DRAFT

GENDER ASSESSMENT REPORT

USAID/NIGERIA

Presented By:

DevTech Systems, Inc. and World Learning, Inc.

Under EGAT/WID IQC

March 21, 2003

ACRONYMS

CONTENTS

[Section]{.underline} [Page]{.underline}

ACRONYMS ii.

CONTENTS iii.

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES v.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY vii.

I. INTRODUCTION 1

II\. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND APPROACH

III\. BEST PRACTICES AND LESSONS LEARNED

IV\. ENGENDERING CROSS-CUTTING THEMES

V. GENDER ASPECTS OF SPECIFIC SOs

SO1-SO 11

SO 2-SO 12

SO3-SO 13

SO 14

VI\. SYNERGIES AMONG SOs AND AMONG DEVELOPMENT PARTNERS

VII\. OVERALL RECOMMENDATIONS

VIII\. INSTITUTIONALIZING GENDER ASSESSMENT AND ANALYSIS THE

CPS, RESULTS FRAMEWORK, AND ACTIVITY DESIGN AND

IMPLEMENTATION

ANNEXES:

1 SCOPE OF WORK

2 PERSONS CONTACTED

3 SO1-SO 11

4 SO2-SO 12

5 S03-SO 13

6 SO4-SO14

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Table 2 General Information About Nigeria

Map 1 USAID Map of Nigeria Showing Thematic Interventions

Table2 Gender Issues/Problems Identified by Geopolitical Area and Effect

Table 3 Factors Militating Against Women's Effective Participation in
Politics

Figure 1 Women's Representation in Political Office 1979-1999

Table 4 Women's Representation in Political Office 1999

Table 5 Some Indicators which have Implications for Gender Equitable
Access to,

And Participation in, Education Services

Table 6 Some Indicators which have Implications for Gender equitable

Participation in, and Access to FP Services

Table 7 Some Pertinent Characteristics of Schools Visited in Kano

Table 8 Summary of Gender Constraints in SO 13

Table 9 Summary of Gender Constraints in SO 14 by Geopolitical Area and

Effect

> ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Assessment Team would like to thank all those at USAID/Nigeria and
in EGAD/WID who made this work possible. The Mission staff, from Senior
Management through all SO Teams, to support and logistical support staff
were all accessible, helpful, and open to the questions, tests of
recommendations, and to the needs of the team. They graciously provided
opportunities for field visits with and without Implementing Partners
(IPs).

We are especially appreciative of Anne Fleuret's establishment of the
parameters in the Scope of Work, and her help in making adjustments and
refinements as the work progressed. We would also like to express our
thanks to Director Dawn Liberi for supporting an engendered program and
portfolio, and the present assessment. Further, we are pleased that the
SO3 team and Ms. Liberi supported the idea of adding a fifth member to
the team, one who could more adequately represent the situation of women
and men in the North and Far North of the country.

Thanks are also due to Shelagh O'Rourke for help, networking and advice
within and beyond the boundaries of the new HIV/AIDS and TB Strategic
Objective.

The many representatives of Implementing Partners whom we met were very
accessible, as were their counterparts and others in Government, the
private sector, and among the Nigerian NGO/CSO community. Given the
brevity of our visit to Nigeria, and the many demands we placed on them,
they are especially deserving of our thanks.

Since this was only the second Task Order under the new WID IQC, little
was known among the Contractors about the logistical challenges of
working quickly in Nigeria. Therefore, we are particularly in the debt
of EGAD/WID for agreeing to provide for logistical support through SMS,
Ltd.

Given delays in preparation and presentation of the Draft Assessment
Report that were beyond our control, the Team Leader would also like to
thank everyone at the Mission---and the other team members and the
Contractor---for their respective patience and support.

Finally, but not least, we would like to express our appreciation to the
Nigerian women and men who welcomed us to their villages and towns, and
answered our questions about their needs and problems; about local,
state and federal gender realities and policies; USAID/Nigeria and other
donor funded activities, and their understanding of, and attitudes
toward, them.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

MAP 1 -- NIGERIA SHOWING USAID THEMATIC INTERVENTION AREAS

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  ![](media/image1.jpeg){width="7.96875in" height="6.760416666666667in"}

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NIGERIA - Geopolitical Regions (Zones) and States, and USAID
Interventions

  ------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------ ---------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------ --------- --- -----------------------------------------------------
  **North West**                                   **North East**                                   **North Central**                                    **South West**                               **South East**                             **South       ![](media/image2.jpeg){width="0.7597222222222222in"
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 South**       height="0.11458333333333333in"}

  [Kaduna](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/kaduna.htm)     [Adamawa](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/adamawa.htm)   Abuja FCT                                            Ekiti                                        [Abia](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/abia.htm)   Akwa Ibom     

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               

  [Kano](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/kano.htm)         [Bauchi](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/bauchi.htm)     [Benue](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/benue.htm)           [Lagos](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/lagos.htm)   Anambra                                    Bayelsa       

  [Katsina](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/katsina.htm)   [Borno](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/borno.htm)       Kogi                                                 Ogun                                         Ebonyi                                     Cross         
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 River         

  [Kebbi](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/kebbi.htm)       [Gombe](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/gombe.htm)       Kwara                                                Ondo                                         Enugu                                      Delta         

  [Sokoto](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/sokoto.htm)     [Jigawa](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/jigawa.htm)     [Nassarawa](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/nassarawa.htm)   Oshun                                        Imo                                        Edo           

  [Zamfara](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/zamfara.htm)   Taraba                                           [Niger](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/niger.htm)           [Oyo](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/oyo.htm)                                                  Rivers        

  Source: USAID.GOV Website, Nigeria 2003          [Yobe](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/yobe.htm)         [Plateau](http://www.usaid.gov/ng/plateau.htm)                                                                                                             
  ------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------ ---------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------ --------- --- -----------------------------------------------------

# I. INTRODUCTION

USAID's policy is to integrate gender into all its programs and
activities. This is usually called "gender mainstreaming". It means that
relationships between women and men, and the impact that those programs
and activities will have on increasing equity in such relationships in
all sectors, must be a fundamental part of program and activity design,
implementation and evaluation.[^1] "**Gender** is socially constructed
for the purpose of allocating power, duties, responsibilities, statuses
and roles in any given social milieu or context. It is important to add
that gender is neither male specific nor female specific. However there
is the often mistaken notion that gender refers to women and women's
affairs only. Gender entails the analysis of male and female issues and
if properly conceived, refers to male and female concern and needs. It
stands for values of equality and equity" (Pogoson, Annex 3).

Nigeria is a particularly challenging instance for gender mainstreaming
throughout a substantial USAID portfolio, with both cross-sectoral and
sectoral dimensions. A federated polity and a multi-ethnic society,
Nigeria is extremely complex and diverse, with a very large, fast
growing, young population; a variety of often-competing major ethnic
groups generally geographically and geo-politically concentrated;
extremes of wealth and poverty, and an economy that has for some years
shown negative growth. Governance has been characterized by a series of
predatory military regimes each of which has mis-managed the economy and
at the same time, attempted to alter the formal structures of the polity
to suit its particular ends.

Today, on the eve of a hoped-for peaceful transition from one
democratically-elected civilian administration to another, Nigeria is
still in political and economic transformation. Following on 14 years of
military regimes, the country's formal political, judicial and economic
institutions are still in great need either of renewal or further
strengthening. In May 1999, the then newly-elected Obasanjo
administration was faced with the very high expectations of 124 million
Nigerians for better services, greater economic opportunities, and more
responsive government, combined with significantly lower levels of
public and private-sector corruption. Some of these expectations have
been met to a certain degree despite the strong and varied vested
interests and other limitations confronted by the administration as it
sought to respond to them.[^2]

The elected administration inherited a country with negative per capita
growth (since, hovering around 3.5% per year); an external debt of over
\$30 billion; a long history of economic mismanagement, extensive
corruption, counter-productive policies in the once thriving
agricultural sector, and a population growth rate estimated at 2.9%,
which means that the population may be expected to double within 24
years.

Despite its \$50 billion economy, Africa's second largest, Nigeria is
now ranked 148 out of 173 countries on the UN Human Development Index of
Social Indicators (UNDP Human Development Report, 2002). GDP per capita
(\$920) per year is lower than the level at Independence 42 years ago.
Average income is approximately \$260 per capita. Today, the majority of
Nigeria's population is poor. All but 10% of the population live on less
than \$2.00 a day. It is currently estimated that 70% of the population
live below a \$1.00 a day poverty line. Approximately 40% of the
population lives in extreme poverty, that is on even less per day. Of
that 40%, 70% are estimated to be women.

Thus, Nigeria appears to be a country characterized by the
"feminization" of poverty. Only 22 other countries out of 146 for which
a new "sex-specific" indicator of human development, first published in
the UN Human Development Report (HDR) f9r 2002, rank lower than Nigeria.
Interestingly, however, the World Bank's World Development Report,
*Voices of the Poor* for 2000/2001, indicates that continuous
impoverishment tends to blur the distinctions between women and men in
terms of economic opportunity and influence.

"The study indicates that people are aware of gender differences and the
impact of these differences on their wellbeing. The consequences of
being a woman in

Nigeria include the likelihood of having fewer opportunities than men,
of coping with

the material aspects of illbeing, of having very limited coping
strategies and safety

nets, and of constantly living with a sense of insecurity.

"The most striking finding however, is that gender relations in Nigeria
are

changing - and changing in the face of poverty and as a result of
poverty. In

particular, women across the zones indicated that they have greater
economic

independence and decision-making opportunities within the household.
This, in turn,

indicates greater vulnerability of men in terms of status in the
household, of greater

difficulty in fulfilling their traditional family roles, of increased
vulnerability and lack of

self esteem. They are coping less well than women in terms of identity
and self

esteem, while women still bear the brunt of material deprivation for
households, and

to some extent, communities.

"An implication of this change is that the differences in experience and
response

between men and women do not follow assumed gender divisions - although
men

still retain their status at community level where women still continue
to be largely

excluded from decisions. Women are however moving into non-traditional
areas of

work, such as yam production, keeping the profits from oil palm
production, and

taking up paid work in a range of sectors. Men\'s work has increased in
intensity for a steadily depreciating level of income" (pp3-5).

It is difficult to obtain data on the relative proportions of poor and
extremely poor by urban and rural residence. Given that an estimated 70%
of the population is still engaged in the agriculture sector, it is
likely that the majority of poor and very poor households are located in
rural areas. On the other hand (see Table I), the rate of urban growth
is quite high, and already in 2000, approximately 44.1% of the total
population was urban.

Agriculture, though its outputs have been declining, still contributes
about 41 % of GDP, while oil exports only provide about 11%, and
services, 30%. Approximately 65% of the nations population is still
involved in agricultural production. Despite a new Government initiative
for Universal Basic Education (UBE) which has led to the enrollment of
70% of seven year olds in primary schools, average scores on the
standard 5^th^ grade literacy test are 15% below the minimum level for
passing. Less than half of adults---and just 47% of women---are
literate. Generally poor health indicators are complicated by the
increasing HIV/AIDS prevalence rate. Though Nigeria's 5.8% prevalence
rate is low compared to those of many other African countries, due to
the sheer number of HIV sero-positive persons---3.5 million---Nigeria
was already ranked as the fourth worst affected country in the world in
2001.

Nigerians are divided among more than 374 identifiable ethnic groups. Of
these, the three major ones are the I(g)bo, Hausa and Yoruba (see Table
I). The Ibo are the majority in the South-East, and are predominantly
Christian. The Hausa predominate in Middle Belt, the North and the Far
North, and are largely Muslim. The Yoruba, who predominate in the
South-West are evenly divided between Christianity and Islam. Minority
ethnic groups border these three broad areas of majority ethnic
dominance, are also found within them, and in the South-South. Table I
below summarizes some additional key general data.

## 

## 

## Table 1[^3]

**General Information about Nigeria**

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
  ***Nation and population***

  capital: Abuja

  surface: 923768 sq.km / 356669 sq.mi // climate: tropical (humid in the
  south, dry in the north)

  independence since: 1960 // type of government: republic

  administrative division: state (36) + federal capital territory (1)

  total population according to the latest estimate: (1998) 120,817,000

  population density: 131 per sq.km /-growth: 3% // doubling time: 23
  years

  birth rate: 45 per 1000 // death rate: 15 per 1000 // fertility rate: 6
  children per female

  maternal mortality: 800 per 100,000 / infant mortality (1-4 yrs): 84
  per 1000

  life expectancy: 55. yr (m: 53; f: 56) // age groups: 0-14 yrs: 47% ;
  15-59: 49% ; 60+: 4%

  urbanisation: 41.2% / -growth: 4,7%/ of which greatest city: 17%

  percentage of population with access to safe water: 39% // people per
  physician: 4496

  ethnic groups: Hausa 21, Yoruba 21, Igbo 18, Fulani 11, Ibibio 5,6,
  Kanuri 4, Edo 3, Tiv 2, Ijaw 2

  languages: English, Hausa, Yoruba, Ibo // ethnic groups (contd.): Bura
  2, Nupe 1, other 8

  religious affiliation: Sunni Muslim 45%, Protestant 26, Roman Catholic
  12, African indigenous 11

  school enrolment: primary education 6-11 yrs: 70% / - secondary
  education: 19%

  school enrolment: tertiary education 20-24 yrs: 3% // adult literacy
  57% (m: 67; f: 47)

  ***Economy and infrastructure***

  currency: Nigerian naira = 100 kobo // annual inflation rate: 28%

  Gross Domestic Product: USD 920 p.cap. / GDP growth: 3%

  income: USD 290 p.cap. // import: 12399 / export: 18037 // trade: USD
  159 p.cap.

  trade partners: GB DE US FR NL IT

  agriculture, land use: arable land: 35% / grass land: 44% / wooded
  area: 13%

  agriculture: labour force: 45% / - of GDP: 37%

  agricultural products: yams, cassava, maize, sorghum, millet, rice,
  bananas, groundnuts, taro

  livestock (million): asses: 0,7 / cattle: 17,8 / goats: 24,5 / pigs: 1
  / sheep: 14

  industry: labour force: 4% / - of GDP: 38%

  industrial products: food and beverages, textiles, chemical products,
  metal products, machinery

  mining products: oil, natural gas, coal, tin, iron, bauxite, columbite,
  lead

  services: labour force: 51% // - of GDP: 25% // female labour force:
  36%

  energy consumption (coal/oil/kg): 154 // annual water use: 37 p.cap. //
  tourism: 0,2 million

  road network: 107990 motorways 115 km / vehicles: 4 p.m

  railways: 3505 km / -passenger/km: 555 // navigable inland waterways:
  8575 km

  ownership telephone: 3 p.m // radio receivers: 163 p.m // tv -: 29 p.m

  *Note: some data are of constant value, while other are due to changes,
  fluctuations etc.*

  *primary sources:*

  EV PD WB WR © 1999/2001 \"populstat\" site: Jan Lahmeyer
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

Almost all of the literature reviewed before and after the team visited
Nigeria, and virtually all informants interviewed, indicated that one of
the country's major problems is that there is little that binds the
regions together into the Federation. Most people are articulate about
the differences among ethnic groups, social classes, Northerners and
Southerners, the traditional and the modern spheres. Yet, one element
that appears to traverse all the regions, and to cross-cut all economic,
social and political sectors, is the ascendancy of men in power
relations.

The visibility of questions of gender, power and rights has increased
significantly recently in Nigeria as issues concerning the legal, civil,
religious, economic and reproductive rights of women have come to the
fore. This, in turn, results in part from the efforts those in power in
12 of the 19 states of the North and Far North have made to further to
demarcate the relative status and rights of women and men in terms of
the tenets of Islam as these are locally understood.

Though particular legislative and socio-political efforts in the
"Shari'a Law States" may have brought these issues more dramatically
before the Nigerian public and the world at large, relations between
women and men are also inequitable in almost all other states, and among
almost all other religious, socio-economic and ethnic groups. The ways
in which these inequities express themselves differ in terms of
location, age, ethnicity, class, socio-economic status and religious
affiliation. But in some ways at least, they are remarkably consistent,
as will be seen in the sections that follow. In almost all instances,
they have a significant impact on access to resources of all kinds by
women and by men at the individual and household level, and subsequently
at higher levels of social organization, finally reaching the level of
economy, polity and society of the Federation as a whole.

# II. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND APPROACH

The content and recommendations of this Report are intended to inform
the strategic and results framework of the 2004-2007 USAID Country
Strategic Plan. The overall objectives, "given the Agency requirements
and the Mission's own interest" as given in the Scope of Work (SOW --
See Annex 1) are:

• To identify gender-based constraints to equitable participation and
access of men and women to programs and services in the sectors in which
USAID/Nigeria implements its program...

• To identify strategies and approaches USAID/Nigeria can use to enhance
the accessibility and equitability of its programs, to men and women
both

• To analyze the potential impacts of the Mission's proposed strategic
approaches on the relative status of men and women in Nigeria, taking
into consideration ethnicity, class, religion and other key variables.

• To assess key GON policies and programs relating to gender and
identify opportunities for collaboration and mutual strengthening of
gendered approaches between USAID and GON

• To identify those gender issues that have the greatest potential
impact on Nigeria's economic development.

The approach outlined included a request for a comprehensive literature
review, and then interviews with key informants among the current
Implementing Partners, other civil society organizations, key GON
officials, other officials at the State level and below, and
representatives of other donor agencies active in USAID's areas of
concentration. Each member was assigned a particular SO as well as being
asked to address the over-arching objectives of the Assessment. The work
plan developed in-country also included a considerable amount of time
for field visits. We hoped at first to visit all six geopolitical zones.

The Gender Assessment Team was composed of. Eddy Genece, M.D., Hauwa
Ibrahim, Esq., Alice Morton, Ph.D. (Team Leader), Irene Pogoson, Ph,D.
and Bola Udegbe, Ph.D.. Thus, there were three Nigerian women
members---two social scientists and one attorney\--all of whom have
worked on gender issues before; one Haitian male public health/HIV/AIDS
specialist who has worked in both the public and private/NGO sectors,
with an American woman social anthropologist and gender specialist as
Team Leader.[^4] The team worked together in Nigeria for 21 days, and
then separated for report preparation.

Sometimes accompanied by USAID staff or IP staff and sometimes on their
own, team members visited the North, the Far North, The South, and the
South-West. A planned visit to the South-East was cancelled due to the
fact that the Agriculture Portfolio Review team would be traveling
there, accompanied by the Mission's Strategy and Planning Officer, who
is also a very experienced gender specialist. A visit to the South-South
was cancelled due to civil unrest. The team presented an oral debriefing
before leaving Abuja. Due to power outages in Nigeria, and other
communication difficulties, there were delays in submission of the first
and final Assessment Reports, the latter based on comments from the
Mission. A list of persons encountered and their respective
organizational affiliations is presented as Annex 2

The next section of the Report (Section III) addresses the best
practices and lessons learned in terms of gender impact from
implementation of the three-year Transition Strategy and activities it
has funded. Section IV presents gender-related themes and issues that
cut across the new 2004-2007 Country Development Strategy and Results
Framework. This section will include suggested ways to engender
cross-cutting themes such as environment that have been dealt with in
other assessments. Sections V-VIII will each present gendered issues and
constraints particular to each of the four new SOs, along with
suggestions for addressing them. In Section IX, the focus will be on
potential synergies that may be achieved among SOs and their respective
activities. These will include recommendations about working with other
donors and units of the GON at various levels; and relationships
between/among INGOS, local NGOS and CBOs, as implementing partners.
Finally, in the last Section (X), suggestions will be made for ways to
institutionalize the findings and recommendations of this Assessment
within the Mission and among its Implementing Partners. Four Annexes,
one for each of the four SOs, will also be presented. Each was drafted
by the team member assigned to cover that SO.

III\. Best Practices and Lessons Learned from the Mission's Transition
Strategy

As the Mission's Program Review and Annual Report for FY 2003 indicates,
"USAID's programs in Nigeria address good governance, transparency, and
conflict mitigation; agriculture and economic policy reform; basic
education; health care service delivery, including HIV/AIDS; and
infrastructure. The principal beneficiary groups reached by these
programs include:

-   small-scale farmers and entrepreneurs, whose productivity and
    incomes are enhanced;

-   the primary school-going population in selected areas, through
    activities to upgrade teachers' skills and promote community
    participation;

-   young adults, men, and mothers and their young children, who receive
    quality health services;

-   those at high risk for HIV/AIDS, through prevention and behavior
    change programs."

As the capacity of civil society to dialogue with government has
increased, significant efforts have been made to work with the
non-governmental sector under all four Strategic Objectives, to get down
to the local level, and to affect women and men on an equitable basis.
In fact, some activities have been directly oriented to benefit women in
particular, in terms of their political participation, access to
information about the political process, about conflict management, and
other important issues of the day.

The transition program is noteworthy for the extent to which the Mission
and its Implementing Partners (IPs) have been successful in reaching
anticipated beneficiaries through grassroots level approaches while also
positively influencing federal and state-level reform in those sectors
on which it has focused its efforts. There are many positive lessons
learned on which the Mission is now able to base its new five-year
Country Development Strategy and insure that it too will include gender
mainstreaming and in some instances, particular activities that are
purposively oriented toward women.[^5]

With regard to gender equity specifically, each of the four SOs under
the Transitional Strategy has stressed providing women as well as men
with access to influence and assets to improve their own socio-economic,
health, and political status, but also those of others.

Under **SO1,** **Sustain Transition to Democratic Civilian Governance**,
for example, an early activity worked through a media campaign with
women's CSOs to help to insure that women would gain more access to
formal political processes, and along with men and youth, be better able
to manage conflict. Similarly, in working with the National Assembly, a
key indicator under IR 1.1 was that women legislators are active
participants in the National Assembly as legislators and on committees.
In strengthening the rule of law, successful efforts were made to
support passage of legislation that would be favorable---or at least not
totally unfavorable---to the situation of women, and to remove or impede
legislation that would be inimical to women. Again, at the State and
Local Government level, the strategic framework stressed the
representation of citizens' input in party political processes. IR 2.3,
an indicators was that "more women move into leadership positions, with
an eye to increasing the number of women...nominated by the party as
candidates for elections".

Confirming the Annual Report's observations, the team's fieldwork
suggests that most of these intermediate results have been met, to the
extent possible given the time, environment, and resources available.
However, as will be seen in more detail in Annex 3, there are still many
impediments to women's access to positions of political authority, and
candidature within political parties. The support to women's CSOs has
proved significantly positive and all members of the team believe
strongly that it should be continued.

Under **SO 2**, **Strengthen Institutional Capacity for Economic Reform
and Enhance Capacity to Revive Agricultural Growth,** there have also
been advances sought and achieved for gender equity. These are perhaps
less immediately obvious in terms of the activities funded for
macroeconomic reform than they are for activities to enhance and revive
agricultural growth. The strategy choice made with other donors under
the Transition period was to focus on improved economic governance
through improved economic management. Significant achievements were made
in key studies and establishment of data sets leading to possibilities
for increased accountability and transparency, and involvement of the
private sector as stakeholders in macroeconomic reform. Further, a
"major emphasis of USAID's private sector development program is on
privatization of state-owned enterprises through building the capacity
of the Bureau for Public Enterprise (BPE). Another achievement was
structuring of the Office of the Debt. A major indicator of the success
of this effort is the fact that the Mission's initial investment of \$10
million has leveraged an additional \$127 million in support from the
World Bank and other donors for privatization efforts." (Annual Report).

At this level of intervention and analysis, it may be argued, all
citizens are likely to benefit. However, the way in which surpluses
resulting from better management of the debt\--and from
privatization\--are allocated and spent may either be equitable in
gender terms, or inequitable. There is an increasing understanding,
growing from work on pro-poor macroeconomic policies that "gender
budgeting" approaches can in fact significantly determine whether such
choices will be beneficial to men, women, or both. During the transition
period, this kind of attention to differential impact on women and on
men does not seem to have received much, if any, attention from any
donors involved.

However, in other areas of the SO 2 program, significant attention was
given to the views and orientations of stakeholders. In 2001, continuing
its effort to understand and monitor changes in the attitudes of
Nigerians toward democratic governance and macroeconomic reform,
USAID/Nigeria funded a second survey on attitudes of a sample of 2, 900
Nigerians---50% women and 50% men. The baseline survey had been carried
out in 2000, with a sample of 3,603. The sample is described as
nationally representative and the results of the second survey were
published in December 2001. Among the many interesting findings are the
following: that while a majority of those surveyed are willing to give
democracy a chance, despite their lowered expectations, this same
majority are not as convinced about the value of market-oriented
economic reforms. There are significant differences on these matters
".....\[D\]emocratic preferences are more widespread among Nigerians
than market values, and it is evident that many people who support the
regime of democracy consider a mixed or state-run economy to be an
appropriate choice. These general views...do not necessarily translate
into attitudes toward economic reform." (2001, p. 66). While the report
is able to break out attitudinal responses by region and by sex it
appears that there was little significant difference between the
responses of men and women surveyed. Where there were significant
differences, these were reported.[^6]

The second major theme of SO2 in the transition period is to revitalize
the rural, agricultural sector in order to reduce poverty and to
increase food security, while at the same time, diversifying the economy
away from a dependence on petroleum exports. "During its first year of
implementation, the Mission's rural sector enhancement program, carried
out in collaboration with the International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture (IITA), delivered improved agricultural technologies to
nearly 6,000 farmers in 4 states, enabling them to double their
production of target staple crops, sell their surplus at premium prices,
and earn \$2.4 million in cash income. In addition, tailored technical
assistance provided through the Farmer to Farmer program reached over
5,000 direct beneficiaries in FY 2002, assisting them to improve the
efficiency of their agribusiness enterprises and increase their
incomes." (Annual Report) A significant feature of the IITA sponsored
program is that it has helped in the creation and registration of
several women's groups in Kano State, where women are often secluded.
Those women participating in the program, receive the same extension
information as do men regarding improved cultural practices, especially
for cowpeas, as well as small stock to fatten for sale. Additional
income-generating activities are being added, as are literacy programs.

Under the newly-launched improved seed program, women farmers will
continue to benefit and increase their production by using but
particularly by producing improved cowpea and millet seed, and selling
it to other women in their villages. This has already begun, and women
visited during the assessment indicated that they were already realizing
profits which they were using to send girls to school, keep children of
both sexes in school, improve household nutrition, and "help their
husbands". The demonstration effect of these initial women farmers'
groups in Kano is likely to be significant, and can be replicated as the
project expands to other states in the North.

Agriculture and Environment: USAID's agriculture interventions are
designed to improve agricultural productivity, promote private sector
input marketing, address threats to food security and strengthen
agribusiness. In FY '02 a total of over 11,000 farmers and
microentrepreneurs received direct technical assistance to improve their
production of honey, fruits, fish, dairy and basic food staples through
USAID interventions. Targeted food crops include maize, cowpea, banana,
and cassava. On-farm trials of improved varieties have demonstrated two
to three fold productivity increases under local conditions. The program
has also been effective at reaching women farmers, who constitute 40
percent of participants in some localities. USAID's Farmer to Farmer
program has already exceeded expectations, completing 112 volunteer
assignments against a target of 90 and directly benefiting over 7,400
farmers. Clients have been assisted to increase their incomes from such
diverse enterprises as fish farming, fruit processing, and rice
production. In addition, USAID interventions have started to expand
farmers' access to both productivity enhancing inputs, and markets for
their produce. In a pilot effort in two states, over 150 retail input
suppliers were trained to distribute yield-enhancing agricultural inputs
such as fertilizer through the private sector, and to provide
appropriate and accurate information to the purchasers on the proper use
of the inputs. In FY 2002 farmers purchased fertilizers, improved seeds
and agrochemicals valued at over \$21 million from these suppliers. In
addition, producers in four states have realized \$2.4 million in sales
through USAID-leveraged commodity contracts.

-   **Success Stories**

**Improved Cassava Processing Generates Higher Incomes:** Members of the
Cassava Processors' Cooperative Society (CPCS) used employ very
time-consuming and simple procedures to process their cassava into
edible products: wrapping the cassava in sacks and putting the sacks
under heavy rocks. They would rotate the cassava several times over two
to three days. USAID-supported Farmer to Farmer volunteers working with
the group arranged to have a cassava press constructed and donated it to
the cooperative. As a result of this new equipment, pressing a batch of
cassava now takes less than one day. The cassava is of higher quality
because it does not collect dirt and other foreign matter, and the
cooperative can charge a higher price for better quality. CPCS members
are now paying weekly contributions of 40Naira (about \$0.30 U.S.)
compared to 20Naira monthly before the new technology was introduced.
With its increased capital, the cooperative has been able to extend
loans to its members, and membership has grown from 12 to 30 women.
Other women want to join, but rather than expanding too fast, CPCS is
encouraging the formation of other cooperatives. All 30 members of CPCS
are now able to send their children to school and provide clothing and
food from their cassava processing income.

**Higher earnings from Gum Arabic:** gum arabic, a valuable agricultural
commodity, is produced from the sap of the *Acacia senegal* tree and is
a key ingredient in many common food products such as soft drinks and
candy, as well as pharmaceuticals. The acacia tree also helps protect
arid land from desertification, and residents of Jigawa state in
Northern Nigeria have planted many acacia trees as a preventive measure.
While the trees have helped keep the Sahara at bay, in the past they
were never used to produce gum arabic.

In FY 2001 USAID/Nigeria conducted a strategic analysis that
demonstrated the high income potential of gum arabic production for
Nigerian farmers, and in FY 2002 initiated a gum arabic program in
Northern Nigeria. The Jigawa State Government contacted USAID's gum
arabic project because they realized that if they could tap the acacia
trees on public lands, they could generate significant income both for
the government and for Jigawa farmers. The problem was that no one in
Jigawa knew had to harvest gum arabic. USAID project staff worked with
local farmers to train them in harvesting techniques to ensure a
high-quality product. The project also assisted with identifying buyers,
who have committed to purchasing 504 metric tons of gum valued at
\$529,200. Both the state government and individual farmers benefit, and
with demand for quality gum Arabic exceeding supply, individual farmers
are beginning to plant *Acacia senegal* trees in anticipation of future
profitable harvests.

Other improved cultigens being developed under the transition program
can have a similarly positive effect on women producers as well as on
men. However, it will be important that as choices are made, and
extension methods selected, additional attention be given up front to
social and gender analysis of the kind that will take into account
issues of women's access to land and other factors of production,
including labor constraints, and the like. At the local level,
beneficiaries should have access to market information, as is planned
under the RUSEP activity, which could be scaled up under the new
strategy. But there are a number of things that small farmers (and
larger commercial farmers) need to know if they are going to respond to
and benefit from the market and technological expansion proposed, for
example, under the IFDC/DAIMINA and RUSEP activities. Among these are
risk calculations, at least at the level of farm budgeting., , as they
are asked to assume risk, invest more in poor and dispersed parcels,
reallocate scarce resources away from intercropping, and integrate
livestock into agricultural production. Such training should first be
made available to women farmers, who probably form a statistical
majority in the States being covered, and if not, do a significant
majority of the work, and participate in decision-making at the
household level about how resources will be spent, and then in fact must
earn those resources.

**SO3**, **Develop the Foundation for Education Reform**, focused on
addressing the systemic problems of policy, management and
implementation that underlay the deterioration of Nigeria's educational
system, and on beginning implementation of an action plan to improve the
efficient functioning of the system. The main area of emphasis was basis
education (K-9), but comprehensive assessments were also to be initiated
on the education sector as a whole, including stakeholder participation.
A special initiative was also implemented for technical education to
meet the needs of unemployed youth, to address the "mutually reinforcing
" problems of very high levels of unemployed youth, and significant
unmet demand for employees with ever-higher skills.

The Transition Strategy notes that the long-term strategic objective of
improving access, quality and equity in Nigeria's basic education system
requires that the public and civic institutions responsible for
organizing educational services be reformed. Existing problems result
from lack of financing, low school quality, loss of teacher morale and
discipline, and marked deterioration in support services, materials and
facilities. "This has contributed immensely to the mass corruption,
human rights abuses, youth cults, sexual abuse and selling of grades
that are prevalent in schools, colleges and universities."(p.25).

Most of these problems, though not all, relate particularly to girls and
young women in and out of school. In some instances, especially youth
cults, but also sexual abuse and human rights abuses, they may also
relate to male youth.

Both the primary education programs supported under this SO and the
youth skills interventions sek a more equitable and efficient
educational system. However, as will be seen below, there are still
areas for improvement in gender equity terms.

**SO 4** **Increase Use of Family Planning/Maternal and Child
Health/Child Survival/Sexually Transmitted Disease/HIV Services and
Preventive Measures within a Supportive Policy Environment**

## 

Often, when gender mainstreaming is discussed, it is reduced to "women's
issues". And in turn, "women's issues" are often relegated to the
reproductive health sub-sector. As has been seen, this is not the case
for USAID/Nigeria's strategy and portfolio.

This integrated SO, which combined three previous separate SOs, has been
very successful in meeting its intermediate results.

As the Annual Report notes, it "iincreased the delivery of critical,
quality services for prevention, care and support, advocacy, and policy
development. The past year saw consistent increases in sales of condoms,
and the numbers of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) utilizing care
and support services. With USAID support, the first two dedicated
voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) centers in Nigeria were opened in
Lagos and Kano. The immunization of 40 million children under the age of
five against polio, a joint effort of USAID, the Federal Ministry of
Health, and other donors, provides real hope that the cycle of
transmission will be broken by the end of CY 2003, thus eliminating one
of the last polio "hot spots" remaining on the earth". Targeted
technical assistance and training boosted use of modern methods of
family planning to prevent unplanned pregnancies by 27 percent over last
year. USAID leadership contributed to the adoption and formal launch of
a national policy on food and nutrition, and the implementation of a
comprehensive national nutrition survey.

These are very significant successes. Yet, there are some activity areas
in which more attention to men as clients\--and as gatekeepers through
whom to obtain access to women---might lead to up-scaling and increased
impact. For example, engaging men in reproductive health behavior
change---and not merely those men who are most "at risk" for STDs and
HIV in particular---has proven successful elsewhere. In programs funded
by USAID and other donors, using men for community based contraceptive
distribution, as visiting FP nurses, and in forming "father's clubs"
linked to MCH clinics and their programs, have worked to increase CPR,
and reinforce the impact of BCC programs. This would seen a possibility
for Child Survival initiatives as well. In the North, where women's
independent access to, and power over, reproductive health and family
planning information and decision-making may be more acutely limited
than in other regions of the country, this may be a way of opening the
minds of men and of giving women greater freedom to demand and receive
quality services over time.

Under the new Country Strategy, this SO and the education SO will be
combined, but there will be a new, separate SO14 for HIV/AIDS and
Tuberculosis, given the magnitude of the epidemic and its rapid growth.
This new SO will be reviewed below in gendered terms.

**Best Practices:**

Overall, there are indeed a number of best practices that emerge from
the three-year Transition Strategy both at the conceptual level and in
implementation. These include, but are not limited to, the following:

-   Including gender equity as a cross-cutting issue under the
    Transition Strategy and

> insuring that it informed SO's, IR's and activities through an
> analytic agenda and other means

-   Special emphasis on improving access for women to political
    processes at all levels, including through media campaigns

-   Working with legislators and the judiciary at all levels to ensure a
    better legal and rights environment for women as well as for men

-   Including women in awareness raising and skill development for
    conflict mitigation and resolution

-   Drawing a gender-balanced sample for the AFRO Barometer surveys and
    dis-aggregating resulting data by sex

-   Beginning to create an enabling environment for the private sector
    that will include increased micro-finance and banking access for
    women as well as for men

-   Starting work on agricultural cultigens that are traditionally
    "women's crops" and providing women farmers with improved inputs and
    information

-   Significantly improving access for girls as well as boys to basic
    education and skills training

-   Addressing educational system reform to redress rights violations of
    girls, and improve the schooling environment for girls as well as
    boys

-   Vastly increasing the access and use of men and women to modern
    methods of contraception and prevention of STDs, including HIV

-   Addressing key constraints to child survival on an equitable basis

-   Including a gender assessment in the analytical agenda leading up to
    the new Strategic Plan preparation.

**Lessons Learned:**

There is also a good deal to be drawn from the three years of
implementation of the Transition Strategy, in terms of what might have
been done differently, additionally, or better. However, a considerable
amount of what will be discussed in this section may not, in fact, have
been within the manageable interest of the USAID Mission.

Nigeria, like many other developing countries, has a policy environment
that would appear to support gender equity. It is a signatory to most of
the international conventions pertaining to the improved status of
women. It has a Ministry of Women's Affairs and Youth Development, with
desk officers for each sector, and corresponding women's affairs
officers in each Ministry. The National Poverty Alleviation Plan in
place is supposed to allocate a quota of 35% of funding to poor women.
Whether these funds are actually reaching those women, and on the basis
of what indicators, is an outstanding question (see Annex 3)..

Under the present administration, a National Policy on Women has been
developed, and earlier, an excellent Population Policy was adopted.
However, as in most instances, monitoring of the impact of such policies
and of adherence to such conventions and covenants is limited, in part
because it is expensive, and labor intensive. The Ministry of Women's
Affairs and Youth Development is severely under-funded and its staff
under-trained for this kind of responsibility. Further, as in other
countries, the Minister is to some degree overshadowed by the First
Lady, and the Vice-President's Wife who are both active in women's
affairs.

In the "traditional sector" of juridical and political activities, there
have always been roles for women as well as for men. Today there are
women who are traditional chiefs; they can also (with men) serve as
judges in traditional courts or moots; among Muslims, there have always
been women scholars, and other women who, through religious activity and
status (including participation in the Hadj), wealth creation or
inheritance of aristocratic status, have been able to exert significant
influence on several social and political levels. In the largely
Christian South, and South East, there are also roles for women to
excel, to rule, to become wealthy and to control access to resources for
other women and for men. Women traders, wherever they may be located,
have been famous in Nigeria for many decades. Thus, there are women who
have high ascribed status, power and influence, and those who have
achieved them. Both are recognized in the traditional sphere, and can,
at least in some instances, translate this power and influence into the
modern sector, including in business and politics.

What may be at issue is how to help orient these powerful women to
accept and advocate a gendered agenda more than a regional or
sub-regional, ethnic, or religious one. There must be license for them
to do so, but there must also be incentives. Women as stakeholders in
economic reform, for example, can be significant given their roles in
trade, as well as less traditional economic occupations such as
aquaculture, and the like.

Similarly, women of substance in the private sector will need to have
incentives to employ other women rather than men, and to extend their
knowledge and technicity to other, poorer women. To some degree, this is
already happening with the assistance of USAID-funded interventions,
such as those of the IITA seed multiplication program, and the JHU media
program targeted toward increasing women's political awareness and
participation. In others so far, such as the IFDC-DAIMINA Agri-Input
Market Development project, 90% of beneficiaries to date are men, and
unless a concerted effort is made to change the project's orientation,
including through training of women to sell inputs, and other women to
purchase and apply them, this is unlikely to change.

Overall, it is largely through increasing the awareness of **men** at
all levels of society and the economy that women's economic and
political participation is of benefit to them as well as to the women
themselves, that change will take place. Statistics for Nigeria as well
as for other developing countries, indicate that the economic
contribution of women---especially poor women---is not counted in
macroeconomic reviews, or in policy decision-making, just as impacts of
foreign direct investment, government investment, and ODA are often not
analyzed in terms of their respective gendered impacts. Further, the
differential implications of globalization (global economic integration)
on women and men are relevant in Nigeria as elsewhere, including the
implications of the Uraguay Round and AGOA.

