# Session No. 39

### Course Title: Disaster Response Operations and Management

### 

### Session Title: Incident Command

## Time: 50 minutes

**Objectives:**

39.1 Define incident command and discuss the historical development of
the concept.

39.2 Identify the structure and principles of incident command.

39.3 Illustrate how incident command is applied in times of disaster.

39.4 Point out the strengths and weaknesses of incident command.

**Scope:**

During this session, the professor discusses why incident command was
introduced and describes the organization and philosophy upon which it
operates. A case study is utilized to illustrate how incident command is
applied in times of disaster. Toward the end of the session, the class
discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the incident command system.
The professor concludes the session by previewing a student assignment
on the topic.

**Session Requirements:**

1.  Instructor Reading:

> Bigley, Gregory A. and Karlene H. Roberts. 2001. "The Incident Command
> System: High-Reliability Organizing for Complex and Volatile Task
> Environments." *Academy of Management Journal* 44(6): 1281-1299.
>
> Britton, Neil R. 1991. "Constraint or Effectiveness in Disaster
> Management: The Bureaucratic Imperative Versus Organizational
> Mission." *Canberra Bulletin of Public Administration* 64: 54-64.
>
> Britton, Neil R. 1989. "Reflections on Australian Disaster Management:
> A Critique of the Administration of Social Crisis." Disaster
> Management Studies Centre, Cumberland College of Health Science,
> University of Sydney: Sydney, Australia.
>
> Britton, Neil R. 1989. "Anticipating the Unexpected: Is the
> Bureaucracy Able to Come to the Party?" Disaster Management Studies
> Centre, Cumberland College of Health Science, University of Sydney:
> Sydney, Australia.
>
> Dynes, Russell R. 1994. "Community Emergency Planning: False
> Assumptions and Inappropriate Analogies." *International Journal of
> Mass Emergencies and Disasters* 12 (2): 141-158.
>
> Federal Emergency Management Agency. 1998. *Incident Command System*.
> Independent Study -- 195. Emergency Management Institute: Emmitsburg,
> Maryland.
>
> Flin, Rhona. 2002. *Incident Command: Tales from the Hot Seat*.
> Ashgate Publishing Company: Burlington, Va.
>
> Flynn, Kevin and Jim Dwyer. 2002. "Fire Department Lapses on 9/11 Are
> Cited." *New York Times*. Saturday, August 3.
> [Http://www.story.news.yahoo.com/n\...s_nyt/fire_dept\_\_lapses_on_9_11_are_cited](http://www.story.news.yahoo.com/n...s_nyt/fire_dept__lapses_on_9_11_are_cited).
>
> Gordon, James A. 2002. *Comprehensive Emergency Management for Local
> Governments: Demystifying Emergency Planning*. Rothstein Associated
> Inc.: Brookfield, Connecticut.
>
> Green, Walter. 2001. *Command and Control of Disaster Operations*.
> Universal Publishers: USA.
>
> Irwin, Robert L. 1989. "The Incident Command System (ICS)." Pp. 133 --
> 161 in Auf der Heide, Erik, *Disaster Response: Principles of
> Preparedness and Coordination.* CV Mosby Company: St. Louis, Mo.
>
> Kipp, Jonathan and Murrey Loflin. 1996. *Emergency Incident Risk
> Management*. ITP: USA.
>
> McEntire, David A. 2006. "Harnessing Technology and Organization."
> *Disaster Response and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for
> Resilience*. New York: Wiley.
>
> Mileti, Dennis S. 1989. "Catastrophe Planning and the Grass Roots: A
> Lesson to the U.S.A. from the U.S.S.R." *International Journal of Mass
> Emergencies and Disasters* 7 (1): 57-67.
>
> Neal, David M. and Brenda D. Phillips. 1995. "Effective Emergency
> Management: Reconsidering the Bureaucratic Approach." *Disasters* 19
> (4): 327-337.
>
> New York City Fire Department. 2002. *McKinsey Report: Increasing
> FDNY's Preparedness*.
> <http://www.ci.nyc.ny.us/html/fdny/html/mck_report/toc.html>.
>
> Perry, Ronald. 2003. "Incident Management Systems in Disaster
> Management." *Disaster Prevention and Management*. 12 (5): 405-453.
>
> Powell, Michael. 2002. "N.Y. Rescuers Disorganized in 9/11 Attack."
> *Washington Post.* August 20, A01.
>
> Schneider, Saudra K. 1992. "Governmental Response to Disasters: The
> Conflict Between Bureaucratic Procedures and Emergent Norms." *Public
> Administration Review* 52 (2): 135-145.
>
> Sikich, Geary W. 1995. "Incident Command Systems: A Perspective on
> Strategic and Tactical Applications." *ASPEP Journal*. 107-116.
>
> Wenger, Dennis, E. L. Quarantelli and Russell R. Dynes. 1990. "Taking
> a Critical Look at the Incident Command System." *Hazard Monthly*. 10
> (3): 8-9 and 12.

