**1998 Year of the Ocean**

**MARINE EDUCATION, U.S.A.:**

**AN OVERVIEW**

**Contents**

1\. INTRODUCTION K-2

2\. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND K-3

3\. INFORMAL MARINE EDUCATION K-5

4\. K-12 MARINE EDUCATION K-10

5\. HIGHER EDUCATION K-18

6\. ETHNIC MINORITIES K-19

7\. CAREER OPPORTUNITIES K-20

8\. CONCLUSIONS K-21

9\. OPTIONS FOR CONSIDERATION K-22

10\. REFERENCES K-22

11\. LIST OF ACRONYMS K-24

This Year of the Ocean document was prepared as a background discussion
paper and does not necessarily reflect the policies of the U.S.
Government or the U.S. Government agencies that participated in its
preparation.

**INTRODUCTION**

This document provides an overview of marine education in the United
States in 1997. For the purposes of this report, marine education refers
to the education related to the ocean, coastal waters, and the Great
Lakes. Aquatic education is a broader term that includes all inland
waters (rivers, lakes, and wetlands). Environmental education is another
term broader than marine education. These are not directly covered by
this report. Formal marine education is carried out at schools, colleges
and universities. Informal marine education occurs in the media, at
public aquaria, and by various public and private agencies and
organizations.

The Advisory Committee on Protection of the Sea's May 1997 report of the
Oceans and Security Conference, includes the "Potomac Declaration:
Towards Enhanced Ocean Security into the Third Millennium." :

Recognizing that:

> Continuing intensification of human activity in coastal and marine
> areas will adversely affect marine and coastal ecosystems world-wide
> and threatens the well-being of the
>
> human population. The natural resource base of world fisheries is
> threatened by overexploitation, habitat degradation, introduction of
> alien species and loss of biological diversity. Human security is
> threatened by unsustainable food production, increased public health
> hazard and unemployment, which may contribute to escalating human
> conflicts. Humans themselves have entered into conflict with the very
> environment that supports them. It is vital to take immediate action
> to strengthen environmental security if global human security is to be
> sustained;
>
> Climate change threatens to affect ocean levels and temperature, the
> land and peoples living in low elevation coastal regions, and species
> dependent on ocean and land touched by oceans. The oceans play an
> essential role in the planet's climate, though the mechanisms are
> poorly understood; and
>
> Sustainable development, including conservation of the marine
> environment, can actually increase environmental, food and economic
> security and therefore provide a foundation for political security.

Recommendation 10 from the Oceans and Security Conference states:

> "Concerted national and international efforts should be undertaken to
> introduce environmental studies into all levels of formal school
> curricula at a global level, in order to eliminate environmental
> illiteracy, increase environmental awareness, and promote deeper
> environmental ethics. Up-to-date scientific knowledge about the oceans
> should be popularized and disseminated to the public through both
> formal education and creative communication channels such as arts,
> music, and multi-media. In support of this effort, the year 2000
> should be declared as the "Year of Environmental Awareness" by the UN
> General Assembly at its forthcoming Special Session."

**HISTORICAL BACKGROUND**

It is only fitting that any discussion of marine education in the United
States begin with a recognition of the contribution that Benjamin
Franklin made as the publisher of the first chart of the Gulf Stream in
1770. In order to speed up the delivery of mail and goods from America
to Europe, he urged that ships stay in the Gulf Stream to take advantage
of the current. Based on measurements of temperature he took in his
Atlantic crossings in 1775, 1776 and 1785, he advocated using regular
temperature readings to ensure that the ship remained in the relatively
warmer waters of the Gulf Stream. Franklin's cousin, Captain Timothy
Folger of Nantucket, Massachusetts, provided essential information about
the Gulf Stream and assisted in making the first chart. Folger was an
experienced whaling ship captain who was familiar with the North
Atlantic Ocean.

In 1838, the first American scientific voyage of discovery was launched.
The United States Exploring Expedition, under the leadership of U.S.
Navy Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, was a four-year expedition which
resulted in a final report of 19 volumes of maps, text, and
illustrations, including 241 new maps and charts.

Earlier, on August 13, 1825, Midshipman Matthew Fontaine Maury had been
assigned to the USN Frigate, Brandywine, whose first duty assignment was
to return General Lafayette to France following the mourning of the
simultaneous deaths of Thomas Jefferson and John Adams on July 4, 1825.
Maury kept a diary of his observations at sea, and his recordkeeping
expanded in 1831 when he became sailing master of the Falmouth. On
October 17, 1839, Maury was thrown from a stagecoach in an accident and
sustained multiple injuries that precluded his return to sea.
Fortuitously, Maury was reassigned as Superintendent of the U.S. Navy
Depot of Charts and Instruments, later to become Superintendent of the
U.S. Naval Observatory. In these new positions, he assiduously collected
information from ships' logs. His first oceanography book, *The Physical
Geography of the Sea*, was published in 1854 and was followed by seven
revisions. The book was both popular and influential and is an important
milestone in the history of marine education in America.

