quality for women and children.

Some examples of solar energy devices and the potential environmental
impacts associated with them include:

-   *Solar food dryer*. A solar food dryer is a box with at least one
    transparent side through which solar energy enters, raising the
    inside temperature and setting up a convection current of air.
    Fruit, grain, vegetables and fish can be dried inside. Food dries
    rapidly, compared to direct sunlight, allowing greater vitamin
    retention.

-   *Solar ponds*. A solar pond operates on the same principle as the
    solar food dryer. Instead of trapping heat rays under a transparent
    window, heat is trapped under several layers of fresh and salt
    water. The heat generated may be used for low-temperature industrial
    and agricultural processes; pre-heating for higher-temperature
    industrial processes; and electricity generation. Unlike solar food
    dryers, however, solar ponds can create serious environmental
    damage. Because large amounts of salt are used, a leak in the bottom
    of the pond could seriously contaminate groundwater supplies. The
    steeply sloped sides of the pond may also present a hazard. Without
    adequate fencing, animals or small children may fall in and become
    trapped or drown. Because of the high temperatures, objects sinking
    to the bottom of the pond cannot be easily retrieved without special
    equipment. The hot brine of a solar pond corrodes many metals.
    Finally, water evaporated from the pond surface must be replaced by
    water from other sources.

-   *Solar cooking*. Solar ovens trap and/or reflect solar energy that
    is converted to heat when it strikes the surface of a black pot. A
    substantial increase in use of solar cooking apparatus took place
    over the last several years, but use is still not widespread, for
    several reasons. Designed for slow baking or simmering, they cannot
    be used for traditional foods that require frying or stirring. Solar
    stoves that use parabolic reflectors must be constantly refocused as
    the sun moves. Other deterrents include their initial cost,
    restriction of cooking time to bright daylight hours,
    incompatibility with local cuisine and people's unfamiliarity with
    the devices. Solar cookers are frequently used in camps for refugees
    and internally displaced-persons. While costly, they help reduce the
    high rates of deforestation that often occur around these camps.

-   *Solar water heating*. Increasingly, governments, utilities and the
    private sector are promoting residential solar water heating systems
    in areas with low cloud cover. Under these conditions they are now
    economically competitive over the longer term (10--20 years) with
    water heating using electricity or gas, though up-front installation
    costs may be significantly higher.

-   *Photovoltaic cells*. While the cost of converting solar energy into
    electricity continues to fall, it is still high enough to discourage
    widespread application in many [developing countries .]{.mark}
    Nevertheless, in remote locations away from power grids, where the
    costs of electrical generation from diesel engines are high,
    photovoltaics can be competitive for certain applications such as
    lighting, cold-chain vaccine refrigeration, and radio and microwave
    communication. To maintain a photovoltaic system, people need only
    clean the panel surface regularly. However, trained individuals must
    do the cleaning to avoid damage to the cells. Systems must also be
    protected against theft and vandalism.

**Biogas.** Technologies, such as anaerobic digestion, used for the
conversion of organic materials to biogas are far from new. However,
their application is not widespread. Biogas production involves the
biological fermentation of organic materials (e.g., agricultural wastes,
manures or industrial effluents) in an oxygen-deficient environment to
produce methane, carbon dioxide and traces of hydrogen sulfide. The gas
can be used either directly to be burned for cooking or lighting, or
indirectly to fuel combustion engines delivering electrical or motive
power (Bokalders and Kristoferson, 1991). The slow diffusion of this
technology is related to (a) the initial cost of construction; (b) the
lack of organizational and community involvement, particularly for
larger, community-level digesters; or (c) insufficient training
opportunities in construction and maintenance.

Recently, more bioenergy is being produced using crops raised
specifically for this purpose, by contrast with the use of agricultural
wastes. This practice may both help and harm the environment. Bioenergy
crops can be used to revegetate barren land, reclaim waterlogged or
salinated soils, and stabilize erosion-prone areas. They can provide
habitat and increase biodiversity, if properly managed. However, their
use may also displace agricultural production, contribute to
deforestation, and even introduce invasive, and potentially harmful,
non-native species.