1.  Student Readings:

> Bigley, Gregory A. and Karlene H. Roberts. 2001. "The Incident Command
> System: High-Reliability Organizing for Complex and Volatile Task
> Environments." *Academy of Management Journal* 44(6): 1281-1299.
>
> Irwin, Robert L. 1989. "The Incident Command System (ICS)." Pp. 133 --
> 161 in Auf der Heide, Erik, *Disaster Response: Principles of
> Preparedness and Coordination.* CV Mosby Company: St. Louis, Mo.
>
> McEntire, David A. 2006. "Harnessing Technology and Organization."
> *Disaster Response and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for
> Resilience*. New York: Wiley.

3\. Handouts:

What is Incident Command?

ICS Structure

ICS Principles

Assessing ICS

ICS Assignment

**Remarks:**

1.  This session on incident command is closely related to sessions 8
    and 9. The professor should review these sessions in order to point
    out or avoid areas of overlap. Nevertheless, this session is more
    practical in nature (whereas the sessions 8 and 9 are more
    theoretical in nature).

2.  Some practitioners and scholars have dramatically different views
    about the merit of incident command. While incident command is
    rapidly becoming the management strategy among fire fighters and
    other first responders, academic research is less praiseworthy of
    this approach. The professor should help students understand that
    both views have merit, and that some of the disagreement between
    these parties can be resolved by exchanging the word "management"
    for "command" (thus denoting a less authoritarian and more
    cooperative style of coordination).

3.  Students may incorrectly assume that the incident commander will
    always coordinate the entire disaster operation. It is vitally
    important that the professor reiterate that incident command is the
    on-scene management structure that is applicable in routine
    emergencies and small disasters. Even though the EOC may also
    utilize this type of organization, it is in charge of managing a
    much larger disaster operation (possibly to include a number of
    incident commanders).

4.  The professor should help students understand that incident command
    is both a management structure and a set of principles for improved
    coordination. In other words, incident command is an organizational
    arrangement and a method for coordinating response operations in a
    more effective manner.

5.  An excellent case to illustrate the need for improved incident
    management is the 9/11 terrorist attacks in New York city. The
    McKinsey report provides some vivid examples of the challenges of
    effectively implementing incident command. See
    <http://www.ci.nyc.ny.us/html/fdny/html/mck_report/toc.html>.

6.  There are a number of possible guest speakers for this session. Most
    emergency managers will understand the principles and practices of
    incident command. A fire chief will be able to provide first hand
    knowledge of incident command, including real world examples. Police
    departments, hospitals, and public health organizations also have
    their own version of incident command. Inviting representatives from
    each of these organizations may illustrate the benefits and tensions
    of unified command.

**Objective 39.1 Define incident command and discuss the historical
development of the concept.**

Present the following as a lecture:

I. **Incident command** has become the nation's **most important
field-level operations guide/strategy** for first responders.

> A. **Incident command, or the incident command system (ICS),** has
> been defined as:

-   "**A set of personnel, policies, procedures, facilities and
    equipment, integrated into a common organizational structure
    designed to improve emergency response operations of all types and
    complexities"** (Irwin 1989, 134).

> B. **"ICS is the model tool for command, control, and coordination of
> a response, and provides a means to coordinate the efforts of
> individual agencies as they work toward the common goal of stabilizing
> the incident and protecting life, property and the environment"**
> (FEMA 1998, 1-2).
>
> C. The **purpose** of incident command is to **"allow its user(s) to
> adopt an integrated organizational structure equal to the complexity
> and demands of single or multiple incidents without being hindered by
> jurisdictional boundaries"** (Gordon 2002, 12).

D.  Incident command is therefore a **management strategy to facilitate
    a more successful response to emergencies and disasters**.