There are a number of aspects of these questions that may be within the
manageable interest of USAID/Nigeria under the new CSP, given its
continuing emphasis on macroeconomic reform and on improving financial
access and markets and private sector participation. As recently noted
at an UNCTAD/UNDP conference on trade and development, "a clear analysis
will reveal to us that gender issues may hold the key to unlocking LDC's
\[sic\] potential. African countries in particular need such an analysis
to guide their policies."[^7]

# III. ENGENDERING CROSS-CUTTING THEMES

In addition to promoting equity through gender considerations, the
Mission's new strategy will "focus, across the board, on building
sustainable public-private partnerships that will help address
crosscutting themes such as

♦ HIV/AIDS

♦ conflict management

♦ environment

♦ transparency and accountability, and

♦ civil society strengthening."

Viewing each of these other cross-cutting themes through a "gendered
lens" is one way, in fact, of increasing synergies among them, as well
as among the SOs that they are intended to inform. In fact, taking such
an approach almost immediately suggests the related issues of wealth
distribution and poverty reduction. This is because, as has been noted
in Section I, the majority of Nigerians are poor or extremely poor, and
enhancing economic growth through public-private partnerships will not
necessarily lead to poverty alleviation among the majority of the poor,
who are women and their children.

The Country Strategy Paper makes it very clear that poverty\--especially
rural and feminized poverty\--is one of the main, if not the primary,
variables that underlie the need for attention to the other
cross-cutting issues. Put differently, lack of prior attention to these
cross-cutting issues may be said to have played a significant part in
the increase (and feminization) of poverty in Nigeria.

Poverty reduction is the central theme of Nigeria's I-PRSP, and draft
PRSP, which in turn are meant to provide the policy framework for the
donor community in Nigeria as well as for the Government. There are
significant questions of ownership of the PRSP process on the part of
populations and their governments in LDCs. But given that USAID has
helped fund stakeholder involvement in the PRSP development process in
Nigeria, one may assume that there is some ownership in this instance.
The main reason that the USAID Strategy does not include poverty
alleviation as an objective is that it has had no bilateral program with
the Government of Nigeria. Such a bilateral relationship would be a
necessary (though not perhaps sufficient) requirement for USAID to
undertake a poverty alleviation-based strategy for the next five years.

Nonetheless, ideally all the SOs will have a positive impact on the
poor---either directly, through service provision, improved technology
and input supply, or access to credit---or indirectly, through policy
reform, and some redistribution of in creased wealth. Further, the
security/vulnerability aspects of poverty are addressed under USAID's
efforts in the area of conflict assessment and conflict management.
Indeed, when the results framework is finalized, poverty
reduction/alleviation results and indicators may be included.

The over-arching intent to help forge sustainable public-public-private
partnerships is clearly relevant to the content and process of
activities under any and all of the proposed 4 SOs. This may be most
difficult under SO11, but in SOs 12-14, there is a great deal of scope
for such partnerships, and some precedents as well. In agriculture, for
example, the increased emphasis under SO12 of partnering among IPs that
are both private and public sector entities, and between the IPs and the
public-sector ADP extension agents, is already going on. This is true
for IITA's programs and may is identified as a key variable in the
IFDC-DAMINA activity. As noted in the most recent Annual Report,

"USAID's agriculture program is actively promoting public-private
alliances. Through the Sustainable Tree Crops Program (STCP), cocoa
farmers in 32 villages in Ondo State have established producer
associations involving 330 members, which will lead to marketing of
higher quality cocoa. Private sector partners are contributing \$75,000
per year for research to improve cocoa varieties. Technical assistance
to improve production, processing and marketing of gum arabic, a product
important in pharmaceutical and other products, has resulted from
collaboration with Nigerian and U.S. companies, which have leveraged an
incremental \$176,500 in private investment over the funding provided by
USAID.

Under the new financial intermediation initiative, private sector
banking institutions are to be linked with donor and public-sector
funded SME funds. Increasing credit availability to the private sector,
similarly, emphasizes public-private sector partnerships. Under SO13,
private sector health, reproductive health, and educational programs and
expertise can be linked with public sector ones. The "third sector",
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are already significantly
involved, and will continue to be so. Under the new SO 8, there will be
new partnerships between private sector firms in the US as well as in
Nigeria, and USAID and public sector GON and NACA programs to help
prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS, but also to help those who are already
infected who are in the labor force.

Most of the other six these issues are already embedded in the SO
formulations themselves. For example, SO11 "Good Governance,
Transparency and Conflict Management" explicitly addresses two of the
five. Through fostering good governance, it also addresses a third,
civil society strengthening. As already noted in the previous section,
civil society strengthening has been a key characteristic of the
Mission's approach under all SOs during the transition period.

Thus, under the new strategy's SO 7, "Improved Social Sector Service
Delivery", issues of gender equity, civil society strengthening, and
links to HIV/AIDS are all likely to be addressed. Further, HIV/AIDS
along with Pulmonary Tuberculosis (PTB) will now have its own SO as
well, to provide for additional emphasis and funding. To show
graphically the extent to which HIV/AIDS cross-cuts other substantive or
sectoral development areas, as well as its engendered aspects, the
HIV/AIDS Specialist developed the following Tables, together with other
members of the Assessment Team. Table 2a includes issues/problems that
may be seen as cross-cutting. These are primarily socio-cultural,
health-related and linked to questions of legal and reproductive rights.
Additional cross-cutting gender issues are graphically summarized and
discussed in the following Sections.

Table 2

**Gender Issues by Geopolitical Areas and Effects**

+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Gender Issues      | A    | >   |       | Effects                  |
| Identified         | reas |  To |       |                          |
|                    |      | > w |       |                          |
| ## Cross-Cutting   |      | hom |       |                          |
|                    |      | >   |       |                          |
|                    |      |  it |       |                          |
|                    |      | >   |       |                          |
|                    |      |  is |       |                          |
|                    |      | >   |       |                          |
|                    |      |  ha |       |                          |
|                    |      | rmf |       |                          |
|                    |      | ul? |       |                          |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
|                    |      | M   | F     |                          |
|                    |      | ale | emale |                          |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 1\. Sex - male     | Nort |     | X     | Disempowerment women     |
| preference         | hern |     |       |                          |
|                    |      |     |       | De-investment in girl's  |
|                    | S    |     |       | lives and social &       |
|                    | outh |     |       | economic futures         |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 2\. Decision about | N,S  |     | X     | Women not in control     |
| using              |      |     |       | about their own health,  |
| contraceptives for |      |     |       | and health of their      |
| child spacing or   |      |     |       | children                 |
| stopping           |      |     |       |                          |
| conception         |      |     |       |                          |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 3\. Permission     | N,S  |     | X     | Same as above            |
| from sexual        |      |     |       |                          |
| partner to use     |      |     |       |                          |
| contraceptives     |      |     |       |                          |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 4\. Permission to  | N,S  |     | X     | Same as above            |
| go to health       |      |     |       |                          |
| clinic for ones'   |      |     |       |                          |
| own health status  |      |     |       |                          |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 5\. Female genital | S    |     | X     | Disempowerment women,    |
| mutilation         |      |     |       | violation of their right |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 6\. Male           | N    | X   |       | Measures protective for  |
| circumcision       |      |     |       | men against HIV/AIDS and |
|                    |      |     |       | infections sexually      |
|                    |      |     |       | transmitted              |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 7\. Denial /       |      | X   | X     | Decreases access to      |
| intolerance toward |      |     |       | services, increases      |
| MSM                |      |     |       | women's vulnerability to |
|                    |      |     |       | HIV/ STIs                |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 8\. Widowhood      | S    |     | X     | Disempowerment of women, |
| rights and         |      |     |       | makes them vulnerable    |
| inheritance rights |      |     |       | economically and at risk |
|                    |      |     |       | to get infected by HIV   |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 9\. Low level of   | N,S  |     | X     | Further lowers or        |
| participation of   |      |     |       | maintains low social     |
| women in political |      |     |       | status of women          |
| decision-making    |      |     |       |                          |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 10\. Should not    | N    | X   | X     | Men do seek care at a    |
| express pains,     |      |     |       | later stage of a disease |
| fears and sorrow   |      |     |       |                          |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 11\. Stigmatize    | N,S  |     | X     | Women will not seek care |
| and discriminate   |      |     |       | or do not access         |
| if being sexually  |      |     |       | preventive measures      |
| abuse              |      |     |       | against HIV/AIDS & STIs  |
|                    |      |     |       | decrease self esteem     |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 12\. Access        | S    |     | X     | Same as above            |
| difficult to       |      |     |       |                          |
| report police on   |      |     |       |                          |
| sex abuse          |      |     |       |                          |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 13\. Access to     | S    |     | X     | Same as above            |
| report in hospital |      |     |       |                          |
| on sex abuse not   |      |     |       |                          |
| adequate           |      |     |       |                          |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 14\. Procedures in | S    |     | X     | Avoid ostracism,         |
| Court on sex abuse |      |     |       | suffering in silence     |
| very long          |      |     |       |                          |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 15\. Being blame   | S    |     | X     | Same as above            |
| or faulty if rape  |      |     |       |                          |
| or sexually abuse  |      |     |       |                          |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 16\. Double        | N,S  |     | X     | Puts women and their     |
| standard on having |      |     |       | offspring at greater     |
| multi sex partners |      |     |       | risk to be infected by   |
|                    |      |     |       | STIs and HIV             |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 17\. Men and women | N    |     | X     | Disempowerment women     |
| not sitting at the |      |     |       |                          |
| same place         |      |     |       |                          |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 18\. Not at ease   | S    |     | X     | Not able to get happy    |
| to buy condoms     |      |     |       | and healthier families   |
|                    |      |     |       | or control their family  |
|                    |      |     |       | size                     |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 19\. Not at ease   | S,N  | X   |       | Not life saving for the  |
| or blame to take   |      |     |       | child                    |
| children to clinic |      |     |       |                          |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 20\. Access or use | N,S  | X   |       | Men do put their lives   |
| self medication    |      |     |       | in danger                |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 21\. Not able to   | N,S  |     | X     | Not able to protect      |
| negotiate safe sex |      |     |       | themselves against       |
|                    |      |     |       | HIV/AIDS, STIs and       |
|                    |      |     |       | unwanted pregnancies     |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 22\. Strongly      | N,S  | X   | X     | Limited access to care,  |
| stigmatized if     |      |     |       | spreads HIV              |
| known to be HIV    |      |     |       |                          |
| infected           |      |     |       |                          |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 23\. Parents       | N    |     | X     | Violation of women's     |
| decide on choice   |      |     |       | rights, limit their own  |
| of sexual          |      |     |       | development; could be    |
|                    |      |     |       | associated with harmful  |
| partner and spouse |      |     |       | organic disorders        |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 24\. Given role to | N,S  |     | X     | Not enough time for      |
| care of children,  |      |     |       | taking care              |
| sick, domestic     |      |     |       | ofthemselves,, attain    |
| work, and          |      |     |       | their own education and  |
| productive work    |      |     |       | development              |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 25.Domestic sexual |      |     |       | Woman stigmatized,       |
| violence           |      |     |       | increased risks for STIs |
|                    |      |     |       | and HIV                  |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 26\. Early         |      |     |       | Teenage pregnancy,       |
| marriage           |      |     |       | psycho-organic disorders |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| 29\. Women in      | N    |     | X     | Deprivation, women       |
| seclusion          |      |     |       | having no access to      |
|                    |      |     |       | services                 |
+--------------------+------+-----+-------+--------------------------+

Source: E. Génécé & Gender Assessment Team, February, 2003.

It is **Environment** as a cross-cutting theme that is not immediately
obviously included in the SO statements, although it is clearly implied
under SO12, "Sustainable Agriculture and Diversified Economic Growth".
One likely reason is the probability that the Mission will not have
sufficient "ear-marked" or other funds to mount a credible, separate
environmental program. Thus, it must perforce be treated as a
cross-cutting issue which, in fact, it is. The Environmental Assessment
carried out by ARD, Inc. as part of the analytic agenda for this SO
presents a number of initiatives and options that lend themselves to
inclusion under a gendered approach to HIV/AIDS, economic
diversification and growth. If "engendered", the recommendations of that
Assessment can easily be turned into activities and interventions that
will improve the incomes and quality of life of women and households
while at the same time, improving environmental protection and the use
of non-renewable resources, especially firewood. This will lead to more
generalized and improved gender equity in terms of access to and
exploitation of factors of production. (For more detailed discussion,
see Annex 4, and the Recommendations sub-section for SO 6.)

How, then, can this and the other five cross-cutting issues be
"engendered"? One way is to ensure that they include attention to the
attitudes and behaviors of **men as well as of** **women**. What more
needs to be done to ensure that men understand that their own inclusion
**and** that of women is essential to decision-making at all
socio-economic and political levels? Another way is to continue an
affirmative approach to the social and political inclusion of currently
excluded groups i.e., both urban and rural women, the young, and certain
male and female sub-groups of the population of the North, such as
nomadic or semi-nomadic peoples of both sexes.

While the IITA cowpea seed program currently hopes to help semi-nomadic
producers to become settled, there ae other things that can be done with
and for people, both men and women, who still undertake limited or
long-distance transhumance. Additionally, the population of Delta State
and the South South of both sexes, who do not benefit proportionately
from the proceeds of petroleum exports can continue to be a special
group of anticipated beneficiaries. This is another area in which
private multinational companies and international donors---as well as
the GON---can and should collaborate more effectively.

Equity is the business of **all** in the society, not only those who are
currently dis-benefiting from social and economic advances and
improvements. This is what gender mainstreaming really means.

The 2004-2007 Strategy is likely to include continued activities or
activity components that purposively target the least included groups
illustratively mentioned above. Numerically, most of them are women and
girls. However, male youth, the elderly of both sexes, and "highly
vulnerable" groups, including but not limited to PLWHA of both sexes,
and AIDS orphans, will probably become even more important anticipated
beneficiary group over the coming five years. In reproductive health and
education, child survival, HIV/AIDS prevention, conflict management,
improved agricultural production and processing, and financial services,
greater inclusion of all these groups and social categories will
continue to be an indicator of the Strategy's Goal-level achievement.

IV\. GENDER ASPECTS OF INDIVIDUAL STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES

This Section summarizes the key gender constraints faced in the
successful achievement of each of the new SOs[^8], key elements that
would improve the SO teams' and the Mission's collaboration with the GON
and civil society actors under each, and to give recommendations for
effectively addressing the constraints. Specific illustrative activities
that may relax these constraints are also included, as well as possible
negative impacts of USAID's support to such activities. In each
instance, further descriptive and analytical material is presented in
the pertinent SO Annex. At the end of the Section, we will summarize
those gender constraints that are most relevant to Nigeria's economic
development.

SO 11: Good Governance through Transparency, Participation and Conflict
Management[^9]

The struggle for democracy, which women undertake, is essentially a
multi-layered task. This has been termed the battle on several fronts
for democracy at the level of the state, democracy at large, and
democracy within and among the people. In these instances women and men
who are engaged in the struggle for gender equality have to do two
things simultaneously.

-   Convince the broader society why it is important for women to have a
    voice and the differences that it takes.

-   Work to bring about democratic structures which address the
    perspective, demands and needs of women.

This means that the processes of engendering democracy are long term,
slow and often exacting on adherents. Much has already been achieved
under the Transition Strategy's SO 1 toward meeting this objective.
However, much remains to be done to put in place and/or strengthen
institutions of civil society as well as those of government to assure
continued progress in the areas already addressed. The assessment team
noted that most barriers to women's equity in political participation
are socio-cultural rather than legal, and that they have psycho-social
implications. The team's Governance and Politics Specialist identified
13 critical gender-based constraints to continued progress under the new
SO, as may be seen from Table 3, below.

Table 3

Factors Militating Against Women's Effective Participation in Politics

And Proposed Interventions

  ---------------------------- ------------------------------------------
  *Critical gender-based       *Interventions*
  problems identified*         

                               

                               

  i\. ignorance                Public enlightenment on gender/ women's
                               issues

  ii\. illiteracy              Increased girls and women's access to
                               education at all levels irrespective of
                               their location and circumstances

  iii\. poverty                Implement economic policy and planning
                               through the Bottom -- Top approach and
                               creation of credit guarantee schemes for
                               women, the aged and youths

  iv\. poor or low self-esteem Public enlightenment and advocacy on
  which makes women            women's right; increased educational
  susceptible to the divide    status of women
  and rule strategy (along     
  religious and ethnic lines)  
  often employed by unpopular  
  women leaders as well as men 

  v\. lack of confidence in    Strategic issues concerning women the
  other women,                 media focus on public enlightenment of
                               women on need to support each others
                               achievement of women in public life rather
                               than focussing on personalities and
                               events; advocacy on women in high public
                               office to see women through their primary
                               constituency, engage in dialogue with
                               political parties to promote internal
                               party democracy and transparency

  vi\. government's policy of  Provision of gender disaggregated data for
  "tokenism" in appointments   planning and appointment purposes; return
  to political and decision    to merit provision for Affirmative Action
  making positions             institute an ensuing political
                               environment/culture

  vii\. violent and            Liberalize political party formation and
  non-conducive political      participation
  environment (money politics, 
  intimidation, and violence)  

  viii\. cultural stereotypes/ Advocacy on all cultural and religious
  religious barriers           factors in political practices that offend
                               civil liberties of persons; implement
                               general civic education in schools and at
                               all levels on obnoxious cultural/religious
                               practices sensitization of traditional and
                               religious leaders to encourage women to
                               participate.

  ix\. harmful traditional     Public enlightenment, sensitisation and
  practices                    advocacy on eliminating those harmful
                               traditional practices

  x\. violence                 Promotion of dialogue among communities
                               prone to conflicts; advocacy on ethnic
                               integration, encouragement of peace

  xi\. unstated percentage for Return to merit, provision for Affirmative
  female Representation in     Action
  public office                

  xii\. inadequate information All channels of mass communication to be
  in gender/women's gender     utilized to publicize Gender/Women's
  based                        activities and issues

  xiii\. inadequacies of the   Enactment of a truly people's constitution
  constitution                 
  ---------------------------- ------------------------------------------

**The Gender Dimension of the Democratic Question In Nigeria**

The recurrent theme is that about 50 percent of the electorate, which
votes governments into power, are women and therefore want to be part of
the process of decision-making and governance at all levels. Women want
a sense of group/national belonging; some control over their lives and
the manifestations of a government that works for them. Equally, women
want to have a voice and to witness federalism reflected in autonomy for
local groups, enabling them to channel their energies on identified
priorities at all levels of government. Finally, participating in public
processes and the policies that define their lives and fates is not new
to Nigerian women

# When the team was in Nigeria, the pre-election candidate selection process was in full swing. One issue that was stressed in press conferences and in media interviews with key women leaders just before and after the team's arrival was the fact that women "aspirants" were being "systematically eliminated" in party primaries for the 2003 elections. In fact, there were at that point 30 registered parties, and in all cases, there were at least some women members. Yet, in many instances, there were no women aspirants at all on a party's slate. 

# 

# At a press conference organized by WRAPA, the Women's Rights Advancement and Protection Alternative held January 2, 2003, Mrs. Saudatu Mahdi decried this phenomenon.[^10] 

#  {#section-5}

# "The experiences of female aspirants vary in form and extent. They range from deliberate and blatant maneuvers to outwit them in the processes of procuring nomination forms, screening, or clear preferences of male aspirants over female aspirants by party machinery and stalwarts. Others' experiences include insincere negotiations for consensus in favour of male aspirants or sheer pressure from family engineered by external forces to compel potential female aspirants to step down in favour of male aspirants. The worst and most alarming of the experiences its that of violence directly targeted at women aspirants or their supporters".

As will be seen in more detail in Annex 3, these phenomena occur at all
levels---local government authority councils, state assemblies, and the
National Assembly, as is also stressed in Mrs. Mahdi's speech.
Unfortunately, voter behavior studies have not been carried out in
Nigeria or if they have, they cannot be disaggregated by sex. In fact,
the GA team leader discussed with the SO1 team whether exit polls or
interviews of voters might be possible to determine how women voted as
compared to men. The consensus seemed to be that this would be difficult
if not impossible given the atmosphere and regulations surrounding
polling places. However, according to unsubstantiated statistics from
the Ministry of Women's Affairs, 68% of the voters are women.

One of the key points made in the WRAPA press release is that "women
have been sensitized to vote for women...OUR strength in this regard
lies in the numerical strength of women in Nigeria as well as their
quality of being faithful voters. The statistics from the 1999 elections
are a pointer to reckon with". Though it does not necessarily
demonstrate this causal relationship, Figure 1 below certainly shows
some increases in women elected representatives, though more at the
Federal level than below. Among the hypotheses given as to why women are
eliminated in the primary process or if they succeed there, later on as
candidates, is that they usually cannot compete with male aspirants or
candidates in terms of vote buying.

One women's CSO interviewed included in its political participation
awareness campaign the recommendation that women aspirants and
candidates should not participate in influence-peddling and vote buying
as a matter of principle, even if offered funds to do so\--presumably by
men. These observations are not anecdotal, although they would be
difficult to prove in the political environment pertaining in Nigeria
(or elsewhere, for that matter). They give some insight into the status
of women in the formal political sphere. What they do not reveal,
however, is what the influence of women may be in the informal political
domain at various levels**.**

An electoral affirmative action policy has been suggested for Nigeria,
as is present in Uganda and South Africa. In Uganda, there is a quota
established for the proportion of women elected officials, while
additional women and other historical minority group members, can also
compete for the non-quota seats. Annex 3 discusses the arguments for
USAID to support advocacy for such legislation or constitutional
amendment in Nigeria. Table 4 shows the current, pre-2003 distribution
of women in elective and appointive posts.

#### Empowering Women for Effective Participation in the Political Process

Attention here is on women's participation in decision -making since
this is central to the problem of gender roles Despite the advances made
by women in this sphere, politics and public life remain overwhelmingly
a man\'s world. Since the return to civilian rule in 1979 there has been
practically no improvement. Women remain a small minority at all levels
at political representation. For example, after the 1999 elections
female representation in the Federal House of Representatives increased
from four in 1979 to 13 (out of 360 members). In the Senate, there was
an increase from none in 1979 to three in 1999 (out of 109). At the
local government level, there are nine women among the current 774 LGA
chairpersons as against five women in 1979 (out of 301 LGA
Chairpersons). In the 1999 elections, the 36 state houses of Assembly
had twelve female members while the 19 state Houses of Assembly in 1979
had the same number of female candidates. Out of President Olusegun
Obasanjo\'s cabinet in 1999-2000, 6 out of 46 ministers were women where
as in 1979; only three out of 50 ministers were women. In Nigeria, there
have only been two elected female deputy governors in 1992 and 1999
respectively. No woman has ever been a state governor.

# Figure 1

## Women's Representation in Political Posts 1979-1999

![](media/image3.wmf)

#  {#section-6}

#  {#section-7}

#  {#section-8}

#  {#section-9}

# Table 4

# Proportion of Women Holding Political Posts, 1999

  ---------------------------- ---------- ------------ ----------- ----------
                               **Male**   **Female**   **Total**   **%
                                                                   female**

  Ministers/Special Advisers   35         9            44          20.5

  Speakers                     35         1            36          2.7

  Governors                    36         0            36          0.0

  Deputy Governors             35         1            36          2.7

  LGA Chairpersons             765        9            774         1.2

  Councilors                   8,667      143          8,810       1.6

  State Assembly Members       978        12           990         1.2

  Senators                     106        3            109         2.8

  House of Representative      347        13           360         3.6
  Members                                                          
  ---------------------------- ---------- ------------ ----------- ----------

The foregoing figure and table reflect women\'s low participation and
under-representation in the power structure of Nigeria. Unfortunately,
it is evident that the trend of neglect of the gender question in
political power structure still persist and the 2003 elections does not
hold much promise for women. Despite international interventions and
local attempts to increase awareness of women\'s issues such attempts
have not translated to increased participation of women in political and
decision-making structures in Nigeria.

Specific activities for each target under the new SO11 are included
under each section in Annex 3. Here, we summarize the major
recommendations of the Governance and Politics Specialist, and then list
some of the activities she proposes.

**[Recommendations for SO11:]{.underline}**

The Gender Assessment Team recognizes that USAID's funding for DG is
going to be cut, perhaps severely, for the new 2004-2007 Plan period.
Nonetheless, as the Mission Director noted in the in-briefing and the
de-briefing sessions, there are some successes that are still very
fragile and new, and that need to be strengthened. Hopefully, if
additional resources are not available directly through USAID, the
Mission can help to leverage other resources in the DG area, and can
avoid "dropping" support to former IP CSOs that have demonstrated
success but still need to have their capacities strengthened so as to
become self-sustaining.

### Media Target On

Build the capacity of local and national media to play a constructive
role in public participation enhancement, conflict reduction and
sustainable democracy through.

-   Youth involvement -- Importance should be attached to awareness
    building and promotion of gender consciousness among Nigeria youths.

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-   Continued promotion of open and effective dialogue between CBO's and
    decision makers to positively impact on legislative and policy
    outcomes through

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```
-   Coalition -- building and lobbying efforts

-   Advancement of priority legislative causes

-   Capacity -- building of CBO's to assist decision makers in drafting
    legislation and policies

**Promotion of a Gender Friendly Media**

There is need for a gender friendly media to advance the cause off
women. To this end, gender based NGOs. are called to establish media
outfits devoted to highlighting women's issues and portraying and
publicizing women models of success for the benefits of the masses.

#  {#section-10}

# Coalition -- Building 

There should be continued facilitation of and provision of support to
civil society coalitions at all levels of government through:

-   Horizontal streamlining of women focused NGO's and CBOs in order to
    form a more effective Women's movement which will mobilize,
    sensitize, conscientize and advocate the populace for gender
    equality.

> • The provision of technical and organizational training aimed at
> sustaining the
>
> existing and new coalitions.

• The provision of technical assistance on advocacy and mobilization to
existing and

new coalitions.

Such sustainable links with agenda objectives and actions drawn by a
broad coalition of CSOs (particularly those focused on women) can
constitute pressure groups in empowering women and promoting.

The emergence of women's community-based organizations such as Country
Women's Association of Nigeria, points to new forms of involvement by
women in community affairs, driven by their specific interests, such as
access to micro-credits. This is a promising development, which over
time, could lead to women promoting their rights more assertively at
community level.

**Advocacy on the Constitution**

Advocacy for gender-sensitive language and protection within the
constitution and to build the capacity of women's groups to mobilized
around a "people --driven" gender-sensitive constitution reform process.

**Increased Participation of Women**

Based on the significant event of the 2003 party primaries, Nigerian
women are likely to remain underrepresented at all levels of government
in the 2003 administration. USAID should address this by working with
women's CBO's at all levels, but particularly at the grass roots level
to participate in decision-making processes that affect their lives and
those of their communities. CEDPA\'s 100 Women's Groups Strategy should
is a useful mechanism to utilize.

**Education and Awareness-Raising Programs**

These should be continued to help Nigerians recognize that the
democratic agenda must include a special effort to improve the lot of
women in civil society so as to protect women's rights. Also, girl-child
education and training, beginning from the home, should be encouraged to
emphasize self-assertion and self-confidence to enable girls to
anticipate and protect themselves from discriminatory and risky
practices and behaviors of others. Such education should be provided,
among others, to the National Orientation Agency, which would create
reasonable public enlightenment program in collaboration with Ministries
of Women Affairs at the Federal and State Levels, NGO's, CBO's, the
media and traditional rulers/Institutions.

**Advocacy on Cultural/Religious Practices**

There is need for continued advocacy on:

-   the importance of abolishing "obnoxious" cultural practices such as
    widow-inheritance, Female Genital Mutilation (FMG), spousal
    hospitality and the like that offend civil liberties of persons
    (especially women). This should be accomplished through acts of
    legislature that will enact laws, as has been taking place, but also
    through the judiciary who must know how to interpret the laws
    correctly and have the political will and governmental and civil
    society support to do so.

-   the manipulation of religion and religious texts which have
    continued to militate against the involvement of women in political
    and civic affairs.

**Advocacy on INEC**

This should address the removal of all forms of encumbrances to women's
participation in politics through INEC. INEC should be persuaded to
discourage money politics and encourage financial limits as done in the
West, persuading Political Parties to include women in their hierarchies
as a pre-condition for registering and also insit on quota for women in
elective positions.

**Advocacy on Affirmative Action:**

Women need to seek political channels to over come their political
marginalization. The NCWS as far back as 1986 has demanded a quota of
about 30-40% of positions in cabinet and legislatures for women. This is
a step in the right direction. Since political analysts have
demonstrated that politics is a game of numbers, it is imperative that
women should seek affirmative action to ensure that they form a critical
mass that is necessary to influence decision making in governance.

**Outreach Programs**

Outreach programs through the use of media to convey advocacy messages,
educate and influence the public, create awareness of critical democracy
and human rights issues and mobilize communities around advocacy issues.
The outreach should be conducted through the use of grassroots
education, posters, cultural arts performances Public Service
Announcements (PSA's), town hall meetings, debates, radio drama series,
and call-in-public affairs TV and radio broadcasts.

### [Suggested Activities:]{.underline} {#suggested-activities .unnumbered}

Increased Public Sensitization and Awareness Activities.

There is need to build on the existing activities to sensitize the
public on what gender is - particularly that it is not a war between men
and women neither is it about creating a society for only women or one
for only men. Working together to this end the activities should be
addressed from the micro to the macro level, focusing in turn on the
family (family decision-making) the community (community
decision-making) and the wider society (the realm of politics and
government).

### Enhanced Civil Society Training and Capacity Building 

It is important to target the striking role played by women in
association life. These associations include NGOs CBOs and other
indigenous and religious associations. The capacity of these CSOs should
be enhanced to enable them to articulate issues of concern to women and
their communities and in the long run, contribute to shape \'Nigeria\'s
political future particularly as it concerns women\'s issues. Training
activities along the CEDPA model targeting CSOs should cover topics like
mobilization, advocacy gender and development, net working and coalition
building transparency and accountability, program development and
management, community government relations, etc.

### Increased Capacity Building of Politicians and Political Party Officials

This activity should target politicians at the three tiers of
government. The aim should be to sensitize the politicians on the need
to treat \"women\'s issues\' as an integral part of the structural
question in the Nigerian society, and to incorporate gender equality on
an integrated political agenda. For instance, there is the urgent need
for advocacy to address the following:

\(a\) Systemic barriers in the electoral system and procedures, which
limit women\'s ability to participate

\(b\) political agenda and constituency needs imbalance

\(c\) Treatment of women and their issues as key concerns within the
context of the wider parties interest.

\(d\) Encouragement of women and gender -supportive male politician to
champion women issues as political alternatives.

\(e\) Development of political campaigns around issues that have an
appeal to women.

###  {#section-11}

###  {#section-12}

### Continued Advocacy And Capacity Building On Women In Politics

As it is else where in the world, women in Nigeria contribute often in
unacknowledged ways, to the GDP and for these and many reasons there is
the urgent demand for an enabling environment. To this end activities
should be targeted at women as:

-   Party Supporters And Voters

-   Politicians

-   Elected/Appointed Representatives

    In addition efforts should concentrate on

-   Increasing accessibility to appropriate information in terms of
    knowledge of the process, civic culture and ethics, democratic
    norms, awareness, about the institutions of governance and politics,
    constituency building, feminization and true concern for gender
    equality. Continual awareness and sensitization on the need to
    capitalize on a women\'s agenda in order to enhance women\'s
    democratic experiences is imperative.

-   Enhancing the personal skills of elected/appointed women to enable
    them take on the added role of promoting the gender agenda-often
    times, gender is not a priority for women in appointive and elective
    representation. With their multiple identities, gender has to
    compete for relevance and often, the gender game is played as a last
    resort when the women are faced with choices.

**SO 12: Sustainable Agriculture and Diversified Economic Growth**

The Mission's new Strategy identifies three critical areas that
contribute to the poor state of Nigeria's economy, particularly in the
rural sector: 1) poor performance in the agriculture sector; 2)
inadequate financial services supporting private-sector expansion, and
3) a poor environment for private sector growth. Thus, the new SO 6,
while building on what was done under SO2, has both a greater rural
orientation, and is more clearly focused on overall private sector
growth rather than privatization, macroeconomic management, and
macroeconomic reform as was its predecessor.

Additionally, while environment is not listed as a critical area (,as
noted under Section III above), it falls under SO12. Whatever
environmental activities the Mission may be able to fund over the next
five years will be under the purview of the Mission's Environmental
Officer, who is a member of the SO12 team. Aside from these
considerations, environment (at least the "green" domain) is
inextricably related to any form of human (and animal) exploitation, so
it is actually embedded in the agriculture sector aspects of this SO. As
was seen in Section III, it is also a cross-cutting theme of the
Strategy as a whole.

The fact that efforts have already been made to include women farmers
under IITA RESUP, Farmer to Farmer, and Land 'o Lakes-implemented
activities under SO2 is a good start. However, under SO12, it will be
very important to help IPs make sure that they are really targeting
their programs toward the right farmer categories, one of which is women
smallholder farmers. The only way to do this effectively is to carry out
social impact assessments, (SIA) which are gender assessments at the
same time, before launching or up-scaling particular activities that
require extension, beneficiary commitment of additional resources
(including through paying back newly available credit), and changes in
farming systems (intercropping, "women's crops", more, or less intensive
cultivation practices with potential implications for women's labor and
men's) and related gendered decision-making within the farm household,
and control over farm income. A good example is the SIA done by IITA on
soybean production in Benue State.

A more general caution, which should apply to media and extension
campaigns oriented toward women and men, smallholders and commercial
farmers, is what might be called "honesty in advertising". It is very
important that IPs not make claims about the likely increases in yields,
"green revolutions", and the like, that are unsubstantiated in the local
context.[^11] This is particularly salient in Nigeria, where "get rich
quick" , "boom and bust" mentalities coping strategies abound, and where
it is not at all clear that there will be anything "instantaneous" about
revenue gains and improvements to soil fertility any of the technologies
on offer, even those that are more conservative, such as changing
cultural practices on cowpeas, in part to increase biomass in the soils.

One of the elements that must be addressed as well in all the
agriculture activities is the local situation in terms of security of
land tenure, analyzed by gender or sex differences. USAID has expressed
the desire to learn more about women's security of tenure, but there are
also questions to be answered about security of tenure for men who are
smallholders. Since many subsistence-level farm households are able only
to produce enough food for only 70 days out of the year (e.g., in Kano
State) on an average of one hectare of land, it is likely that there are
landless households who are providing farm labor, including women-headed
households. This has significant implications for use of improved
inputs, as is well-demonstrated in the farming systems literature\--much
of which has been produced by IITA over the years. It will also have an
impact on a number of the good suggestions for cultural improvements
made in the Environmental Assessment.

Security of tenure and gender differences in usufruct and ownership
rights are also significant for the kinds of commercial, export-earning
cropping systems proposed as a result of the Chemonics-implemented
agribusiness project (see "Success Story" on gum-arabic above. The
prevailing wisdom among Nigerian "Aggies" seems to be that only men own
trees and tree crops, for example. If this is true, then an emphasis on
improved cashews, gum Arabic, and other cash-earning tree crops is
likely to benefit male farmers only, possibly to the dis-benefit of
women farmers and their children. One possibility to mitigate such
dis-benefits is to see to what extent women farmers can produce
seedlings and suckers, as well as participating in producing the
value-added from improved post-harvest storage and processing.

The same kinds of issues should be raised about aquaculture, and about
export of hides. Women with sufficient assets (retired civil servants
and others) are apparently beginning to invest in aquaculture in the
North and elsewhere. Preparation of hides for export almost certainly
has a gendered set of implications. Women are usually in charge of milk
and the sale of milk even from large stock owned by male family members.
They own their own small stock, and can thus control the proceeds of
sale of poultry, sheep and goats. Some women among the Hausa-Fulani may
also own large stock, including cattle and camels, or have rights in
them.

These are the sorts of issues of traditional and modern tenure,
ownership and access to assets (including non-micro credit) that should
be explored under the smallholder and commercial farm activities slated
to help improve the performance of the agriculture sector under SO12
(see Annex 4).

Another set of issues relates to market access, a key element under this
SO. There are already plans for market information systems for
(commercial?) farmers under SO2. If, hopefully, there are also plans for
smallholder market information systems, that would allow any
smallholders who ar e able to produce surpluses for sale to sell them on
better terms, again, how women and men are able differentially to access
such information should be understood before the systems are put in
place. If, for example, the system is to use IT and websites, it will
only be accessible to commercial farmers. If it is to include radio
broadcasts, it may be accessible to smallholders as well. Then, as in
other media-based programs, it will be necessary to determine who has
access to radios when the programs are likely to be broadcast.

In almost all such programs elsewhere in Africa, in agriculture as well
as in other sectors such as RH/FP and non-formal education, this has
been an important issue. It is particularly important, for example,
among cattle-keeping peoples, where the man takes the radio with him
(daily or on transhumance), while the woman remains without the radio at
home. Community radio programs in local languages and dialects may be
the best way of reaching both men and women, if the timing of broadcasts
is correctly established to address the target audience, however.

As we have noted, women traders are many and widespread in Nigeria. Even
women in the North who are in seclusion engage in petty trade, usually
in prepared foodstuffs, caps, and other small artisanal items. Some,
however, engage in larger-volume and longer distance trade through a
series of intermediaries. Women in the Middle Belt and in the South, who
are known as significant traders, have higher volumes and a larger
radius of operation. These are significant stakeholders for improved
access to markets, and may be crucial intermediaries for women and men
farmers. They are also key players in the non-formal,
non-institutionalized rural credit sub-sector.

Under the IR "Increasing the private-sectors' access to critical
financial services", the implications for women and men in the
downstream, micro-enterprise development area, particularly in the rural
sub-sector, has been well-analyzed, and the upcoming RFP is likely to
cover these issues well. The upstream financial markets and banking area
may be covered under the same RFP, or may be dealt with separately.[^12]
One caveat seems to be that the experience with Community Banks in the
past was not entirely positive.

Another is that when providing planned assistance to Nigeria's formal
financial institutions so that they will eventually provide
micro-finance intermediation and create and expand the range of
financial instruments available to the private sector, differential
requirements\--whether overt or hidden\--for the solicitation,
acceptance and processing of applications from women-owned as well as
men-owned firms, should be surfaced and addressed. This should also be
done for policy reform leading to newly-available long-term financial
intermediation and financial products.

Finally, under the IR for improving the environment for private sector
growth, the issues raised earlier about the differential impacts of
macroeconomic policies on women and on men (and on the poor and
extremely poor versus those who are better off) should be taken into
account as the macroeconomic policy reform process continues. There is a
lot more knowledge and literature available on pro-poor policies,
engendering budgets, and the like than was the case when the
transitional strategy was development (see References). The role of the
PRSP, whose development will also be supported here, has already been
discussed in Section III and again in this Section under SO11.