The operation of a biogas digester presents several potential
environmental problems, but these problems can be minimized with proper
planning and operation. For example, if the digester is built close to a
lavatory or livestock shed, the excrement may be deposited directly
without unnecessary handling. However, special precautions are required
if human or hog wastes are used in digesters. For example, humans and
some animals share similar feces-borne parasites and pathogens. For this
reason, some authorities feel that even treated fecal waste is extremely
dangerous and do not recommend applying sludge to soil where root and
vegetable crops are cultivated.

The disposal of liquid overflow (supernatant) from the digester may
occasionally have adverse effects. Normally this liquid is clear and
odorless and has some value as a dissolved fertilizer. If water is
scarce, the supernatant may be recycled into the digester with new
organic feedstock. Otherwise, it can be used to water plants or moisten
compost materials. However, with an improperly working digester, the
supernatant may be dark and offensive. If it is not recycled, this
liquid should be buried or mixed with soil in an isolated spot.

As with natural gas, biogas composition should be tested and precautions
taken to prevent leaks and losses. Surveillance is also important, since
biogas is usually odorless and difficult to detect. In closed rooms,
leaking gas can lead to asphyxiation or explosion.

In areas where manure or dung is considered a free community resource,
the installation of biogas digesters can cause unwanted changes in local
economics. For example, if manure suddenly becomes more valuable than
usual, it can become a marketable commodity that is no longer available
to the poor. In the initial planning stages, the question of who stands
to lose or gain from an energy project is one that deserves attention.
Thus, community input is important.

**Ethanol.** Liquid fuel in the form of ethanol can be produced through
the fermentation of biomass (e.g., sugar cane leaves or bagasse). The
production of ethanol involves the washing, fermentation and
distillation of biomass. Again, the long-term economic costs and
benefits need to be weighed carefully before developing these systems.

Solid residues from ethanol production can be disposed of easily as a
high-protein dietary supplement for livestock; however, the disposal of
liquid residues, which may amount to 12 to 13 times the volume of the
final product, is more difficult. This "thin stillage" has a strong odor
and high acid content and contains many organic solutes. Land
application of thin stillage could be harmful to many types of soils,
especially those with high clay content. Stillage should not be disposed
of in areas where it can flow into and contaminate lakes and streams.

Ethanol from maize yields 50 percent more energy than the total amount
required to farm the maize and make the ethanol. This is not bad, but
other ethanol crops (e.g., grasses, trees) are more efficient, yielding
four to five times as much energy as the amount needed to farm the crops
and make the ethanol.

Significant amounts of water are used in the production of ethanol. For
every unit volume of ethanol produced, approximately 16 volumes of water
are needed to generate steam. This demand for water must be evaluated
against its available supply and the merits of alternate uses.

-   Ethanol has environmental advantages over fossil fuels such as coal
    and oil, but like any liquid fuel it may cause damage through leaks
    and spills. There are also potential indirect impacts associated
    with the methods used to grow ethanol-producing crops, including
    pest management.

**Wind Power.** If properly designed and well placed, wind machines can
provide a reliable source of energy. A wind-powered water pump can be
used for irrigation and supplying potable water. Larger wind machines
may compete favorably with other forms of electrical generation.

Economic cost-benefit analysis against other energy sources is needed
before selecting wind power as an energy source. The strength and
constancy of the wind is especially important in this calculation, as is
the proven ability of the wind machine to withstand high wind events.
Since historical meteorological data are often absent in [many
developing]{.mark} countries, wind power needs to be approached
cautiously.

One potential adverse effect associated with wind-driven water pumps is
that standing water from spillage around the pump can become a health
risk. An automatic shut-off mechanism can potentially solve the problem.
As with any water system, overgrazing near the water supply can be a
serious problem, especially in arid and semi-arid
environments.![](media/image4.jpeg){width="3.035416666666667in"
height="2.3722222222222222in"}

As with the other technologies mentioned earlier, the discussion of this
technology does not cover all possible wind-related environmental issues
such as noise, and effects on birds, land use and visual aesthetics.

### 5.3 Small-hydro Power Projects {#small-hydro-power-projects .unnumbered}

### Brief Description of the Sub-Sector[^1] {#brief-description-of-the-sub-sector .unnumbered}

[DELTED: Sub-Saharan Africa has exploited only 4 percent of its
potential hydrological energy resources.]{.mark} If developed in an
environmentally sound way, the remaining reserves of hydroelectric
energy could meet significant portions of the region's energy needs
(UNDP 1992) particularly in remote rural areas.