> E. Note: Incident command is **also known as scene command, incident
> management or the incident management system (IMS)**.

II. Incident command was **created** after the **fire service
    personnel** experienced significant **challenges** while responding
    to a number of **wildfires in California** in the fall of 1970 (see
    Irwin 1989, 135).

> A. After a dry and hot summer, at **least thirteen large fires** were
> ignited in Southern California.
>
> 1\. More than **600,000 acres were burned** and nearly **800
> structures were lost** over a thirteen day period.
>
> 2\. **Sixteen lives were taken** in the blazes.
>
> 3\. The **fires affected property and land in local, county, state and
> federal jurisdictions**.
>
> 4\. The rapid spreading of the **fires necessitated a
> multi-organizational response**.
>
> B. Although the **efforts** to deal with the fires **were heroic**,
> **a number of interrelated shortcomings** were made evident during the
> response.
>
> 1\. **Congress became aware** of the problems and **the United States
> Forest Service was tasked** with the responsibility of **studying what
> went wrong and how these challenges could be overcome** in the future.
>
> 2\. Local, state and federal authorities also formed the
> **Firefighting Resources of California Organized for Potential
> Emergencies (FIRESCOPE)** to review the incident.
>
> 3\. The resulting **reports pointed out the problems** made visible
> during the response to the 1970 fires (Irwin 1989, 135-136; FEMA 1998,
> 1-2).
>
> a\. **Difficulty integrating agencies into a response system**. **More
> than 100 local, state and federal agencies participated** in the fire
> suppression. These organizations **did not always work together** to
> accomplish goals; in most cases, the agencies **performed their
> functions in isolation from others**.
>
> b\. **Poor communications**. **Supervisors could not always contact
> subordinates and other organizations**. This was a result of **limited
> channel capacity on radios and difference frequency usage**.
> **Unfamiliar terminology** also complicated the reception and
> interpretation of messages.
>
> c\. **Insufficient intelligence and prediction**. **None** of the
> responding organizations was **given the responsibility of gathering
> information** about the size and movement of the fires.
> **Information** that did exist was **incomplete and late**.
> **Expertise was not always available to help make decisions** about
> the number of threatened structures, available evacuation routes, and
> possible shelter arrangements.
>
> d\. **Lack of joint planning**. The responding **agencies did not meet
> to discuss the fires and outline a coordinated strategy** to deal with
> them. **This jeopardized safety, and resulted in duplication of effort
> and gaps in service**.
>
> e\. **Inadequate resource management**. All of the above problems
> resulted in **overstaffing** in some areas while there were **scarce
> personnel** for other fires. Resources such as **fire apparatus,
> bulldozers and airplanes were lost, underutilized, or
> over-committed**.
>
> 4\. There was growing awareness that **response operations** must be
> **based on standard criteria**.
>
> a\. **"It must provide for effective operations at three levels of
> incident character: 1) single jurisdiction and/or single agency; 2)
> single jurisdiction with multiple agency support; and 3)
> multi-jurisdictional and/or multi-agency support.**

b.  **The organizational structure must be adaptable to a wide variety
    of emergencies (i.e., fires, flood, earthquake, rescue).**

c.  **It must be readily adaptable to new technologies that may become
    available to support emergency response and management.**

d.  **It must be able to expand from the organizational requirements of
    simple, daily incidents up to the needs of a major emergency.**

e.  **It must have basic common elements in organization, terminology,
    and procedures.**

f.  **Implementation of the system should have the least possible
    disruption to existing agency procedures.**

g.  **It must be simple enough to assure rapid proficiency of new users
    and to ensure low operational maintenance costs" (Irwin, 136-137).**

> 5\. All of **this led to** the development of the **incident command
> system.**

**Objective 39.2 Identify the structure and principles of incident
command.**

Present the following as a lecture:

I. The **incident command system** is based on an organizational
structure which **includes the incident commander(s)** (as well as
information, safety and liaison officers**)** and **four supporting
sections** (planning, operations, logistics, and finance/administration)
(FEMA 1998).

II\. **Incident command** is comprised of the **on-scene leadership**
for the emergency or disaster.

A.  This may initially be the **first person to respond** to the
    incident.

B.  Later on, command will be **taken over by the highest ranking
    official** **in a single organization** or **shared among the
    leadership of several responding agencies** to facilitate
    coordination. Note: incident command may also be **given to the
    person(s)** with the most **expertise in certain disasters or
    response functions**.