Two other popular books written in the 19th century by Americans also
contributed to the public's knowledge about the sea. *Two Years Before
the Mast*, by Richard Henry Dana, documented his voyage around Cape Horn
from New England to California. It provided the public with a true,
first hand account of shipboard life and waves and weather across more
than 100 degrees of latitude in two oceans. The other book, Herman
Melville's *Moby Dick*, while a novel, described many aspects of the
life of a whaler and much information about whales and other sea life.
Both books were important early sources of information for the public
about the sea.

Science teachers in New England began receiving the first summer
training in marine biology in the late 1870s under the leadership of
Harvard University's famous naturalist, Alexander Agassiz. In addition
to having founded the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard, he was
also the founder of the first U.S. marine station, the Anderson School
of Natural History on Penikase Island, Buzzard's Bay, Massachusetts.
There, the teachers, who were all women, stayed in a dormitory at Woods
Hole, Massachusetts, and studied local marine life while learning new
techniques using microscopes and dissection instruments. This
represented a new, hands-on approach for pre-college education. Indeed,
the study of science was just being introduced in schools at this time.

Scripps Institution of Oceanography was founded in 1903 and became a
part of the University of California, Los Angeles in 1912. During the
first half of the 20th century, virtually all the U.S. oceanographers
were trained at this institute . It remains a cornerstone of leadership
and research in the oceanographic community and in higher education.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution was originally a marine biological
laboratory and did not offer graduate degrees until the post-World War
II era. In fact, the other leading institutions of higher education in
oceanography did not play a significant role until after World War II.

World War II was a major milestone in marine science and education. Of
course, many people went to sea for the first time. Sea warfare,
especially submarines and aircraft carriers, created new strategic
ocean-related needs. In 1942, the last single volume (1,087 pages) was
published containing everything known about oceanography, *The Oceans*,
by H.U. Sverdrup, Martin W. Johnson, and Richard H. Fleming. The field
of oceanography has grown geometrically since then.

The deep dives by Andreas Rechnitzer, Don Walsh (both U.S. Navy) and
Jacques Piccard in the bathyscaph, Trieste, captured the American pride
in 1959 and 1960 after the cultural shock of Sputnik in 1958. These
dives, the first television shows by Jacques Cousteau, and the emerging
theory of plate tectonics raised the awareness level of the American
public. A new exploratory submarine, Alvin, was launched. Amidst the
excitement, many new ideas emerged. Three had special significance for
marine science and education. One was the theory of plate tectonics,
which forced a rewriting of textbooks at all levels, and a new general
understanding of why earthquakes occur and why they occur where they do.
A second idea came from Dr. Carl Hubbs at Scripps Institution of
Oceanography. He thought a facility that would bring people in proximity
to whales could prove educational. Thus, the idea for Sea World came to
fruition with private sector support. Third, Dr. Athelstan Spilhaus, an
eminent scientist, thought that the United States should enact a Sea
Grant Act patterned after the Land Grant Act but focused on the sea.
With support from the new Dean of the School of Oceanography at the
University of Rhode Island, John Knauss, Senator Claiborne Pell, and
many others, the Sea Grant Act was enacted in 1966.

The period of 1969-1974 was a time for a call to action in the
environmental arena.. It was during this time that the Environmental
Science and Services Administration, later to become the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), was established. Notable
legislation enacted included: the Endangered Species Act, the Marine
Mammal Protection Act; the National Coastal Zone Management Act; the
Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act; the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act; and the Clean Air Act. It was also during this
period that the U.S. Environmental Protection Administration (EPA) was
created. President Richard M. Nixon supported the initiation of the UN
Law of the Sea deliberations and set the agenda for them. He also
supported the UN Resolution on Prevention and Control of Marine
Pollution. From this brief summary of events during his administration,
it is possible that history may come to view President Nixon as one of
the greatest "environmental presidents." .

For marine education in the 1970s, the resonant call to action produced
multiple responses. New aquaria were built and Sea World expanded.
Ocean-related television programs proliferated, with those featuring the
prominent oceanographic explorer, Jacques Cousteau, being among the most
notable. The National Marine Educators Association was established in
1976. The National Sea Grant College Program funded many initiatives in
K-12 curriculum development. Interest and excitement peaked in 1977 with
the discovery of the Galapagos deep sea hot springs and their associated
chemosynthesis-based food web.

The stage is now set for a look at the current state of marine
education.

**INFORMAL MARINE EDUCATION**

**SeaWeb**

"SeaWeb" was established in 1996 by the Pew Charitable Trusts to provide
information about the ocean and ocean-related issues to the public. It
is a multi-media educational organization designed to make the public
more aware of the ocean and ocean life. It does no lobbying. One of
SeaWeb's first endeavors was to contract with The Mellman Group to carry
out a national survey of public attitudes towards, and knowledge about,
the ocean, ocean life, and ocean-related issues.