Micro-hydro installations range in size from a few kilowatts to 100
kilowatts. They are of two general types:

-   **Run-of-the-river** micro-hydro installations involve no reservoir.
    They rely instead on the natural flow of the river or stream to
    provide motive power to the turbine(s). They typically involve
    diverting a portion of river flow through a spillway, side channel,
    or pipeline. The diverted water is returned to the river downstream
    from the turbine.

-   **Impoundment** micro-hydro installations use a dam to create a
    reservoir either to stabilize electricity supply against variations
    in flow; to provide greater head, or pressure, to power the
    turbine(s); or both. The reservoir may also be used for irrigation.

### Potential Environmental Impacts and Their Causes {#potential-environmental-impacts-and-their-causes-1 .unnumbered}

The single most important factor in determining the extent of
environmental impacts from micro-hydro projects is whether or not an
impoundment needs to be created.

Dams on the scale considered for funding through PVO/NGO programs should
be constructed only with the assistance of skilled professionals. Even
with assistance, not all the problems associated with dams may be
immediately apparent.

#### Run-of-the-river {#run-of-the-river .unnumbered}

For run-of-the-river operations, the greatest impacts occur during the
construction phase. The primary concerns are the impacts on the stretch
of river from which water is diverted to support the micro-hydro
operation; the method of returning the water back to the stream; and
effects on downstream users. Impacts are generally on-site and
relatively easy to assess. Potentially adverse impacts are summarized in
table 6.1

Table 5.1: Environmental impacts of run-of-the-river micro-hydro

+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Activity phase | Impact                                              |
+================+=====================================================+
| Construction   | -   Movement of soil may increase erosion, which    |
|                |     may increase sedimentation of the waterway      |
|                |     affecting downstream users (humans, fisheries   |
|                |     and wildlife).                                  |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   Increased activity along the stream and         |
|                |     transmission line route may disrupt wildlife.   |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   Construction and placement of pipeline may      |
|                |     block waterway temporarily or permanently.      |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   Construction and placement of pipeline and      |
|                |     construction of transmission line routes may    |
|                |     disturb wetland, floodplains or agricultural    |
|                |     land.                                           |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   Increased activity along the stream and         |
|                |     transmission route may disrupt                  |
|                |     recreational/cultural/subsistence activities    |
|                |     there.                                          |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   Power transmission lines/pathway may result in  |
|                |     destruction of wetlands or other sensitive      |
|                |     habitat.                                        |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   Decrease in downstream water flow may affect    |
|                |     downstream users (humans, fisheries, and        |
|                |     wildlife).                                      |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Operation      | -   Decrease in stream flow between point of        |
|                |     diversion and water return point may affect     |
|                |     fisheries and wildlife.                         |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   Decreased stream flow between point of          |
|                |     diversion and water return point may change the |
|                |     flooding pattern (regime), harming wetlands.    |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   Re-entry pipe may cause increased scouring of   |
|                |     stream bank where water is returned to the      |
|                |     stream.                                         |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   Power lines may harm viewsheds and aesthetic    |
|                |     values.                                         |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+

####  Impoundment micro-hydropower {#impoundment-micro-hydropower .unnumbered}

If the project requires the creation of an impoundment, potential
environmental impacts may be greater than for run-of-the-river systems.
As with run-of-the-river installations, environmental impacts may result
during both construction and operation. Primary concerns are the stretch
of the river from which water is removed; the area that is being
flooded; and downstream users, including humans, fish, and wildlife.

Note that impoundment micro-hydro typically triggers an environmental
assessment (EA) under USAID\'s environmental procedures. Potential
environmental impacts are summarized in Table 6.2.