Support to create an enabling environment for foreign direct and local
investment by reducing restrictive policies can also be a gendered
process. It may be noted that an additional issue under this IR or
sub-IR should be addressing corruption and other unhealthy practices on
the part of the private sector as well as those already enumerated that
are largely public-sector related. The proposed "third prong" that will
"focus on establishing public-private partnerships to leverage
productive investment opportunities, such as in support of the African
Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) is yet another area where there has
been some analysis that purports to show that the benefits to women
workers and women-owned firms under AGOA are not necessarily obvious
(see UNIFEM-sponsored workshop, Senegal, 2002, Proceedings, inter alia).

**[Suggested Activities]{.underline}:**

The major suggestions from the Gender Assessment Team for SO12 are not
additional activities, but rather greater and more refined attention to
gender issues and disparities under existing and planned activities, as
indicated in the previous sub-section. The exceptions are, however, as
follows:

1.  Assess the comparative advantage of continuing research on improved
    bananas, as opposed, for example, to testing and if appropriate,
    multiplying the new WARDA rice variety that seems highly adapted to
    the semi-arid areas of Nigeria, even where soils are particularly
    poor.

2.  Explore the possibility of increasing soy bean production both as a
    way of improving soil fertility and improving food security,
    including for women-headed households.

3.  With existing programs elsewhere, or other-donor programs, combine
    distribution of improved stoves with other activities for women's
    groups, including literacy training where desired. Improved stoves
    have been demonstrated to have a significant positive impact on
    women's health, as well as saving scarce fuelwood resources, and to
    some extent at least, reducing women's labor burden and time
    constraints.

4.  Target labor-saving processing activities to women---and men---who
    are PLWHA or PABHA, who may no longer be able to carry out on-field
    tasks, but who are still able to do processing activities,
    especially those that save labor and are addressed at home
    consumption. Alternatively, they can also be targeted for processing
    activities related to cash crop production, which would be likely to
    increase needed revenues for medicines, labor substitution,
    schooling for children, and funeral expenses, as well as the care of
    AIDS orphans.

5\. Extend---through Farmer to Farmer or Land 'o Lakes or IITA---known
methods for post-harvest storage, improved processing of horticulture
and cereal crops, quality standards for cash-crops for export to women
and to men. For example, if the cassava processing activity already
being funded proves efficient and cost-effective, then up-scale and
extend it elsewhere in the country where cassava is produced, especially
as cassava is usually a women's crop and a crop cultivated by poorer
farmers.

There is already a great deal of this kind of information available from
other African countries as well as from earlier donor-assisted
agriculture sector programs in the past, and much of it is available at
IITA or through GGIAR. It is crucial, given limited resources and the
need to scale-up extension of , and access to proven improved productive
technologies as quickly as possible, after appropriate adaptation, if
necessary. Following on the kind of gendered SIA discussed above, scale
up the extension of some of the IITA-bred cultigens in Bauchi State and
Katsina or Kaduna, as appropriate, as well as the more proven aspects of
the IFDC-DAIMINA program. This is preferable to reinventing the wheel,
or accidentally extending inappropriate methods that have succeeded in
the US, or other regions, but have already failed elsewhere in Africa in
like socioeconomic and (micro) ecological circumstances.

**[Recommendations for SO 12:]{.underline}**

Most of these recommendations are embodied in the main text of this
sub-section as presented above. They are also discussed in some detail
in Annex 4.

1.  The primary over-aching recommendation is to take gender differences
    --especially as they affect access to the factors of production,
    including labor and credit---into account in the design and
    implementation of all activities under this SO.

2.  To do this, as necessary, fund gendered Social Impact Assessments
    before new cultigens, farming systems, or processing activities are
    adapted and introduced through extension or demonstration projects.

3.  To the extent funding allows, implement in a gendered way the
    recommendations of the Environmental Assessment. It is possible to
    design these such that HIV/AIDS funds or other funds, including
    those for Economic Growth and Agricultural Production, can
    legitimately be used to support them.

4.  Where policy change is being supported, it is critical to examine
    the differential impacts on women and on men. Macroeconomic policies
    are not gender neutral, and neither are budgets.

5.  Support by the Mission to the PRSP process should help to ensure
    that the Gender thematic group is actually funded and that its
    recommendations are taken on board.

6.  In expanding access to financial intermediation for the private
    sector, make sure that formal institutions do not de facto
    discriminate against women, or PLWHA, or any other largely excluded
    group or social category.

7.  Improve or re-think existing PR materials of various IPs so that
    they are not misleading or create false expectations on the part of
    those who are the anticipated beneficiaries and also GON
    collaborators and private sector partners.

8.  Include the bigger women traders and their associations in the
    macroeconomic stakeholder policy discussion process. (This is now
    actually under SO 11, but is the "other hand" to what was done under
    the Prospect Project with SO 2 funding.

9.  Take on board what the Afro Barometer Study "Down to Earth" has to
    say about the attitudes of the survey sample toward market
    liberalization and privatization of economic interventions, in
    planning private-public partnerships.

10. Include combating symbiotic private and public sector corruption in
    the sub Irs for increased private sector growth and investment, as
    well as that for financial intermediation.

**SO 13: Improved Social Sector Service Delivery**

Building on the significant gains made under the current transition
strategy is perhaps simplest under this new SO. It takes on only part of
the formerly integrated SO3, and streamlines elements "to maximize the
opportunities for synergistic impact while at the same time retaining
their unique sectoral foci". Of the three elements, FP/RH, CS and
education, the Mission has had the least experience with education,
having started only a year ago. That is one reason for the proposed
Education Sector Assessment under the

Analytical agenda.

# In conducting a gender analysis of the proposed activities and programs under the SO7 USAID Country Strategic Plan, the aim is primarily to take into consideration gender relations and how it impacts on equitable access to education and health services by males and females in Nigeria. In order to maximize the potential impact of the proposed programs, it is important to ensure that no group of individuals is inadvertently or otherwise disadvantaged due to his or her gender. The broad goal therefore is to achieve gender equity in the participation and access of Nigerian men and women to programs and services. By examining different sex and gender roles and the institutional structures that reinforce inequity, gender analysis of the proposed Country Strategic Plan (CSP) will address the potential effects of gender relations on the program outcomes and the relative status of women.

# Highlights of the Transitional Strategy and Proposed Country Strategic Plan 2004-9

Since the commencement of the Fourth Republic, the Transitional Strategy
(TS) on education and health were separate SOs (3 and 4). The main
objective of the education sector programs was to strengthen Nigeria's
ability to lay the foundation for education reform. The programs under
SO3 aimed at

## Improving literacy and numeracy skills (of teachers and pupils)

## Mobilizing community-based participation in developing priorities for education

## Providing policy support, and 

## Supporting youth workforce development

##  {#section-13}

## The health sector focused on the promotion and use of health and family planning services. The program areas covered included:

## Reproductive Health (RH)/Family Planning (FP): increase in contraceptive protection

## Child Survival (CS): Polio Eradication Initiative, National Committee on Food and Nutrition, Nutrition Policy/Plan of action

## Roll Back Malaria

# The proposed CSP aims to build upon the current transitional strategy using a more streamlined and integrated approach, with emphasis on sustainable development. Furthermore the concept paper proposes an integration of RH/FP, CS and education programs under one strategic objective (SO7). The three main areas of SO7 under the CSP are:

## Demand for Services (Increase in knowledge and skills in communities): This would involve raising awareness, increasing demand and training in advocacy skills.

1.  Increasing access to Quality Service by training health care
    providers and teachers, increasing supply and access, program
    repositioning and improving school quality.

2.  Improving government support for social policies by improving policy
    development and implementation and teacher training curriculum
    reforms.

# This report assesses issues of gender equity in the TS in order to make practical and realistic assessment of the activities under the CSP. The activity involved discussions with SO team members, IPs, NGOs, donor agencies, academics and review of literature (see attached list of contacts and bibliography).

#  {#section-14}

# Gender-based constraints to equitable participation.

Gender differences are reflected in impact of health and education
sector activities impact on males and females in Nigeria. Tables 5 and 6
are examples of some indicators which reflect disparity between males
and females in the education and health sectors. As literacy rates,
enrolment and attendance ratios make abundantly clear females are at a
disadvantage in educational access, especially in the north.
Furthermore, Table 6 shows that women are disadvantaged in terms of FP
services, particularly those who are uneducated, young and live in rural
communities in Northern Nigeria.

########  {#section-15}

######## **Table 5: Some indicators which have implications for gender equitable access to and participation in education services**

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

######## **Selected indicators: Male Female**

(%) (%)

Literacy rates in Nigeria 58 41

Literacy rates in Southwest Nigeria (SW) 74 55

Literacy rates in Southeast Nigeria (SE) 74 60

Literacy rates in Northwest Nigeria (NW) 40 22

Literacy rates in Northeast Nigeria (NE) 42 21

Primary school gross enrolment ratio 84 77

Primary school net attendance ratio 57 53

Primary school net attendance ratio (SW) 82 81

Primary school net attendance ratio (SE) 81 78

Primary school net attendance ratio (NW) 32 24

Primary school net attendance ratio (NE) 41 37

Primary school net attendance (urban) 74 70

######### Primary school net attendance (rural) 52 47

*Source: MICS 1999 (FOS/UNICEF, 2000)*

######## **Table 6: Some indicators which have implications for gender equitable participation and access to FP services**

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

######## **Selected indicators: Male Female** (%) (%)

Knowledge of contraceptive methods 83.4 64.4

Knowledge of contraceptive methods (SW) 93.8 87.2

Knowledge of contraceptive methods (SE) 93.4 81.6

Knowledge of contraceptive methods (NW) 72.0 42.2

Knowledge of contraceptive methods (NE) 61.4 35.4

Median age at first intercourse 20.3 17.8

Current use of contraceptive methods (married people) 31.8 15.3

Current use of contraceptive methods (uneducated) 12.0 6.0

Current use of contraceptive methods (primary school educ) 38.2 19.9

Current use of contraceptive methods (urban) 39.3 23.4

Current use of contraceptive methods (rural ) 28.9 12.0

######### Contact of female non-users with FP providers - 89.9

*Source: NDHS 1999 (National Population Council, 2000)*

What are the impediments to equitable participation and access to
educational and health services? Interviews and literature review
revealed several factors at the household, community and institutional
levels which serve as constraints to gender equitable participation (see
Table 4). These factors relate to areas in which USAID currently
operates and to some extent reflect contextualized experiences. For the
education sector, at the household level, the major negative factor
relates to attitudes about the relative worth of educating girls as
opposed to boys and attitudes to women generally. These in turn cause
biases in school enrolment, attendance, retention, early marriage, child
labour (mostly with girls hawking), ignorance/misperceptions and
illiteracy which tend to perpetuate the status quo. At the community
level, there is low involvement of women as teachers or as community
representatives in developing agenda for education, especially in rural
the North. This is because the entry points to several communities are
male dominated, there are more male teachers in public schools, the
school/class environment is not sufficiently gender sensitive. Table 7
summarizes some of these pertinent characteristics as reflected in the
observation of four schools in Kano that were visited during the field
trip undertaken in the course of this assessment:

**Table 7: Some pertinent characteristics of schools visited in Kano**

> ***[Schools Visited]{.underline}***

[1st 2nd 3^rd^ 4th]{.underline}

Type of school public public public Quar'anic

Location rural rural rural rural

Male/Female number in IRI class 54/13 48/11 9/1 -(more girls)

Male/Female ratio in IRI class 4:1 4:1 9:1 1:2

\# Male/Female teachers in the school 14/1 14/2 3/0 More males

Gender of master teacher Male Male Male Male

[No of girls in primary six 2 3 1 -\_\_\_\_]{.underline}

For the health sectors, socio-cultural impediments grounded in negative
attitude towards women serve as a key factor. Consequently, early or
forced marriage, early initiation to sex, rape, power relations between
teenage wife and older spouse, poverty, illiteracy and ignorance place
women at double disadvantage for access health services. Furthermore,
family/societal disapproval, community gate-keeping by males, and
misperceptions about gender roles and responsibilities in relation to
health matters serve as constraints.

At the institutional level (public and private) access to education and
health services is gendered because of unavailability of gender
disaggregated data, diffusion of responsibility arising from duplication
of efforts and inadequate dissemination and collaboration among
stakeholders. From interviews it was observed that many organizations
are aware of gender mainstreaming of activities, there is little
demonstration of understanding of the essence of the process.
Consequently, there is little sensitivity to gender constraints to
equitable services delivery and responsiveness to bring about positive
changes.

In general, the above discussion shows that in order to address the
gender-based constraints relevant to the education and health sectors,
the following category of people should be focused upon to maximize the
potential of the programs for both men and women:

-   Female teachers

-   Women's organizations, mothers teachers association (in situations
    where men and women are not encouraged to hold joint meetings with
    men), as

-   Community pressure groups to develop community educational/health
    agendas

-   Rural women, illiterate women, young (teenage) women, women in
    northern states (by most indicators, these women have been and
    continue to be disadvantaged in terms to services)

-   Urban, southern males

-   Program implementing organizations

Table 8 summarizes the gender constraints

+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## Ge                  | # | # | ## | # |   | ## Effects            |
| nder-based constraints | # | # |  R | # |   |                       |
|                        |   |   | ur |   |   |                       |
|                        | S | R | al | B |   |                       |
|                        | O | e |    | i |   |                       |
|                        |   | g | #  | a |   |                       |
|                        |   | i | #  | s |   |                       |
|                        |   | o | /u | e |   |                       |
|                        |   | n | rb | d |   |                       |
|                        |   |   | an |   |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | a |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | g |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | a |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | i |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | n |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | s |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | t |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   |   |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
|                        |   |   |    | # | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | # | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | F | M |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 1. Gender bias      | # | # | ## | # | # | ## Less               |
|  in school enrolment,  | # | # |  R | # | # | number of females to  |
|                        |   |   | ,  |   |   | benefit from services |
|                        | E | N | U  | X |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 1 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 6 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 2. Gender bia       | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Less number        |
| s in school attendance | # | # | #  | # | # | of females to benefit |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |                       |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 1 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 7 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 3. Gender dif       | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Less number        |
| ferential in retention | # | # | #  | # | # | of females to benefit |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |                       |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 1 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 8 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 4. Pre              | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Less               |
| ference for Qur'anic,  | # | # | #  | # | # | number of females to  |
| Islamiyyah or less for |   |   | R, |   |   | benefit from services |
| mal school arrangement | E | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 1 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 9 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 5. Child Labour     | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Less number        |
|                        | # | # | #  | # | # | of females to benefit |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |                       |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 2 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 0 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 6. More male teac   | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Absence            |
| hers in public schools | # | # | #  | # | # | of female role models |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |                       |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 2 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 1 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 7. More             | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Fewer female role  |
|  male master teachers  | # | # | #  | # | # |  models, gender insen |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   | sitivity in classroom |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 2 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 2 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 8. Insufficient qua | # | # | #  | # | # | ## L                  |
| lified female teachers | # | # | #  | # | # | ess number of females |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |  to benefit: gender i |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   | nsensitive school env |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { | ironment; reduced par |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # | ticipation of females |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |  in increasing demand |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |  for girls education. |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 2 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 3 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 9. Low inv          | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Inhibit women's    |
| olvement of women in c | # | # | #  | # | # | (community's) support |
| ommunity initiatives a |   |   | R, |   |   |  for increased demand |
| nd agenda development  | E | N |  U | X |   |  for girls' education |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 2 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 4 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 10. Poor phy        | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Environmen         |
| sical/environmental co | # | # | #  | # | # | t perceived to be les |
| nditions of the school |   |   | R, |   |   | s safe for girls part |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   | icularly in the north |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 2 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 5 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 11                  | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Less               |
| .Disabling Environment | # | # | #  | # | # | motivation for increa |
|  -- not sufficiently g |   |   | R, |   |   | sed GER, NER and rete |
| ender sensitive, frien | E | N |  U | X |   | ntion rates for girls |
| dly, or youth friendly | , | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 2 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 6 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 12. Poverty         | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Opportunit         |
|                        | # | # | #  | # | # | y costs for girls edu |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   | cation or seeking hea |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   | lth service is higher |
|                        | , | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 2 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 7 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 13. Illiteracy      | # | # | #  | # | # | ##  Dem               |
|                        | # | # | #  | # | # | and for education (pa |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   | rticularly for girls  |
|                        | E | N |  U | X | X | and health services i |
|                        | , | S |    |   |   | s low; lower CS rates |
|                        |   |   |    |   |   |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   |   |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ##                     | # | # | #  | # | # | ##                    |
|  14. Some intervention | # | # | #  | # | # |  Unequal opportunitie |
| s reinforce the status |   |   | R, |   |   | s and choices for mal |
|  of women (e.g., vocat | E | N |  U | X |   | es and females; femal |
| ional skills training) |   | S |    |   | { | es are exposed to low |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # | er paying occupations |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 2 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 8 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 15. Entry poi       | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Partic             |
| nts in many communitie | # | # | #  | # | # | ipation is higher amo |
| s are usually gendered |   |   | R, |   |   | ng men in the north a |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   | nd women in the south |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 2 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 9 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 16. Accessin        | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Participation      |
| g women is problematic | # | # | #  | # | # |  is lower among women |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |                       |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 3 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 0 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 17. Pe              | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Partic             |
| rceived contradictions | # | # | #  | # | # | ipation is higher amo |
|  with religious doctri |   |   | R, |   |   | ng men in the north a |
| nes and cultural norms | E | N |  U | X |   | nd women in the south |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 3 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 1 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 18. Mispercept      | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Partic             |
| ions about gender role | # | # | #  | # | # | ipation is higher amo |
| s and responsibilities |   |   | R, |   |   | ng men in the north a |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   | nd women in the south |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 3 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 2 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 19. Forced sex      | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Unprepare          |
|                        | # | # | #  | # | # | dness for FP services |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |                       |
|                        | H | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 3 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 3 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 20. Family          | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Deman              |
| /societal disapproval  | # | # | #  | # | # | d for services is low |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |                       |
|                        | H | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 3 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 4 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 21. Early mar       | # | # | #  | # | # | ##                    |
| riage/ Forced marriage | # | # | #  | # | # | Unpreparedness for FP |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |  services; ignorance  |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   | is high; exercise of  |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { | reproductive rights i |
|                        | H |   |    |   | # | s low; lower CS rates |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 3 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 5 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 22. Ignorance       | # | # | ## | # | # | ## Lo                 |
| /incorrect information | # | # |  R | # | # | w demand for services |
|                        |   |   |  U |   |   |                       |
|                        | H | N |    | X |   |                       |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 3 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 6 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ##                     | # | # | ## | # | # | ## Lo                 |
| 23. Missed opportunity | # | # |  R | # | # | w demand for services |
|  to motivate non-users |   |   | ,U |   |   |                       |
|                        | H | N |    | X |   |                       |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 3 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 7 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 24. Relevant implem | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Concer             |
| enting organizations n | # | # | #  | # | # | ns of the most vulner |
| ot sufficiently sensit |   |   | R, |   |   | able groups are not s |
| ive to the gender impl | E | N |  U | X |   | ufficiently addressed |
| ications of activities |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 3 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 8 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 25. Inadequa        | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Concer             |
| te/unavailability of r | # | # | #  | # | # | ns of the most vulner |
| eliable gender disaggr |   |   | R, |   |   | able groups are not s |
| egated reports or data | E | N |  U | X |   | ufficiently addressed |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 3 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 9 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 26. Alcoholism      | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Sexual abu         |
|                        | # | # | #  | # | # | se of women is higher |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |                       |
|                        | H | S |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 4 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 0 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 27                  | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Functions are fra  |
| . Diffusion of respons | # | # | #  | # | # | gmented; Lack of shar |
| ibility among the thre |   |   | R, |   |   | ed direction, up to d |
| e tiers of government  | E | N |  U | X |   | ate policies, strateg |
| and among different se |   | S |    |   | { | ies, and coordination |
| ctors within each tier | H |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 4 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 1 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 28. Poor d          | # | # | #  | # | # | ## No coordinate      |
| issemination of existi | # | # | #  | # | # | d efforts to address  |
| ng strategies and plan |   |   | R, |   |   | the concerns of the m |
|  of action (including  | E | N |  U | X | X | ost vulnerable groups |
| standards of practice) |   | S |    |   |   |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   |   |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+

## E (Education) H (Health) N (North) S (South) U (Urban) R(Rural) 

##  {#section-42}

## Potential Impacts of Proposed Strategic Approaches on the relative Status of men and women in Nigeria.

1.  Available literature has shown that (Interactive Radio Instruction
    (IRI) has the potential to improve educational quality and access
    for girls because it addresses obstacles to female participation. It
    is expected that literacy and numeracy scores of students in the
    targeted schools will improve. Consequently, more children will have
    access to quality education. However, there is a potential for
    significant gender disparity in favour of boys (particularly in the
    rural North) in terms of students reached and absence of female role
    models.

2.  Overall, through training of master teachers, teacher training and
    competence in literacy and numeracy would be improved in targeted
    states. This presents increased opportunity for pre-service training
    for primary school teachers and pupils' access to quality education
    in the targeted states. However, significant influence in the
    relative status of female teachers in terms of capacity building in
    the targeted Northern schools may not be achieved.

3.  Poverty level is high in Nigeria and education creates increased
    opportunities and choices for success. Data shows that the
    percentage of dropouts is higher for girls than boys. Consequently,
    equipping candidates, particularly young girls (who constitute a
    majority in vocational skills training in Kano and Lagos), with life
    skills in HIV/AIDs and conflict resolution education empowers them
    and reduces their vulnerability.

4.  In addition to providing young males and females with a new lease of
    life after dropping out of school, the formal and structured
    vocational training improves their levels of functional literacy and
    numeracy skills, thus increasing the scope for further skills
    development.

5.  In the skills training program for out-of-school youths, although
    acquisition of skills in traditional female-oriented trades may seem
    directly marketable, they reinforce subordinate roles of women and
    keep them in low paying jobs.

6.  The Community Participation approach incorporated into the programs
    has the potential to increase community level participation, develop
    a sense of ownership and build capacity to influence desired
    positive changes in education and health agendas consistent with the
    needs of the community. However, unless deliberate efforts are made
    to involve females, gender-biased and unrealistic agendas will
    result from male-dominated community groups mostly in Northern rural
    areas. No doubt, gender biased agendas would not adequately take
    care of the needs of every group in the community and would not
    effectively build on the strengths of the neglected group (women).

7.  Current strategies tend to benefit educated males and females who
    make use of community-based private and public health facilities,
    particularly in urban areas. It is expected that with this group,
    current strategies will increase awareness, demand for and access to
    services.

8.  Low levels of awareness and demand is characteristic of illiterate,
    poor rural, teenage women who have little access to media and health
    facilities. Although, women in seclusion, rural or poor women who
    are not likely to be exposed to clinic-based facility have the
    potential of being reached by traditional birth attendants, a
    concerted effort should me made to impact more on these groups of
    vulnerable women.

9.  Women and men in the targeted areas are able to have increased
    access to FP/RH and CS services. Furthermore supply of FP services
    would improve such that more women and men can obtain their desired
    FP method.

10. Increasing male involvement especially in the south, has the
    potential to increase spousal cooperation particularly if men and
    women are targeted as couples.

11. Equipped with knowledge of opportunities and choices available to
    them, women (particularly literate urban women) are empowered to
    exercise their rights and make decisions that will impinge
    positively on their health and those of their children. The
    potential impact will be maximised if several groups of seemingly
    difficult groups such as women's religious groups and
    representatives of young females are targeted.

#  {#section-43}

# [Recommendations: strategies/approaches to enhance participation and access:]{.underline}

#  {#section-44}

# The relevant strategies and approaches USAID/Nigeria can use to enhance the accessibility and equitability of its programs to men and women are being suggested within the framework of the proposed CSP largely for budgetary considerations. 

*Education*

1.  Activities aimed at increasing access to quality services in schools
    should include

    -   Training of female primary school teachers to build capacity in
        effective teaching of numeracy and literacy skills, particularly
        in the northern sites. This can be achieved though increased
        involvement of female teachers in masters training for IRI and
        supporting pre-service training in Women teachers colleges.

    -   Pre-service and in-service training programs should incorporate
        training in gender sensitivity in order to encourage female
        school retention and help schools better achieve their
        curriculum objective.

    -   Periodical review of the scripts and materials (script analysis)
        to ensure that they are not gender-biased in terms of language,
        images of work and family life etc.

2.  In the new program framework, activities to demand for services
    should incorporate

-   Increased involvement of women (as parents, community facilitators
    and teachers) in community education agenda development and
    advocacy.

-   Publicity campaigns to increase female enrolment, retention and
    completion especially in public schools in Northern Nigeria.
    Previous TS strategies may be enhanced by actively involving female
    community facilitators, female teachers, women-based CBOs and
    religious institutions.

-   Activities to enable youths undergoing skills acquisition training
    to transcend the barriers of low-paying traditional female-dominated
    jobs.

3.  Social sector policy support activities will benefit both men and
    women if governmental efforts to mainstream gender into education
    policies are provided with technical support and capacity building
    of gender desk officers in various sectors.

4.  Support improved policy and curriculum reforms in pre-service and
    in-service training and link between primary and tertiary
    institutions.

5.  Promote national literacy program/campaign.

> *Health*

6.  NDHS 1999 report shows that 15% of women used any method of
    contraceptives. Also, while the level of missed opportunity to
    motivate non-users was high, 90% did not have any contact with FP
    providers. Therefore activities under the CSP should continue to
    target women through community- based organizations (CBOs) and
    health providers. Attempts to increase demand for FP/RH and CS
    services through improvement in knowledge and skills should also
    target

-   Women (and their children) in seclusion, rural, poor and illiterate
    women particularly in the north.

-   Sexually active adolescents in urban centres

-   Religious institutions (through building partnerships and advocacy).
    The NDHS survey shows that only 2.3% of male and female respondents
    indicated that they were neither Christians nor Muslims. Islam and
    the Catholic church have strong influences in the north and
    southeast respectively. For example, a respondent at the catholic
    secretariat noted thus "We pride ourselves on the fact that we have
    grassroots' presence in terms of our structures in every corner in
    this country". Some IPs under the current transitional programmes
    have made inroads into religious institutions and clinics. Increased
    involvement of women and men through religious-based groups and
    support of leaders, can clear misconceptions about contradictions
    with religion and women and men's religiously prescribed roles. It
    also has the potential of enhancing spousal communications.

7.  There are several organizations (public and private) with
    overlapping interests working in similar communities and with
    similar CBOs. The effect is a tendency to recycle the same community
    members through for several programs to the disadvantage of others.
    Efforts should be made to strengthen public/private collaboration in
    drawing up agendas to cover the concerns of different community
    groups. Through regular and open communication and cooperative
    planning, such collaboration would be mutually reinforcing and
    should leverage on other donor activities rather than duplicate
    efforts and resources. This calls for a multi-sectorial and
    multi-agency approach to maximize the benefits of USAID programs and
    activities.

8.  Leverage on men's high involvement in reproductive health in the
    north and low levels of utilization of reproductive health services
    in the south by increasing male involvement in promoting support for
    women's reproductive rights and utilisation of health services by
    women.

9.  Strengthen IPs, NGOs, government and communities to be accountable
    in terms of being able to provide gender disaggregated report and
    impact assessment . This would enable them create gender sensitive
    management systems and effectively mainstream gender into the
    programmes. (This is applicable to both SOs).

#  {#section-45}

# Governmental policies and programs and opportunities for collaboration between USAID and GON 

Governmental policies and programs that are geared towards improving
gender equity in education include:

-   National Policy on Education (1981, 1985, 1998)

-   Achievement of universal primary education which was later extended
    in 1999 to achievement of universal access to basic education (UBE)
    (up to junior secondary education) ; Basic Education For All

-   The 1992 National Program of Action on Survival, Protection and
    Development of the Nigerian Child (NPA) aimed to achieve 100%
    enrolment and completion rate in primary education. Furthermore, it
    aims to reduce illiteracy rate among adult females from an estimated
    61% to 30.5% by year 2000

-   The National policy on Women (2000)

-   

Activities and programs to provide education for disadvantaged females
and males include:

-   Marketplace workshops for drop-outs

-   Meeting of all inter-ministerial sectors on women's issues

-   Girls' education movement

-   Nomadic education

-   Mass Literacy Programs

**In the health sector, policies and activities include**

-   National Food and Nutrition Policy (1995)

-   National Program of action on Food and Nutrition

-   National Population Policy for Development, Unity, Progress and Self
    Reliance (1988)

-   Breastfeeding Policy (1994)

-   National Policy on Women (2000)

-   Supporting child rights through the National Council of Child Rights
    Advocates of Nigeria

-   Female Functional Literacy for Health

-   National Program on Immunization

-   National Adolescent Health Policy (1995)

-   Maternal and Child Health Policy (1994)

-   National Health Policy and Strategy (1998)

-   Draft National Policy on Children (2002)

From discussions with various stakeholders, it was observed that more
effective and concrete collaboration between the GON and USAID is
necessary and desirable for a more effective impact of programs. Yet
such collaboration seem problematic. As one of the interviewees
observed:

" Who will drive the process of collaboration between IPs and the
government? IPs try to collaborate but it is difficult. The
collaboration is just on paper."

Areas of collaboration between USAID and government of Nigeria should
include

#  {#section-46}

## Strengthening of information-sharing and collaboration in service delivery between government and NGOs

## Strengthening of interagency gender desk officers to mainstream gender into policies and programs, monitor implementation and evaluation. 

## Strengthen government to be accountable by providing technical support for sustained gender disaggregated data collection, management and efficient use for policy reforms and intervention.

# Gender issues that have the greatest impact on Nigeria's economic development: 

##  {#section-47}

##  {#section-48}

## Interviews conducted during the course of this assessment and literature emphasize the significance of improved access to strategic resources as the greatest gender issue that has the potential for significant economic and human development. Despite some level of success achieved by some NGOs and Community Partners of Health in reaching target groups, there are obstacles to achieving intended results because of constraints in providing assistance for income generation. A CPH group observed:

##  {#section-49}

## "We are concerned about income generating activities. How do we train our women /youths to empower them economically? "

No doubt, an integrated and streamlined approach proposed in the CSP for
2004-2009 has the potential to engender sustainable development if it
focuses on increasing access to strategic resources in terms of
education, skills (income) and decision-making. Women being the most
disadvantaged. This stresses the potential multiplier effects of
education and associated economic empowerment for the socio-economic
development of Nigeria. If viewed from a whole systems' perspective, the
interrelation of education with environmental, economic, political and
socio-cultural issues become clearer and justifies a more holistic
approach to project planning. Therefore, future programs should create
links between the SOs not only to avoid duplication but to strengthen
program outcomes from the planning stage.

**SO 14: EXPANDED RESPONSE TO HIV/AIDS AND TUBERCULOSIS**

**The USAID Response to the HIV/AIDS Epidemic in Nigeria:**

Nigeria's health indicators are among the worst in West Africa. Nigeria
is also the country with the highest burden of HIV/AIDS in the region.
In an extremely short period, almost 10 years, the prevalence rates
estimated at 1.8% in 1992 have progressed rapidly to about 5.8% and from
high risk groups to the general population. Information gathered in
various reports and from official statistics indicate a large consensus
amongst stakeholders about the severity of the infection. The POLICY
Project, in collaboration with the Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH),
estimates that 3.5 million adults are currently living with HIV. In
2001, Nigeria was ranked third by UNAIDS, after South Africa and
Ethiopia, of nations in Africa with the largest number of HIV infected
people.

The mode of HIV transmission is predominantly heterosexual and
mother-to-child, although transmission from blood transfusion also
appears to be high. According to the POLICY Project, a combination of
many forces is driving this epidemic, including, fear, stigma,
multi-partnering, gender inequity, religious and cultural practices,
ignorance, and poverty. All these factors create an environment
conducive to risky behaviors affecting overall health indicators in all
regions and states of Nigeria.

The USAID Mission is sensitive to the enormous challenges of HIV/AIDS
issues facing Nigeria. To date, USAID is one of the single largest
partners and donors in supporting HIV and Sexually Transmitted
Infections (STI) interventions in Nigeria. During the interval, USAID
spent over US\$100,000 on HIV/AIDS and STI activities with additional
input through other programs managed by Centers for Disease Control
(CDC) and the Academy for Educational Development (AED).

Since 1999, following the commitment of the new, popularly elected,
civilian government, , USAID/Nigeria created Strategic Objective SO4, to
assist Nigeria in its transition to economic, social and political
stability. SO4 links reproductive health, maternal and child health,
sexually transmitted infections, and HIV/AIDS interventions. SO4 is
defined as follows:

**SO4: Increased use of family planning/maternal and child health/ Child
survival / sexually transmitted infections/ HIV/AIDS services and
preventive measures within a supportive environment.**

In 2002, recognizing the signs of increasing government and civil
society concerns about the epidemic, especially among faith-based
organizations and the business community, the Mission expressed its
willingness to earmark funds for on a new expanded HIV/AIDS control
program.

Five main policy decisions appear in the new Concept Strategic Framework
for the period 2004-2009:

-   Creating a new separate Strategic Objective for HIV/AIDS, linking
    HIV/AIDS with tuberculosis; Pulmonary Tuberculosis (PTB) is one the
    most frequent opportunistic infections among AIDS patients.

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-   Targeting high risk prevalence groups (sex workers, transport
    workers, People Living With HIV/AIDS\-- PLWHA).

-   Focusing on regions/states with the greatest needs and potential
    impact.

-   Building the capacity of NGOs and CBOs (community-based
    organizations) with greater capability to develop and implement
    effective HIV/AIDS programs.

-   Under its programmatic objectives: increasing knowledge and behavior
    change vis-à-vis HIV and increasing access to quality services.
    Improving government support for HIV/AIDS policy remains the
    cornerstone of activities to achieve the efforts to stabilize the
    AIDS epidemic.

**The Challenges Ahead:**

As is the case in many other developing countries facing the AIDS
epidemic, the true magnitude of the epidemic in Nigeria is unknown. This
is due to the weakness of the health surveillance system, a lack of
reporting, and the effect of hidden cases. Consequently, sentinel survey
data and projections are used from a modeling package to project a trend
of the epidemic over time.

In 1991, the FMOH conducted the first sentinel sero-prevalence survey in
Nigeria. In this survey, and the subsequent ones conducted in 1993,
1999, and 2001, the populations selected to estimate HIV sero-prevalence
were pregnant women attending antenatal clinics (ANCs), patients with
sexually transmitted infections (STIs), patients with TB, and female sex
workers (FSWs). These surveys show an increase in HIV infection in
Nigeria: from 1.8 percent in 1991 to 3.8 percent in 1995, to 5.4 percent
in 1999, and 5.8 percent in 2001.

**Regional and States Variations of HIV Prevalence Rates**

Prevalence rates vary from one geopolitical region to another. Large
variations were observed among the "hot spot" states: Eboni (9.3%),
Lagos (6.7%), Kaduna (11.6%), Benue (16.8%), Taraba (5.5%), and Akwa
Ibon (12.5%).

**Variations of HIV Prevalence Rates by Age and Sex**

The HIV survey of 1999 also demonstrated that the greatest impact of HIV
was on young age cohorts; the prevalence rate among youth (20-24) from
the Southeast to the Southwest were 8.4 percent to 4.3 percent
respectively. While in the state of Eboni rates over 10 percent were
found. Females apparently are more vulnerable than males.

As recognized by many experts, the spread of HIV/AIDS has been greatly
influenced by socio-economic and structural factors including poverty,
urban migration, unemployment, gender inequity and factors outside the
control of the individual. In Nigeria, as in the majority of West
African countries, there are many factors that contribute to the
increasing rate of HIV prevalence, such as poverty, gender
disempowerment, social and financial inequality, STIs, social and
religious norms, and political and social change (e.g., labor migration
and ignorance). These factors not only increase the risk of contracting
of HIV, TB, and STIs by increasing vulnerability of the individual, but
also affect the demand for prevention services and adoption of
preventives measures.

According to the 1999 National Demographic Health Survey (NDHS), the
median age at first marriage was 17.9 years (ranging from 14.6 years in
the Northwest to 20.2 years in the Southwest). The NDHS survey reported
8.3% of males 15-19 have had sex by the age of 15 and 16.2% of girls in
the same age group also had sex by the age of 15..

From documentation as well as interviews with health providers and
health managers, data clearly indicate that women, especially girls, are
the ones that suffer the burden of the HIV/AIDS epidemic and its
consequences. However, women and girls have the least amount of access
to services that could prevent them from being infected or from being
stigmatized.

The poor reproductive health status of adolescent Nigerians is due to a
lack of awareness and knowledge of relevant issues among young people,
limited access to services and credible sources of information.

With respect to both reproductive health and HIV/AIDS, a large number of
cultural and religious practices are widely present in Nigeria's
population, and seem to be the strongest driving force of the HIV/AIDS
epidemic among females.

Table 9 is a mapping of gender problems, their impact on males and/or
females, and their effect on reproductive health and HIV/AIDS.

## Table 9

**CRITICAL GENDER- BASED PROBLEMS BY AREAS AND EFFECTS**

+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| *Critical gender-based  | *  | >   |       | *Effects*             |
| problems identified*    | Ar | *To |       |                       |
|                         | ea | > w |       |                       |
|                         | s* | hom |       |                       |
|                         |    | >   |       |                       |
|                         |    |  it |       |                       |
|                         |    | >   |       |                       |
|                         |    |  is |       |                       |
|                         |    | >   |       |                       |
|                         |    | har |       |                       |
|                         |    | mfu |       |                       |
|                         |    | l?* |       |                       |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
|                         |    | M   | F     |                       |
|                         |    | ale | emale |                       |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| *Reproductive Health,   |    |     |       |                       |
| HIV/AIDS related*       |    |     |       |                       |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 1\. Early and forced    | N  |     |       | Teenage pregnancy,    |
| marriage                |    |     |       | psycho-organic        |
|                         |    |     |       | disorders             |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 2\. Widowhood rights    | S  |     | X     | Disempowerment of     |
| and inheritance rights  |    |     |       | women, making women   |
|                         |    |     |       | vulnerable            |
|                         |    |     |       | economically and at   |
|                         |    |     |       | risk for being        |
|                         |    |     |       | infected by HIV       |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 3\. Permission from     | N  |     | X     | Same as above         |
| sexual partner to use   | ,S |     |       |                       |
| contraceptives          |    |     |       |                       |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 4\. Female genital      | S  |     | X     | Disempowerment of     |
| mutilation (FGM)        |    |     |       | women, violation of   |
|                         |    |     |       | women's human rights  |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 5\. Intolerance, denial | N  | X   | X     | MSM's do not have     |
| towards men having sex  | ,S |     |       | access to health      |
| with men (MSM)          |    |     |       | services and this     |
|                         |    |     |       | increases the         |
|                         |    |     |       | vulnerability of      |
|                         |    |     |       | women to being        |
|                         |    |     |       | infected in bisexual  |
|                         |    |     |       | relationship          |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 6\. Male circumcision   | N  | X   |       | Measures protective   |
|                         |    |     |       | for men against       |
|                         |    |     |       | HIV/AIDS and STIs     |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 7\. Decision-making to  | N  |     | X     | Women are unable to   |
| negotiate safe sex      | ,S |     |       | protect themselves    |
|                         |    |     |       | against HIV/AIDS,     |
|                         |    |     |       | STIs and unwanted     |
|                         |    |     |       | pregnancies.          |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 8\. Domestic sexual     | S  |     |       | Women are             |
| violence                |    |     |       | stigmatized,          |
|                         |    |     |       | increased risk for    |
|                         |    |     |       | STIs and HIV          |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 9\. Being blamed if     | S  |     | X     | Same as above         |
| raped or sexually       |    |     |       |                       |
| abused                  |    |     |       |                       |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 10\. Double standard on | N  |     | X     | Women and their       |
| having multiple sex     | ,S |     |       | offspring at risk for |
| partners                |    |     |       | being infected by     |
|                         |    |     |       | STIs and HIV          |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 11\. Spouses            | N  |     | X     | Increases risk of     |
| hospitality             | ,S |     |       | women to being        |
|                         |    |     |       | infected by HIV &     |
|                         |    |     |       | STIs, decreases self  |
|                         |    |     |       | esteem of women       |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 12\. Woman in Purdah    | N  |     | X     | Deprivation, women    |
|                         |    |     |       | having no access to   |
|                         |    |     |       | services              |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 13\. Female             | S  |     | X     | Spreading HIV and STI |
| prostitution            |    |     |       | amongst the general   |
| permissible             |    |     |       | population            |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+

Source: E. Génécé & Gender assessment team, Feb.2003

From interviews conducted with stakeholders and donors, twenty--nine
gender-based problems were identified and thirteen of these affect the
well-being of women and girls and create conditions that expose them
widely to HIV/AIDS, STIs and TB. Gender inequity affects the
reproductive health and HIV/AIDS programming in many ways:

-   In some places, especially in the North, early and forced child
    marriage is very common resulting in high mortality, genital fistula
    and risks of HIV and STIs;

-   The male child is preferred to the female child resulting in
    de-investment in women;

-   Widowhood rites and inheritance rights lead to disempowerment of
    women, increasing their risk;

-   Permission from sexual partner to use contraceptives;

-   Decision-making to negotiate safe sex is not a right for women;

-   Domestic sexual violence such as rape and sexual exploitation is
    widely prevalent;

-   Being stigmatized or blamed if raped or sexually abused women keep
    silent and look for care;

-   Double standard on having multiple sex partners acceptable for men
    and not for women;

-   Chastity before marriage is recommended for females and not for
    males;

-   *Sharia* law which implies physical violence to men suspected of
    adultery; and

-   Spouses' hospitality (regional practices) may encourage men exposing
    their wife to HIV infection and STIs.