C.  **The incident commanders(s) have ultimate responsibility to oversee
    and coordinate response operations**.

D.  **Three officers work with and report directly to the incident
    commander(s)**.

> 1\. The **information officer** works with the **media** to answer
> their questions about the event and **release information** to the
> public.
>
> 2\. The **safety officer monitors the hazardous conditions** of the
> emergency or disaster **to ensure protection** of responding
> personnel.
>
> 3\. The **liaison officer** is the **point of contact between incident
> command and other organizations** responding to the incident.

III. If needed, the **incident commander establishes and works with four
     sections** that facilitate effective on-scene emergency and
     disaster management.

> A. The **planning section**:
>
> 1\. **collects and evaluates information** about the emergency or
> disaster,
>
> 2\. **defines operational priorities** in collaboration with the
> incident commander, and
>
> 3\. **disseminates information** **about the incident and the use of
> resources** during response operations.
>
> B. The **operations section**:
>
> 1\. is **responsible for implementing the strategy** to respond to the
> incident **as determined by the incident commander and the planning
> section**.
>
> C. The **logistics section**:
>
> 1\. **acquires and provides materials, services and facilities** to
> support the needs of responders as directed by the incident commander
> and the operations section.

D.  The **finance/administration section**:

    1.  **has the goal of** **tracking costs**,

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    1.  **completing and filing paperwork**, and

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    2.  **recording expenses** of operations and logistics.

    3.  **Note: this is especially important if there is hope of being
        reimbursed by the federal government in a Presidential
        Declaration.**

IV\. The **incident command system is based on** a number of vitally
**important principles**.

> A. **Common terminology**. Because there are so many response
> organizations involved in the response, **common vocabulary (plain
> English) should be used instead of "ten" codes (i.e., 10-4)**.
>
> B. **Modular organization**. Depending on the nature and scope of the
> emergency/disaster, **the incident command system may consist of the
> incident commander and one responding unit or it may be comprised of
> the incident commander(s), support sections and additional layers as
> needed (i.e., division, branch, strike teams, etc.)**. The system is
> flexible.
>
> C. **Integrated communications**. In order to accommodate each of the
> participating agencies, **a common communications plan is utilized and
> assigned frequencies are clearly identified**.
>
> D. **Unity of command**. As a way to limit organizational confusion,
> **each person reports to one commanding officer only**.
>
> E. **A unified command structure**. When there is more than one
> responding organization, **the command structure expands to include
> all major agencies to facilitate joint decision making**.
>
> F. **Consolidated IAPs**. **The incident commander(s) and planning
> section identify operational goals and produce written incident action
> plans to guide operations** (typically over recurring twelve-hour
> periods).
>
> G. **A manageable span of control**. **Each supervisor should manage
> between three and seven individuals** (with five being the optimal
> number).
>
> H. **Designated incident facilities**. **All of those responding to
> disaster should be made aware of the location of the incident command
> post (ICP), staging areas, camps, helibases, helispots, casualty
> collection points, etc**.
>
> I. **Comprehensive resource management**. **Human, material and
> equipment resources are always checked in, and given assigned,
> available or out-of-service status to consolidate control and maximize
> use of resources**.

**Objective 39.3 Illustrate how incident command is applied in times of
disaster**.

Present the following as a lecture.

I. **Tell the students** that you will **present a fictitious case** and
that you want them to **identify how incident command will function**
during the event. Note: the professor may want to use injects, questions
and answers (Q and A) listed below to guide the discussion.

> A. **A fire breaks out at a very large industrial facility at about
> 2:30 am and the fire department is dispatched to the area**.
>
> Q. **When the fire chief arrives on the scene, what should he/she do
> first?**
>
> A. **The fire chief should survey the situation to determine the
> nature and extent of the fire. He or she may then identify where to
> establish the command post (in an upwind location) and determine
> immediate priorities to fight the blaze.**
>
> B. **After sizing up the fire, the chief notes the appropriate
> location for the incident command post and instructs his/her crew on
> where to lay the hose. He/she warns them to stay far away from the
> fire until he can determine what chemicals are present in the plant.**
>
> Q. **How can the fire chief find out what chemicals are present in the
> plant and if they pose a danger?**
>
> A. **A safety officer can be appointed and asked to find out what
> chemicals are stored/used in the industrial facility. The safety
> officer can obtain information from filed Material Data Safety
> Sheets.**