Table 5.2: Environmental impacts of impoundment micro-hydro

+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Activity phase | Impact                                              |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Construction   | > All the impacts caused by construction of         |
| and operation  | > run-of-the-river hydro, plus:                     |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Construction   | -   Movement of soil at the impoundment location    |
|                |     may increase erosion.                           |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   Increased activity at the impoundment location  |
|                |     may disrupt wildlife.                           |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   Impoundment construction may result in          |
|                |     disturbing wetlands, floodplains, or            |
|                |     agricultural land.                              |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   Increased activity at the impoundment location  |
|                |     may disrupt recreational and cultural           |
|                |     activities, or disrupt the local resident's way |
|                |     of life.                                        |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Operation      | -   Change in water temperature in the impoundment  |
|                |     may affect water quality in the impoundment and |
|                |     discharge from the impoundment.                 |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   Submersion of land covered by the impoundment   |
|                |     destroys existing habitats and ecosystems and   |
|                |     creates new (aquatic) habitats and ecosystems;  |
|                |     it may reduce the amount of land available for  |
|                |     growing crops.                                  |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   The impoundment may create a breeding ground    |
|                |     for pests and disease.                          |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   The impoundment may change the overall water    |
|                |     flow pattern (regime), which may alter water    |
|                |     flow in the stream.                             |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   The impoundment may change general hydrology of |
|                |     the area, altering habitat along stream banks.  |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   Altering normal stream flow reduces the         |
|                |     availability of nutrients and sediment          |
|                |     downstream for crops and fish. A dam can also   |
|                |     threaten fish migrations.                       |
|                |                                                     |
|                | -   Insufficient attention to an area's geology and |
|                |     topography may result in designing a dam that   |
|                |     is too weak. Failure of the impoundment may     |
|                |     cause flooding, erosion and downstream          |
|                |     destruction.                                    |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+

### Sector Program Design---Some Specific Guidance {#sector-program-designsome-specific-guidance-1 .unnumbered}

The local community must be involved in designing, implementing and
monitoring all small-scale projects. However, since the proper operation
and maintenance of micro-hydro facilities are essential to minimizing
environmental damage, community involvement is particularly critical for
these projects.

Given that impoundment micro-hydro projects are likely to require an EA,
the basic axiom of environmental impact assessment should be underlined:
*Consider* *the full range of alternatives to achieving project
results*. For micro-hydro ask these questions:

-   Are there other options available for producing needed power?

-   Are there other locations where the project might be constructed?

-   Would any other feasible options result in fewer environmental
    impacts than the proposed activity?

Environmental costs of the project should be weighed against its
economic benefits. To estimate the costs and benefits, a number of
questions should be considered, including:

-   What benefits does the stream provide in its natural state?
    (Examples include water supply, fisheries habitat, wildlife habitat,
    commercial/recreational fishing, attenuation of floods, tourism,
    cultural values, etc.) Will any of these benefits be affected by the
    activity?

-   How is land currently used in the impoundment location? What
    benefits are offered at the location? (Examples include crop
    production, wildlife habitat, residential dwellings, cultural
    activities, etc.) Will constructing and operating the dam affect
    these benefits/land uses?

-   How might the land area be affected by routing of powerlines across
    the land? (Or if batteries are used, transportation of batteries to
    and from the microhydro site?)

-   What are the present downstream activities and land uses that may be
    affected by the activity? Will the micro-hydroelectric project
    affect any of these adversely?

### Environmental mitigation and monitoring {#environmental-mitigation-and-monitoring .unnumbered}

#### Mitigation {#mitigation .unnumbered}

The mitigation and monitoring issues and measures which apply to
small-scale construction also apply to construction of microhyrdro
installations. Please see the chapter on Small-Scale Construction in
these *Guidelines*.

General guidelines for mitigating micro-hydropower impacts include:

-   Avoid stockpiling soil in wetlands or floodplains. Stockpile soil in
    already disturbed areas.

-   Do not block stream flow during construction. For temporary stream
    diversion, use concrete forms rather than soil. (Using concrete
    forms will result in less stream sedimentation).

-   Following construction, return topsoil to its original location, and
    restore land contours to match the original topography.

-   Avoid construction during wildlife breeding seasons.

-   Ensure that construction does not harm the habitats of endangered or
    threatened species.

Mitigation of operations-phase impacts depends on both careful design
and proper operation and maintenance (O&M) of the system. In the case of
impoundment structures, proper O&M is especially vital to:

-   maintaining critical downstream flows

-   safeguarding the integrity of the impoundment structure---the water
    level in the reservoir must not be allowed to exceed the rated
    level, and required maintenance must be performed promptly.