In addition to these issues, sexual exploitation, especially of young
girls, is widespread in schools and the workplace. By the age of 16, the
majority of young girls live in dormitories while attending secondary
school, away from the supervision of their parents and exposed to
solicitation by older men.

According to the *National Study of Sexual Exploitation of Children*
conducted in 2001 by the Federal Ministry of Women's Affairs and Youth
Development, two out of five secondary school children **(girls??)**
interviewed admitted to at least one pregnancy. Over 900,000 births to
adolescents occur every year. Approximately 150 out of 1,000 women who
give birth in Nigeria are 19 years old or younger. So the danger is
extremely high for the girl child to have an unwanted pregnancy as to be
infected by HIV/AIDS and STI

Tony Barnett and Alan Whiteside, in *AIDS in the Twenty-first Century*,
report that, based on a study in Nigeria (EDET 1997), a woman may end up
having three sex partners at the same time to make her way through
University: her teacher (to ensure good marks); a 'sugar daddy' to pay
her fees and living expenses; and her boyfriend.

Women also experience unequal social roles and vulnerability compared to
men. The ratio of male to female, which is by now one to one (1:1),
demonstrates the way in which gender inequity affects the incidence
rates of HIV, STIs and TB among women. Therefore, correcting gender
imbalances is a MUST if we want to control the coming wave of the AIDS
epidemic in Nigeria; it will depend upon improving women's social and
economic status as well as increasing men's responsibility.

**Activities of Implementing Partners (IP) Under SO4**

Under SO4, USAID/Nigeria's HIV/AIDS program is being implemented by
eight different US-based development PVOs and for-profits. The size and
the characteristics of their programs cover a large spectrum of
activities from prevention, care and support to capacity building to
distribution of commodities.

**Family Health International (FHI)/IMPACT**

For the period 1999-2001, IMPACT received the largest funding from the
Mission, over \$12 million for HIV/AIDS. FHI's activities, targeting
four states in Nigeria, provide a comprehensive program including BCC,
VCT program, OVC, behavioral surveillance surveys, STI treatment, and
capacity building. High risk populations, specifically sex workers, long
distance drivers, military personnel, and in and out of school youths
are targeted for prevention activities and behavior change. FHI/IMPACT
is also involved in limited care and support programs for orphans and
PLWHAs.

**BASICS II**

BASICS II is working on child survival (CS), including routine
immunization, nutrition and malaria. Through a community-based approach
called CAPA (Catchments Areas for Planning Action), BASICS II is
involved in strengthening community members' awareness of childhood
illnesses and creating demand for services. BASICS II has also built the
capacity of primary health clinics to respond to increased demand for
services. Currently, BASICS II is working in three states: Southeast,
Southwest and the North. Twenty-two local governments (LFA) are being
targeted for interventions and almost 157 CAPAs are functional. In the
South, the male/female ratio is about 6:4 while in the North, it is
predominantly male.

**CEDPA/Nigeria and Africare**

CEDPA's integrated health program for about \$1.8 million addresses
issues of reproductive health, family planning, HIV/AIDS and women's
empowerment through a community-based approach and capacity building at
the grass roots level. It also focuses on facilitating Democracy and
Governance (D/G) programs to empower women.

The two pronged family planning/reproductive health services and D/G
approach seems to work well according to Dr. Nneeka, a senior advisor at
CEDPA; there appears to be synergy between the two.

CEDPA has also been engaged in implementing D/G projects by building the
capacity of civil society, specifically women in development and the
political processes that affect their lives. In this process, CEDPA
operates through partner organizations and grassroots CBOs working on
reproductive health. CEDPA is also providing support on micro- credit
management, social mobilization and community empowerment. A new program
named "PACE" is underway to support greater advancement of women's
participation in the political process. This organization has built up a
wealth of experience in this field. These lessons learned could be a
valuable resource. It is hoped that the Mission will continue to support
and scale- up their best practices.

**Johns Hopkins University/Center for Communications Programs
(JHU/CPP)**

JHU/CPP, in collaboration with the Nigerian Youth Empowerment Foundation
and a network of youth serving organizations in Lagos, has developed a
communication intervention through a Hotline referral system for youth
and young adults. The hotline provides information, confidential
counseling and testing, and related reproductive health issues. The
project also enhances the capacity of youth organizations in
communication skills.

This project is very promising; it could be a perfect channel to target
the hard-to-reach groups such as the PLWHAs, MSMs, drug users and women
victims of sexual abuse. It provides an avenue to learn and discuss "hot
issues", but the coverage of the program is low compared to the
population targeted. A similar experience, the "Blue Line" developed by
the Foundation Promoters Objective Zero-AIDS in Haiti receives over
1,000 calls a month. This hotline has been in operation since May 1998.
There is room for exchange experiences between the two organizations.

**Futures Group International/The POLICY Project**

The POLICY Project, a \$2.2 million activity for 2001-2002, is being
implemented by the Futures Group International. Its aim is to work
primarily at developing a supportive policy environment for HIV/AIDS
programs that facilitate the national response to the epidemic. This
program has been successfully building a very large momentum by creating
awareness and changing attitudes amongst stakeholders.

**AIDSMARK**

The AIDS Social Marketing Project received \$4.5 million for 1999-2001.
Working in collaboration with local partners, PSI/SFH uses a behavior
change communication model to create national demand for condoms and
other HIV/AIDS and reproductive health services. This intervention is
jointly funded by the British Department for International Development
(DFID) and USAID. It is an interesting community-based model aimed at
reaching high risk and non-core groups.

CDC and AED have recently started their interventions. Their activities
cover a wide scope domain which includes: training of providers, peer
education, and building-up the capacity of health facilities and
workplaces**.**

**Major Findings**

1.  In the past two years (2000-2002) a large momentum and spectrum of
    activities have been implemented under the USAID funded program for
    addressing the HIV crisis in Nigeria. SO4's major achievements
    include a successful social marketing program with a 105 million
    condoms sold in FY 2001; development of the Catholic Church's
    national Policy; an awareness campaign reaching 3 million people;
    increasing the capacity of 60 local NGOs; and provision of ongoing
    care and support for PLWHAs. The HIV/AIDS EMERGENCY Action Plan
    (HEAP) framework has clearly been a catalyst in that momentum.
    Although HEAP has its own limitations as a short-term emergency plan
    with good intentions, there remains a need for the country to go
    through a systematic process of designing a national strategic plan.
    Such a process would provide a good opportunity to check and balance
    the gender roles affecting the HIVAIDS epidemic.

2.  Data from various Nigerian behavioral surveys and studies have shown
    an increasing level of awareness of AIDS in almost all groups, but
    still the level of knowledge and risk perception is quite low and
    not sufficient to create a supportive critical mass conducive to the
    adoption of safer behavior. There are also numerous beliefs,
    inaccuracies and myths that could be counter-productive to the IEC
    efforts. In addition, denial, stigma and discrimination, which are
    very strong in parts of the country, pose additional challenges for
    the IEC strategy. Another observation drawn from interviews
    indicates as much as IP as much you have IEC strategy. NACA is aware
    of this issue and a working group has been set up.

3.  Data collected from various sentinel surveys indicate an increasing
    HIV prevalence rate among women and youth. This trend of the
    epidemic, named feminization and "juvenization", calls for more
    attention from health planners because women and youth represent
    large segments of the total population of Nigeria. Yet in Nigeria,
    gender issues and traditional values place women, especially girls,
    in a more vulnerable situation. Targeted interventions for youth and
    women need to be gender --sensitive so that they can respond to the
    range of gender problems faced by girls and women.

4.  Targeting high risk prevalence groups, especially sex workers and
    their clients, is an appropriate and rational intervention.
    Commercial sex work is very commonplace in Nigeria, occurring in
    brothels, residential areas and on the streets. It is prevalent in
    all cities, especially at junction towns where the long distance
    truck drivers stop overnight. Although the actual number of
    prostitutes is unknown, the stakeholders in Nigeria who were
    consulted believe that it is increasing because of the difficulties
    females face in finding ways to earn a livelihood. The majority of
    them practice non-safe sex (over 50 %) and risk perception is low in
    spite of high risk sexual activities.

> There seems to have been a substantial amount of lessons learned from
> female sex workers. On June 6, 2002 organizations with programs in
> this area of health work shared information. The organizations that
> participated in the workshop were: NACAA, USAID, DFID, FHI, PSI/SFH,
> ActionAID, LATH, LifeLINK, SWANN, MSF, and WHED. Again the opportunity
> is at hand to draw a comprehensive behavior change strategy that could
> scale-up in the new expanded USAID program.
>
> In our interviews with stakeholders, two other groups from the larger
> population were identified as eligible for inclusion in the next
> program cycle: men having sex with men-for which no actual data are
> available- and intravenous drug users.

5.  Stigma and discrimination are very strong issues in Nigeria; as
    strong as religious and/or moral beliefs. People with HIV/AIDS are
    often thought to be responsible for having contracted HIV/AIDS
    because of a moral fault and/or sexual promiscuity. A 2001 study,
    conducted by the Centre for the Rights to Health (CRH) in
    collaboration with the POLICY project, shows that the majority of
    HIV infected individuals learned of their HIV status during an
    illness or in the course. In essence, they did not benefit from
    pre-counseling and post counseling or support that would help them
    cope with the disease. Two main advocacy groups lead the fight for
    "breaking the silence" and greater participation of PLWHAs: the
    Nigeria AIDS Alliances which has 300 registered members and the
    Women and Children for Hope which is more focused on empowering
    women living with AIDS.

6.  Blood supply safety in the context of the AIDS epidemic in many
    countries is the first line of prevention measure against
    transmission of HIV. During the 1990s, the Government of Nigeria put
    a lot effort into overcoming this problem but lack of political will
    from the past military rule as well as lack of resources, stopped
    the momentum. Nigeria, and now the focus on the major prevention
    overshadow the efforts to assist the Ministry of Health to increase
    its capacity to provide safe blood supply to the Nigerian people.
    Blood screening is barely done and the health system continues to
    use paid blood donors. Women and children are the two most
    vulnerable groups who receive blood transfusion. For the sake of
    protecting them against HIV, there is room for updating information,
    policy development, and capacity-building. World Bank Assistance
    could provide funding for this component.

7.  PTB is the most frequent opportunistic infection occurring among HIV
    patients. FMOH reported that one third (35%) of PTB patients seen
    during a survey at country level were HIV positive. Comparable rates
    of HIV infection among male and female PTB patients were reported.
    Also, available data from the same survey indicate a large
    proportion of STI patients are also infected with HIV. Nation-wide,
    HIV testing is not performed for TB patients. The consultant had no
    information about the existence of guidelines for HIV TB
    co-infection care management or the wide application of DOTS in
    primary health care facilities system in Nigeria.

**Recommendations:**

Assuming the political climate remains stable during the coming
elections and given the willingness of the Mission to expand their HIV
program to targeting and focusing on high prevalence groups, increased
use of preventive measures, the vulnerability of women and young girls
for getting infected by HIV, it will be necessary for the Mission to
consider correcting gender imbalances which are strongly disadvantaging
women and girls.

1.  ***Make women and girls the center of HIV/AIDS interventions and men
    as supporters***. Increasing men's awareness and responsibility
    regarding the consequences of gender inequities for both sexes and
    consideration for men to invest in their own health related to TB,
    STI and HIV. Tuberculosis is an airborne disease and curable could
    be transmitted between both, STI is asymptomatic among women and
    HIV.

2.  ***Strategize the VCT approach to reach both men and women.*** VCT
    strategy could be an open avenue to get both men and women to be
    part of prevention measures for their offspring and themselves.
    Creating incentives for both female and male partners to access
    counseling support and prevention information.

3.  ***Increase women's empowerment. .***Increase the economic and human
    rights of women through linkage of D/G with reproductive health and
    micro credit programs. This model, which is being implemented by
    CEDPA, seems very promising in improving the demand for reproductive
    health services among women and men.

4.  Are there traditional gender practices where women have comparative
    advantages compared to men? Conduct research studies on gender
    issues in traditional practices where women have comparatives
    advantages. Explore the channels (to whom, where ) and best ways to
    reinforce and build up women's capacity to promote and change their
    social status. CIDA is willing to collaborate in such ventures

5.  ***Extensive training on gender issues at all level***. Training the
    network and NGOs/CBOs in gender-based interventions. This type of
    training also needs to be extended to senior level officials at both
    public and private institutions.

6.  ***Reaching MSMs as a potential and underground high risks
    groups.*** Advocate for wider tolerance of MSM. Reaching MSMs should
    be considered in the new program. More information needs to be
    collected and analyzed, and peer training and outreach interventions
    can be developed with the objective of reaching sexually active men.

7.  ***National services for Youth***. Youth national services is a good
    way to reach the youth, especially in a situation where they are
    more vulnerable to acquiring HIV/AIDS and STIs. UNICEF has already
    started by securing hours for sensitizing youth on HIV/AIDS and
    sexuality. Given the opportunity and the huge demand for national
    services from the Ministry of Education, IPs will have to look for
    collaboration to include gender training in these services.
    Engenderhealth, SMF, CEDPA and ACTION AID are working along these
    lines. More collaboration and mechanisms to look at specificities of
    the regional context are needed.

8.  ***Improve sexual communication and negotiation skills for boys and
    girls***. Continuing to create a supportive environment to improve
    sexual communications and negotiation skills among girls and boys in
    school and out of school is an effective way to decrease their
    vulnerability to contracting HIV. Regional variations between the
    North and the Southern regions are among the challenges that the new
    program will face.

9.  ***TB/HIV Linkages***

> Linkages between PTB and HIV have increasing cost implications that
> need to be considered. In such linkages, one needs to look at all
> aspects of strengthening for effective HIV/TB and STI interventions,
> including:.

-   Improving existing TB services so that both women and men have
    better access to these services;

-   Designing TB control activities within HIV services and upgrading
    laboratories;

-   Establishing HIV services in TB clinics;

-   Developing protocols for treating HIV related TB as others OI.
    Implications for using best practices (DOTS-HAART) requires
    anti-retroviral drugs; and

-   Training for personnel on equipment and protocols at all levels.

# V. SYNERGIES AMONG SOs AND COLLABORATION WITH OTHER-

**DONOR PARTNERS AND THE GOVERNMENT OF NIGERIA**

It is useful to recall here the underlying vision of the Country
Strategic Plan:

"If the 2003 elections produce a generally accepted government, the
combined impact of a lower perceived risk of democratic reversal and the
increased political space and competition that is already emerging in
the run-up to the elections is expected to promote new momentum toward
not simply maintaining a nominal democracy, but making democratic
government work better through more effective civil advocacy and more
transparent and accountable government institutions. This is the vision
for the next five years of USAID's work in Nigeria....To achieve this
vision, the Mission proposes a strategy that focuses on improved
governance and greater participation---the two sides of the
accountability equation---as well s management of conflicts (deploying
mechanisms by which disputes can be resolved without recourse to
violence). In promoting these objectives, both government institutions
and civil society will be assisted".

Hopefully, by this point in the Assessment Report, the most apparent
synergies between and among the proposed new SOs have become clear,
though perhaps not highlighted as such. Thus, as was mentioned in
Section III, the five cross-cutting issues\--plus gender
mainstreaming\--by their nature allow for significant synergies across
the entire results framework and underlying strategy. As was also noted
in the same section and elsewhere, many of these cross-cutting themes
are already embedded in the individual SOs. Thus, civil society
participation cross-cuts all, but is particularly apparent in SO11, 12,
and 14 in terms of activities already envisaged by the Mission as
building blocks from the transition strategy period. Further, activities
proposed for the new SO13 above similarly emphasize civil society
participative approaches. In all instances, the concern to renew or
create or strengthen the elements of a civil and civilian society at
each of the geopolitical levels is quite clear. What may be less obvious
is how overlaps and gaps will be avoided since everyone at the Mission
level, understands that this is the case.

That is, what may happen is that in developing each SO's results
framework. targets and activities, each team may run the risk of either
duplicating the cross-cutting thematic elements of its respective
activities, or of assuming that these are being covered by another SO
team's activities that will affect the anticipated beneficiaries of the
other teams' activities. Ultimately, the Program Office and other Senior
Management will have to insure that in the end product and subsequent
processes, this will not happen. As a new PMP is developed, there is an
additional opportunity to ensure synergies in indicators, and related
data collection for monitoring and evaluation purposes.

A greater risk is that IPs under specific SOs---both international and
Nigerian---will remain unaware of what the others are doing,
particularly under the other SOs. This is commonplace, and has been
noted in the Sections above. In part, during the transition period, this
may have been a kind of purposive redundancy in the system to make sure
that all beneficiaries in the USAID's geographical and geopolitical
areas of emphasis were covered by a particular theme or IR. A good
example would be outreach and awareness building about democratic
processes and participation among women and men. This is not
particularly a problem, especially at the beginning of an era of
civilian rule and institution building after a long period of
non-participatory and discriminatory military rule.

What is more risky and more probable, however, is that media messages
and other incentives toward significant behavior change may be mutually
contradictory both in regard to their respective substantive or
technical content and to their respective gender "dimension". This was
observed by the team during its field visit and literature review, but
it is also commonplace elsewhere. Ideally, market research would be
carried out---perhaps in connection with Gendered Social Impact
Analysis---together by IPs working in the same physical area, or
targeting similar audiences.

In the final section of this Report, we will make some suggestions about
how, by institutionalizing the recommendations of this and other
analytical agenda assessments, the Mission can relatively easily monitor
its IPs to help make sure that this doesn't occur too frequently.

There are similar advantages to be gained by working more closely with
other donors and other development partners across the board, but also
within particular sectoral or technical (and geopolitical) areas. During
the Team's in-briefing with the Mission, the Director made the point
that while there is relatively good inter-donor collaboration within the
sectors, at the overall programmatic or policy level, it is not
particularly good.

A further complication must arise to the extent that USAID has only
recently begun to work with GON entities. Previously, due to the
sanction situation, all USAID efforts had to remain in the
non-governmental sector. This is changing slowly, and may change even
more under during the new Strategy period., assuming the most positive
political scenario is realized in Nigeria in April 2003 and beyond.

There are some things, however, that will take time and a lot of effort,
even under the most optimistic political scenario. Nigeria's present
severely unbalanced and inequitable political economy was not created
overnight. In fact, as analyzed, inter alia, by Okonta and Douglas
(2001), it first resulted from the extractive policies of the British
colonial administrators, as was the case for many other African
countries. Then, unlike some, it experienced the oil boom years, which
served further to unbalance the sectors of the economy and increase the
inequities among the elements of the population and the polity.

They note that at that time, the oil industry, which had no structural
links with any other part of the economy, which was stagnating in any
case (2001:29). The cite Gain Williams, who wrote that in the oil boom
years, "\[t\]he State has promoted the development of capitalism,
foreign and domestic, by shifting resources from more competitive to
less competitive producers, from craft to factory production, from
agriculture to industry, from ruralto urban areas, from the opor to the
rich, and from Nigerians to foreigners. It has hardly given free rein to
the ability of the people to produce goods. It has promoted the 'wealth
of nations' but only by the impoverishment of the people"(2001pp29-30).
They go on to discuss the Structural Adjustment Program, capital flight,
foreign depredations and corruption, and other variables that have led
up to the problems faced today.

There is consensus that the present civilian elected government has not
been able to go very far in redressing all these wrongs (or in replacing
the millions of dollars that were spirited into private bank accounts or
given through graft), especially in dealing with corruption. However, on
the positive side, USAID has been able to help the GON prepare a Rural
Development Strategy, and move toward some key macroeconomic reforms.

The main areas for collaboration with the GON at the Federal, State and
LGA levels have so far been with the legislatures and the courts. Now,
under SO2-SO12, there will be greater collaboration with the Federal
Ministry of Agriculture and the state-level ADPs. What is less clear is
the extent to which, if any, there will or should also be work with the
elected councils at the LGA level, and with the Ministry of Local
Government that "oversees" them. What was observed by the team in the
field is that USAID cannot rely on the IPs, who have no standing vis a
vis the Government agencies, to lobby for the citizens of those LGAs in
which they are working. By going through the traditional system rather
than the new, elective system, to some degree these IPs are in a sense
blocking the ability of their beneficiaries to successfully lobby for
funds and support from the LGA councils. These groups have no voice with
the Ministry, and even key officials of the ADPs have no entry point
other than through personal contacts and influence.

This is something about which the Mission must decide during this Plan
period, and it should not be left up to the IPs, who are powerless in
this regard.

One outstanding issue is whether or not the Mission should, in pursuing
its gender mainstreaming objectives, work with the Federal Ministry of
Women's Affairs and Youth Development (see Annex 3). As has been noted,
this Ministry has personnel representing all sectors, and has gender
representatives in all ministries. However, it is under-funded, and has
very little capacity to carry out the oversight that is its mandate.
Though such ministries are almost everywhere under funded and often only
exist as window-dressing to please donors and/or women's NGOs and CSOs,
in the Nigerian instance, some training for existing or potential staff
would certainly appear warranted. This would not appear to run counter
to the civil society orientation of the Strategy, nor to require such a
significant investment that a great deal would be risked. Certainly, on
the basis of the team's encounters with Ministry officials and staff,
they "talk the talk" extremely cogently. However, in such a short time,
there was no opportunity to find out whether, given the incentives and
opportunities, they would also be able to "walk the walk".

[Gender and Identification of Opportunities for Collaboration between
USAID and GON]{.underline}

***Constitution***

Primarily, it is the responsibility of the GON to create and enabling
environment for gender equality. Creating such an environment would be
meaningless if it is not expressed in concrete policies, programs and
resources.

The 1999 Constitution, in line with the previous constitutions, has not
integrated women's needs, concerns and human rights. There is a need for
an inclusive constitution-making process that encourages women to
participate, and allows them to shape the future of their country and
their status within the future.

Gender equality activists continue to express serious reservations about
the character and nature of the state in Nigeria, pointing to
indications of systemic and structural exclusion embedded in its present
framework. For instance, place of origin is given privilege over
residency. With application of the federal character formula, rather
than citizenship and capacity, women are made to face marginalization
(see chapters 1 and 4 for further discussion on the limitations of the
federal character formula). Federal character negates the protection of
gender concerns under section 42 of the 1999 Constitution, and this
significantly minimizes women's participation and access to policy and
decision-making. Similarly the emphasis in the Constitution on
registration of political ascendancy -- puts further barriers on women
who are denied meaningful participation within the existing political
parties.

The ongoing debate on Sharia is another area which has serious
implications for women. While it is acknowledged that Nigeria is a
multi-faith society ad that people have a right to evoke their religions
and cultures without fear of discrimination, it is important that women
participate in the discussions as equals.

It must be stressed that from a gender perspective, there should be
increased advocacy on the need to enact a truly people's constitution.
Constitutional provisions should include:

-   Compulsory implementation of the Beijing Platform of Action on
    women's representation in executive positions.

> • Engendering public policies to reflect gender equality as well as
> accommodating the specific needs of women in relation to their
> reproductive rights.

-   Demystifying laws/legislation by increasing information and public
    enlightenment on rights because.

-   Making the language of the constitution less technical and difficult
    for people to understand.

-   Decreasing the high level of illiteracy in the country.

> • Increasing number and quality of communication avenues.

***Poverty Alleviation Program***

While much can be said of the Constitution as the supreme norm of the
country, it is important to reflect on other aspects of the state, one
of which is the state's ideological thrust with regard to the gender
question. Whatever, merits exist in the poverty alleviation program, a
lot more needs to be said and done if it is going to result in any
significant change for the greatest number. The gap between
policy-making, program development and implementation was clearly
demonstrated in the N10 billion allocated in the 2000 budget to poverty
allocation. For instance, it was unclear what percentage of this amount
on poverty would go towards addressing the concerns of women, who
constitute the majority when it comes to Nigeria's poor. While 60% of
Nigerians live below the poverty level, 46% live in absolute poverty. Of
this 46 per cent, 70 per cent are women. Using these as indicators it
appears that if women are to make any reasonable impact on Nigeria's
"military democracy", there must be a focused and consistent effort for
poverty-alleviation measures to reach them. These efforts must go beyond
a mere interventionist approach, to one that is sustained and
institutionalized.

The GON has put in place the National Poverty Alleviation Program and
allocated 35% to women as beneficiaries. However, women stand little
chance of benefiting from the dividend of the program because the figure
remains grossly inadequate, while men have been appointed as
coordinators of the program. However, there is need to impact on
government for an upward review in the percentage of women beneficiaries
of the Program since the eradication of poverty can only be effective if
it starts at the family level.

*National Policy on Women*

The National Policy on women adopted by the Obasanjo government is a
significant way of redirecting public policies to promote gender
equality and enhance complementary roles which women and men should play
in development.

The policy thrust is equity, social order and social wellbeing. The
overall goals and objectives of the policy include.

-   Ensuring the elimination of all forms of discrimination against
    women.

-   Ensuring that the principles and provisions as contained in the
    Nigerian constitution are effectively enforced and

-   Mainstreaming gender perspectives in all policies and programmes
    based on a systematic gender analysis at all levels of government.
    There is however need for advocacy to ensure that the laudable
    objectives contained in the National Policy inform social and
    legislative changes. To this end therefore, women's organizations
    should be engendered to engage with law and policy makers in the
    quest to transform some of the policy objectives into a more binding
    law.

# Governmental policies and programs and opportunities for collaboration between USAID and GON 

Governmental policies and programs that are geared towards improving
gender equity in education include:

-   National Policy on Education (1981, 1985, 1998)

-   Achievement of universal primary education which was later extended
    in 1999 to achievement of universal access to basic education (UBE)
    (up to junior secondary education) ; Basic Education For All

-   The 1992 National Program of Action on Survival, Protection and
    Development of the Nigerian Child (NPA) aimed to achieve 100%
    enrolment and completion rate in primary education. Furthermore, it
    aims to reduce illiteracy rate among adult females from an estimated
    61% to 30.5% by year 2000

-   The National policy on Women (2000)

Activities and programs to provide education for disadvantaged females
and males include:

-   Marketplace workshops for drop-outs

-   Meeting of all inter-ministerial sectors on women's issues

-   Girls' education movement

-   Nomadic education

-   Mass literacy Programmes

In the health sector, policies and activities include

-   National Food and Nutrition Policy (1995)

-   National Program of action on Food and Nutrition

-   National Population Policy for Development, Unity, Progress and Self
    Reliance (1988)

-   Breastfeeding Policy (1994)

-   National Policy on Women (2000)

-   Supporting child rights through the National Council of Child Rights
    Advocates of Nigeria

-   Female Functional Literacy for Health

-   National Program on Immunization

-   National Adolescent Health Policy (1995)

-   Maternal and Child Health Policy (1994)

-   National Health Policy and Strategy (1998)

-   Draft National Policy on Children (2002)

From discussions with various stakeholders, it was observed that more
effective and concrete collaboration between the GON and USAID is
necessary and desirable for a more effective impact of programs. Yet
such collaboration seem problematic. As one of the interviewees
observed:

" Who will drive the process of collaboration between IPs and the
government? IPs try to collaborate but it is difficult. The
collaboration is just on paper."

Areas of collaboration between USAID and government of Nigeria should
include

#  {#section-50}

## Strengthening of information-sharing and collaboration in service delivery between government and NGOs

## Strengthening of interagency gender desk officers to mainstream gender into policies and programs, monitor implementation and evaluation. 

## Strengthen government to be accountable by providing technical support for sustained gender disaggregated data collection, management and efficient use for policy reforms and intervention.

# Gender issues that have the greatest impact on Nigeria's economic development 

##  {#section-51}

## Interviews conducted during the course of this assessment and literature emphasize the significance of improved access to strategic resources as the greatest gender issue that has the potential for significant economic and human development. Despite some level of success achieved by some NGOs and Community Partners of Health in reaching target groups, there are obstacles to achieving intended results because of constraints in providing assistance for income generation. A CPH group observed:

## "We are concerned about income generating activities. How do we train our women /youths to empower them economically? "

No doubt, an integrated and streamlined approach proposed in the CSP for
2004-2009 has the potential to engender sustainable development if it
focuses on increasing access to strategic resources in terms of
education, skills (income) and decision-making. Women being the most
disadvantaged. This stresses the potential multiplier effects of
education and associated economic empowerment for the socio-economic
development of Nigeria. If viewed from a whole systems' perspective, the
interrelation of education with environmental, economic, political and
socio-cultural issues become clearer and justifies a more holistic
approach to project planning. Therefore, future programs should create
links between the SOs not only to avoid duplication but to strengthen
program outcomes from the planning stage.

There are many other areas in which, progressively, the Mission and its
SO teams, IPs and their local beneficiaries, will have to take decisions
based on the monitoring of the empirical situation---and funding
availabilities\--about the direction and extent of their cooperation and
collaboration with the public sector at various levels. Clearly, the
public sector cannot be ignored if a key overarching element of the
Mission's strategy is to support greater sustainable public-private
partnerships. The program as it seems at the moment places more stress
on the private than the public side of the equation, but this could
change should the political situation and the emerging political economy
warrant it.

# RECOMMENDATIONS

This Report presents the thinking and writing of a team and, in its
present form, is a draft yet to be shared among all of them for critical
review. Some of the recommendations that appear in the foregoing
Sections are the result of interviews in which most or all of us
participated. As our time in the country together was so short we had to
divide into sub-teams of one or two in order to meet as many IPs and
beneficiaries as possible, and to visit as many sites as possible. Thus,
a number of recommendations are the result of individual interpretations
of sole interviews not attended by others, and field visits carried out
by one or another of us alone or with a member or members of an SO team.
There are a minority with which we might not all agree. However, the
Team Leader believes that the majority are those about which all or most
of us agree, especially as we discussed them at a series of updating
team meetings we held while we were still together in Abuja.

There has not been time for us to synthesize the recommendations made
for each SO, and concerning the cross-cutting themes and possible areas
of synergy and collaboration with development partners---including the
Government of Nigeria at all three levels of the public administration
system and the various branches of government. Therefore, pending
responding comments from the Mission on this draft, we present below the
recommendations that were given step by step in the body of the report.
We realize, however, that some seem repetitive when presented this way,
while others seem to be statements of what is already done. In the
latter case, what is meant broadly is that the Mission\--or SO Team in
question---should do more of the same, based on past successes and
current and continuing needs.

[SO 11:]{.underline}

### Media Target on

Build the capacity of local and national media to play a constructive
role in public participation enhancement, conflict reduction and
sustainable democracy through.

-   Youth involvement -- Importance should be attached to awareness
    building and promotion of gender consciousness among Nigeria youths.

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-   Continued promotion of open and effective dialogue between CBO's and
    decision makers to positively impact on legislative and policy
    outcomes through

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-   Coalition -- building and lobbying efforts

-   Advancement of priority legislative causes

-   Capacity -- building of CBO's to assist decision makers in drafting
    legislation and policies

**Promotion of a Gender Friendly Media**

There is need for a gender friendly media to advance the cause off
women. To this end, gender based NGOs. are called to establish media
outfits devoted to highlighting women's issues and portraying and
publicizing women models of success for the benefits of the masses.

# Coalition -- Building 

There should be continued facilitation of and provision of support to
civil society coalitions at all levels of government through

-   horizontal streamlining of women focused NGO's and CBO's in order to
    form a more effective Women's movement which will mobilize,
    sensitize, conscientize and advocate the populace for gender
    equality.

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-   The provision of technical and organizational training aimed at
    sustaining the existing and new coalitions.

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-   The provision of technical assistance on advocacy and mobilization
    to existing and new coalitions.

Such sustainable links with agenda objectives and actions drawn by a
broad coalition of CSOs (particularly those focused on women) can
constitute pressure groups in empowering women and promoting.

The emergence of women's community-based organizations such as Country
Women's Association of Nigeria, points to new forms of involvement by
women in community affairs, driven by their specific interests, such as
access to micro-credits. This is a promising development, which over
time, could lead to women promoting their rights more assertively at
community level.

**Advocacy on the Constitution**

Advocacy for gender-sensitive language and protection within the
constitution and to build the capacity of women's groups to mobilized
around a "people --driven" gender-sensitive constitution reform process.

**Increased Participation of Women**

Based on the significant event of the 2003 party primaries, Nigerian
women are likely to remain underrepresented at all levels of government
in the 2003 administration. USAID should address this by working with
women's CBO's at all levels, but particularly at the grass roots level
to participate in decision-making processes that affect their lives and
those of their communities. CEOPA\'s 100 Women's Groups Strategy should
is a useful mechanism to utilize.

**Education and Awareness Raising Programmes**

These should be launched to help Nigerians recognize that the democratic
agenda must include a special effort to improve the lot of women the
civil society to protect women's rights. Also, Girl-child education and
training, beginning from the home, should be encouraged to emphasise
self assertion and self-confidence to enable anticipate and protect
herself against dangerous and disarming antics of the male-folk.

Such education should be provided, among others, the National
Orientation Agency, which would create reasonable public enlightenment
programmes in collaboration with Ministries of Women Affairs at the
Federal and State Levels, NGO's, CBO's, the Media and traditional
rulers/Institutions.

**Advocacy on Cultural/Religious Practices**

There is need for continued advocacy on

-   the importance of abolishing obnoxious cultural practices that
    offend civil liberties of persons (especially women) through acts of
    legislature that will enact laws and the judiciary who will
    interpret the laws correctly.,

-   the manipulation of religion and religious texts which have
    continued to militate against the involvement of women in political
    and civic affairs.

**Advocacy on INEC**

This should address the removal of all forms of encumbrances to women's
participation in politics through INEC. INECshould be persuaded to
discourage money politics and encourage financial limits as done in the
West, persuading Political Parties to include women in their hierarchies
as a pre-condition for registering and also insit on quota for women in
elective positions.

**Advocacy on Affirmative Action:**

Women need to seek political channels to over come their political
marginalisation. The NCWS as far back as 1986 has demanded a quota of
about 30-40% of positions in cabinet and legislatures for women. This is
a step in the right direction. Since political analysts have
demonstrated that politics is a game of numbers, it is imperative that
women should seek affirmative action to ensure that they form a critical
mass that is necessary to influence decision making in governance.

Legislation has been used in some African countries such as Uganda and
South Africa to boost the status of women and enforces gender equity in
governance. In Uganda, an Affirmative action policy has been embedded
since 1995 in her constitution. Article 32 paragraph 1 states, *"Not
withstanding anything in this constitution, the state shall take
affirmative action in favour of groups marginalized on the basis of
gender, age disability or any other reason created by history, tradition
or custom, for the purpose of redressing imbalances which exist against
them".* For example, in the implementation of the affirmative action in
Uganda, each district is expected to vote one woman to parliament. Women
are also expected to compete on their own merit during elections. 40
women were brought to the parliament through affirmative action. Five
other women came in through election so that they had 45 women in
parliament. At the local government level an act was enacted in 1997
stipulating that at least 1/3 of the political leaders as well as
executive members of the local government council should be women.
Consequently, because of these enactments Ugandan women are now
occupying important positions in all government institutions,
parastatals and commissions.

A definite and immediate Affirmative Action programme should be put in
place and vigorously pursued in order to improve the position of women
in decision making at all levels. In addition, efforts should be made
through public education and awareness campaigns to bring the men and
decision-makers at all levels to appreciate and respect the dignity of
womanhood and the protection of children and youths as custodians of the
future.

# Promotion of Economic Growth and Development

USAID should work with government and NGO's to create an enabling
environment through the promotion of economic growth and development,
the generation of employment, the provision of urban and rural
infrastructure and the provision of social security so as to improve
income, raise the standard of living and strengthen the family. In
particular, there should be support for small scale economic ventures
through the provision of credit and other forms of support to reduce to
reduce to the barest minimum, the level of poverty and economic
hardship.

**Outreach Programmes**

Outreach programmes through the use of media to convey advocacy
messages, educate and influence the public, create awareness of critical
democracy and human rights issues and mobilize communities around
advocacy issues. The outreach should be conducted through the use of
grassroots education, posters, cultural arts performances Public
Services Announcements (PSA's), town hall meetings, debates, radio drama
series, and call-in-public affairs TV and radio broadcasts.

**[SO 12:]{.underline}**

11. The primary over-aching recommendation is to take gender differences
    --especially as they affect access to the factors of production,
    including labor and credit---into account in the design and
    implementation of all activities under this SO.

12. To do this, as necessary, fund gendered Social Impact Assessments
    before new cultigens, farming systems, or processing activities are
    adapted and introduced through extension or demonstration projects.

13. To the extent funding allows, implement in a gendered way the
    recommendations of the Environmental Assessment. It is possible to
    design these such that HIV/AIDS funds or other funds, including
    those for Economic Growth and Agricultural Production, can
    legitimately be used to support them.

14. Where policy change is being supported, it is critical to examine
    the differential impacts on women and on men. Macroeconomic policies
    are not gender neutral, and neither are budgets.

15. Support by the Mission to the PRSP process should help to ensure
    that the Gender thematic group is actually funded and that its
    recommendations are taken on board.

16. In expanding access to financial intermediation for the private
    sector, make sure that formal institutions do not de facto
    discriminate against women, or PLWHA, or any other largely excluded
    group or social category.