C.  **After a quick radio call to dispatch, the safety officer
    determines that the plant utilizes toxic gases in its manufacturing
    process. The gas is stored in cylinders which may explode and rocket
    unexpectedly. Fumes from the fires can be deadly if inhaled.**

> Q. **What should the safety officer do with this information?**
>
> A. **He/she should relay it to the fire chief and fellow
> firefighters.**
>
> D. **Upon learning about the hazardous materials in the plant, the
> fire chief tells the firefighters to put on their SCBAs
> (self-contained breathing apparatus) and use a special foam to fight
> the fire. He/she then takes a look at the surrounding area and notices
> an apartment complex that is a few blocks away from the facility. If
> the containers rupture and winds shift slightly to the North,
> dangerous fumes may be taken towards the complex. He/she decides that
> the apartments must be evacuated immediately. The fire chief also
> notes the need to keep people and vehicles out of the area.**
>
> Q. **How can he/she warn and evacuate residents in the apartments?**
>
> A. **He/she can appoint a liaison officer to contact the police and
> begin the evacuation per the chief's orders.**
>
> Q. **How can he/she keep unwanted pedestrians and vehicles out of the
> area?**
>
> A. **He/she tells the liaison officer to have the police control
> traffic. Barricades can be obtained from public works or the
> department of transportation.**

E.  **About this time, the media arrives on the scene and is approaching
    the incident command post to obtain information.**

> Q. **What should the fire chief do?**
>
> A. **He/she will assign a trained individual to be the information
> officer and tell the media what is happening and that an evacuation
> will be necessary.**
>
> Q. **Are there any safety concerns for the media? If so, what should
> be done?**
>
> A. **The fire chief should also tell the safety officer to keep an eye
> on the media and make sure that they remain in the area designated by
> the information officer.**
>
> F. **Thirty-five minutes after arriving, the fire fighters report to
> the chief that the crisis is escalating. Several small explosions have
> been heard and a uniquely colored smoke is being emitted from broken
> windows. It appears** **that the fire is spreading rapidly and that
> additional fire apparatus will be needed. The Red Cross has just
> arrived on scene.**
>
> Q. **How can the fire chief get more help to fight the fire?**
>
> A. **The fire chief can sound a second and third alarm. He/she
> instructs the liaison officer to notify arriving units of where they
> should position themselves to start pushing back the fire. He/she
> tells the liaison officer about the potential need to find shelter for
> the evacuees.**
>
> Q. **Should the fire chief give further instructions to the safety
> officer?**
>
> A. **Yes, he/she should make sure the arriving units and the Red Cross
> understand the situation and dangerous chemicals.**
>
> G. **As the new fire departments arrive, the fire chiefs review the
> status of the incident. Things are continuing to spiral out of
> control. Explosions are now heard more frequently. The ruptured
> containers are spewing liquid which is now running onto the ground and
> spreading the flames in and out of the building.**
>
> Q. **What can the fire chiefs do to better respond to the incident?**
>
> A. **A planning section can be organized to grasp the situation and
> figure out how best to deal with the unfolding disaster.**
>
> H. **Five hours later, the firefighters are winning the battle.
> Unfortunately, the firefighters are running out of the special foam to
> fight the fire. Furthermore, the personnel are extremely fatigued and
> there will be a need to rotate in fresh crews as it will take another
> 4 hours to extinguish the blaze which has gutted the plant.**
>
> Q. **How can the fire chiefs acquire additional foam and rotate in
> additional personnel?**
>
> A. **A logistics section can be created to track down the foam and
> activate mutual aid agreements with nearby jurisdictions.**
>
> Q. **If fire fighters and apparatus come from surrounding cities, what
> are some of the other things that need to be considered?**
>
> A. **The fire chiefs should establish a finance and administration
> section to track resources and record expenses.**
>
> I. **At noon, the fire fighters rotating off duty are very tired and
> hungry. The fire is under control and is expected to be extinguished
> shortly. The fire chiefs note that the leaking chemicals have spread
> to low lying areas around the property.**
>
> Q. **What should be done to take care of his/her fire fighters and
> limit the environmental impact of this incident?**
>
> A. **The fire chiefs can ask the liaison officers to approach the Red
> Cross about providing meals to the tired crew. Logistics should be
> asked to call upon the services of hazardous materials remediation
> companies.**
>
> J. **By 2:30, the mutual aid units have extinguished all fires and are
> beginning to retract the hose. The fire chiefs have been notified that
> the county fire marshal has arrived to begin preliminary
> investigations.**
>
> Q. **What can the fire chiefs do to help the fire marshal investigate
> the incident?**
>
> A. **They can brief him/her on the general area where the fire started
> and what types of chemicals were in the facility.**
>
> K. **Note: At this point, it may be wise to see if the students have
> any questions about the fictitious case study.**