#### Monitoring {#monitoring .unnumbered}

Both types of micro-hydro installations require monitoring for the
operations-phase impacts outlined above. In addition, impoundment hydro
requires a regime for testing quality of water in the impoundment, as
well as regular monitoring of the quantity of downstream flows.
Monitoring plans should detail:

-   What criteria will be used in testing?

-   How often will tests be conducted?

-   What process will be used to correct problems in the system?

In addition, the integrity of the impoundment structure (dam) must be
monitored on a regular basis.

### Resources and References  {#resources-and-references .unnumbered}

#### General {#general .unnumbered}

1988\. "An appropriate energy source for Africa." *South African Journal
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Davis, M., 1998. "Rural Household Energy Consumption---The Effects of
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> Energy Information Administration (EIA) Country Analysis Briefs,
> <http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/contents.html>. Describes energy
> policy and resources for all nations. Includes links to
> country-specific Internet resources for energy.

Energy Information Administration (2001). *International Energy Outlook
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Goldenberg, José and Walter Reid, eds. (1999). "Energy Initiatives in
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Henyon, Heather M. (1999). "Integrating Southern Africa: Efforts to
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Kammen, D.M. (1995). "Cookstoves for the Developing World". *Scientific
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[http://socrates.berkeley.edu/\~dkammen/cookstoves.html]{.underline}.

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UNEP-GEO-Team (1999). *Global Environmental Outlook: 2000*. United
Nations Environmental Program.
<http://grid.cr.usgs.gov/geo2000/english/0086.htm>.

#### Biomass {#biomass .unnumbered}

FAO (1999). *State of the World\'s Forests 1999*. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations.
[http://www.fao.org/forestry/FO/SOFO/sofo-e.stm]{.underline}.

> The International Energy Agency's collaboration in Bioenergy Web page
> at [http://www.ieabioenegy.com](http://www.ieabioenegy.com/). The site
> provides extensive information and links to "accelerate the use of
> environmentally sound and cost-competitive bioenergy on a sustainable
> basis."

Kartha, Sivan and Eric D. Larson (2000). *Bioenergy Primer: Modernised
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[Tata Energy Research Insitute (2002). *Sustainable Energy Perspective
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[FAO (1997). *Regional Study on Wood Energy Today and Tomorrow in Asia.*
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[FAO (1997). "No Substitution of Traditional Fuels."
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#### Renewable {#renewable .unnumbered}

Household Energy Options.
<http://igadrhep.energyprojects.net/main.asp?show=f>. Provides a short
practical assessment of the renewable energy systems for African
households. Prepared by Energy for Sustainable Development (ESD)
Limited, Wiltshire, United Kingdom
([www.esd.co.uk](http://www.esd.co.uk/)).

> International Energy Agency (IEA) Photovoltaic Power Systems
> Programme. <http://www.oja-services.nl/iea-pvps/main.htm>. The
> Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme is one of the collaborative R&D
> agreements established within the International Energy Agency. The
> participants conduct a variety of joint projects in the application of
> photovoltaic conversion of solar energy into electricity, so-called
> solar photovoltaic electricity. IEA-PVPS operates worldwide via a
> network of national teams in member countries. The Web site aims to
> inform about the results of the IEA-PVPS programme and gives
> information about publications and papers. Most of these publications
> can be downloaded from the site.
>
> IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme Web site.
> <http://www.iea-shc.org/welcome/welcome_page.htm>. This site describes
> the research activities of the IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme
> and lists publications available for purchase.
>
> IEA Wind Research Web site <http://www.afm.dtu.dk/wind/iea/>.
> Information about IEA's research into wind turbine systems.
>
> Intermediate Technology Group (ITDG). <http://www.itdg.org/> provides
> renewable energy technology options for developing countries including
> solar power, cookstoves, small scale windpower systems, biogas and
> microhydro. Also see ITDG East Africa at
> <http://www.itdg.org/html/itdg_eastafrica/about.htm> and ITPower at
> <http://www.itpower.co.uk/>

Mosimanyane, Molebatsi T. (1995). "Wind Pumps in Botswana: Pros and
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Energy for Development*,. 8 (3). Stockholm Environment Institute.
<http://www.sei.se/red/red9510d.html>.