17. Improve or re-think existing PR materials of various IPs so that
    they are not misleading or create false expectations on the part of
    those who are the anticipated beneficiaries and also GON
    collaborators and private sector partners.

18. Include the bigger women traders and their associations in the
    macroeconomic stakeholder policy discussion process. (This is now
    actually under SO 11, but is the "other hand" to what was done under
    the Prospect Project with SO 2 funding.

19. Take on board what the Afro Barometer Study "Down to Earth" has to
    say about the attitudes of the survey sample toward market
    liberalization and privatization of economic interventions, in
    planning private-public partnerships.

20. Include combating symbiotic private and public sector corruption in
    the sub Irs for increased private sector growth and investment, as
    well as that for financial intermediation.

**[SO 13:]{.underline}**

# The relevant strategies and approaches USAID/Nigeria can use to enhance the accessibility and equitability of its programs to men and women are being suggested within the framework of the proposed CSP largely for budgetary considerations. 

*Education*

10. Activities aimed at increasing access to quality services in schools
    should include

    -   Training of female primary school teachers to build capacity in
        effective teaching of numeracy and literacy skills, particularly
        in the northern sites. This can be achieved though increased
        involvement of female teachers in masters training for IRI and
        supporting pre-service training in Women teachers colleges.

    -   Pre-service and in-service training programs should incorporate
        training in gender sensitivity in order to encourage female
        school retention and help schools better achieve their
        curriculum objective.

    -   Periodical review of the scripts and materials (script analysis)
        to ensure that they are not gender-biased in terms of language,
        images of work and family life etc.

11. In the new program framework, activities to demand for services
    should incorporate

-   Increased involvement of women (as parents, community facilitators
    and teachers) in community education agenda development and
    advocacy.

-   Publicity campaigns to increase female enrolment, retention and
    completion especially in public schools in Northern Nigeria.
    Previous TS strategies may be enhanced by actively involving female
    community facilitators, female teachers, women-based CBOs and
    religious institutions.

-   Activities to enable youths undergoing skills acquisition training
    to transcend the barriers of low-paying traditional female-dominated
    jobs.

12. Social sector policy support activities will benefit both men and
    women if governmental efforts to mainstream gender into education
    policies are provided with technical support and capacity building
    of gender desk officers in various sectors.

13. Support improved policy and curriculum reforms in pre-service and
    in-service training and link between primary and tertiary
    institutions.

14. Promote national literacy program/campaign.

> *Health*

15. NDHS 1999 report shows that 15% of women used any method of
    contraceptives. Also, while the level of missed opportunity to
    motivate non-users was high, 90% did not have any contact with FP
    providers. Therefore activities under the CSP should continue to
    target women through community- based organizations (CBOs) and
    health providers. Attempts to increase demand for FP/RH and CS
    services through improvement in knowledge and skills should also
    target

-   Women (and their children) in seclusion, rural, poor and illiterate
    women particularly in the north.

-   Sexually active adolescents in urban centres

-   Religious institutions (through building partnerships and advocacy).
    The NDHS survey shows that only 2.3% of male and female respondents
    indicated that they were neither Christians nor Muslims. Islam and
    the Catholic church have strong influences in the north and
    southeast respectively. For example, a respondent at the catholic
    secretariat noted thus "We pride ourselves on the fact that we have
    grassroots' presence in terms of our structures in every corner in
    this country". Some IPs under the current transitional programmes
    have made inroads into religious institutions and clinics. Increased
    involvement of women and men through religious-based groups and
    support of leaders, can clear misconceptions about contradictions
    with religion and women and men's religiously prescribed roles. It
    also has the potential of enhancing spousal communications.

16. There are several organizations (public and private) with
    overlapping interests working in similar communities and with
    similar CBOs. The effect is a tendency to recycle the same community
    members through for several programs to the disadvantage of others.
    Efforts should be made to strengthen public/private collaboration in
    drawing up agendas to cover the concerns of different community
    groups. Through regular and open communication and cooperative
    planning, such collaboration would be mutually reinforcing and
    should leverage on other donor activities rather than duplicate
    efforts and resources. This calls for a multi-sectorial and
    multi-agency approach to maximize the benefits of USAID programs and
    activities.

17. Leverage on men's high involvement in reproductive health in the
    north and low levels of utilization of reproductive health services
    in the south by increasing male involvement in promoting support for
    women's reproductive rights and utilisation of health services by
    women.

18. Strengthen IPs, NGOs, government and communities to be accountable
    in terms of being able to provide gender disaggregated report and
    impact assessment . This would enable them create gender sensitive
    management systems and effectively mainstream gender into the
    programmes. (This is applicable to both SOs).

#  {#section-52}

**[SO 14:]{.underline}**

Assuming the political climate remains stable during the coming
elections and given the willingness of the Mission to expand their HIV
program to targeting and focusing on high prevalence groups, increased
use of preventive measures, the vulnerability of women and young girls
for getting infected by HIV, it will be necessary for the Mission to
consider correcting gender imbalances which are strongly disadvantaging
women and girls.

10. ***Make women and girls the center of HIV/AIDS interventions and men
    as supporters***. Increasing men's awareness and responsibility
    regarding the consequences of gender inequities for both sexes and
    consideration for men to invest in their own health related to TB,
    STI and HIV. Tuberculosis is an airborne disease and curable could
    be transmitted between both, STI is asymptomatic among women and
    HIV.

11. ***Strategize the VCT approach to reach both men and women.*** VCT
    strategy could be an open avenue to get both men and women to be
    part of prevention measures for their offspring and themselves.
    Creating incentives for both female and male partners to access
    counseling support and prevention information.

12. ***Increase women's empowerment. .***Increase the economic and human
    rights of women through linkage of D/G with reproductive health and
    micro credit programs. This model, which is being implemented by
    CEDPA, seems very promising in improving the demand for reproductive
    health services among women and men.

13. Are there traditional gender practices where women have comparative
    advantages compared to men? Conduct research studies on gender
    issues in traditional practices where women have comparatives
    advantages. Explore the channels (to whom, where ) and best ways to
    reinforce and build up women's capacity to promote and change their
    social status. CIDA is willing to collaborate in such ventures

14. ***Extensive training on gender issues at all level***. Training the
    network and NGOs/CBOs in gender-based interventions. This type of
    training also needs to be extended to senior level officials at both
    public and private institutions.

15. ***Reaching MSMs as a potential and underground high risks
    groups.*** Advocate for wider tolerance of MSM. Reaching MSMs should
    be considered in the new program. More information needs to be
    collected and analyzed, and peer training and outreach interventions
    can be developed with the objective of reaching sexually active men.

16. ***National services for Youth***. Youth national services is a good
    way to reach the youth, especially in a situation where they are
    more vulnerable to acquiring HIV/AIDS and STIs. UNICEF has already
    started by securing hours for sensitizing youth on HIV/AIDS and
    sexuality. Given the opportunity and the huge demand for national
    services from the Ministry of Education, IPs will have to look for
    collaboration to include gender training in these services.
    Engenderhealth, SMF, CEDPA and ACTION AID are working along these
    lines. More collaboration and mechanisms to look at specificities of
    the regional context are needed.

17. ***Improve sexual communication and negotiation skills for boys and
    girls***. Continuing to create a supportive environment to improve
    sexual communications and negotiation skills among girls and boys in
    school and out of school is an effective way to decrease their
    vulnerability to contracting HIV. Regional variations between the
    North and the Southern regions are among the challenges that the new
    program will face.

18. ***TB/HIV Linkages***

> Linkages between PTB and HIV have increasing cost implications that
> need to be considered. In such linkages, one needs to look at all
> aspects of strengthening for effective HIV/TB and STI interventions,
> including:.

-   Improving existing TB services so that both women and men have
    better access to these services;

-   Designing TB control activities within HIV services and upgrading
    laboratories;

-   Establishing HIV services in TB clinics;

-   Developing protocols for treating HIV related TB as others OI.
    Implications for using best practices (DOTS-HAART) requires
    anti-retroviral drugs; and

-   Training for personnel on equipment and protocols at all levels.

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## [SO 11]{.underline}

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| USAID/OTI/Nigeria.                                                    |
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**[SO 12]{.underline}**

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[SO 13]{.underline}

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| Services "*The AHI Youth Clinic."* AHI Lagos, 2002.                   |
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| Statistics 1999 Edition.*                                             |
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| Hartenberger, L. & Bosch, A. 1996. *Making Interactive Radio          |
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| Nation-Building."* International IDEA, 2000.                          |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ###### Lewi                                                           |
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+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
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| Health Survey 1999*.                                                  |
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| January 2001.                                                         |
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| and Technology                                                        |
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+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ###### Social S                                                       |
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+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
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| the Classroom Environment (GIRLSPLACE): A View to the Experiences of  |
| Girls*. USAID, Health and Human Resources Analysis for Africa         |
| Project. Technical Paper 86.                                          |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ###### Women, Law & Development Centre. *Beijing Declaration a        |
| nd Platform for Action*. Women, Law & Development Centre, Lagos 1995. |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

#### SO 14

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Ankomah, Augustine and Ladipo Olaronke. *The Customer is King: How    |
| sex workers perceive risk and negotiate condom use in Nigeria.* The   |
| Society for Family Head, Nigeria, September 2001.                     |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Anyanti, Jennifer Olukemi. *Female Condom Acceptability Study*.       |
| Society for Family Health, Nigeria.                                   |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Barnett, Tony and Whiteside, Alan. *AIDS in the Twenty-first Century  |
| -- Disease and Globalization*. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.              |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| # Catholic Secretariat of Nigeria. *N                                 |
| igerian Catholic HIV-AIDS Policy*. CSN Publication on HIV/AIDS, 2002. |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ###### Center for the Right to Health. *Ex                            |
| periences of People living with HIV/AIDS in Nigeria*. September 2001. |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
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| Governance -- Voter Education Training Manual.*                       |
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| Centre for the Right to Health (CRH). "Human Rights and HIV/AIDS"     |
| *Research Report on Experiences of People Living With HIV/AIDS in     |
| Nigeria.* CRH, September 2001.                                        |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Ministry of Health, Department of Public Health, National AIDS/STD    |
| Control Programme. *The Prevalence of HIV, Syphilis, and STD          |
| Syndromes Among PTB/STD Patients and Drug Users in Nigeria*.          |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ###### Ministry of Health, NACA. The *Prevalence of HIV, Syphilis     |
| and STD Syndromes Among PTB/STD Patients and Drugs Users in Nigeria.* |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ##### Ministry of Health. National Reproductive Health, Strateg       |
| ic Framework and Plan. Ministry of Health, Abuja, Nigeria, June 2002, |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| National Action Committee on Aids (NACA). *HIV/AIDS Emergency Action  |
| Plan (HEAP).* March 2002                                              |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| National Action Committee on Aids (NACA). *HIV/AIDS: What It Means    |
| for Nigeria - Background, Projections, Impact, Interventions and      |
| Policy.* NACA, December 2002.                                         |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ###                                                                   |
| ### Policy Project. Strategy and Workplan for Nigerian. October 2002. |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ###### Society for Family Health. *National Beha                      |
| vioural Survey I: Brothel Based Sex Work in Nigeria.* September 2001. |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Society for Family Health. *Working together in support of government |
| strategies to improve the health of Nigerians: Annual Report for year |
| 2002 Activities.* December 2002                                       |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ###### USAID/Nigeria. HIV/AIDS Strategy Assessment Report. April 2002 |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ###### Vidal, La                                                      |
| urent. *Femmes en temps de SIDA, experiences d'Afrique*. Janvier 2001 |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

Annex 1

SCOPE OF WORK: GENDER ANALYSIS, USAID/NIGERIA CSP

# Background

USAID/Nigeria is currently developing a new Country Strategic Plan (CSP)
for 2004-2009. The Mission's Concept Paper for this CSP, recently
approved in Washington, proposes a streamlined and integrated
sustainable development program that builds on the current Transitional
Strategy. The new program will be implemented through four strategic
objectives:

> Good Governance Through Transparency, Participation and Conflict

-   Management;

> Sustainable Agriculture and Diversified Economic Growth;

-   Improved Social Sector Service Delivery;

-   Expanded Response to HIV/AIDS Prevention.

Among the technical analyses and assessments that the Mission is
required to conduct during this strategic planning process is a gender
analysis. Recognizing that the dynamics of gender relations is both
socially and culturally variable, Agency technical guidance states:
"Strategic Plans must reflect attention to gender efforts to improve the
status of women by taking into account not only the differential roles
of men and women, but also the relationship and balance between them and
the institutional structures that support them. Specifically, analytical
work performed in the planning and development of Results Frameworks
should address at least two questions: (1) how will gender relations
affect the achievement of results; and (2) how will results affect the
relative status of women. "Gender" is not a separate sector to be
analyzed and reported in isolation. Instead, gender mainstreaming
requires that gender analysis be applied to each set of issues that is
considered in the development of the Strategic Plan."

# Objectives

Given the Agency requirements and the Mission's own interest, the
proposed Gender Analysis will address the following objectives:

-   To identify the critical gender-based constraints to equitable
    participation and access of men and women to programs and services
    in the sectors in which USAID/Nigeria implements its program,
    including agriculture, private sector development, natural resource
    management, basic education, population, maternal health and child
    survival, infectious diseases, HIV/AIDS, democracy and governance,
    and conflict response;

-   To identify strategies and approaches USAID/Nigeria can use to
    enhance the accessibility and equitability of its programs, to men
    and women both;

-   To analyze the potential impacts of the Mission's proposed strategic
    approaches on the relative status of men and women in Nigeria,
    taking into consideration ethnicity, class, religion and other key
    variables;

-   To assess key GON policies and programs relating to gender and
    identify opportunities for collaboration and mutual strengthening of
    gendered approaches between USAID and GON;

-   To identify those gender issues that have the greatest potential
    impact on Nigeria's economic development.

# Approach

1.  Comprehensive literature review of pertinent documents including:
    (a.) studies and assessments conducted by donors, NGOs, GON, and the
    academic community, and (b.) USAID documents including but not
    limited to the existing USAID/Nigeria Transitional Strategy, annual
    reports, the Concept Paper, strategic implementation plans,
    situation analyses, sector assessments, evaluations and proposals.

2.  Discussions and interviews with key donors, NGOs active in gender,
    and GON officials. The consultants will be expected to develop a
    list of key contacts and to provide the list to USAID;

3.  Meetings with USAID implementing partners (contractors, grantees,
    PVOs/NGOs) and each SO team; the SO teams will assist with
    identifying the most important partner contacts;

4.  Site visits to project activities, if feasible and appropriate.

# Deliverables

1.  Workplan/schedule: Within three working days after the starting date
    of the consultancy;

2.  Draft Gender Analysis: Upon the completion of 21 working days in
    Nigeria, in hard and electronic versions. An oral debriefing will
    also be scheduled.

3.  Final Gender Analysis, including comprehensive annotated
    bibliography: Within five working days after receipt of written
    Mission comments.

##  {#section-53}

##  {#section-54}

##  {#section-55}

## Level of Effort and Timing

The gender analysis will require approximately four weeks of effort,
based on a six-day work week, and will require a team of four
individuals. Each consultant will have two days for collection of
materials and preparation before commencement of the field work, 21
working days are available in Nigeria for the production of the draft
report. The team leader will have an additional six working days for
completion of the bibliography and revision of the draft report, based
on Mission input. (These days may be allocated to other team members by
the team leader, if desired.) In addition, each consultant traveling
from outside Nigeria will be allocated up to four days for travel. The
team will begin work in Abuja on January 15, 2003, and leave Nigeria o/a
February 7, 2003.

# Expertise Required

The gender analysis will require a team of four experts, to the
principal areas of emphasis in the strategy:

1.  Social scientist/team leader with PhD in sociology, anthropology,
    political science, economics or rural development. Minimum of five
    years post-degree experience analyzing gender issues in West Africa.
    Previous experience in Nigeria highly desirable. Excellent
    English-language writing skills mandatory. Must possess computer
    skills in word processing and spreadsheets. Must be knowledgeable
    about USAID programming policy and gender analysis requirements.

> The team leader will be responsible for the strategy assessment in
> agriculture, economic growth, and environment. The team leader also
> will manage the preparation and presentation of the team workplan, and
> finalize the division of responsibilities among team members.

2.  HIV/AIDS specialist with advanced degree in health related field.
    Minimum of five years post-degree experience in international
    development. English-language speaking and writing skills required.

> The HIV/AIDS specialist will be responsible for the assessment for the
> Mission HIV/AIDS strategy.

3.  Two Nigerian professionals. Both must possess at least a master's
    degree in a social science or development field. At minimum three
    years' post-degree experience in gender analysis in Nigeria.
    Knowledge of PVOs/NGOs in Nigeria that address gender issues.
    Knowledge of GON and State-level gender policies. Complementary
    expertise on different geographical areas of the country.

> One of these individuals will be responsible for the assessment of
> strategy in the area of democracy and governance and the other will
> assess approaches in social services including health and education.

Annex 2

LIST OF CONTACTS BY SO

**[SO11]{.underline}**

+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| ** | **Name**          | *                 | **Org                  |
| S/ |                   | *Title/Position** | anizations/Addresses** |
| No |                   |                   |                        |
| ** |                   |                   |                        |
+====+===================+===================+========================+
| 1  | Dr. Jibrin        | Nigeria Program   | International Human    |
|    | Ibrahim           | Director          | Rights, Law Group, 75B |
|    |                   |                   | Mississippi Str.,      |
|    |                   |                   | Maitama, P.M.B. 505    |
|    |                   |                   | Garki, Abuja           |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 2  | Mrs. Anne Ikpeme  |                   | International Human    |
|    |                   |                   | Rights, Law Group, 75B |
|    |                   |                   | Mississippi Str.,      |
|    |                   |                   | Maitama, P.M.B. 505    |
|    |                   |                   | Garki, Abuja           |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 3  | Rev. Pamela D.    | MCID/Nigeria      | Mississippi Consortium |
|    | Moore             | Country Director  | for International      |
|    |                   |                   | Development            |
|    |                   |                   |                        |
|    |                   |                   | No 8, Majomi Close,    |
|    |                   |                   | Office Mississippi     |
|    |                   |                   | Str., Maitama          |
|    |                   |                   | District, Abuja, F.C.T |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 4  | Mr. Eremutha A,   | Associate         | Pathfinder             |
|    | Francis           | Director,         | International Polt     |
|    |                   | Programs          | 248, Muri Okunla       |
|    |                   |                   | Steet, Off Ajose       |
|    |                   |                   | Adeogun Str., Victoria |
|    |                   |                   | Island, Lagos          |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 5  | Mr. Femi Awoyinfa |                   | Pathfinder             |
|    |                   |                   | International Polt     |
|    |                   |                   | 248, Muri Okunla       |
|    |                   |                   | Steet, Off Ajose       |
|    |                   |                   | Adeogun Str., Victoria |
|    |                   |                   | Island, Lagos          |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 6  | Rev. Fr. I.       | Director          | Church and Society     |
|    | Enweren           |                   |                        |
|    |                   |                   | Catholic Secretariat   |
|    |                   |                   | of Nigeria             |
|    |                   |                   |                        |
|    |                   |                   | 6 Force Road, Tafawa   |
|    |                   |                   | Balewa Sq.,            |
|    |                   |                   |                        |
|    |                   |                   | P.O. Box 951, Lagos.   |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 7  | Dr. (Mrs.) Wanda  | Health Secretary  | Catholic Secretariat   |
|    | Alli-Balogun      |                   | of Nigeria             |
|    |                   |                   |                        |
|    |                   |                   | 6 Force Road, Tafawa   |
|    |                   |                   | Balewa Sq.,            |
|    |                   |                   |                        |
|    |                   |                   | P.O. Box 951, Lagos.   |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 8  | Chukwuma Ezeala   | National          | Church and Society     |
|    | Esq.              | Coordinator,      |                        |
|    |                   | Justice Dev. &    | Catholic Secretariat   |
|    |                   | Peace Comm.,      | of Nigeria             |
|    |                   | Election/Dem.     |                        |
|    |                   | Monitoring        | 6 Force Road, Tafawa   |
|    |                   | Project           | Balewa Sq.,            |
|    |                   |                   |                        |
|    |                   |                   | P.O. Box 951, Lagos.   |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 9  | Maisha Strozier   | Deputy Country    | Centre for Development |
|    |                   | Director          | and Population         |
|    |                   |                   | Activities (CEDPA),    |
|    |                   |                   | 3255 IBB Way, (Nest to |
|    |                   |                   | BPE) Maitama, Abuja    |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 10 | Vie Butler        | Country Director  | International          |
|    |                   |                   | Foundation for         |
|    |                   |                   | Election Systems, No.  |
|    |                   |                   | 1 Ontario Crescent,    |
|    |                   |                   | Maitama, Abuja FCT off |
|    |                   |                   | Mississippi            |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 11 | Mrs. Oby Nwankwo  | Executive         | Civil Resource         |
|    |                   | Director          | Development &          |
|    |                   |                   | Documentation Centre   |
|    |                   |                   | (CIRDDOC) Nigeria      |
|    |                   |                   | Fourth Dimension       |
|    |                   |                   | Complex, 16 Fifth      |
|    |                   |                   | Avenue, City Layout,   |
|    |                   |                   | P.O. Box 1686, Enugu   |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 12 | Dr. (Mrs.) Joy    | Executive Country | Women's Aid Collective |
|    | Ezealu            | Director          | (WACOL) 9, Umoezebi    |
|    |                   |                   | Str., New Haven, Enugu |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 13 | Mr. Sam A.        | Team Leader       | BASICS II, Medical     |
|    | Orisasona         |                   | Compound NPHCADA       |
|    |                   |                   | Building, Yaba, Lagos  |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 14 | Mr. Bola Kusemiju | Country Director  | Johns Hopkins          |
|    |                   |                   | University             |
|    |                   |                   |                        |
|    |                   |                   | Centre for             |
|    |                   |                   | Communication          |
|    |                   |                   | Programs, 18 A/B,      |
|    |                   |                   | Temple Road, Off       |
|    |                   |                   | Alfred Rewane Rd.,     |
|    |                   |                   | Ikoyi, Lagos.          |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 15 | Francesta E.      | Resident Senior   | National Democratic    |
|    | Farmer            | Technical         | Institute for          |
|    |                   | Advisor, Nigeria, | International Affairs, |
|    |                   | Central and West  | Plot 364 Off Aminu     |
|    |                   | Africa            | Kano Crescent By       |
|    |                   |                   | L.O.C. Office, Wuse II |
|    |                   |                   | Abuja.                 |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 16 | Wayne Propsi      | Country Director, | National Democratic    |
|    |                   | Nigeria, Central  | Institute for          |
|    |                   | and West Africa   | International Affairs, |
|    |                   |                   | Plot 364 Off Aminu     |
|    |                   |                   | Kano Crescent By Mr.   |
|    |                   |                   | Bigg's, Wuse II Abuja. |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 17 | Hon. Dr. Bolere   | National          | National Council of    |
|    | Elizabeth         | President         | Women's Societies,     |
|    | Ketebu-Nwokeafor  |                   | Nigeria, NCWS House,   |
|    |                   |                   | Plot 559c, Area II,    |
|    |                   |                   | Garki, P.O. Box 8784,  |
|    |                   |                   | Wuse, Abuja.           |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 18 | Hauwa E. Shekarua |                   | International          |
|    |                   |                   | Federation of Women    |
|    |                   |                   | Lawyers (FIDA), Suite  |
|    |                   |                   | 212, Plot 855 Tafawa   |
|    |                   |                   | Balewa Way Area II,    |
|    |                   |                   | Abuja                  |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 19 | Haija Larala      |                   | International          |
|    | Shuaibu           |                   | Federation of Women    |
|    |                   |                   | Lawyers (FIDA), Suite  |
|    |                   |                   | 212, Plot 855 Tafawa   |
|    |                   |                   | Balewa Way Area II,    |
|    |                   |                   | Abuja                  |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 20 | Dr. Habiba Lawal  | Manager Planning  | National Women         |
|    |                   | Research &        | Development Centre,    |
|    |                   | Statistics        | Better Life Str.,      |
|    |                   |                   | Central Area, Abuja    |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 21 | Edith Efe         |                   | Solidarity Centre,     |
|    |                   |                   | Plot 70 Otebola        |
|    |                   |                   | Crescent, Ikeja, GRA   |
|    |                   |                   | Lagos                  |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 22 | Kevin J. Bowling  | Deputy Chief of   | National Centre for    |
|    |                   | Party             | States Courts, Plot    |
|    |                   |                   | 3215, Off Euphrates    |
|    |                   |                   | Str., Maitama, Abuja.  |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 23 | Theresa           | Executive         | Women's Centre for     |
|    | Uchechukwu        | Director          | Peace and Development  |
|    |                   |                   | (WOPED), 17 Afo Place  |
|    |                   |                   | Way Okota, Oshodi,     |
|    |                   |                   | Lagos                  |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 24 | Chief Mrs.        | Woman Leader      | Peoples Democratic     |
|    | Josephine Anenih  |                   | Party, Abuja           |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 25 | Chief (Mrs.)      | PDP Gubernatorial | Peoples Democratic     |
|    | Belty Nnachi      | Aspirant, Imo     | Party, Imo State       |
|    |                   | State             |                        |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 26 | Dr. Tunde Ahonsi  | Senior Program    | The Ford Foundation    |
|    |                   | Officer           | AIB Plaza, Level 6,    |
|    |                   |                   | Akin Adesola Str.,     |
|    |                   |                   | Victoria Island,       |
|    |                   |                   | Lagso.                 |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 27 | Mrs. Sadiatu      | Secretary General | Women's Right          |
|    | Sheju Mahdi       |                   | Advancement and        |
|    |                   |                   | Protection Alternative |
|    |                   |                   | (WRAPA), Plot 792,     |
|    |                   |                   | Adetunbo Ademola       |
|    |                   |                   | Crescent, Wuse II,     |
|    |                   |                   | Abuja                  |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 28 | Josephine         | Executive         | Project Alert on       |
|    | Effah-Chukwuma    | Director          | Violence Against       |
|    |                   |                   | Women, 44 Kofoworola   |
|    |                   |                   | Str., Off Allen        |
|    |                   |                   | Avenue, Ikeja, Lagos   |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 29 | Dr. (Mrs. N. N.   | Director          | Gender and Development |
|    | Ezumah            |                   | Research Group         |
|    |                   |                   | (DADREG), 63 Mike Lake |
|    |                   |                   | By Pass Trans Ekulu,   |
|    |                   |                   | Enugu                  |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 30 | Mrs. F.K. Yakubu  | Deputy Director   | Federal Ministry of    |
|    |                   | Women Affairs     | Women's Affairs and    |
|    |                   |                   | Youth Development,     |
|    |                   |                   | Abuja.                 |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 31 | Mrs. F. K. Yakubu | DDWA              | -do-                   |
|    |                   |                   |                        |
|    |                   | Women Affairs     |                        |
|    |                   | Dept.             |                        |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 32 | V.A. Adegunwa     | ADCD Child Dept.  | -do-                   |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 33 | Mrs. Nkechi       | PWDO              | -do-                   |
|    | Onwukwe           |                   |                        |
|    |                   | Women Affairs     |                        |
|    |                   | Dept.             |                        |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 34 | Mrs. Amina Haruna | ACAO, PRS Dept.   | -do-                   |
|    | Ginsau            |                   |                        |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 35 | Oby Okwuomu       | ALWDO,            | -do-                   |
|    |                   |                   |                        |
|    |                   | Women Affairs     |                        |
|    |                   | Dept.             |                        |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 36 | Mr. Ularam S.     | Women Affairs     | -do-                   |
|    | Tlija             |                   |                        |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 37 | J. G Jiya         | CYDO              | -do-                   |
|    |                   |                   |                        |
|    |                   | Youth Dev. Dept.  |                        |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+
| 38 | Attabor P. A      | PTDO              | -do-                   |
|    |                   |                   |                        |
|    |                   | Youth Dev. Dept.  |                        |
+----+-------------------+-------------------+------------------------+

## [SO12]{.underline}

+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| ** | **Name**       | **Title/Position** | **O                      |
| S/ |                |                    | rganizations/Addresses** |
| No |                |                    |                          |
| ** |                |                    |                          |
+====+================+====================+==========================+
| 1  | Francesta E.   | Resident Senior    | National Democratic      |
|    | Farmer         | Technical Advisor  | Institute (NDI)          |
|    |                | Nigeria, Central   |                          |
|    |                | and West Africa    | Plot 364 Off Aminu Kano  |
|    |                |                    | Crescent by L.O.C.       |
|    |                |                    | Office Wuse II, Abuja,   |
|    |                |                    | Nigeria                  |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 2  | Franscesco A.  | Technical Adviser  | Nigeria Opportunities    |
|    | Giotta         |                    | Industrialization        |
|    |                |                    | Centres, Kano Office     |
|    |                |                    |                          |
|    |                |                    | No. 8B Dawaki Road,      |
|    |                |                    | Nassarawa G.R.A., P.O.   |
|    |                |                    | Box 11710, Kano.         |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 3  | Alh. Sani      | Permanent          | Ministry for Local       |
|    | Dawaki         | Secretary          | Government, Kano State.  |
|    |                |                    |                          |
|    |                |                    | No. 1 Ibrahim Taiwo      |
|    |                |                    | Road, Kano.              |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 4  | Mal. Umar D.   | Executive          | Kano State Agricultural  |
|    | Muhd. Zango    | Secretary          | Inputs Dealers           |
|    |                |                    | Association,             |
|    |                |                    |                          |
|    |                |                    | C/o IFDC-Zonal Office    |
|    |                |                    | KNARDA Building, Km9,    |
|    |                |                    | Hadejia Road, Kano       |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 5  | Dr. Umaru A.   | Project Manager    | Developing Agri-Input    |
|    | Alkaleri, CON  |                    | Markets in Nigeria       |
|    |                |                    | (DAIMINA)                |
|    |                |                    |                          |
|    |                |                    | Plot 737, Panama Street, |
|    |                |                    | Maitama -- Abuja,        |
|    |                |                    | Nigeria                  |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 6  | Tunde          | Managing Director  | Support & Management     |
|    | Durosinmi --   |                    | Services Ltd             |
|    | Etti           |                    |                          |
|    |                |                    | Western House (9^th^     |
|    |                |                    | Floor)                   |
|    |                |                    |                          |
|    |                |                    | 8/10 Broad Street,       |
|    |                |                    | Lagos.                   |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 7  | Dr. B. B.      | Project Director,  | IITA, Kano Station, Kano |
|    | Singh          | Seed               | , Nigeria                |
|    |                | Multiplication     |                          |
|    |                | Project and        |                          |
|    |                | Station Director,  |                          |
|    |                | IITA Kano Station  |                          |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 8  |                | Extension Agent    | IITA Seed Project, Kano  |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 9  | Elias Ibrahim  | Extension Agent    | Land 'o Lakes, Kano      |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 10 | Ann            | Project Director   | Land 'o Lakes, Abuja     |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 11 | Mr. Peter      | Project Director   | Winrock Farmer to Farmer |
|    | Williams       |                    | Project, Abuja, Nigeria  |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 12 |                | Project Director   | FORWARD, Kano State,     |
|    |                |                    | Nigeria                  |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 13 | El Hadj        | Director General,  | Land 'o Lakes Project    |
|    | Mohammed       | Human Resources    | Counterpart              |
|    | Badawi         | Department, Kano   |                          |
|    |                | State ADP          |                          |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 14 | El Hadji       | Ward Leader,       | Member of IITA Men's     |
|    | Yussef Adou    | village near       | Group, Rep. of Kano      |
|    | Yakassai       |                    | Farmers Association      |
|    |                | Boumai, Kano State |                          |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 15 | Hadjjia Ndema  | Women's            | Improved Seed Project,   |
|    | Issolo         | Cooperative Group, | IITA                     |
|    |                | Kano               |                          |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 16 | Mr. Larry      | President          | Management Systems       |
|    | Cooley         |                    | International, Inc.,     |
|    |                |                    | Washington, DC           |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 17 | Dr. Louis      | Dean               | School of International  |
|    | Goodman        |                    | Service, American        |
|    |                |                    | University, Washington,  |
|    |                |                    | DC                       |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 18 | Dr. Peter      | Professor          | American University,     |
|    | Lewis          |                    | Washington, DC           |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 19 | Mr. Bolaji     | Policy Specialist, | UNDP, SURF-West Africa   |
|    | Ogunseye       | Civil Society and  |                          |
|    |                | Poverty            | Dakar, Senegal           |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 20 | Hauwa Ibrahim  | Senior Counsel,    | Abuja, Nigeria           |
|    |                | Aries Law Firm     |                          |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 21 | Mr. James      | Economist, and     | UNDP/Nigeria, Lagos      |
|    | Landri         | Gender Focal Point |                          |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 22 | Dr. H.B. Singh | Chief of Party     | Developing Agri-Input    |
|    |                |                    | Markets in Nigeria       |
|    |                |                    | (DAIMINA)                |
|    |                |                    |                          |
|    |                |                    | Plot 737, Panama Street, |
|    |                |                    | Maitama -- Abuja,        |
|    |                |                    | Nigeria                  |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+
| 23 | Percy Wilson   | President          | U.S. -- Africa Trade and |
|    |                |                    | Aid Link Corp. (UATALCO) |
|    |                |                    |                          |
|    |                |                    | 380 Maple Avenue West    |
|    |                |                    |                          |
|    |                |                    | # Sui                    |
|    |                |                    | te 205, Vienna, VA 22180 |
+----+----------------+--------------------+--------------------------+