**Objective 39.4 Point out the strengths and weaknesses of incident
command**.

Present the following as a lecture:

I. It is vital that emergency managers and first responders **be aware
of the advantages and disadvantages** of incident command.

II\. **Strengths** of incident command include:

A.  A **logical system of organization** to ensure all disaster
    functions are adequately performed in both small and larger events.

B. **Increased safety** for responders and information for the public.

> C. **Joint planning and operations** for emergencies and disasters.
>
> D. **More realistic expectations** for management processes (e.g.,
> span of control).
>
> E. **Enhanced communication** due to common terminology, closer
> contact among decision makers, and increased ability of supervisors to
> work with subordinates.

F.  **More efficient acquisition of resources,** and improved management
    of personnel and equipment.

> G. **ICS** serves as the **basis for the NRP and NIMS**.

III\. **Weaknesses** of incident command include:

> A. **The term "command"** may imply excessive authority in
> multi-organizational responses (i.e., department heads may fight over
> control rather than recognizing that they need to coordinate joint
> efforts). For this reason, it might be **better to utilize the term
> "incident management"** instead of "incident command."
>
> B. **Incident** **command loses importance in larger emergencies and
> disasters** (i.e., the EOC becomes more critical in widespread
> events).

**Questions to be asked:**

1.  **What is incident command?**

2.  **Who is involved in the incident command post and what do they
    do?**

3.  **What are the four sections of incident command and what are the
    respective roles?**

4.  **Why are the principles of incident command important in a
    disaster?**

5.  **How does one implement incident command in an emergency or a
    disaster?**

6.  **What are the strengths and weaknesses of incident command?**

**What is Incident Command?**

> "**A set of personnel, policies, procedures, facilities and equipment,
> integrated into a common organizational structure designed to improve
> emergency response operations of all types and complexities"** (Irwin
> 1989, 134).
>
> **"ICS is the model tool for command, control, and coordination of a
> response, and provides a means to coordinate the efforts of individual
> agencies as they work toward the common goal of stabilizing the
> incident and protecting life, property and the environment"** (FEMA
> 1998, 1-2).
>
> **The purpose of incident command is to "allow its user(s) to adopt an
> integrated organizational structure equal to the complexity and
> demands of single or multiple incidents without being hindered by
> jurisdictional boundaries"** (Gordon 2002, 12).

**ICS Structure**

**ICS Principles**

-   **Common terminology**

-   **A modular organization**

-   **Integrated communications**

-   **Unity of command**

-   **A unified command structure**

-   **Consolidated IAPs**

-   **A manageable span of control**

-   **Designated incident facilities**

-   **Comprehensive resource management**

**Assessing ICS**

**[Strengths]{.underline}** **[Weaknesses]{.underline}**

Logical organization The term "command"

Increased safety Applicability to disasters

Joint planning and operations

Realistic expectations

Enhanced communication

Improved resource management

Basis of NRP and NIMS

**ICS Assignment**

**Complete the following tasks:**

**1. Read**

> Bigley, Gregory A. and Karlene H. Roberts. 2001. "The Incident Command
> System: High-Reliability Organizing for Complex and Volatile Task
> Environments." *Academy of Management Journal* 44(6): 1281-1299.

**2. Write a 5 page paper on the topic listed below.**

> Incident command is a management structure based on clear lines of
> authority and a distinct division of labor. Discuss the tension this
> system creates when disasters cross jurisdictional boundaries, involve
> multiple agencies and increase situational volatility. Be sure to
> mention steps that can be taken to increase flexibility during
> response and assess the advantages and disadvantages of ICS in
> disasters. Papers will be graded on: a) whether or not the student
> follows assignment instructions, b) the extent to which the student
> integrates findings from the reading, and c) overall presentation
> (including grammar and spelling).