Plas, R. J. van der and M. Hankins, (1998). "Solar Electricity in
Africa: A Reality." *Energy Policy*. 26 (4): 295 (6 pages).

*Renewable Energy for Rural African Households*,
<http://home.global.co.za/~ren-ener/>.

RETScreen International Renewable Energy Decision Support Centre.
<http://132.156.62.20/ang/menu.php>. The RETScreen International
Renewable Energy Decision Support Centre seeks to promote the deployment
of renewable energy systems---wind, hydro, photovoltaic, solar heating,
biomass heating, solar water heating, passive solar heating, and
ground-source heat pumps---by building the capacity of planners,
decision-makers and industry to implement more projects successfully.
The Centre develops enabling tools including include renewable energy
project analysis software models and manuals; international product and
weather databases; project case studies; and university textbooks that
allow stakeholders to better analyze the technical and financial
viability of possible projects. The Centre provides these tools
free-of-charge to users around the globe via the Internet and CD-ROM.

Scholand, Michael. (1996). "Re-energizing South Africa." *WorldWatch* 9
(Sept./Oct): 22-8

Solar Cooking International (2000). *Solar Cooking Archive*,
<http://solarcooking.org/>. Comprehensive resource on solar cooking.
Features news, plans for many different cooker designs, including design
for the breakthrough Cook-it Foldable Family Stove (solar) created by
Roger Bernard and Barbara Kerr <http://solarcooking.org/cookit.htm>,
containing documents, additional resources, multimedia presentations,
and discussions.

> Solarbuzz New Archives <http://wwwbuzz.com/NewsAfrica.htm>. Recent
> solar energy developments in Africa. This site tracks news articles on
> solar energy in the media over the last three months.

Wangalwa Wakhungu, Judi (1996). "Renewable Energy Technology in Africa:
Retrospect and Prospects." *Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society*
16 (1-2): 35 (6 pages).

#### Micro-Hydro {#micro-hydro .unnumbered}

> Khennas, Smail and Andrew Barnett (2000). *Best Practices for
> Sustainable Development of Micro-Hydro Power in Developing Countries.*
> Final Synthesis Report, Contract R7215. Published by the Department
> for International Development, UK, and the World Bank.
> <http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/03/01/000094946_01020805385089/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf>
>
> Khennas, Smail and Andrew Barnett (2000). *Micro-Hydro Power: An
> Option for Socio-Economic Development*. World Renewable Energy
> Congress VI, Intermediate Technical Development Group (ITDG).
> <http://www.oneworld.org/itdg/energy/micro-hydro.html>.
>
> Karekezi, Stephen, Timothy Ranja and Ottieno Francis, AFREPREN(1995).
> *Small Hydro Power in Africa*. Renewable Energy for Development, 8 (3)
> October.
>
> IEA Hydropower Agreement. <http://www.ieahydro.org/> The IEA
> Hydropower Agreement is a working group of governments and industry
> which intends to provide objective, balanced information about the
> advantages and disadvantages of hydropower. On this Web site you can
> find information about the positive and negative social and
> environmental effects of hydropower, about hydropower in general, and
> about the IEA Hydropower Agreement.
>
> The International Small-Hydro Atlas.
> [http://www.small-hydro.com](http://www.small-hydro.com/). Developed
> as part of the International Energy Agencies implementing agreement
> for hydropower technologies and programs, the Atlas provides
> country-specific hydro energy information, guides to developing small
> hydro projects, contacts, and additional resources.
>
> Micro hydro Web portal. <http://www.microhydropower.net/index.html>. A
> Web site with extensive links, information, and case studies of
> micro-hydro projects.

[^1]: The micro-hydro material presented here is in large part adapted
    from "Environmental Guidelines for Micro-hydroelectric Projects,"
    developed in support of USAID/Dominican Republic's PVO Co-Financing
    Project No. 517-0247 and Electrical Energy Sector Restructuring
    Project 517-0270. Preparers of the original text were Odalís Pérez,
    Energy & Environment Team, USAID/DR and Karen Menczer, USAID Bureau
    for Latin America and the Caribbean Office of Regional Sustainable
    Development/Environment (USAID/LAC/RSD/ENV).