[SO 13]{.underline}

+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| **  | **Name**            | **Tit         | **Or                    |
| S/N |                     | le/Position** | ganizations/Addresses** |
| o** |                     |               |                         |
+=====+=====================+===============+=========================+
| 1   | Mrs Christy Laniyan | Deputy        | The Vision Project      |
|     |                     | Director      |                         |
|     |                     |               | 4^th^ Floor Elephant    |
|     |                     |               | Cement House (Opposite  |
|     |                     |               | Lagos State Secretariat |
|     |                     |               | Alausa -- Ikeja, Lagos, |
|     |                     |               | P.O. Box 55481, Julie   |
|     |                     |               | -- Ikeja, Lagos         |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 2   | Andrew N. Agie      | Country       | BASICS II               |
|     |                     | Director      |                         |
|     |                     |               | 18, Temple Road, Ikoyi, |
|     |                     |               | Lagos                   |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 3   | Chukwuma Ezeala     | National      | Catholic Secretariat of |
|     | Esq.                | Co-ordinator  | Nigeria                 |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     | Justice Dev.  | 6 Force Road, Tafawa    |
|     |                     | & Peace       | Balewa Sq., P.O. Box    |
|     |                     | Comm.,        | 951 Lagos.              |
|     |                     | Election/Dem. |                         |
|     |                     | Monitoring    |                         |
|     |                     | Project       |                         |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 4   | Dr. (Mrs) Wanda     | Health        | Catholic Secretariat of |
|     | Alli- Balogun       | Secretary     | Nigeria                 |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | 6 Force Road, Tafawa    |
|     |                     |               | Balewa Sq., P.O. Box    |
|     |                     |               | 951 Lagos.              |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 5   | Mr Sam A. Orisasona | Team Leader   | BASICS II               |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | Medical Compound NPHCDA |
|     |                     |               | Building, Yaba, Lagos.  |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 6   | Josephine           | Executive     | # Project Alert on      |
|     | Effah-Chukwuma      | Director      |  Violence Against Women |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | 44 Kofoworola Street,   |
|     |                     |               | Off Allen Avenue Ikeja, |
|     |                     |               | Lagos                   |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 7   | Mr Bola Kusemiju    | Country       | # J                     |
|     |                     | Director      | ohns Hopkins University |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | Centre for              |
|     |                     |               | Communication Programs  |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | 18A/B Temple Road, Off  |
|     |                     |               | Alfred Rewane Road,     |
|     |                     |               | Ikoyi, Lagos.           |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 8   | Dr. Nneka Ndiomu    | Senior        | # CEDPA                 |
|     |                     | Program       |                         |
|     |                     | Officer       | 18 Temple Road, P.O.    |
|     |                     |               | Box 53373 Falomo,       |
|     |                     | (Reproductive | Ikoyi, Lagos            |
|     |                     | Health)       |                         |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 9   | Babatunde Ahonsi    | Senior        | # The Ford Foundation,  |
|     |                     | Program       |                         |
|     |                     | Officer       | # AIB Plaza, Level 6    |
|     |                     |               | , Akin Adesola Street,  |
|     |                     |               | Victoria Island, Lagos. |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 10  | Jacqueline A.       | Technical     | # NO                    |
|     | Hardware            | Advisor       | IC National Secretariat |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | Plot A14 Gbagada        |
|     |                     |               | Industrial Estate,      |
|     |                     |               | Gbagada/Oshodi Exp.     |
|     |                     |               | Way, Opp Charley Boy    |
|     |                     |               | B/Stop                  |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | Gbagada                 |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 11  | Mr Eremutha A.      | Associate     | Pathfinder              |
|     | Francis             | Director,     | International           |
|     |                     | Programs      |                         |
|     |                     |               | Plot 248, Muri Okunla   |
|     |                     |               | Street                  |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | Off Ajose Adeogun       |
|     |                     |               | Street, Victoria        |
|     |                     |               | Island, Lagos           |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 12  | Ian Smith           | Chief of      | #                       |
|     |                     | Party -- LEAP | Literacy Enhancement As |
|     |                     | Nigeria       | sistance Program (LEAP) |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | # 5^th^                 |
|     |                     |               | Floor, Omnia House, Ibr |
|     |                     |               | ahim Babangida Way, Wus |
|     |                     |               | e Zone 4, P.M.B. 561 Ga |
|     |                     |               | rki, Abuja FCT, Nigeria |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 13  | Mr Femi Awoyinfa    |               | Pathfinder              |
|     |                     |               | International           |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | Plot 248, Muri Okunla   |
|     |                     |               | Street                  |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | Off Ajose Adeogun       |
|     |                     |               | Street, Victoria        |
|     |                     |               | Island, Lagos           |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 14  | Dr Olubunmi Dosumu  | Senior        | # USAID                 |
|     |                     | Program Mgt   |                         |
|     |                     | Specialist    | # Plot 992 Z            |
|     |                     | (             | akaria Maimalari Street |
|     |                     | Reproductive. |                         |
|     |                     | Health)       | (Metro Plaza Building)  |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | Central Business        |
|     |                     |               | District P.M.B. 519,    |
|     |                     |               | Abuja.                  |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 15  | Dr Sandy Oleksy --  | Senior        | # USAID                 |
|     | Ojikutu             | Education     |                         |
|     |                     | Advisor       | Metro Plaza, Third      |
|     |                     |               | Floor, Plot 992,        |
|     |                     |               | Zakaria Maimalari       |
|     |                     |               | Street, (across from    |
|     |                     |               | War College) Central    |
|     |                     |               | Business District,      |
|     |                     |               | Abuja.                  |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 16  | Maimuna Y. Mohammed | Executive     | # Society for Women D   |
|     |                     | Director      | evelopment and Empowerm |
|     |                     |               | ent of Nigeria (SWODEN) |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | Plot 2, Badawa New      |
|     |                     |               | Layout Phase II Off     |
|     |                     |               | Sardauna Crescent       |
|     |                     |               | Nassarawa, Kano         |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 17  | Garba Abdu          | Program       | # USAID                 |
|     |                     | Manager,      |                         |
|     |                     | Child         | # Metro                 |
|     |                     | Survival      |  Plaza, Third Floor, Pl |
|     |                     |               | ot 992, Zakaria Maimala |
|     |                     |               | ri Street, (across from |
|     |                     |               |  War College) Central B |
|     |                     |               | usiness District, Abuja |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 18  | Ann Oden            | Program       | # D                     |
|     |                     | Officer       | epartment for Internati |
|     |                     | Education     | onal Development (DFID) |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | # Plot 60               |
|     |                     |               | 7 Bob St. (Off Gana St) |
|     |                     |               |  Maitama, Abuja Nigeria |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 19  | Dr. Katrin Imhof    | APO,          | # UNICEF                |
|     |                     | Education     |                         |
|     |                     |               | 33, Usuma Street, Off   |
|     |                     |               | Gana Street             |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | Maitama District, Abuja |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 20  | Dr. Tarry Asoka     | Assistant     | # D                     |
|     |                     | Health        | epartment for Internati |
|     |                     | Adviser       | onal Development (DFID) |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | Plot 607 Bob St. (Off   |
|     |                     |               | Gana St) Maitama, Abuja |
|     |                     |               | Nigeria                 |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 21  | Valentina Solarin   | Project       | # UNICEF                |
|     | (Mrs)               | Officer,      |                         |
|     |                     | Education     | 33, Usuma Street, Off   |
|     |                     |               | Gana Street             |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | #                       |
|     |                     |               | Maitama District, Abuja |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 22  | Alistair G. Rodd    | Policy        | #                       |
|     |                     | Advisor       | Literacy Enhancement As |
|     |                     |               | sistance Program (LEAP) |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | # 5^th^                 |
|     |                     |               | Floor, Omnia House, Ibr |
|     |                     |               | ahim Babangida Way, Wus |
|     |                     |               | e Zone 4, P.M.B. 561 Ga |
|     |                     |               | rki, Abuja FCT, Nigeria |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 23  | Mrs F.K. Yakubu     | Deputy        | # Federal Ministry of   |
|     |                     | Director      |  Women's Affairs and Yo |
|     |                     |               | uth Development, Abuja. |
|     |                     | Women Affairs |                         |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 24  | Mrs F.K. Yakubu     | DDWA          | #  -do-                 |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     | Women Affairs |                         |
|     |                     | Dept.         |                         |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 25  | V. A. Adegunwa      | ADCD Child    | #  -do-                 |
|     |                     | Dept          |                         |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 26  | Mrs Nkechi Onwukwe  | PWDO          | #  -do-                 |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     | Women Affairs |                         |
|     |                     | Dept.         |                         |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 27  | Mrs Amina Haruna    | ACAO, PRS     | #  -do-                 |
|     | Ginsau              | Dept          |                         |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 28  | Oby Okwuomu         | ALWDO,        | #  -do-                 |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     | Women Affairs |                         |
|     |                     | Dept          |                         |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 29  | Mr Ularam S. Tlija  | Women Affairs | #  -do-                 |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 3   | J.G. Jiya           | CYDO          | #  -do-                 |
| 0\. |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     | Youth Dev.    |                         |
|     |                     | Dept.         |                         |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 31  | Attabor P.A.        | PYDO          | #  -do-                 |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     | Youth Dev.    |                         |
|     |                     | Dept          |                         |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 32  | Mrs B.A. Zidon      | Asst Director | # Federa                |
|     |                     |               | l Ministry of Education |
|     |                     | (Women and    |                         |
|     |                     | Basic Edu.)   | Abuja.                  |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 33  | Dr. Olawunmi Ashiru | CS Program    | BASICS II               |
|     |                     | Manager       |                         |
|     |                     |               | # 18, Te                |
|     |                     |               | mple Road, Ikoyi, Lagos |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 34  | Dr Ademola Adetunji |               | The Vision Project      |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | # 4^th^ Floor El        |
|     |                     |               | ephant Cement House (Op |
|     |                     |               | posite Lagos State Secr |
|     |                     |               | etariat Alausa -- Ikeja |
|     |                     |               | , Lagos, P.O. Box 55481 |
|     |                     |               | , Julie -- Ikeja, Lagos |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 35  | Rev. Fr. I. Enwerem |               | Catholic Secretariat of |
|     |                     |               | Nigeria                 |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | # 6 Forc                |
|     |                     |               | e Road, Tafawa Balewa S |
|     |                     |               | q., P.O. Box 951 Lagos. |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 36  | Mr. R.S. Bankole    |               | # NO                    |
|     |                     |               | IC National Secretariat |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | Plot A14 Gbagada        |
|     |                     |               | Industrial Estate,      |
|     |                     |               | Gbagada/Oshodi Exp.     |
|     |                     |               | Way, Opp Charley Boy    |
|     |                     |               | B/Stop                  |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | # Gbagada               |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 37  | Mr Lanre Alabi      |               | # NO                    |
|     |                     |               | IC National Secretariat |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | Plot A14 Gbagada        |
|     |                     |               | Industrial Estate,      |
|     |                     |               | Gbagada/Oshodi Exp.     |
|     |                     |               | Way, Opp Charley Boy    |
|     |                     |               | B/Stop                  |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | # Gbagada               |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 38  | Dr. Nneka Ndiomu    | Senior        | # CEDPA                 |
|     |                     | Program       |                         |
|     |                     | Officer       | 18 Temple Road, P.O.    |
|     |                     |               | Box 53373 Falomo,       |
|     |                     | (Reproductive | Ikoyi, Lagos            |
|     |                     | Health)       |                         |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 39  | Dr Angela Odiachi   |               | # CEDPA                 |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | # 18 Te                 |
|     |                     |               | mple Road, P.O. Box 533 |
|     |                     |               | 73 Falomo, Ikoyi, Lagos |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 40  | Mrs Beatrice Eluaka | Gender Desk   | # Federal Min           |
|     |                     | Officer       | istry of Health, Abuja. |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 41  | Dr. Nike Adeyemi    | Consultant    | #                       |
|     |                     | Special       | Community Development & |
|     |                     |               |  Population Activities  |
|     |                     | Grade I, PH   |                         |
|     |                     | Division      | Federal Ministry of     |
|     |                     |               | Health                  |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 42  | Mrs B.A. Zidon      | Asst.         | # Federal Minist        |
|     |                     | Director      | ry of Education, Abuja. |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     | Women & Basic |                         |
|     |                     | Education     |                         |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 43  | Zainab Ahmed        | President     | # National              |
|     | Suleiman            |               | Council for Women Socie |
|     |                     |               | ties, Kano State Branch |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 44  | Aisha Abubakar      |               | # CEDPA                 |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | Mukter Mohammed Road,   |
|     |                     |               | Nassarawa GRA, Kano     |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 45  | Alhaji Sanni Bello  |               | # GAMA B CPH, Kano      |
|     | (Chairman)          |               |                         |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     | Alhaji Ado Abdu (V. |               |                         |
|     | Chairman)           |               |                         |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     | Alhaji Mohammed     |               |                         |
|     | Yusuf (G.Sec)       |               |                         |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     | Hajia Amina Musa    |               |                         |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     | Hajia Hadiza Umar   |               |                         |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     | Hajia Hauwa Ali     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     | Mallam Mohammed     |               |                         |
|     | Hamza               |               |                         |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     | Ibraqhim            |               |                         |
|     | Abdulhammed         |               |                         |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     | Hajia Abiba Abba    |               |                         |
|     | (W.Wing)            |               |                         |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 46  | Brigitte Duces      | Education     | # The World Bank        |
|     |                     | Officer       |                         |
|     |                     |               | Yakubu Gowon Crescent   |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | Asokoro Abuja           |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | 09 3145269 (75)         |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 47  | Francesco Gitto     |               | #  {#section-56}        |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | # 8B                    |
|     |                     |               | , Dawaki Road (off Lodg |
|     |                     |               | e Road) Nassarawa, Kano |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+
| 48  | Professor Layi      | Executive     | # Social Scie           |
|     | Erinosho            | Secretary     | nce Academy of Nigeria, |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | Cresent 12, Flat 99     |
|     |                     |               | Kado Estate, Wuse       |
|     |                     |               | P.O.Box 8026, Abuja,    |
|     |                     |               | Nigeria                 |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | 095210082, Fax:5212061  |
|     |                     |               |                         |
|     |                     |               | sscn@skannet.com        |
+-----+---------------------+---------------+-------------------------+

## [SO 14]{.underline}

+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| ** | **Name**        | **Title/Position** | **Org                  |
| S/ |                 |                    | anizations/Addresses** |
| No |                 |                    |                        |
| ** |                 |                    |                        |
+====+=================+====================+========================+
| 1  | Clayton Davis   | Managing Director  | Society for Family     |
|    |                 |                    | Health                 |
|    |                 |                    |                        |
|    |                 |                    | Plot 2380 Nanka Close  |
|    |                 |                    |                        |
|    |                 |                    | Off Sultan Abubakar    |
|    |                 |                    | Way                    |
|    |                 |                    |                        |
|    |                 |                    | (By Heritage House)    |
|    |                 |                    |                        |
|    |                 |                    | Zone 3, Wuse, P.M.B.   |
|    |                 |                    | 5116                   |
|    |                 |                    |                        |
|    |                 |                    | Wuse, Abuja            |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 2  | Dr. Yerisoibiba | Snr Program Office | Johns Hopkins          |
|    | Chidi           |                    | University             |
|    |                 |                    |                        |
|    |                 |                    | 18A/B Temple Road      |
|    |                 |                    |                        |
|    |                 |                    | Off Alfred Rewane Road |
|    |                 |                    |                        |
|    |                 |                    | P.O. Box 53373 Falomo, |
|    |                 |                    | Ikoyi, Lagos           |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 3  | Angela Odiachi  |                    | CEDPA                  |
|    |                 |                    |                        |
|    |                 |                    | 18 Temple Road,        |
|    |                 |                    |                        |
|    |                 |                    | P.O. Box 53373,        |
|    |                 |                    | Falomo, Ikoyi, Lagos   |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 4  | Dr Olawunmi     | Technical Program  | BASICS II              |
|    | Ashiru          | Manager            |                        |
|    |                 |                    | 18 Temple Road, Ikoyi, |
|    |                 |                    | Lagos                  |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 5  | Shelagh O'      | Senior Advisor for | USAID                  |
|    | Rourke          | HIV/AIDS           |                        |
|    |                 |                    | Metro Plaza, Plot 992, |
|    |                 |                    | Zakaria Maimalari      |
|    |                 |                    | Street, Central        |
|    |                 |                    | Business District,     |
|    |                 |                    | Abuja                  |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 6  | Dr Nneka Ndiomu | Senior Program     | CEDPA                  |
|    |                 | Office             |                        |
|    |                 |                    | 18 Temple Road, Ikoyi, |
|    |                 | (Reproductive      | Lagos                  |
|    |                 | Health)            |                        |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 7  | Dr. Bolanle O.  | Deputy Country     | Johns Hopkins          |
|    | Oyeledu         | Director           | University             |
|    |                 |                    |                        |
|    |                 | Reproductive       | 18A/B Temple Road      |
|    |                 | Health/ HIV/AIDS   |                        |
|    |                 |                    | Off Alfred Rewane Road |
|    |                 |                    |                        |
|    |                 |                    | P.O. Box 53373 Falomo, |
|    |                 |                    | Ikoyi, Lagos           |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 8  | Eremutha A.     | Associate Director | # Pa                   |
|    | Francis         |                    | thfinder International |
|    |                 | Programs           |                        |
|    |                 |                    | Plot 248, Muri Okunla  |
|    |                 |                    | Street                 |
|    |                 |                    |                        |
|    |                 |                    | Victoria Island, Lagos |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 9  | Prof. Babatunde | Chairman           | # National Action Co   |
|    | Osotimehin      |                    | mmittee on AIDS (NACA) |
|    |                 |                    |                        |
|    |                 |                    | The Presidency, Fed.   |
|    |                 |                    | Secretariat Complex,   |
|    |                 |                    | Abuja, Room 3A 1.44 -- |
|    |                 |                    | 1.48 (First Floor).    |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 10 | Dr. Jerome      | Country            | # The Future           |
|    | Mafeni          | Representative     | s Group International. |
|    |                 |                    |                        |
|    |                 |                    | Plot 1165 (No. 2A)     |
|    |                 |                    | Lake Chad Crescent,    |
|    |                 |                    | Off IBB Way, Maitama,  |
|    |                 |                    | P.M.B. 533, Garki      |
|    |                 |                    | Abuja.                 |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 11 | Lucy Auwalu     | Executive Director | # Wome                 |
|    |                 |                    | n and Children of Hope |
|    |                 |                    |                        |
|    |                 |                    | 12, Berkley Street,    |
|    |                 |                    | Onikan, Lagos Island.  |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 12 | Dr. Irene       | Lecturer           | # Departmen            |
|    | Pogoson         |                    | t of Political Science |
|    |                 | (International     | , University of Ibadan |
|    |                 | Relations)         |                        |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 13 | Dr. Alice       | Chief Coordination | # Unite                |
|    | Morton          | Unit               | d Nations Dev. Program |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 14 | Seyi Owalade    | Counselor          | #                      |
|    |                 |                    | Nigeria AIDS Alliances |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 15 | Anselem Nwobe   | Project Officer    | #                      |
|    |                 |                    | Nigeria AIDS Alliances |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 16 | Julie Wembe     | Accounting         | #                      |
|    |                 |                    | Nigeria AIDS Alliances |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 17 | Dr Bosun        | Director           | # Hospital Amukoko     |
|    | Babajide        |                    |                        |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 18 | Dr. Regina      | Director           | #                      |
|    | Clement         |                    | Life Link Organization |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 19 | Ms Irene Ogbogu | Executive Director | #                      |
|    |                 |                    | Life Link Organization |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 20 | Ms Irene        | Senior Program     | # WHED                 |
|    | Patrick         | Office             |                        |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 21 | Dr Gesa Kupfer  | Program officer    | # UNAIDS               |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+
| 22 | Evelyne Lee     | Executive Director | # CIDA                 |
+----+-----------------+--------------------+------------------------+

> **Annex 3**

**SO 11: GOOD GOVERNANCE THROUGH TRANSPARENCY,**

**PARTICIPATION AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT**

*Prepared by Irene Pogoson (February 2003)*

**1. INTRODUCTION**

**1.1 Background**

The re-inauguration of democratic governance in May 1999 ushered in a
new epoch of opportunities for co-operation between Nigeria and the
international community. After years of protracted military
dictatorship, which occupied the machinery of government, years of
boycotts, quasi--neglect and strategic political support, the
international community rallied to give democratic assistance to and
nurture the developmental efforts of the new Nigerian civilian
government.

USAID, along with other foreign donors and foreign investors, appeared
excited about the prospect for consolidating democracy in Nigeria. In
1999, they resumed a new dawn of development assistance, which later
transformed into a full bilateral relationship with the Government of
Nigeria (GON).

USAID embraced democratic assistance to Nigeria under its 1999--2003
Transition Strategy. Through it the Mission sought to develop a policy
and legal framework to consolidate transition and the delivery of
services to selected communities in Nigeria. USAID also intended to
assist the communities in establishing democratic principles and
increasing their effectiveness in a democratic society.

USAID's proposed new Country Strategic Plan (CSP) for 2004 -- 2009 will
largely continue in the same sectors as the Transition Strategy. The aim
of the concept paper however, is to assist Nigeria in moving from
"transition to the early stages of consolidation." While reducing
investment in the rule of law and elections administration, USAID plans
to provide assistance towards the 2007 elections.

It is important to note that USAID aims at making democratic government
work better through more effective civil advocacy and more transparent
and accountable government institutions.

Overarching USAID's work is the recognition of the importance of
improving the status of women by taking into account the differential
roles of men and women, the relationship and balance between them, and
the institutional structures that support them. This is the focus of
this study. The approach adopted by the study involves a careful
examination of gender gaps or negative disparities in the USAID/Nigeria
CSP on either the male or female side, and ways to ameliorate or close
the gaps irrespective of the sex involved.

**2. GENDER, DEMOCRACY AND GOOD GOVERNANCE AS A BASIS FOR DEVELOPMENT**

**Gender** is socially constructed for the purposes of allocating power,
duties, responsibilities, statuses and roles in any given social milieu
or context. It is important to add that gender is neither male specific
nor female specific. However there is the often mistaken notion that
gender refers to women and women's affairs only. Gender entails the
analysis of male and female issues and if properly conceived, refers to
male and female concern and needs. It stands for values of equality and
equity.

**Democracy** is a value and as such, it is universal. Factors such as
responsible good governance, rule of law, strict division of powers, a
culture of pluralism and political tolerance, are all essential
ingredients for genuine democracy. Since democracy and good governance
are a fundamental precondition for development, democracy must be deeply
rooted within society.

Democracy thrives on participation and inclusion. An inclusive democracy
should be that form of government in which the needs and demands of the
poor, minorities and other disadvantaged and vulnerable groups are
adequately represented.

The assumption of this report is that:

-   women are not a minority;

-   all over the world, women constitute at least 50 per cent of the
    population; and

-   all over the world, women and men are looking at developing
    policies, structures and institutions that advance democracy in a
    sustainable way and can develop democracy as a process that goes
    beyond elections. This therefore requires taking a hard look at
    issues of exclusion including exclusion on the ground of gender.

**2.1 Synergy between Gender and Democracy**

Both gender and democracy underscore the fundamental values of equity,
freedom and well-being of persons. Given free as well as proper
articulation, democracy and gender free the individual man and woman
from the shackles of unwholesome customary and traditional values,
observances, and practices. These are factors that encroach on the
individual man and woman\'s inalienable rights and opportunities for
participation in the political and social processes of their society as
well as on their capacity to develop to their full potential.

It should be noted that in the last two decades in particular, there has
been a shift away from looking at gender inequality as an issue that
affects women only, occasioned by an understanding of the nature of
power as gendered and its implication for society as a whole.

**2.2 Gender Dimension of the Democratic Question in Nigeria**

The recurrent is that about 50 percent of the electorate which votes
governments into power are women and therefore want to be part of the
process of decision making and governance at all levels. Women want a
sense of group/national belonging, some control over their lives, and
the manifestations of a government that works for them. Equally, women
want to have a voice and to witness federalism reflected in autonomy for
local groups, enabling them to channel their energies on identified
priorities at all level of government. Finally, participating in public
processes on policies that define their lives and fates is not new to
Nigerian women.

**3**. **REPORT PRESENTATION: MAJOR THEMES AND SECTIONS**

**3.1 Transition Strategy and Activities**

***Strategic Objective1 (SO1): Sustain Transition to Democratic Civilian
Governance.***

Through this program USAID sought to contribute to Nigeria\'s democratic
transition by supporting efforts in the following directions:

i)  To increase the transparency and responsiveness of government
    institutions;

> ii\) To establish the foundation for a fair and competitive electoral
> system;

iii\) To mitigate potentially destabilizing factors; and

> iv\) To promote knowledgeable participation by civil society in public
> deliberations and government oversight.

**3.2 Achievements**

USAID implemented the SO1 objectives by shoring up the most critical
elements of democratic governance--the legislature, the judiciary,
elections and civil society. The Mission acknowledges that significant
progress has been made in this sector.

In terms of gender relations the following were achieved:

3.2.1. *Liberalization of Political Space for Women*

-   Six political parties exempted women political aspirants from
    payment of party nomination fees.

-   More political aspirants registered for local, state and national
    offices than in 1999.

-   Networks aimed at assisting women politicians to compete in
    elections were established through USAID\'s assistance.

-   The capacity of NGO leaders to generate and build support networks
    for women politicians in their communities was enhanced.

    2.  *Capacity building and enhancement of NGOs and CBOs in evolved
        in women\'s rights issues.*

    3.  *Enhanced legislative advocacy on key women\'s rights issues.*

    4.  *Civil society has been empowered to press for new legislation
        giving legal protection against culturally accepted
        discriminatory practices to women.*

    5.  *Emergence of broad-based coalitions cutting across ethnic and
        geographical lines addressing electoral and constitutional
        reforms.*

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-   USAID funded a coalition of NGOs combating violence against women,
    which achieved the enactment of laws that allow women to inherit
    their husband estates in some states.

-   The same legislation prohibits the physical and mental torture of
    widows.

**3.3 New Concept Paper**

Based on USAID\'s experience under the transition strategy, it planned
to deepen and expand its program for a five year period from 2004-2009.
The new concept paper aims at assisting Nigeria to \"move from
transition to the early stages of consolidation.\" USAID\'s proposed
concept paper FY 2004-2009 will largely continue in the same sectors as
the transition strategy. The Mission, in recognition of the need to
continue strengthening the structures and practice of democracy and good
governance in Nigeria, proposed a strategy that focuses on improved
governance and greater participation, and the management of conflicts in
the Democracy and Governance sector.

3.3.1 *Highlights of (SO5): Good Governance, Transparency and Conflict
Management*

i)  Improving accountability and transparency in selected legislatures
    (state and national).

ii\) Enhancing civil society participation in the policy making process.

ii) Increasing the capacity to manage conflict.

3.3.2 *Identified Gender Issues in SO5*

Despite the amount of work done on all fronts to ensure the successful
implementation of some of the Mission's Democracy and Governance
programs, a cursory review of the present conditions in Nigeria
underscores the need to address the following gender issues in the new
strategy.

3.  *Improving accountability and transparency in selected legislatures
    (State and National)*

The commitment of the Obasanjo Government to fight corruption appears
ineffective. Corruption remains a major detriment to the proper
functioning of all institutions in Nigeria. Merely enacting laws or
establishing tribunals will not check corruption. Fighting corruption is
a long-term project and for the efforts to be successful, civil society
and the citizenry at large must be empowered to demand accountability
and transparency from public officials. Citizens at all levels must be
able to recall their politicians, members of the various Houses, and
their representatives when they no longer fulfill their obligations.
Attention should be paid to reaching groups that are most likely to be
victims of corrupt practices, particularly women and youths. Likewise,
legislators and other public officials should be conscious of the fact
that they are there to represent people and are accountable for their
exercise of power.

**SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES**

Continue advocacy efforts for increased public awareness and
participation, transparency and accountability issues.

In targeted states, NGOs and CBOs should mobilize and educate women and
youth on the importance of good governance. They should also be
encouraged to promote anti-corruption practices and policies.

**Continue support of building the capacity of civil society to monitor
local and state government activities.**

The formation of coalitions of CBOs at both local and state government
levels to monitor government activities should be facilitated. Women\'s
coalitions should be particularly strengthened to act as watchdogs and
engage as partners in the anti-corruption crusade.

Advocate for the adoption of a code of conduct and ethics for public
officials.

To effectively fight corruption, legislators, particularly women
legislators, should be educated on their legislative roles and
functions. As the main check and balance to the executive branch, the
legislator should be properly educated on the importance of good
governance, and the need to inculcate high levels of integrity and
ethical standards***.***

###  {#section-57}

### Advocate for the merits of enacting a gender sensitive budget.

Intense advocacy at legislative level on the need for a gender sensitive
consideration of the budget would ensure that budgetary allocations are
fair to the interests of both men and women. In the process, greater
allocations in spheres of society where the achievement of gender equity
can be promoted or leveraged would be achieved.

###  {#section-58}

### Publish and disseminate materials.

Continued support should be provided for the publication and
dissemination of *Legislative Mandate*, the first Nigerian publication
to provide information concerning the activities of the legislative
assemblies and report on civil society legislative advocacy initiatives.

5.  *Enhancing Civil Society Participation in the Policymaking Process*

    Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) have remained a vibrant part of
    Nigeria\'s political landscape. The CSOs' participation in a range
    of issues, including policy dialogue, government oversight, and
    women\'s equity, has increased over the years. In addition, many
    NGOs and local movements are preoccupied with the gender equality
    agenda and the way they can strengthen the agenda at the level of
    policy and government, as well as within their organizations and
    civil society.

    **SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES**

    **Strengthen the capacity of civil society to participate in the
    constitutional building process.**

    Civil society has been largely ignored in the constitutional review
    processes in Nigeria and if a sustainable democracy is to be
    created, non-influential Nigerians such as women and youths need to
    play a greater role in the process. This calls for increased support
    of the capacity of CSOs to effectively participate in constitutional
    reform issues.

    The number of women NGOs in the Citizens Forum for Constitutional
    Reform (CFCR) and similar national coalitions should be increased.
    By doing so, their capacity to advocate for gender-sensitive
    language and protection within the Constitution will be increased.
    Also, there is a need to enhance the capacity of women\'s groups to
    mobilize around a gender sensitive constitutional reform process.

###  {#section-59 .unnumbered}

### Educate the public on the constitutional process. {#educate-the-public-on-the-constitutional-process. .unnumbered}

People's attitudes have to change for the constitutional provisions to
be properly implemented. There is therefore the need to promote
community dialogue on critical issues. In addition, advocacy campaigns
should be enhanced to encourage respect for minority views, including
the opinion of women and youths.

###  {#section-60 .unnumbered}

### Increase advocacy on public participation in the election process. {#increase-advocacy-on-public-participation-in-the-election-process. .unnumbered}

The focus here is on the need to further encourage broad popular
participation in the election process and the importance of increased
participation of women. While Nigerian women have acquired a measure of
economic and social empowerment, this is yet to be translated into
political power.

In this context there is a special need to focus on:

-   Building women\'s involvement into the electoral process.

-   Training youth and women candidates on campaign strategies at all
    levels.

-   Support advocacy aimed at liberalizing political party formation and
    participation.

-   Advancing civil society based voter education programs.

    3.3.6 *Increasing the Capacity to Manage Conflict*

    Nigeria has witnessed myriad of conflicts since independence. The
    conflicts range from social, ethnic, religious and political and
    pose enormous challenges to sustainable democracy. In all of these
    cases, women are the most affected. Ironically, women and girls are
    often neglected in the delivery of assistance and protection during
    conflict and post conflict reconstruction. Therefore, it is
    imperative to bring gender perspectives into the discourse of
    conflict and conflict resolution, especially as the 2003 elections
    near.

    **SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES**

###  {#section-61}

### Promote conflict awareness training.

Targeted interventions of training for networks of women\'s groups and
CBOs involved in conflict mitigation should be encouraged.

Link grassroots women\'s organizations for community mobilization and
advocacy efforts.

Women groups should be brought together to provide community dispute
resolution in areas of conflict.

Advance public awareness of women\'s potential roles in monitoring
conflict in their community.

There is the need to build awareness and support for democracy and
peace. Through advocacy, the media should be encouraged to support these
initiatives. Interventions targeting specialized citizens groups,
including women and youth, should advance peace education and community.

3.  **EMPOWERING WOMEN FOR EFFECTIVE PARTICIPATION IN THE POLITICAL
    PROCESS**

Central to the problem of the inequity in gender roles is women's
participation in decision-making in the political process. Despite the
advances made by women in this sphere, politics and public life remain
overwhelmingly a man\'s world. Since the return to civilian rule in
1979, there has been practically no improvement. Women remain a small
minority at all levels of political representation. For example, after
the 1999 elections, female representation in the Federal House of
Representatives increased from four in 1979 to 13 (out of 360 members).
In the Senate, there was an increase from none in 1979 to three in 1999
(out of 109). At the local government level, there are nine women among
the current 774 LGA chairpersons as opposed to five women in 1979 (out
of 301 LGA Chairpersons). In the 1999 elections, the 36 state houses of
Assembly had twelve female members while the 19 state Houses of Assembly
in 1979 had the same number of female candidates. Out of President
Olusegun Obasanjo\'s cabinet in 1999-2000, 6 of 46 ministers were women;
in 1979, only three out of 50 ministers were women. In Nigeria, there
have only been two elected female deputy governors in 1992 and 1999
respectively. No woman has ever been a state governor. See Figure 1 and
Table 1.1.

The numbers above reflect women\'s low participation and
under-representation in the power structure of Nigeria.
***Unfortunately, it is evident that the trend of neglect of the gender
question in the political power structure still persists and the 2003
elections do not hold much promise for women.*** Despite international
interventions and local attempts to increase awareness of women\'s
issues, such attempts have not translated to increased participation of
women in political and decision-making structures in Nigeria.

The emerging trend from the political party primaries for the screening
and nomination of aspirants that will contest the 2003 elections at the
state and federal levels indicate an almost systematic elimination of
female candidates from the race. The situation was not significantly
better at the local government primaries where most women were also
edged out of the race.

The emerging trend is also an indication of the persistence of
patriarchal attitudes in society and the limited impact of efforts by
NGOs, international agencies and government institutions to promote
gender equality in Nigeria.

These attitudes underscore a nexus of mutually reinforcing obstacles to
women\'s participation. Comparatively low levels of education, skills,
economic resources and self esteem combine to put women in poor
positions to assist themselves in the political arena and challenge
cultural biases.

It therefore appears that the initiatives taken to date have essentially
been cosmetic and devoid of real substance.

### SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES {#suggested-activities-1 .unnumbered}

Increase public sensitization and awareness activities.

There is a need to build on the existing activities to sensitize the
public on what gender is and is not- particularly that it is not a war
between men and women, neither is it about creating a society for only
women or one for only men. Working together to this end, activities
should be addressed from the micro to the macro level, focusing in turn
on the family (family decision-making), the community (community
decision-making), and the wider society (the realm of politics and
government).

###  {#section-62}

### Enhance training for and capacity of civil society.

It is important to target the striking role played by women in
association life. These associations include NGOs, CBOs and other
indigenous and religious associations. The capacity of these CSOs should
be enhanced to enable them to articulate issues of concern to women and
their communities. In the long run, this should contribute to shaping
Nigeria\'s political future, particularly as it concerns women\'s
issues.

Training activities along the CEDPA model targeting CSOs should cover
topics such as mobilization, advocacy, gender and development,
networking and coalition building, transparency and accountability,
program development and management, and community- government relations.

### Raise awareness of politicians and political party officials.

This activity should target politicians at the three tiers of
government. The aim should be to sensitize the politicians on the need
to treat women\'s issues as an integral part of the structural question
in the Nigerian society, and to incorporate gender equality on an
integrated political agenda. For instance, there is an urgent need for
advocacy to address the following:

\(a\) Systemic barriers in the electoral system and procedures, which
limit women\'s ability to participate.

\(b\) Political agenda and constituency needs imbalance.

\(c\) Treatment of women and their issues as key concerns within the
context of the wider party interests.

\(d\) Encouragement of women and gender-supportive male politicians to
champion women's issues as political alternatives.

\(e\) Development of political campaigns around issues that have an
appeal to women.

### Continue advocacy and capacity building of women in politics.

As it is elsewhere in the world, women in Nigeria contribute to the GDP
in often unacknowledged ways. For these and many reasons there is the
urgent demand for an enabling environment for women's participation in
politics. To this end activities should be targeted at women as:

-   Party supporters and voters

-   Politicians

-   Elected/appointed representatives

    In addition efforts should concentrate on:

-   Increasing access to appropriate information on the political
    process, civic culture and ethics, democratic norms, the
    institutions of governance and politics, constituency building,
    feminization and true concern for gender equality. Continual
    awareness and sensitization on the need to capitalize on a women\'s
    agenda in order to enhance women\'s democratic experiences is
    imperative.

-   Enhancing the personal skills of elected/appointed women to enable
    them to take on the added role of promoting the gender agenda. Often
    times, gender is not a priority for women in appointive and elective
    representation. With their multiple identities, gender has to
    compete for relevance and often the gender game is played as a last
    resort when the women are faced with choices.

    **5. FINDINGS**

    5.1 Identification of the Critical Gender Based Constraints to
    Equitable Participation and Access of Men and Women to Programs and
    Services in SO5. (See Table 1.2)

    **Discriminatory cultural/religious prejudices and practices**

    The cultural and religious practices of many contemporary societies
    serve to subjugate women to men and undermine women's individual
    self-esteem. The overall impact of the negative cultural norms has
    been to engender low regard for women and place her at disadvantage
    vis-a-vis her male counterparts.

**Attitudinal disposition**

a\. *Opinion of traditional and religious leaders*

Attitude is the mind and the mind is action. The way of thinking and the
behavior of both men and women impact gender roles and classification.
Men, as custodians of local customs and religious beliefs, tend to
uphold traditional gender stereotypes and biases against women.

b\. *Men & Women*

> Many men and women do not understand the global advancement of women.
> Thus, there is still a lot of ignorance and misinformation in
> understanding women\'s issues. For many, such issues run contrary to
> traditional African norms and religious doctrines and are seen as
> foreign and constituting a war against men.

# Resource scarcity/financial constraints {#resource-scarcityfinancial-constraints .unnumbered}

Studies indicate that women suffer poverty on a more widespread basis
than men. As a result of expectations based on gender roles, their
experience of poverty is different. This has prompted the term
\"feminization of poverty.\" The situation of poverty is a constraint
making it difficult for Nigerian women to break the vicious cycle.

On the whole the economic plight of women has worsened greatly with:

-   The adoption of the Structural Adjustment Program (SAP).

-   Concentration of women in low-paying jobs as a result of limited
    education and stereotyping of certain jobs as suitable for women.

-   Lack of access to critical factors of production.

**Poor representation of women in governance and government
institutions.**

When we consider women\'s numerical presence at all levels of
decisions-making, their overall educational and technical capacities,
and history of widespread political activism, it is difficult to justify
the present low level of representation by women.

**BASIC SECURITY RELATED PROBLEMS**

**Nature of Gender based CSOs.**

Gender based CSOs are too urbanized and they lack organic connections
with rural areas. Additionally, their activities are donor driven and
often times the CSOs have poor capacity for their activities.

**Policy Inconsistency.**

Efforts aimed at the economic and political empowerment of women have
been characterized by policy inconsistency and discontinuity as
successive governments/regimes have adopted different approaches and
policies.

2.  The Strategies and Approaches which USAID Can Use to Enhance
    Accessibility and Equitability of its Programs

    **[Increased Advocacy]{.underline}** as a means of influencing
    decision makers to adopt or change policies and democratic
    practices. Women organizations should be encouraged to concentrate
    their activities on:

    \(i\) Building and strengthening solidarity among women through
    information, education and sensitization activities.

    \(ii\) Seeking accountability from elected representatives on their
    commitment to gender concerns.

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(iii) Establishing databases on women capacity building.

      **[Raising Skills]{.underline}**

      \(i\) A thorough skills and expertise program should be instituted
      to build the strategic capacity of grassroots and community
      organizations, NGOs, women\'s groups, and opinion leaders to
      participate more effectively in civil society and hold public
      officials accountable.

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(ii) Women should be encouraged to acquire the skill of working together
     in groups to politically influence the administrative organs of
     government. NGOs should provide training programs on leadership,
     self-esteem, public speaking and self-assertion - also, political
     campaigning to assist women and girls to encourage them to take
     leadership positions. This is aimed to prepare women for
     participation in elective positions. In recognition of the fact
     that men have a role to play in bringing about gender equality and
     fostering women\'s participation in development, NGOs should target
     men in gender training programs.

Political parties should also be targeted to:

\(i\) Examine party structures and procedures and remove all barriers
that discriminate against the participation of women.

(ii) Incorporate gender issues in the political agenda and ensure that
     women participate at the leadership level on equal footing with
     men.

**[Networking]{.underline}**

Networks of institutions addressing gender issues and diverse cultural
and regional requirements should be encouraged to:

-   Sustain and reform political culture through workshops seminars,
    capacity building of NGOs and CBOs.

-   Recommend policies and advocate for policy analysis through
    publications and workshops.

**[Sensitization Awareness Building]{.underline}**

Public and political education and awareness building programs should be
launched at all levels but particularly at the grassroots level to make
all Nigerians and those involved in policy-making positions recognize
that the democratic agenda must include efforts to improve the lot of
women. Through systematic education and gender sensitization/ awareness
training of the public, changes in the general perceptions and attitudes
regarding women\'s roles in politics and decision making should be made.

**[Advancement of Programs]{.underline}** to build on grassroots
experiences and promote participatory policy processes.

**[New Indicators for Assessment]{.underline}**

There is the urgent need to:

-   Build visible and measurable indices of success into funding
    strategies, and

-   Identify new indicators that will facilitate the reliable assessment
    of USAID\'s programs.

**[Empowerment of Women]{.underline}**

This has been globally recognized as the surest way of counteracting
traditional practices that hinder women\'s participation. This involves:

-   Strengthening the individual and collective capacity of women for
    action.

-   Capacity building, consciousness raising, building self-esteem and
    mind development.

-   Engendering access to and control of resources.

-   Winning equality, autonomy and respect for women within the home.

Channels available for raising awareness about women\'s political rights
include:

-   Formal and informal education

-   Political education

-   NGOs

-   Trade unions

-   Media

-   Business organizations

    2.  Assessment of Key GON Policies and Programs Relating to Gender
        and Identification of Opportunities for Collaboration between
        USAID and GON

a\. ***Constitution***

Primarily, it is the responsibility of the GON to create an enabling
environment for gender equality. Creating such an environment would be
meaningless if it is not expressed in concrete policies, programs and
resources.

The 1999 Constitution, in line with the previous constitutions, has not
integrated women's needs, concerns and human rights into its text (see
sub-section: Gender, citizenship and indigeneity - chapter 1). There is
a need for an inclusive constitution-making process that encourages
women to participate, and allows them to shape the future of their
country and their status within the future.

Gender equality activists continue to express serious reservations about
the character and nature of the state in Nigeria, pointing to
indications of systemic and structural exclusion embedded in its present
framework. For instance, place of origin is given privilege over
residency. With application of the federal character formula, rather
than citizenship and capacity, women are marginalized (see chapters 1
and 4 for further discussion on the limitations of the federal character
formula). Federal character negates the protection of gender concerns
under section 42 of the 1999 Constitution, and this significantly
minimizes women's participation and access to policy and
decision-making. Similarly the emphasis in the Constitution on
registration of political ascendancy puts further barriers before women
who are denied meaningful participation within the existing political
party system.

The ongoing debate on *Sharia* law is another area which has serious
implications for women. While it is acknowledged that Nigeria is a
multi-faith society and people have a right to evoke their religions and
cultures without fear of discrimination, it is important that women
participate in discussions as equals.

It must be stressed that from a gender perspective, there should be
increased advocacy on the need to enact a truly people's constitution.
Constitutional provisions should include:

-   Compulsory implementations of the bringing platform on women's
    representation in executive positions.

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-   Engendering public policies to reflect gender equality as well as
    accommodating the specific needs of women in relation to their
    reproductive rights.

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-   Demystifying laws/legislation by increasing information and public
    enlightenment on rights.

-   Making the language of the Constitution less difficult and technical
    for people to understand.

-   Decreasing the high level of illiteracy in the country.

-   Increasing poor communication avenues.

b\. ***Poverty Alleviation Program***

While much can be said of the Constitution as the supreme norm of the
country, it is important to reflect on other aspects of the state, one
of which is the state's ideological thrust with regard to the gender
question. Whatever merits exist in the Poverty Alleviation Program, a
lot more needs to be said and done if it is going to result in any
significant change for the greatest number of people. The gap between
policy-making, program development and implementation was clearly
demonstrated in the N10 billion allocated in the 2000 budget to poverty
alleviation. It was unclear what percentage of this amount would go
towards addressing the concerns of women, who constitute the majority of
Nigeria's poor. According to unsubstantiated statistics from the
Ministry of Women Affairs, 68% of the voters are women. While 60% of
Nigerians live below the poverty level, 46% live in absolute poverty. Of
this 46 per cent, 70 per cent are women. Using these as indicators it
appears that if women are to make any reasonable impact on Nigeria's
"military democracy," then there must be a focused and consistent effort
for poverty alleviation measures to reach them. These efforts must go
beyond a mere interventionist approach, to one that is sustained and
institutionalized.

GON has put in place the National Poverty Alleviation Program and
allocated 35% to be given to women as beneficiaries. However, women
stand little chance of benefiting from the program because the figure
remains grossly inadequate, and men have been appointed as coordinators
of the program. However, there is a need to impact on government for an
upward revision of the percentage of women beneficiaries of the Program
since the eradication of poverty can only be effective if it starts at
the family level.

c\. *National Policy on Women*

The National Policy on Women adopted by the Obasanjo government is a
significant means of redirecting public policies to promote gender
equality and enhance complementary roles which women and men should play
in development.

The policy thrust is equity, social order and social wellbeing. The
overall goals and objectives of the policy include:

-   Ensuring the elimination of all forms of discrimination against
    women.

-   Ensuring that the principles and provisions as contained in the
    Nigerian Constitution are effectively enforced.

-   Mainstreaming gender perspectives in all policies and programs based
    on a systematic gender analysis at all levels of government. There
    is however a need for advocacy to ensure that the laudable
    objectives contained in the National Policy inform social and
    legislative changes. Therefore, women's organizations should be
    engendered to engage with law and policy makers in the quest to
    transform some of the policy objectives into a more binding law.

**OPPORTUNITIES FOR COLLABORATION**

The Ministry of Women Affairs and Youth Development should be
strengthened to facilitate liaisons with relevant ministries and
agencies in Nigeria, which have the responsibility for women's programs.
Further, through capacity building the women's programs of these
ministries and agencies should be empowered.

2.  **Analysis of the Potential Impacts of the Mission's Proposed
    Strategic Approaches on the Relative Status of Men and Women in
    Nigeria**

On the positive side, the Mission's proposed approaches should lead to:

-   Increased participation of women in democracy and governance
    activities -- and this is imperative to successful democratic
    training.

-   Broadened understanding of critical issues of democratization and
    human rights values within the polity especially as it concerns
    women and gender issues.

-   Increased number of networks established by women to address
    election processes, transparency and accountability, constitutional
    reform and conflict mitigation.

-   A war on poverty whereby the impact of poverty on the life and
    status of women would be addressed and combated. Concerns about
    access to land, agricultural inputs, finance and job creation would
    also be addressed.

On the negative side, the Mission's proposed approached could lead to:

-   Negative assumptions about the impact of the Mission agenda on
    traditional African norms and religious doctrines.

-   Payment of lip-service to women's issues and women's activities
    being characterized by discussing propaganda.

-   Policy change initiatives that emanate from the agenda as "foreign
    or anti-government" and susceptible to challenge.

**6. RECOMMENDATIONS**

###  {#section-63}

### Targeting Media

Build the capacity of local and national media to play a constructive
role in public participation enhancement, conflict reduction and
sustainable democracy through:

-   Youth involvement -- Importance should be attached to building
    awareness and promoting gender consciousness among Nigerian youth.

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-   Continued promotion of open and effective dialogue between CBOs and
    decision makers to positively impact legislative and policy outcomes
    through:

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-   Coalition--building and lobbying efforts

-   Advancement of priority legislative causes

-   Capacity building of CBOs to assist decision makers in drafting
    legislation and policies

**Promotion of a Gender Friendly Media**

There is need for a gender friendly media to advance the cause of women.
To this end, gender based NGOs are called to establish media outfits
devoted to highlighting women's issues and portraying and publicizing
women models of success for the benefits of the masses.

#  {#section-64}

# Coalition--Building 

There should be continued facilitation of and provision of support to
civil society coalitions at all levels of government through:

-   Horizontal streamlining of women focused NGOs and CBOs in order to
    form a more effective women's movement which will mobilize,
    sensitize, and conscientize the populace for gender equality.

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-   The provision of technical and organizational training aimed at
    sustaining the existing and new coalitions.

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-   The provision of technical assistance on advocacy and mobilization
    to existing and new coalitions.

Such sustainable links with agenda objectives and actions drawn by a
broad coalition of CSOs (particularly those focused on women) can
pressure groups in empowering women.

The emergence of women's community-based organizations such as Country
Women's Association of Nigeria, points to new forms of involvement by
women in community affairs, driven by their specific interests, such as
access to micro-credits. This is a promising new development, which over
time, could lead to women promoting their rights more assertively at the
community level.

**Advocacy on the Constitution**

Continue advocacy efforts for including gender-sensitive language and
protection within the Constitution. Also, build the capacity of women's
groups to mobilize around a "people--driven" gender-sensitive
constitution reform process.

**Increasing Participation of Women**

Based on the significant events of the 2003 party primaries, Nigerian
women are likely to remain underrepresented at all levels of government
in the 2003 administration. USAID should address this by working with
women's CBOs at all levels, but particularly at the grass roots level,
to participate in decision-making processes that affect their lives and
those of their communities. CEDPA\'s 100 Women's Groups Strategy is a
useful mechanism to utilize.

**Education and Awareness Raising Programs**

These programs should be launched to help Nigerians recognize that the
democratic agenda must include a special effort to improve the lot of
women in civil society to protect women's rights. Also, girls' education
and training, beginning from the home, should be encouraged to emphasize
self assertion and self-confidence to enable and protect themselves
against the dangerous and disarming antics of the male-folk.

Such education should be provided by the National Orientation Agency,
among others, which would create reasonable public enlightenment
programs in collaboration with the Ministry of Women Affairs at the
federal and state Levels, NGOs, CBOs, the media and traditional rulers
and institutions.

**Advocacy on Cultural/Religious Practices**

There is need for continued advocacy on:

-   The importance of abolishing obnoxious cultural practices that
    offend civil liberties of persons (especially women) through acts of
    legislature that will enact laws and the judiciary who will
    interpret the laws correctly.

-   The manipulation of religion and religious texts which have
    continued to militate against the involvement of women in political
    and civic affairs.

**Advocacy on INEC**

This should address the removal of all forms of encumbrances to women's
participation in politics through INEC. INEC should be persuaded to
discourage money politics and encourage financial limits as done in the
West, persuading political parties to include women in their hierarchies
as a pre-condition for registering and also insist on quotas for women
in elective positions.

**Advocacy on Affirmative Action**

Women need to seek political channels to overcome their political
marginalization. The NCWS as far back as 1986 has demanded a quota of
about 30-40% of positions in cabinet and legislatures for women. This is
a step in the right direction. Since political analysts have
demonstrated that politics is a game of numbers, it is imperative that
women should seek affirmative action to ensure that they form a critical
mass that is necessary to influence decision making in governance.

Legislation has been used in some African countries such as Uganda and
South Africa to boost the status of women and enforce gender equity in
governance. In Uganda, an affirmative action policy has been embedded
since 1995 in the Constitution. Article 32, paragraph 1 states, *"Not
withstanding anything in this constitution, the state shall take
affirmative action in favor of groups marginalized on the basis of
gender, age disability or any other reason created by history, tradition
or custom, for the purpose of redressing imbalances which exist against
them."* For example, in the implementation of affirmative action in
Uganda, each district is expected to vote one woman to parliament. Women
are also expected to compete on their own merit during elections. 40
women were brought to the parliament through affirmative action. Five
other women came in through election so that they had 45 women in
parliament. At the local government level an act was enacted in 1997
stipulating that at least 1/3 of the political leaders as well as
executive members of the local government council should be women.
Consequently, because of these enactments Ugandan women are now
occupying important positions in all government institutions,
parastatals and commissions.

A definite and immediate affirmative action program should be put in
place and vigorously pursued in order to improve the position of women
in decision making at all levels. In addition, efforts should be made
through public education and awareness campaigns to bring the men and
decision-makers at all levels to appreciate and respect the dignity of
womanhood and the protection of children and youth as custodians of the
future.

# Promotion of Economic Growth and Development

USAID should work with the government and NGOs to create an enabling
environment through the promotion of economic growth and development,
the generation of employment, the provision of urban and rural
infrastructure and the provision of social security so as to improve
income, raise the standard of living and strengthen the family. In
particular, there should be support for small scale economic ventures
through the provision of credit and other forms of support to reduce the
level of poverty and economic hardship to the barest minimum.

**Outreach Programs**

Outreach programs using the media should be designed to convey advocacy
messages, educate and influence the public, create awareness of critical
democracy and human rights issues and mobilize communities around
advocacy issues. The outreach should be conducted through the use of
grassroots education, posters, cultural arts performances, Public
Service Announcements (PSA's), town hall meetings, debates, radio drama
series, and call-in-public affairs TV and radio broadcasts.

**7. CONCLUSION**

The struggle for democracy, which women undertake, is essentially a
multi-layered task. It is a battle for democracy on several fronts: at
the level of the state, the community/civil society, and the individual.
In these instances women and men who are engaged in the struggle for
gender equality have to do two things simultaneously.

-   Convince the broader society why it is important for women to have a
    voice.

-   Work to bring about democratic structures which support the needs of
    women.

This means that the processes of engendering democracy are long-term,
slow and often exacting on adherents.

**TABLES AND FIGURES**

![](media/image4.wmf)

# Table 1.1 Proportion of Women holding Political Posts, 1999

  ---------------------------- ---------- ------------ ----------- ----------
                               **Male**   **Female**   **Total**   **%
                                                                   female**

  Ministers/Special Advisers   35         9            44          20.5

  Speakers                     35         1            36          2.7

  Governors                    36         0            36          0.0

  Deputy Governors             35         1            36          2.7

  LGA Chairpersons             765        9            774         1.2

  Councilors                   8,667      143          8,810       1.6

  State Assembly Members       978        12           990         1.2

  Senators                     106        3            109         2.8

  House of Representative      347        13           360         3.6
  Members                                                          
  ---------------------------- ---------- ------------ ----------- ----------

##  {#section-65}

## Table1.2 Factors Militating Against Women's Effective Participation in Politics

It is clear that the barriers to women's political participation are
more socio-cultural than legal, with implications of a psychological
nature. These barriers include:

  ------------------------------ ----------------------------------------
  *Critical gender-based         *Interventions*
  problems identified*           

                                 

                                 

  i\. Ignorance                  Public enlightenment on gender and
                                 women's issues

  ii\. Illiteracy                Increased girls' and women's access to
                                 education at all levels irrespective of
                                 their location and circumstances

  iii\. Poverty                  Implement economic policy and planning
                                 through the Bottom -- Top approach and
                                 creation of credit guarantee schemes for
                                 women, the aged and youths

  iv\. Poor or low self-esteem   Public enlightenment and advocacy on
  which makes women susceptible  women's rights; increased educational
  to the divide and rule         status of women
  strategy (along religious and  
  ethnic lines) often employed   
  by unpopular women leaders as  
  well as men                    

  v\. Lack of confidence in      Focus media attention on strategic
  other women                    issues concerning women, and the need to
                                 support each others' achievement in
                                 public life rather than focusing on
                                 personalities and events; advocacy on
                                 women in high public office to see women
                                 through their primary constituency,
                                 engage in dialogue with political
                                 parties to promote internal party
                                 democracy and transparency

  vi\. Government's policy of    Provision of gender disaggregated data
  "tokenism" in appointments to  for planning and appointment purposes;
  political and decision making  return to merit provision for
  positions                      Affirmative Action, institute an ensuing
                                 political environment/culture

  vii\. Violent and inconducive  Liberalize political party formation and
  political environment (money   participation
  politics, intimidation, and    
  violence)                      

  viii\. Cultural stereotypes/   Advocacy on all cultural and religious
  religious barriers             practices that offend civil liberties of
                                 persons; implement general civic
                                 education in schools and at all levels
                                 on obnoxious cultural/religious
                                 practices; sensitization of traditional
                                 and religious leaders to encourage women
                                 to participate.

  ix\. Harmful traditional       Public enlightenment, sensitization and
  practices                      advocacy on eliminating those harmful
                                 traditional practices

  x\. Violence                   Promotion of dialogue among communities
                                 prone to conflicts; advocacy on ethnic
                                 integration, encouragement of peace

  xi\. Unstated percentage for   Return to merit, provision for
  female representation in       Affirmative Action
  public office                  

  xii\. Inadequate information   All channels of mass communication to be
  in gender/women's gender based utilized to publicize Gender/Women's
                                 activities and issues

  xiii\. Inadequacies of the     Enactment of a truly people's
  Constitution                   constitution
  ------------------------------ ----------------------------------------

**Annex 4**

# SO 12 : SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTUE AND DIVERSIFIED ECONOMIC 

#  GROWTH

( *Prepared by Alice L. Morton, March, 2003)*

As is noted in the Concept Paper, building on experience and success of
the past three years, USAID/Nigeria will continue in the areas of
economic reform and rural growth. Analysis and experience have shown
that three key areas contribute to the degraded state of Nigeria's rural
economy: 1) poor performance in the agriculture sector, 2) inadequate
financial services supporting private-sector expansion, and 3) a poor
environment for private-sector growth. Therefore, the main elements of
the SO, and its results framework will target these three major
constraints.

Most of the effort under this element of the SO "will be directed
towards increasing sustainable agricultural productivity to both improve
food security and contribute to economic growth. The major focus will be
on 1) production and productivity; 2) commercialization and 3)
environmental sustainability". Support to commercialization will focus
on improving domestic and export market opportunities, adding value to
agricultural products and decreasing post-harvest losses" Further,
efforts will be made to leverage investments in agribusiness activities
by identifying key market opportunities and building private-public
alliances. Key elements may include cocoa and other tree crops,
aquaculture and livestock product marketing.

Following on a two-year analytic and piloting process, the Mission now
seeks to increase access of the private sector to critical financial
services

The Government's more recent poverty analysis process has been primarily
confined to the preparation of the Interim Poverty Reduction Strategic
Plan. Despite USAID's support of technical assistance and training to
the GON to ensure that this strategic planning process would be based on
representative stakeholder involvement, it does not appear that gender
considerations were particularly taken into account in the resulting
document.[^14]

These general views...do not necessarily translate into attitudes toward
economic reform.[^15]

The methodology allows dis-aggregation of the survey data by region and
by sex). Thus, when Lagos with 10% of the nation's population, is
considered as a separate region, , level's of satisfaction with the
country's present economic condition appear to rise the further north
one goes, although they are also relatively high in the South West and
the South South. Nearly the same trend may be observed for satisfaction
with government's policy to reduce its role in the economy, although
here Lagos along with the North , South West and South East are more
satisfied than the South South. Again, there is greater acceptance for
enduring hardships for the economy to improve in Lagos, the South West,
the North West and the North East and Middle Belt, while those in the
South East, South South, South West and Middle Belt appear most
favorable toward a market economy. Those least favorable those sampled
in the North West. The report notes that the areas of least satisfaction
are those with relatively higher levels of urbanization and a larger
concentration of manufacturing activities, suggesting those segments of
the public "that have been especially affected by economic decline and
instability in recent years" (2001, p. 66).

We shall discuss the implications for a gendered approach to economic
policy and economic reform below. First, we will turn to the related
questions of agricultural revival and increased agricultural production
and marketing.

Before further summarizing the rural and agricultural situation in
Nigeria, especially in those zones and/or states where USAID is now,
and/or intends to be, funding activities and scaling up those already
tested, it is useful to review the key elements of IFAD's points about
how to address rural poverty in a gendered manner. Though the citation
is long, it fits very appositely into the engendering of the USAID's
Sustaniable Agriculture sub-objective as well as the Financial
Intermediation sub-objective (see below).

> *"• Land reform must be put on the development agenda \--* Most of the
> rural poor depend on farm income, yet usually control little farmland.
> 'New-wave' land reform -- or the redistribution of land through
> decentralized, market-based means -- is a cost-effective strategy to
> reduce poverty through creating small family farms. It also helps
> hired farmworkers, as small farms employ more people per hectare than
> large farms.

-   ***particular groups -- especially women -- merit special
    attention**.* Redressing the disadvantages of women, ethnic
    minorities, hill people, and semi-arid residents helps the efficient
    use of anti-poverty resources.

> *Bias against women remains a persistent problem that harms all the
> poor*. Poor rural women and girls need to be targeted by policies, as
> they constitute the majority of the rural poor whose poverty is often
> reinforced through cultural and/or legal obstacles. The gaps between
> male and female access to assets, education, and influence within
> decision-making institutions are inefficient obstacles to economic
> growth and human development. These gaps are greater in rural areas,
> and greatest for the rural poor. When women are empowered to make
> decisions concerning household resources, especially within the
> context of higher incomes, there are many subsequent benefits in child
> nutrition, health and education.

**"Increased access to assets and technology by the rural poor is
effective, efficient, and equitable.** The rural poor often lack access
to physical assets, especially land, and human assets such as health,
education and nutrition. People without assets tend to be poor because
they rely mainly on selling their labor in poorly paid markets; they
have nothing to sell or mortgage in hard times, and are economically
dependent and politically weak. Lack of human assets stops children from
learning, compels parents to send them to work, and perpetuates poverty.
Furthermore, a lack of access to technology creates obstacles for the
poor to utilize their assets efficiently such that they can compete
within the marketplace.

*"Access to assets and technology is effective in bringing quick relief
from poverty.* Assets empower the rural poor by increasing their
incomes, their reserves against shocks, and the choices they have to
escape from harsh conditions -- their 'exit options.' Assets most help
rural poverty reduction when they are divisible into small low-cost
units. Technology access can alleviate poverty through increasing
agricultural output and other income sources. Key to this process is the
development of \"pro-poor\" technologies. Pro-poor technologies can be
adopted easily at relatively low cost and risk. They also increase
production and efficiency, use labor-intensive means, and contribute to
the economic stability of poor households.

*"Improving the assets and technologies of the rural poor promotes
efficiency by stimulating higher productivity and economic growth.*
Access to different types of assets is beneficial as they strongly
reinforce one another. The poor gain more from some improvement in
health, nutrition and education than from a lot of one and none of the
others" (www.ifad.org)

In 2001, continuing its effort to understand and monitor changes in the
attitudes of Nigerians toward democratic governance and macroeconomic
reform, USAID/Nigeria[^16], funded a second survey on attitudes of a
sample of 2, 900 Nigerians---50% women and 50% men. The baseline survey
had been carried out in 2000, with a sample of 3,603. The sample is
described as nationally representative and The results of the second
survey were published in December 2001. Among the many interesting
findings are the following: that while a majority of those surveyed are
willing to give democracy a chance, despite their lowered expectations,
this same majority are not as convinced about the value of
market-oriented economic reforms. The report notes that the relationship
of values concerning democracy and market economics are ordered in a
particular way. "Free-marketeers are democrats, but democrats are not
necessarily free-marketeers....among those who prefer a market economy
above any alternative, 89 per cent also choose a democratic system of
government. Yet, for those who value democratic government, a much lower
proportion favors a market economy. ....\[D\]emocratic preferences are
more widespread among Nigerians than market values, and it is evident
that many people who support the regime of democracy consider a
state-see a mixture or private sector and public sector economy to be an
appropriate choice."

Once again, IFAD has useful comments to make regarding improving markets
and available of information, so that the poor---women and men---can
seize opportunities.

***"The development of markets for the poor alleviates poverty in the
long term.*** At a time when globalization promises great benefits, the
well-being of the poor is threatened because their ability to seize
opportunities in the market faces severe obstacles. These obstacles can
be overcome through:

-   *Investments in the countryside that facilitate access by the rural
    poor to assets, skills, infrastructure and institutions.* In the
    absence of seed money from the private sector to spawn agricultural
    and rural development, investments to create wealth and alleviate
    poverty in developing countries have increasingly relied on foreign
    aid. As these investments in agriculture have decreased overall by
    two-thirds between 1987-1998, markets for most of the goods produced
    by the rural poor are largely underdeveloped.

*Trade liberalization for the goods produced by the poor*. Global
markets can help the rural poor. Yet, most of the goods they produce
face international trade barriers that must be lifted if the poor are to
be able to market their goods globally as businesspeople: smallholder
farmers, fisherman, herdsman, traders, and artisans alike. With the
development of rural markets and trade liberalization, the non-staple
sector -- which produces cash crops, other food crops, and non-farm
commodities -- will

-   become an increasingly important source of income for the rural
    poor.

***"Influence by the rural poor within* *and over institutions making
decisions affecting their lives.*** Typically, the poor have little
control over their lives and the institutions that shape them.
Institutions mediate the access of the poor to assets, technology,
markets, and the rules that determine whether the poor benefit from such
access. Participation in institutions allows the poor a voice, and gives
them the power to discover and determine means to improve their own
lives, in public affairs and the market. Decentralized institutional
systems often favor the poor in terms of their control over natural
resources, access to financial services, and ability to develop linkages
with NGOs and the private sector. This promotes the empowerment of the
poor, and improves the cost-effectiveness of a range of actions, from
developing new seed varieties, to micro-finance, to rural schools and
public works programs". ([www.ifad.org](http://www.ifad.org/))

This element of participation is crucial, and cannot for long be
simulated through funding to and "oversight" by ministries of local
government, corrupt local elected councils, and the like, both of which
are present in Nigeria and, to a certain extent, are in competition with
CSOs and with traditional influentials, leadership and institutions
(i.e.,chiefs, village headmen, ward headmen, etc.),State Emirs, Caliphs,
Royal Wives, female chiefs, and religious leaders at all levels. As is
noted in the main report, these statuses can overlap, and often do,
which does not necessarily help foster genuine rural participation.
Rather, it is more likely to reinforce habits of hijacking benefits that
are supposedly being directed through such high-status and elected
officials and influentials to the poor majority, including poor women.

##  Annex 5

##  {#section-66}

## S07: IMPROVED SOCIAL SECTOR DELIVERY: EDUCATION AND HEALTH

> *Prepared by Bola Udegbe ,February, 2*003)

#  {#section-67}

# Introduction:

# In conducting a gender analysis of the proposed activities and programs under the SO7 USAID Country Strategic Plan, the aim is primarily to take into consideration gender relations and how it impacts on equitable access to education and health services by males and females in Nigeria. In order to maximise the potential impact of the proposed programs, it is important to ensure that no group of individuals is inadvertently or otherwise disadvantaged due to his or her gender. The broad goal therefore is to achieve gender equity in the participation and access of Nigerian men and women to programs and services. By examining different sex and gender roles and the institutional structures that reinforce inequity, gender analysis of the proposed Country Strategic Plan (CSP) will address the potential effects of gender relations on the program outcomes and the relative status of women.

# Highlights of the Transitional Strategy and Proposed Country Strategic Plan 2004-9

Since the commencement of the Fourth Republic, the Transitional Strategy
(TS) on education and health were separate SOs (3 and 4). The main
objective of the education sector programs was to strengthen Nigeria's
ability to lay the foundation for education reform. The programs under
SO3 aimed at

## Improving literacy and numeracy skills (of teachers and pupils)

## Mobilizing community-based participation in developing priorities for education

## Providing policy support, and 

## Supporting youth workforce development

##  {#section-68}

## The health sector focused on the promotion and use of health and family planning services. The program areas covered included:

## Reproductive Health (RH)/Family Planning (FP): increase in contraceptive protection

## Child Survival (CS): Polio Eradication Initiative, National Committee on Food and Nutrition, Nutrition Policy/Plan of action

## Roll Back Malaria

# The proposed CSP aims to build upon the current transitional strategy using a more streamlined and integrated approach, with emphasis on sustainable development. Furthermore the concept paper proposes an integration of RH/FP, CS and education programs under one strategic objective (SO7). The three main areas of SO7 under the CSP are:

## Demand for Services (Increase in knowledge and skills in communities): This would involve raising awareness, increasing demand and training in advocacy skills.

3.  Increasing access to Quality Service by training health care
    providers and teachers, increasing supply and access, program
    repositioning and improving school quality.

4.  Improving government support for social policies by improving policy
    development and implementation and teacher training curriculum
    reforms.

# This report assesses issues of gender equity in the TS in order to make practical and realistic assessment of the activities under the CSP. The activity involved discussions with SO team members, IPs, NGOs, donor agencies, academics and review of literature (see list of contacts and bibliography).

#  {#section-69}

# Gender-based constraints to equitable participation.

Gender differences are reflected in impact of health and education
sector activities impact on males and females in Nigeria. Tables 1 and 2
are examples of some indicators which reflect disparity between males
and females in the education and health sectors. As literacy rates,
enrolment and attendance ratios make abundantly clear females are at a
disadvantage in educational access, especially in the north.
Furthermore, Table 2 shows that women are disadvantaged in terms of FP
services, particularly those who are uneducated, young and live in rural
communities in Northern Nigeria.

########  {#section-70}

######## **Table 1: Some indicators which have implications for gender equitable access to and participation in education services**

######## **Selected indicators: Male Female**

(%) (%)

Literacy rates in Nigeria 58 41

Literacy rates in Southwest Nigeria (SW) 74 55

Literacy rates in Southeast Nigeria (SE) 74 60

Literacy rates in Northwest Nigeria (NW) 40 22

Literacy rates in Northeast Nigeria (NE) 42 21

Primary school gross enrolment ratio 84 77

Primary school net attendance ratio 57 53

Primary school net attendance ratio (SW) 82 81

Primary school net attendance ratio (SE) 81 78

Primary school net attendance ratio (NW) 32 24

Primary school net attendance ratio (NE) 41 37

Primary school net attendance (urban) 74 70

######### Primary school net attendance (rural) 52 47

*Source: MICS 1999 (FOS/UNICEF, 2000)*

######## **Table 2: Some indicators which have implications for gender equitable participation and access to FP services**

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

######## **Selected indicators: Male Female (%)** (%)

Knowledge of contraceptive methods 83.4 64.4

Knowledge of contraceptive methods (SW) 93.8 87.2

Knowledge of contraceptive methods (SE) 93.4 81.6

Knowledge of contraceptive methods (NW) 72.0 42.2

Knowledge of contraceptive methods (NE) 61.4 35.4

Median age at first intercourse 20.3 17.8

Current use of contraceptive methods (married people) 31.8 15.3

Current use of contraceptive methods (uneducated) 12.0 6.0

Current use of contraceptive methods (primary school educ) 38.2 19.9

Current use of contraceptive methods (urban) 39.3 23.4

Current use of contraceptive methods (rural ) 28.9 12.0

######### Contact of female non-users with FP providers - 89.9

*Source: NDHS 1999 (National Population Council, 2000)*

What are the impediments to equitable participation and access to
educational and health services? Interviews and literature review
revealed several factors at the household, community and institutional
levels which serve as constraints to gender equitable participation (see
Table 4). These factors relate to areas in which USAID currently
operates and to some extent reflect contextualized experiences. For the
education sector, at the household level, the major negative factor
relates to attitudes about the relative worth of educating girls as
opposed to boys and attitudes to women generally. These in turn cause
biases in school enrolment, attendance, retention, early marriage, child
labour (mostly with girls hawking), ignorance/misperceptions and
illiteracy which tend to perpetuate the status quo. At the community
level, there is low involvement of women as teachers or as community
representatives in developing agenda for education, especially in rural
the North. This is because the entry points to several communities are
male dominated, there are more male teachers in public schools, the
school/class environment is not sufficiently gender sensitive. Table 3
summarizes some of these pertinent characteristics as reflected in the
observation of four schools in Kano that were visited during the field
trip undertaken in the course of this assessment:

####  {#section-71}

####  {#section-72}

####  {#section-73}

####  {#section-74}

####  {#section-75}

#### Table 3: Some pertinent characteristics of four schools visited in Kano

> Schools Visited

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
  ***Type of school 1st public 2nd public 3rd public 4th Quar'anic***

  ***Location rural rural*** rural rural

  Male/Female number in IRI class 54/13 48/11 9/1

  Male/Female ratio in IRI class 4:1 4:1 9:1 More males 1:2

  \# Male/Female teachers in the school 14/1 14/2 3/0 More males

  Gender of master teacher Male Male Male Male

  [No of girls in primary six 2 3 1 -\_\_\_\_]{.underline}

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

For the health sectors, socio-cultural impediments grounded in negative
attitude towards women serve as a key factor. Consequently, early or
forced marriage, early initiation to sex, rape, power relations between
teenage wife and older spouse, poverty, illiteracy and ignorance place
women at double disadvantage for access health services. Furthermore,
family/societal disapproval, community gate-keeping by males, and
misperceptions about gender roles and responsibilities in relation to
health matters serve as constraints.

At the institutional level (public and private) access to education and
health services is gendered because of unavailability of gender
disaggregated data, diffusion of responsibility arising from duplication
of efforts and inadequate dissemination and collaboration among
stakeholders. From interviews it was observed that many organizations
are aware of gender mainstreaming of activities, there is little
demonstration of understanding of the essence of the process.
Consequently, there is little sensitivity to gender constraints to
equitable services delivery and responsiveness to bring about positive
changes.

In general, the above discussion shows that in order to address the
gender-based constraints relevant to the education and health sectors,
the following category of people should be focused upon to maximize the
potential of the programs for both men and women:

-   Female teachers

-   Women's organizations, mothers teachers association (in situations
    where men and women are not encouraged to hold joint meetings with
    men), as

-   Community pressure groups to develop community educational/health
    agendas

-   Rural women, illiterate women, young (teenage) women, women in
    northern states (by most indicators, these women have been and
    continue to be disadvantaged in terms to services)

-   Urban, southern males

-   Program implementing organizations

**Table 8 summarizes the gender constraints**

+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## Ge                  | # | # | ## | # |   | ## Effects            |
| nder-based constraints | # | # |  R | # |   |                       |
|                        |   |   | ur |   |   |                       |
|                        | S | R | al | B |   |                       |
|                        | O | e |    | i |   |                       |
|                        |   | g | #  | a |   |                       |
|                        |   | i | #  | s |   |                       |
|                        |   | o | /u | e |   |                       |
|                        |   | n | rb | d |   |                       |
|                        |   |   | an |   |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | a |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | g |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | a |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | i |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | n |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | s |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | t |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   |   |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
|                        |   |   |    | # | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | # | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    | F | M |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 1. Gender bias      | # | # | ## | # | # | ## Less               |
|  in school enrolment,  | # | # |  R | # | # | number of females to  |
|                        |   |   | ,  |   |   | benefit from services |
|                        | E | N | U  | X |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 7 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 6 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 2. Gender bia       | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Less number        |
| s in school attendance | # | # | #  | # | # | of females to benefit |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |                       |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 7 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 7 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 3. Gender dif       | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Less number        |
| ferential in retention | # | # | #  | # | # | of females to benefit |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |                       |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 7 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 8 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 4. Pre              | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Less               |
| ference for Qur'anic,  | # | # | #  | # | # | number of females to  |
| Islamiyyah or less for |   |   | R, |   |   | benefit from services |
| mal school arrangement | E | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 7 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 9 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 5. Child Labour     | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Less number        |
|                        | # | # | #  | # | # | of females to benefit |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |                       |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 8 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 0 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 6. More male teac   | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Absence            |
| hers in public schools | # | # | #  | # | # | of female role models |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |                       |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 8 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 1 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 7. More             | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Fewer female role  |
|  male master teachers  | # | # | #  | # | # |  models, gender insen |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   | sitivity in classroom |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 8 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 2 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 8. Insufficient qua | # | # | #  | # | # | ## L                  |
| lified female teachers | # | # | #  | # | # | ess number of females |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |  to benefit: gender i |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   | nsensitive school env |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { | ironment; reduced par |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # | ticipation of females |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |  in increasing demand |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |  for girls education. |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 8 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 3 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 9. Low inv          | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Inhibit women's    |
| olvement of women in c | # | # | #  | # | # | (community's) support |
| ommunity initiatives a |   |   | R, |   |   |  for increased demand |
| nd agenda development  | E | N |  U | X |   |  for girls' education |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 8 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 4 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 10. Poor phy        | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Environmen         |
| sical/environmental co | # | # | #  | # | # | t perceived to be les |
| nditions of the school |   |   | R, |   |   | s safe for girls part |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   | icularly in the north |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 8 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 5 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 11                  | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Less               |
| .Disabling Environment | # | # | #  | # | # | motivation for increa |
|  -- not sufficiently g |   |   | R, |   |   | sed GER, NER and rete |
| ender sensitive, frien | E | N |  U | X |   | ntion rates for girls |
| dly, or youth friendly | , | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 8 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 6 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 12. Poverty         | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Opportunit         |
|                        | # | # | #  | # | # | y costs for girls edu |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   | cation or seeking hea |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   | lth service is higher |
|                        | , | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 8 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 7 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 13. Illiteracy      | # | # | #  | # | # | ##  Dem               |
|                        | # | # | #  | # | # | and for education (pa |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   | rticularly for girls  |
|                        | E | N |  U | X | X | and health services i |
|                        | , | S |    |   |   | s low; lower CS rates |
|                        |   |   |    |   |   |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   |   |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ##                     | # | # | #  | # | # | ##                    |
|  14. Some intervention | # | # | #  | # | # |  Unequal opportunitie |
| s reinforce the status |   |   | R, |   |   | s and choices for mal |
|  of women (e.g., vocat | E | N |  U | X |   | es and females; femal |
| ional skills training) |   | S |    |   | { | es are exposed to low |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # | er paying occupations |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 8 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 8 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 15. Entry poi       | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Partic             |
| nts in many communitie | # | # | #  | # | # | ipation is higher amo |
| s are usually gendered |   |   | R, |   |   | ng men in the north a |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   | nd women in the south |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 8 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 9 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 16. Accessin        | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Participation      |
| g women is problematic | # | # | #  | # | # |  is lower among women |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |                       |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 9 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 0 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 17. Pe              | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Partic             |
| rceived contradictions | # | # | #  | # | # | ipation is higher amo |
|  with religious doctri |   |   | R, |   |   | ng men in the north a |
| nes and cultural norms | E | N |  U | X |   | nd women in the south |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 9 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 1 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 18. Mispercept      | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Partic             |
| ions about gender role | # | # | #  | # | # | ipation is higher amo |
| s and responsibilities |   |   | R, |   |   | ng men in the north a |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   | nd women in the south |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 9 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 2 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 19. Forced sex      | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Unprepare          |
|                        | # | # | #  | # | # | dness for FP services |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |                       |
|                        | H | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 9 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 3 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 20. Family          | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Deman              |
| /societal disapproval  | # | # | #  | # | # | d for services is low |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |                       |
|                        | H | N |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 9 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 4 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 21. Early mar       | # | # | #  | # | # | ##                    |
| riage/ Forced marriage | # | # | #  | # | # | Unpreparedness for FP |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |  services; ignorance  |
|                        | E | N |  U | X |   | is high; exercise of  |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { | reproductive rights i |
|                        | H |   |    |   | # | s low; lower CS rates |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 9 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 5 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 22. Ignorance       | # | # | ## | # | # | ## Lo                 |
| /incorrect information | # | # |  R | # | # | w demand for services |
|                        |   |   |  U |   |   |                       |
|                        | H | N |    | X |   |                       |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 9 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 6 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ##                     | # | # | ## | # | # | ## Lo                 |
| 23. Missed opportunity | # | # |  R | # | # | w demand for services |
|  to motivate non-users |   |   | ,U |   |   |                       |
|                        | H | N |    | X |   |                       |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 9 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 7 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 24. Relevant implem | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Concer             |
| enting organizations n | # | # | #  | # | # | ns of the most vulner |
| ot sufficiently sensit |   |   | R, |   |   | able groups are not s |
| ive to the gender impl | E | N |  U | X |   | ufficiently addressed |
| ications of activities |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 9 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 8 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 25. Inadequa        | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Concer             |
| te/unavailability of r | # | # | #  | # | # | ns of the most vulner |
| eliable gender disaggr |   |   | R, |   |   | able groups are not s |
| egated reports or data | E | N |  U | X |   | ufficiently addressed |
|                        |   | S |    |   | { |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 9 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 9 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 26. Alcoholism      | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Sexual abu         |
|                        | # | # | #  | # | # | se of women is higher |
|                        |   |   | R, |   |   |                       |
|                        | H | S |  U | X |   |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | { |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 1 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 0 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 0 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 27                  | # | # | #  | # | # | ## Functions are fra  |
| . Diffusion of respons | # | # | #  | # | # | gmented; Lack of shar |
| ibility among the thre |   |   | R, |   |   | ed direction, up to d |
| e tiers of government  | E | N |  U | X |   | ate policies, strateg |
| and among different se |   | S |    |   | { | ies, and coordination |
| ctors within each tier | H |   |    |   | # |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | s |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | e |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | c |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | t |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | i |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | o |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | n |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | - |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 1 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 0 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | 1 |                       |
|                        |   |   |    |   | } |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+
| ## 28. Poor d          | # | # | #  | # | # | ## No coordinate      |
| issemination of existi | # | # | #  | # | # | d efforts to address  |
| ng strategies and plan |   |   | R, |   |   | the concerns of the m |
|  of action (including  | E | N |  U | X | X | ost vulnerable groups |
| standards of practice) |   | S |    |   |   |                       |
|                        | H |   |    |   |   |                       |
+------------------------+---+---+----+---+---+-----------------------+

## E (Education) H (Health) N (North) S (South) U (Urban) R(Rural) 

##  {#section-102}

## Potential Impacts of Proposed Strategic Approaches on the relative Status of men and women in Nigeria. 

##  {#section-103}

## Available literature has shown that (Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) has the potential to improve educational quality and access for girls because it addresses obstacles to female participation. It is expected that literacy and numeracy scores of students in the targeted schools will improve. Consequently, more children will have access to quality education. However, there is a potential for significant gender disparity in favour of boys (particularly in the rural North) in terms of students reached and absence of female role models.

12. Overall, through training of master teachers, teacher training and
    competence in literacy and numeracy would be improved in targeted
    states. This presents increased opportunity for pre-service training
    for primary school teachers and pupils' access to quality education
    in the targeted states. However, significant influence in the
    relative status of female teachers in terms of capacity building in
    the targeted Northern schools may not be achieved.

13. Poverty level is high in Nigeria and education creates increased
    opportunities and choices for success. Data shows that the
    percentage of dropouts is higher for girls than boys. Consequently,
    equipping candidates, particularly young girls (who constitute a
    majority in vocational skills training in Kano and Lagos), with life
    skills in HIV/AIDs and conflict resolution education empowers them
    and reduces their vulnerability.

14. In addition to providing young males and females with a new lease of
    life after dropping out of school, the formal and structured
    vocational training improves their levels of functional literacy and
    numeracy skills, thus increasing the scope for further skills
    development.

15. In the skills training program for out-of-school youths, although
    acquisition of skills in traditional female-oriented trades may seem
    directly marketable, they reinforce subordinate roles of women and
    keep them in low paying jobs.

16. The Community Participation approach incorporated into the programs
    has the potential to increase community level participation, develop
    a sense of ownership and build capacity to influence desired
    positive changes in education and health agendas consistent with the
    needs of the community. However, unless deliberate efforts are made
    to involve females, gender-biased and unrealistic agendas will
    result from male-dominated community groups mostly in Northern rural
    areas. No doubt, gender biased agendas would not adequately take
    care of the needs of every group in the community and would not
    effectively build on the strengths of the neglected group (women).

17. Current strategies tend to benefit educated males and females who
    make use of community-based private and public health facilities,
    particularly in urban areas. It is expected that with this group,
    current strategies will increase awareness, demand for and access to
    services.

18. Low levels of awareness and demand is characteristic of illiterate,
    poor rural, teenage women who have little access to media and health
    facilities. Although, women in seclusion, rural or poor women who
    are not likely to be exposed to clinic-based facility have the
    potential of being reached by traditional birth attendants, a
    concerted effort should me made to impact more on these groups of
    vulnerable women.

19. Women and men in the targeted areas are able to have increased
    access to FP/RH and CS services. Furthermore supply of FP services
    would improve such that more women and men can obtain their desired
    FP method.

20. Increasing male involvement especially in the south, has the
    potential to increase spousal cooperation particularly if men and
    women are targeted as couples.

21. Equipped with knowledge of opportunities and choices available to
    them, women (particularly literate urban women) are empowered to
    exercise their rights and make decisions that will impinge
    positively on their health and those of their children. The
    potential impact will be maximised if several groups of seemingly
    difficult groups such as women's religious groups and
    representatives of young females are targeted.

#  {#section-104}

# Recommendations: strategies/approaches to enhance participation and access

#  {#section-105}

#  {#section-106}

# The relevant strategies and approaches USAID/Nigeria can use to enhance the accessibility and equitability of its programs to men and women are being suggested within the framework of the proposed CSP largely for budgetary considerations. 

***Education***

19. Activities aimed at increasing access to quality services in schools
    should include

    -   Training of female primary school teachers to build capacity in
        effective teaching of numeracy and literacy skills, particularly
        in the northern sites. This can be achieved though increased
        involvement of female teachers in masters training for IRI and
        supporting pre-service training in Women teachers colleges.

    -   Pre-service and in-service training programs should incorporate
        training in gender sensitivity in order to encourage female
        school retention and help schools better achieve their
        curriculum objective.

    -   Periodical review of the scripts and materials (script analysis)
        to ensure that they are not gender-biased in terms of language,
        images of work and family life etc.

20. In the new programme framework, activities to demand for services
    should incorporate

-   Increased involvement of women (as parents, community facilitators
    and teachers) in community education agenda development and
    advocacy.

-   Publicity campaigns to increase female enrolment, retention and
    completion especially in public schools in Northern Nigeria.
    Previous TS strategies may be enhanced by actively involving female
    community facilitators, female teachers, women-based CBOs and
    religious institutions.

-   Activities to enable youths undergoing skills acquisition training
    to transcend the barriers of low-paying traditional female-dominated
    jobs.

21. Social sector policy support activities will benefit both men and
    women if governmental efforts to mainstream gender into education
    policies are provided with technical support and capacity building
    of gender desk officers in various sectors.

22. Support improved policy and curriculum reforms in pre-service and
    in-service training and link between primary and tertiary
    institutions.

23. Promote national literacy program/campaign.

> *Health*

24. NDHS 1999 report shows that 15% of women used any method of
    contraceptives. Also, while the level of missed opportunity to
    motivate non-users was high, 90% did not have any contact with FP
    providers. Therefore activities under the CSP should continue to
    target women through community- based organizations (CBOs) and
    health providers. Attempts to increase demand for FP/RH and CS
    services through improvement in knowledge and skills should also
    target

-   Women (and their children) in seclusion, rural, poor and illiterate
    women particularly in the north.

-   Sexually active adolescents in urban centres

-   Religious institutions (through building partnerships and advocacy).
    The NDHS survey shows that only 2.3% of male and female respondents
    indicated that they were neither Christians nor Muslims. Islam and
    the Catholic church have strong influences in the north and
    southeast respectively. For example, a respondent at the catholic
    secretariat noted thus "We pride ourselves on the fact that we have
    grassroots' presence in terms of our structures in every corner in
    this country". Some IPs under the current transitional programmes
    have made inroads into religious institutions and clinics. Increased
    involvement of women and men through religious-based groups and
    support of leaders, can clear misconceptions about contradictions
    with religion and women and men's religiously prescribed roles. It
    also has the potential of enhancing spousal communications.

25. There are several organizations (public and private) with
    overlapping interests working in similar communities and with
    similar CBOs. The effect is a tendency to recycle the same community
    members through for several programs to the disadvantage of others.
    Efforts should be made to strengthen public/private collaboration in
    drawing up agendas to cover the concerns of different community
    groups. Through regular and open communication and cooperative
    planning, such collaboration would be mutually reinforcing and
    should leverage on other donor activities rather than duplicate
    efforts and resources. This calls for a multi-sectorial and
    multi-agency approach to maximize the benefits of USAID programs and
    activities.

26. Leverage on men's high involvement in reproductive health in the
    north and low levels of utilization of reproductive health services
    in the south by increasing male involvement in promoting support for
    women's reproductive rights and utilisation of health services by
    women.

27. Strengthen IPs, NGOs, government and communities to be accountable
    in terms of being able to provide gender disaggregated report and
    impact assessment . This would enable them create gender sensitive
    management systems and effectively mainstream gender into the
    programmes. (This is applicable to both SOs).

#  {#section-107}

# Governmental policies and programs and opportunities for collaboration between USAID and GON 

Governmental policies and programs that are geared towards improving
gender equity in education include:

-   National Policy on Education (1981, 1985, 1998)

-   Achievement of universal primary education which was later extended
    in 1999 to achievement of universal access to basic education (UBE)
    (up to junior secondary education) ; Basic Education For All

-   The 1992 National Program of Action on Survival, Protection and
    Development of the Nigerian Child (NPA) aimed to achieve 100%
    enrolment and completion rate in primary education. Furthermore, it
    aims to reduce illiteracy rate among adult females from an estimated
    61% to 30.5% by year 2000

-   The National policy on Women (2000)

Activities and programs to provide education for disadvantaged females
and males include:

-   Marketplace workshops for drop-outs

-   Meeting of all inter-ministerial sectors on women's issues

-   Girls' education movement

-   Nomadic education

-   Mass literacy Programmes

In the health sector, policies and activities include

-   National Food and Nutrition Policy (1995)

-   National Program of action on Food and Nutrition

-   National Population Policy for Development, Unity, Progress and Self
    Reliance (1988)

-   Breastfeeding Policy (1994)

-   National Policy on Women (2000)

-   Supporting child rights through the National Council of Child Rights
    Advocates of Nigeria

-   Female Functional Literacy for Health

-   National Program on Immunization

-   National Adolescent Health Policy (1995)

-   Maternal and Child Health Policy (1994)

-   National Health Policy and Strategy (1998)

-   Draft National Policy on Children (2002)

From discussions with various stakeholders, it was observed that more
effective and concrete collaboration between the GON and USAID is
necessary and desirable for a more effective impact of programs. Yet
such collaboration seem problematic. As one of the interviewees
observed:

" Who will drive the process of collaboration between IPs and the
government? IPs try to collaborate but it is difficult. The
collaboration is just on paper."

Areas of collaboration between USAID and government of Nigeria should
include

#  {#section-108}

## Strengthening of information-sharing and collaboration in service delivery between government and NGOs

## Strengthening of interagency gender desk officers to mainstream gender into policies and programs, monitor implementation and evaluation. 

## Strengthen government to be accountable by providing technical support for sustained gender disaggregated data collection, management and efficient use for policy reforms and intervention.

# Gender issues that have the greatest impact on Nigeria's economic development 

##  {#section-109}

## Interviews conducted during the course of this assessment and literature emphasize the significance of improved access to strategic resources as the greatest gender issue that has the potential for significant economic and human development. Despite some level of success achieved by some NGOs and Community Partners of Health in reaching target groups, there are obstacles to achieving intended results because of constraints in providing assistance for income generation. A CPH group observed:

## "We are concerned about income generating activities. How do we train our women /youths to empower them economically? "

No doubt, an integrated and streamlined approach proposed in the CSP for
2004-2009 has the potential to engender sustainable development if it
focuses on increasing access to strategic resources in terms of
education, skills (income) and decision-making. Women being the most
disadvantaged. This stresses the potential multiplier effects of
education and associated economic empowerment for the socio-economic
development of Nigeria. If viewed from a whole systems' perspective, the
interrelation of education with environmental, economic, political and
socio-cultural issues become clearer and justifies a more holistic
approach to project planning. Therefore, future programs should create
links between the SOs not only to avoid duplication but to strengthen
program outcomes from the planning stage.

**Annex 6**

**SO4: INCREASED USE OF FAMILY PLANNING/MATERNAL AND CHILD HEALTH/CHILD
SURVIVAL/ SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS/ HIV/AIDS SERVICES AND
PREVENTIVES MEASURES**

**WITHIN A SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENT**

*Prepared by Eddy Génécé (February 2003)*

***Introduction***

1.  ***The USAID Response to the HIV/AIDS Epidemic in Nigeria***

Nigeria's health indicators are among the worst in West Africa. Nigeria
is also the country with the highest burden of HIV/AIDS in the region.
In an extremely short period, almost 10 years, the prevalence rates
estimated at 1.8% in 1992 have progressed rapidly to about 5.8% and from
high risk groups to the general population. Information gathered in
various reports and from official statistics indicate a large consensus
amongst stakeholders about the severity of the infection. The POLICY
Project, in collaboration with the Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH),
estimates that 3.5 million adults are currently living with HIV. In
2001, Nigeria was ranked third by UNAIDS, after South Africa and
Ethiopia, of nations in Africa with the largest number of HIV infected
people.

The mode of HIV transmission is predominantly heterosexual and
mother-to-child, although transmission from blood transfusion also
appears to be high. According to the POLICY Project, a combination of
many forces is driving this epidemic, including, fear, stigma,
multi-partnering, gender inequity, religious and cultural practices,
ignorance, and poverty. All these factors create an environment
conducive to risky behaviors affecting overall health indicators in all
regions and states of Nigeria.

The USAID Mission is sensitive to the enormous challenges of HIV/AIDS
issues facing Nigeria. To date, USAID is one of the single largest
partners and donors in supporting HIV and Sexually Transmitted
Infections (STI) interventions in Nigeria. During the interval, USAID
spent over US\$100,000 on HIV/AIDS and STI activities with additional
input through other programs managed by Centers for Disease Control
(CDC) and the Academy for Educational Development (AED).

Since 1999, following the commitment of the new, popularly elected,
civilian government, , USAID/Nigeria created Strategic Objective SO4, to
assist Nigeria in its transition to economic, social and political
stability. SO4 links reproductive health, maternal and child health,
sexually transmitted infections, and HIV/AIDS interventions. SO4 is
defined as follows:

**SO4: Increased use of family planning/maternal and child health/ Child
survival / sexually transmitted infections/ HIV/AIDS services and
preventives measures within a supportive environment.**

In 2002, recognizing the signs of increasing government and civil
society concerns about the epidemic, especially among faith-based
organizations and the business community, the Mission expressed its
willingness to earmark funds for on a new expanded HIV/AIDS control
program.

Five main policy decisions appear in the new Concept Strategic Framework
for the period 2004-2009:

-   Creating a new separate Strategic Objective for HIV/AIDS, linking
    HIV/AIDS with tuberculosis; Pulmonary Tuberculosis (PTB) is one the
    most frequent opportunistic infections among AIDS patients.

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-   Targeting high risk prevalence groups (sex workers, transport
    workers, People Living With HIV/AIDS\-- PLWHA).

-   Focusing on regions/states with the greatest needs and potential
    impact.

-   Building the capacity of NGOs and CBOs (community-based
    organizations) with greater capability to develop and implement
    effective HIV/AIDS programs.

-   Under its programmatic objectives: increasing knowledge and behavior
    change vis-à-vis HIV and increasing access to quality services.
    Improving government support for HIV/AIDS policy remains the
    cornerstone of activities to achieve the efforts to stabilize the
    AIDS epidemic.

**2. CHALLENGES AHEAD**

As is the case in many other developing countries facing the AIDS
epidemic, the true magnitude of the epidemic in Nigeria is unknown. This
is due to the weakness of the health surveillance system, a lack of
reporting, and the effect of hidden cases. Consequently, sentinel survey
data and projections are used from a modeling package to project a trend
of the epidemic over time.

In 1991, the FMOH conducted the first sentinel sero-prevalence survey in
Nigeria. In this survey, and the subsequent ones conducted in 1993,
1999, and 2001, the populations selected to estimate HIV sero-prevalence
were pregnant women attending antenatal clinics (ANCs), patients with
sexually transmitted infections (STIs), patients with TB, and female sex
workers (FSWs). These surveys show an increase in HIV infection in
Nigeria: from 1.8 percent in 1991 to 3.8 percent in 1995, to 5.4 percent
in 1999, and 5.8 percent in 2001.

**Regional and States Variations of HIV Prevalence Rates**

Prevalence rates vary from one geopolitical region to another. Large
variations were observed among the "hot spot" states: Eboni (9.3%),
Lagos (6.7%), Kaduna (11.6%), Benue (16.8%), Taraba (5.5%), and Akwa
Ibon (12.5%).

**Variations of HIV Prevalence Rates by Age and Sex**

The HIV survey of 1999 also demonstrated that the greatest impact of HIV
was on young age cohorts; the prevalence rate among youth (20-24) from
the Southeast to the Southwest were 8.4 percent to 4.3 percent
respectively. While in the state of Eboni rates over 10 percent were
found. Females apparently are more vulnerable than males.

As recognized by many experts, the spread of HIV/AIDS has been greatly
influenced by socio-economic and structural factors including poverty,
urban migration, unemployment, gender inequity and factors outside the
control of the individual. In Nigeria, as in the majority of West
African countries, there are many factors that contribute to the
increasing rate of HIV prevalence, such as poverty, gender
disempowerment, social and financial inequality, STIs, social and
religious norms, and political and social change (e.g., labor migration
and ignorance). These factors not only increase the risk of contracting
of HIV, TB, and STIs by increasing vulnerability of the individual, but
also affect the demand for prevention services and adoption of
preventives measures.

According to the 1999 National Demographic Health Survey (NDHS), the
median age at first marriage was 17.9 years (ranging from 14.6 years in
the Northwest to 20.2 years in the Southwest). The NDHS survey reported
8.3% of males 15-19 have had sex by the age of 15 and 16.2% of girls in
the same age group also had sex by the age of 15..

From documentation as well as interviews with health providers and
health managers, data clearly indicate that women, especially girls, are
the ones that suffer the burden of the HIV/AIDS epidemic and its
consequences. However, women and girls have the least amount of access
to services that could prevent them from being infected or from being
stigmatized.

The poor reproductive health status of adolescent Nigerians is due to a
lack of awareness and knowledge of relevant issues among young people,
limited access to services and credible sources of information.

With respect to both reproductive health and HIV/AIDS, a large number of
cultural and religious practices are widely present in Nigeria's
population, and seem to be the strongest driving force of the HIV/AIDS
epidemic among females.

Table I is a mapping of gender problems, their impact on males and/or
females, and their effect

on reproductive health and HIV/AIDS.

Table 1

**CRITICAL GENDER- BASED PROBLEMS BY AREAS AND EFFECTS**

+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| *Critical gender-based  | *  | >   |       | *Effects*             |
| problems identified*    | Ar | *To |       |                       |
|                         | ea | > w |       |                       |
|                         | s* | hom |       |                       |
|                         |    | >   |       |                       |
|                         |    |  it |       |                       |
|                         |    | >   |       |                       |
|                         |    |  is |       |                       |
|                         |    | >   |       |                       |
|                         |    | har |       |                       |
|                         |    | mfu |       |                       |
|                         |    | l?* |       |                       |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
|                         |    | M   | F     |                       |
|                         |    | ale | emale |                       |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| *Reproductive Health,   |    |     |       |                       |
| HIV/AIDS related*       |    |     |       |                       |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 1\. Early and forced    | N  |     |       | Teenage pregnancy,    |
| marriage                |    |     |       | psycho-organic        |
|                         |    |     |       | disorders             |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 2\. Widowhood rights    | S  |     | X     | Disempowerment of     |
| and inheritance rights  |    |     |       | women, making women   |
|                         |    |     |       | vulnerable            |
|                         |    |     |       | economically and at   |
|                         |    |     |       | risk for being        |
|                         |    |     |       | infected by HIV       |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 3\. Permission from     | N  |     | X     | Same as above         |
| sexual partner to use   | ,S |     |       |                       |
| contraceptives          |    |     |       |                       |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 4\. Female genital      | S  |     | X     | Disempowerment of     |
| mutilation (FGM)        |    |     |       | women, violation of   |
|                         |    |     |       | women's human rights  |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 5\. Intolerance, denial | N  | X   | X     | MSM's do not have     |
| towards men having sex  | ,S |     |       | access to health      |
| with men (MSM)          |    |     |       | services and this     |
|                         |    |     |       | increases the         |
|                         |    |     |       | vulnerability of      |
|                         |    |     |       | women to being        |
|                         |    |     |       | infected in bisexual  |
|                         |    |     |       | relationship          |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 6\. Male circumcision   | N  | X   |       | Measures protective   |
|                         |    |     |       | for men against       |
|                         |    |     |       | HIV/AIDS and STIs     |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 7\. Decision-making to  | N  |     | X     | Women are unable to   |
| negotiate safe sex      | ,S |     |       | protect themselves    |
|                         |    |     |       | against HIV/AIDS,     |
|                         |    |     |       | STIs and unwanted     |
|                         |    |     |       | pregnancies.          |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 8\. Domestic sexual     | S  |     |       | Women are             |
| violence                |    |     |       | stigmatized,          |
|                         |    |     |       | increased risk for    |
|                         |    |     |       | STIs and HIV          |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 9\. Being blamed if     | S  |     | X     | Same as above         |
| raped or sexually       |    |     |       |                       |
| abused                  |    |     |       |                       |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 10\. Double standard on | N  |     | X     | Women and their       |
| having multiple sex     | ,S |     |       | offspring at risk for |
| partners                |    |     |       | being infected by     |
|                         |    |     |       | STIs and HIV          |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 11\. Spouses            | N  |     | X     | Increases risk of     |
| hospitality             | ,S |     |       | women to being        |
|                         |    |     |       | infected by HIV &     |
|                         |    |     |       | STIs, decreases self  |
|                         |    |     |       | esteem of women       |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 12\. Woman in Purdah    | N  |     | X     | Deprivation, women    |
|                         |    |     |       | having no access to   |
|                         |    |     |       | services              |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+
| 13\. Female             | S  |     | X     | Spreading HIV and STI |
| prostitution            |    |     |       | amongst the general   |
| permissible             |    |     |       | population            |
+-------------------------+----+-----+-------+-----------------------+

Source: E. Génécé & Gender assessment team, Feb.2003

From interviews conducted with stakeholders and donors, twenty--nine
gender-based problems were identified and thirteen of these affect the
well-being of women and girls and create conditions that expose them
widely to HIV/AIDS, STIs and TB. Gender inequity affects the
reproductive health and HIV/AIDS programming in many ways:

-   In some places, especially in the North, early and forced child
    marriage is very common resulting in high mortality, genital fistula
    and risks of HIV and STIs;

-   The male child is preferred to the female child resulting in
    de-investment in women;

-   Widowhood rites and inheritance rights lead to disempowerment of
    women, increasing their risk;

-   Permission from sexual partner to use contraceptives;

-   Decision-making to negotiate safe sex is not a right for women;

-   Domestic sexual violence such as rape and sexual exploitation is
    widely prevalent;

-   Being stigmatized or blamed if raped or sexually abused women keep
    silent and look for care;

-   Double standard on having multiple sex partners acceptable for men
    and not for women;

-   Chastity before marriage is recommended for females and not for
    males;

-   *Sharia* law which implies physical violence to men suspected of
    adultery; and

-   Spouses' hospitality (regional practices) may encourage men exposing
    their wife to HIV infection and STIs.

In addition to these issues, sexual exploitation, especially of young
girls, is widespread in schools and the workplace. By the age of 16, the
majority of young girls live in dormitories while attending secondary
school, away from the supervision of their parents and exposed to
solicitation by older men.

According to the *National Study of Sexual Exploitation of Children*
conducted in 2001 by the Federal Ministry of Women's Affairs and Youth
Development, two out of five secondary school children **(girls??)**
interviewed admitted to at least one pregnancy. Over 900,000 births to
adolescents occur every year. Approximately 150 out of 1,000 women who
give birth in Nigeria are 19 years old or younger. So the danger is
extremely high for the girl child to have an unwanted pregnancy as to be
infected by HIV/AIDS and STI

Tony Barnett and Alan Whiteside, in *AIDS in the Twenty-first Century*,
report that, based on a study in Nigeria (EDET 1997), a woman may end up
having three sex partners at the same time to make her way through
University: her teacher (to ensure good marks); a 'sugar daddy' to pay
her fees and living expenses; and her boyfriend.

Women also experience unequal social roles and vulnerability compared to
men. The ratio of male to female, which is by now one to one (1:1),
demonstrates the way in which gender inequity affects the incidence
rates of HIV, STIs and TB among women. Therefore, correcting gender
imbalances is a MUST if we want to control the coming wave of the AIDS
epidemic in Nigeria; it will depend upon improving women's social and
economic status as well as increasing men's responsibility.

7\. **Activities of Implementing Partners (IP) Under SO4**

Under SO4, USAID/Nigeria's HIV/AIDS program is being implemented by
eight different US-based development PVOs and for-profits. The size and
the characteristics of their programs cover a large spectrum of
activities from prevention, care and support to capacity building to
distribution of commodities.

**Family Health International (FHI)/IMPACT**

For the period 1999-2001, IMPACT received the largest funding from the
Mission, over \$12 million for HIV/AIDS. FHI's activities, targeting
four states in Nigeria, provide a comprehensive program including BCC,
VCT program, OVC, behavioral surveillance surveys, STI treatment, and
capacity building. High risk populations, specifically sex workers, long
distance drivers, military personnel, and in and out of school youths
are targeted for prevention activities and behavior change. FHI/IMPACT
is also involved in limited care and support programs for orphans and
PLWHAs.

**BASICS II**

BASICS II is working on child survival (CS), including routine
immunization, nutrition and malaria. Through a community-based approach
called CAPA (Catchments Areas for Planning Action), BASICS II is
involved in strengthening community members' awareness of childhood
illnesses and creating demand for services. BASICS II has also built the
capacity of primary health clinics to respond to increased demand for
services. Currently, BASICS II is working in three states: Southeast,
Southwest and the North. Twenty-two local governments (LFA) are being
targeted for interventions and almost 157 CAPAs are functional. In the
South, the male/female ratio is about 6:4 while in the North, it is
predominantly male.

**CEDPA/Nigeria and Africare**

CEDPA's integrated health program for about \$1.8 million addresses
issues of reproductive health, family planning, HIV/AIDS and women's
empowerment through a community-based approach and capacity building at
the grass roots level. It also focuses on facilitating Democracy and
Governance (D/G) programs to empower women.

The two pronged family planning/reproductive health services and D/G
approach seems to work well according to Dr. Nneeka, a senior advisor at
CEDPA; there appears to be synergy between the two.

CEDPA has also been engaged in implementing D/G projects by building the
capacity of civil society, specifically women in development and the
political processes that affect their lives. In this process, CEDPA
operates through partner organizations and grassroots CBOs working on
reproductive health. CEDPA is also providing support on micro- credit
management, social mobilization and community empowerment. A new program
named "PACE" is underway to support greater advancement of women's
participation in the political process. This organization has built up a
wealth of experience in this field. These lessons learned could be a
valuable resource. It is hoped that the Mission will continue to support
and scale- up their best practices.

**Johns Hopkins University/Center for Communications Programs
(JHU/CPP)**

JHU/CPP, in collaboration with the Nigerian Youth Empowerment Foundation
and a network of youth serving organizations in Lagos, has developed a
communication intervention through a Hotline referral system for youth
and young adults. The hotline provides information, confidential
counseling and testing, and related reproductive health issues. The
project also enhances the capacity of youth organizations in
communication skills.

This project is very promising; it could be a perfect channel to target
the hard-to-reach groups such as the PLWHAs, MSMs, drug users and women
victims of sexual abuse. It provides an avenue to learn and discuss "hot
issues", but the coverage of the program is low compared to the
population targeted. A similar experience, the "Blue Line" developed by
the Foundation Promoters Objective Zero-AIDS in Haiti receives over
1,000 calls a month. This hotline has been in operation since May 1998.
There is room for exchange experiences between the two organizations.

**Futures Group International/The POLICY Project**

The POLICY Project, a \$2.2 million activity for 2001-2002, is being
implemented by the Futures Group International. Its aim is to work
primarily at developing a supportive policy environment for HIV/AIDS
programs that facilitate the national response to the epidemic. This
program has been successfully building a very large momentum by creating
awareness and changing attitudes amongst stakeholders.

**AIDSMARK**

The AIDS Social Marketing Project received \$4.5 million for 1999-2001.
Working in collaboration with local partners, PSI/SFH uses a behavior
change communication model to create national demand for condoms and
other HIV/AIDS and reproductive health services. This intervention is
jointly funded by the British Department for International Development
(DFID) and USAID. It is an interesting community-based model aimed at
reaching high risk and non-core groups.

CDC and AED have recently started their interventions. Their activities
cover a wide scope domain which includes: training of providers, peer
education, and building-up the capacity of health facilities and
workplaces**.**

**MAJOR FINDINGS**

8.  In the past two years (2000-2002) a large momentum and spectrum of
    activities have been implemented under the USAID funded program for
    addressing the HIV crisis in Nigeria. SO4's major achievements
    include a successful social marketing program with a 105 million
    condoms sold in FY 2001; development of the Catholic Church's
    national Policy; an awareness campaign reaching 3 million people;
    increasing the capacity of 60 local NGOs; and provision of ongoing
    care and support for PLWHAs. The HIV/AIDS EMERGENCY Action Plan
    (HEAP) framework has clearly been a catalyst in that momentum.
    Although HEAP has its own limitations as a short-term emergency plan
    with good intentions, there remains a need for the country to go
    through a systematic process of designing a national strategic plan.
    Such a process would provide a good opportunity to check and balance
    the gender roles affecting the HIVAIDS epidemic.

9.  Data from various Nigerian behavioral surveys and studies have shown
    an increasing level of awareness of AIDS in almost all groups, but
    still the level of knowledge and risk perception is quite low and
    not sufficient to create a supportive critical mass conducive to the
    adoption of safer behavior. There are also numerous beliefs,
    inaccuracies and myths that could be counter-productive to the IEC
    efforts. In addition, denial, stigma and discrimination, which are
    very strong in parts of the country, pose additional challenges for
    the IEC strategy. Another observation drawn from interviews
    indicates as much as IP as much you have IEC strategy. NACA is aware
    of this issue and a working group has been set up.

10. Data collected from various sentinel surveys indicate an increasing
    HIV prevalence rate among women and youth. This trend of the
    epidemic, named feminization and juvenization, calls for more
    attention from health planners because women and youth represent
    large segments of the total population of Nigieria. Yet in Nigeria,
    gender issues and traditional values place women, especially girls,
    in a more vulnerable situation. Targeted interventions for youth and
    women need to be gender --sensitive so that they can respond to the
    range of gender problems faced by girls and women.

11. Targeting high risk prevalence groups, especially sex workers and
    their clients, is an appropriate and rational intervention.
    Commercial sex work is very commonplace in Nigeria, occurring in
    brothels, residential areas and on the streets. It is prevalent in
    all cities, especially at junction towns where the long distance
    truck drivers stop overnight. Although the actual number of
    prostitutes is unknown, the stakeholders in Nigeria who were
    consulted believe that it is increasing because of the difficulties
    females face in finding ways to earn a livelihood. The majority of
    them practice non-safe sex (over 50 %) and risk perception is low in
    spite of high risk sexual activities.

> There seems to have been a substantial amount of lessons learned from
> female sex workers. On June 6, 2002 organizations with programs in
> this area of health work shared information. The organizations that
> participated in the workshop were: NACAA, USAID, DFID, FHI, PSI/SFH,
> ActionAID, LATH, LifeLINK, SWANN, MSF, and WHED. Again the opportunity
> is at hand to draw a comprehensive behavior change strategy that could
> scale-up in the new expanded USAID program.
>
> In our interviews with stakeholders, two other groups from the larger
> population were identified as eligible for inclusion in the next
> program cycle: men having sex with men-for which no actual data are
> available- and intravenous drug users.

12. Stigma and discrimination are very strong issues in Nigeria; as
    strong as religious and/or moral beliefs. People with HIV/AIDS are
    often thought to be responsible for having contracted HIV/AIDS
    because of a moral fault and/or sexual promiscuity. A 2001 study,
    conducted by the Centre for the Rights to Health (CRH) in
    collaboration with the POLICY project, shows that the majority of
    HIV infected individuals learned of their HIV status during an
    illness or in the course. In essence, they did not benefit from
    pre-counseling and post counseling or support that would help them
    cope with the disease. Two main advocacy groups lead the fight for
    "breaking the silence" and greater participation of PLWHAs: the
    Nigeria AIDS Alliances which has 300 registered members and the
    Women and Children for Hope which is more focused on empowering
    women living with AIDS.

13. Blood supply safety in the context of the AIDS epidemic in many
    countries is the first line of prevention measure against
    transmission of HIV. During the 1990s, the Government of Nigeria put
    a lot effort into overcoming this problem but lack of political will
    from the past military rule as well as lack of resources, stopped
    the momentum. Nigeria, and now the focus on the major prevention
    overshadow the efforts to assist the Ministry of Health to increase
    its capacity to provide safe blood supply to the Nigerian people.
    Blood screening is barely done and the health system continues to
    use paid blood donors. Women and children are the two most
    vulnerable groups who receive blood transfusion. For the sake of
    protecting them against HIV, there is room for updating information,
    policy development, and capacity-building. World Bank Assistance
    could provide funding for this component.

14. PTB is the most frequent opportunistic infection occurring among HIV
    patients. FMOH reported that one third (35%) of PTB patients seen
    during a survey at country level were HIV positive. Comparable rates
    of HIV infection among male and female PTB patients were reported.
    Also, available data from the same survey indicate a large
    proportion of STI patients are also infected with HIV. Nation-wide,
    HIV testing is not performed for TB patients. The consultant had no
    information about the existence of guidelines for HIV TB
    co-infection care management or the wide application of DOTS in
    primary health care facilities system in Nigeria.

**Recommendations:**

Assuming the political climate remains stable during the coming
elections and given the willingness of the Mission to expand their HIV
program to targeting and focusing on high prevalence groups, increased
use of preventive measures, the vulnerability of women and young girls
for getting infected by HIV, it will be necessary for the Mission to
consider correcting gender imbalances which are strongly disadvantaging
women and girls.

19. ***Make women and girls the center of HIV/AIDS interventions and men
    as supporters***. Increasing men's awareness and responsibility
    regarding the consequences of gender inequities for both sexes and
    consideration for men to invest in their own health related to TB,
    STI and HIV. Tuberculosis is an airborne disease and curable could
    be transmitted between both, STI is asymptomatic among women and
    HIV.

20. ***Strategize the VCT approach to reach both men and women.*** VCT
    strategy could be an open avenue to get both men and women to be
    part of prevention measures for their offspring and themselves.
    Creating incentives for both female and male partners to access
    counseling support and prevention information.

21. ***Increase women's empowerment. .***Increase the economic and human
    rights of women through linkage of D/G with reproductive health and
    micro credit programs. This model, which is being implemented by
    CEDPA, seems very promising in improving the demand for reproductive
    health services among women and men.

22. **Are there traditional gender practices where women have
    comparative advantages compared to men**? Conduct research studies
    on gender issues in traditional practices where women have
    comparatives advantages. Explore the channels (to whom, where ) and
    best ways to reinforce and build up women's capacity to promote and
    change their social status. CIDA is willing to collaborate in such
    ventures

23. ***Extensive training on gender issues at all level***. Training the
    network and NGOs/CBOs in gender-based interventions. This type of
    training also needs to be extended to senior level officials at both
    public and private institutions.

24. ***Reaching MSMs as a potential and underground high risks
    groups.*** Advocate for wider tolerance of MSM. Reaching MSMs should
    be considered in the new program. More information needs to be
    collected and analyzed, and peer training and outreach interventions
    can be developed with the objective of reaching sexually active men.

25. ***National services for Youth***. Youth national services is a good
    way to reach the youth, especially in a situation where they are
    more vulnerable to acquiring HIV/AIDS and STIs. UNICEF has already
    started by securing hours for sensitizing youth on HIV/AIDS and
    sexuality. Given the opportunity and the huge demand for national
    services from the Ministry of Education, IPs will have to look for
    collaboration to include gender training in these services.
    Engenderhealth, SMF, CEDPA and ACTION AID are working along these
    lines. More collaboration and mechanisms to look at specificities of
    the regional context are needed.

26. ***Improve sexual communication and negotiation skills for boys and
    girls***. Continuing to create a supportive environment to improve
    sexual communications and negotiation skills among girls and boys in
    school and out of school is an effective way to decrease their
    vulnerability to contracting HIV. Regional variations between the
    North and the Southern regions are among the challenges that the new
    program will face.

27. ***TB/HIV Linkages***

> Linkages between PTB and HIV have increasing cost implications that
> need to be considered. In such linkages, one needs to look at all
> aspects of strengthening for effective HIV/TB and STI interventions,
> including:.

-   Improving existing TB services so that both women and men have
    better access to these services;

-   Designing TB control activities within HIV services and upgrading
    laboratories;

-   Establishing HIV services in TB clinics;

-   Developing protocols for treating HIV related TB as others OI.
    Implications for using best practices (DOTS-HAART) requires
    anti-retroviral drugs; and

-   Training for personnel on equipment and protocols at all levels.

[^1]: . This is distinct from the former "women in development"
    orientation, in which there were special projects or project
    elements that were specifically designed to impact positively on
    women alone, or women and children, while the rest of the program
    was thought to be "gender neutral".

[^2]: The UN Human Development Report for 2002, which is about Good
    Governance, discusses the case of Nigeria as follows : « The
    Nigerian army first overthrew the democratically elected leadership
    (1993) before restoring others to power (1999), which shows the
    central place occupied by the army in the country's affairs. The
    winner of the 1999 elections, President Ousegun Obasajo is a former
    general. Certain offices, particularly those now in retirement,
    continue to exert their political influence by giving generous
    financial contributions to political parties. Many of them are still
    members of the General Assembly, or maintain significant interests
    in important economic sectors, particularly agriculture, banking,
    petroleum and air transport" (Box 2, p 88).

[^3]: Most data in this report come from the 2002 UNDP World Human
    Development Report, *Increasing Democracy in a Fragmented World.*
    Other data are taken from websites, USAID documents, Government of
    Nigeria documents, and other sources, as indicated. Table I is
    adapted from the Populstat Website.

[^4]: Funding for the Assessment was provided by USAID/Washington's WID
    Office under an IQC with DevTech Systems, Inc., with World Learning,
    Inc as a subcontractor. Thanks to the advice of the Mission,
    EGAD/WID agreed to add the services of the third Nigerian team
    member, not originally envisaged, as well as those of a local
    logistical support contractor, Support Management Systems, Ltd.

[^5]: In undertaking this strategy development and establishing its
    results framework, the Mission is undertaking a significant analytic
    agenda. Part of what may make this a best practice example is that
    USAID/Nigeria's senior management has planned the analyses so that
    they precede the elaboration of the Country Strategic Plan, which
    includes the detailed results framework. These analyses are being
    taken seriously as a way of filling in the serious gaps in data of
    all kinds characteristic of Nigeria, as well as providing knowledge
    and policy and programming options for cross-cutting issues and
    specific Strategic Objectives. This Gender Assessment is one which,
    hopefully, will provide some new data, as well as suggestions and
    recommendations that can inform strategy and activity design

[^6]: Dr. Peter Lewis, American University, Personal Communication,
    March, 2003

[^7]: The citation from, a presentation by Anna Kajumulo Tibaijika,
    Executive Director of UNCHS, continues :*"How do we engender the
    eradication of poverty, and its replacement by economic
    development?* UNCTAD has discovered that a fall ofo ver 20 per cent
    in ODA between 1992 and 1999 under cut developing countries' trade
    potential. At the same time, those countries experienced global
    economic integration on an unprecedented scale. It is necessary to
    reviw the effect ths has had on women. In some ways, global economic
    integration has reduced gender disparities, particularly in incomes,
    but in other ways...\[they\] have increased, with women absorbing a
    disproportionate share of economic shocks....Women have been termed
    the 'shock-absorber' of economic adjustment." UNCTAD/UNDP, 2002,
    p.37).

[^8]: The summary tables presented here are meant to be illustrative,
    not exhaustive.

[^9]: A critical assumption for the following discussion is that there
    will continue to be an elected civilian government in Nigeria over
    the Strategy period.

[^10]:
    #  "...the increase in women's participation in politics is threatened at this critical stage and the consequences are alarming for our democracy, which we must sustain with the input of all Nigerians irrespective of gender. Nigerian women were challenged to come out and seek elective offices, and they took up the challenge. .... The unfolding events negate both the assurances given and the principles of democracy since most women are losing out in the ongoing primaries not because they were not qualified to serve Nigeria and Nigerians but because they are women and obstacles have been placed in their way. There is no truth in the claim of the existence of a level playing field for all eligible citizens to participate in Nigeria's political arena without let or hindrance on any basis." 

    #  {#section-4}

[^11]: Ssee particularly IFDC-DAIMINA brochure currently available and
    distributed inter alia.

[^12]: Since the draft RFP had procurement implications for the
    companies fielding the Assessment team, and a sanitized version was
    not available during the team's visit, we can only speculate on what
    is covered.

[^13]: This is not the Annotated Bibliography, which is a separate
    Deliverable under the Scope of Work

[^14]: *The Regional Assessment Study on the Gender Perspective in the
    CCA/UNDAF and PRSP,* funded by UNICEF, UNFPA, UNDP, and ILO and WFP,
    reviewed these processes throughout West Africa, and Nigeria was one
    of five case studies. Part IV of the report deals with the
    guidelines for taking the gender dimension into account in the
    preparation of CCA/UNDAF and PRSP strategies and programmes. This
    section focuses on the importance of the leadership role that should
    be played if stakeholders are to contribute effectively to the
    process. It explains what is entailed in the objectives, strategies,
    priority areas and monitoring and evaluation issues. The overall
    findings were:

    « Gender issues seemed to be a recurrent concern for each of the
    exercises (CCA, UNDAF and PRSP).

    "The gender issue is only addressed in some sections or chapters of
    the documents studied, and never as a cross-cutting approach.
    \[Italics ours\] "The various documents clearly show that the gender
    issue is addressed as a women's issue, especially from the poverty
    standpoint. There is no analysis to identify the social mechanisms
    of poverty, since gender relations are responsible for these
    mechanisms. As mentioned above, the indicators are disaggregated by
    gender and presented as facts. However, they have not been used to
    attempt an analysis of the gender relations that determine or
    explain them."

[^15]: These data were dis-aggregated by sex, but the report only
    presents differences between men and women surveyed if they appear
    significant (Dr. Peter Lewis, personal communication).

[^16]: through the Afro Barometer network, Management Systems
    International, Inc., and Research and Marketing Systems (RMS), a
    Nigerian research firm. USAID/Nigeria AFRO Barometer, DOWN TO EARTH:
    Changes in Attitudes Toward Democracy and Markets in Nigeria (MSI).