The results of the SeaWeb survey provide a promising picture on the
level of awareness and importance of marine issues to the public. The
most startling finding was that people (72 percent) believe that ocean
exploration is a higher priority than space exploration. Many people (87
percent) consider the ocean to be important to them. Most people (67
percent) believe the ocean is in trouble. A majority (58 percent)
believe the condition of the oceans has deteriorated in the past few
years, and many (87 percent) see the destruction of the ocean as a
threat to their quality of life. A large majority of the people in this
survey (82 percent) attributed the deterioration and threats to the
ocean to human activity. Although Americans generally want less
government in their lives, 85 percent would like the federal government
to do more to help protect the ocean. Finally, when asked the question,
"Which messenger of information about the environment do you trust a
great deal?", people chose *National Geographic Magazine* (68 percent),
Jacques Cousteau (63 percent), zoos and aquaria (51 percent), and NOAA
(49 percent). Prominent elected officials, regardless of party, were
very low on this list.

The SeaWeb survey establishes the importance of the ocean to the
American public and the readiness of the public to take action to remedy
ocean-related issues. As one of its educational activities, SeaWeb has
begun publishing a monthly, "Ocean Update," focusing on current issues
and providing contacts for further information (website address:
www.seaweb.org). SeaWeb also sponsors a 90- second "Ocean Report" on
National Public Radio and Voice of America with Sylvia Earle.

**Aquaria**

Aquaria, maritime science centers, and museums are currently a major
source of informal marine education for the public. At this time, there
are twenty-seven aquaria around the country, some for-profit, some for
nonprofit. Education is a fundamental goal for all of them. Most aquaria
have extensive educational outreach programs for school children and
children in other groups (Scouts, Boy/Girls Clubs, etc). The outreach
programs include escorted tours at the aquarium, classroom visits by
aquarium staff, books, tapes, and curriculum materials.

Some of the best known of these facilities are Sea World, Monterey
Aquarium, Waikiki Aquarium, the National Aquarium at Baltimore, the New
England Aquarium, the Miami Sea Aquarium, and the Chicago Aquarium. In
1998, a new Maritime Discovery Center will open in Seattle. In 1999, a
new aquarium will open in Charleston, South Carolina, and another in
Long Beach, California, in 2000. New facilities are in the planning
stage in Erie, Pennsylvania, and Denver, Colorado. These facilities are
extremely popular and annually host millions of people to whom they
provide high quality marine education opportunities. This approach to
providing marine education is highly successful. It could possibly be
improved by cooperative input from federal agencies as is now being
initiated through Coastal America, a federal, multi-agency consortium.

**Media**

As indicated by the SeaWeb survey, the national media have an excellent
reputation with respect to informing the public about the ocean. Most
notable is the National Geographic Society . This organization's
magazine has a large public circulation, is relatively inexpensive, and
is in most school libraries. A notable example is the *National
Geographic* issue of November, 1995, whose theme is "Exploring the
Ocean's Bounty: Diminishing Returns." Other efforts by the Society in
partnership with IBM have produced state-of-the-art CD-ROMs on marine
life. It is widely recognized that the Society's television specials are
high quality and popular, which explains why they are often shown on
PBS-TV pledge nights. The National Geographic Society plans a one hour
special for the Year of the Ocean to be shown on NBC-TV in 1998.

Everyone will miss Jacques Cousteau and he can never be replaced. His
role in providing marine education for the world public is unmatched and
unique. He has left a legacy of books and television programs for the
continued benefit of the public. Some other individuals have made
important contributions to informal marine education. In the 1950s, Thor
Heyerdahl captured the attention of the world with his ocean voyages,
books, and films. Currently, Robert Ballard, through his JASON project,
has reached many peopleespecially young people. He has collaborated
with the National Geographic Society in producing television specials.
Another prominent spokesperson is Sylvia Earle, who serves on the Board
of Directors for SeaWeb and has served as Chief Scientist for NOAA.

A recent spokesperson for the ocean, Jane Lubchenko, has gained
prominence as President of American Association for the Advancement of
Science. As a marine biologist studying coastal, rocky-shore ecology,
she has raised the knowledge and awareness of many about the
vulnerability of the coastal zone to human impacts.

There have been many modern books that have made major contributions to
the understanding of the sea by the public. Rachel Carson's books, *The
Sea Around Us* and *Under the Sea Wind*, were both best sellers and have
served to educate and heighten the awareness of the public about the sea
since their publication thirty years ago. A recent best seller, *The
Perfect Storm*, by Sebastian Junger, gives a riveting account of men and
women at sea struggling against the sea and weather. This nonfiction
account of three storms coalescing off New England in October, 1991, is
an excellent source of information about the sea.

Newspapers and national magazines are increasing their coverage of
environmental issues, including the ocean. Global warming is a
high-profile international issue which now has frequent and
comprehensive coverage. The predicted El Nino, 1997-98, has received
similar coverage. Many scientists have been quoted and the media has
made a significant effort to educate the public about the science
involved. Many elements of the national media have increased their
coverage of such ocean-related issues as global climate change, El Nino,
and fisheries. Occasional disasters, such as Hurricane Andrew and the
Exxon Valdez oil spill, have also led to expanded media coverage of the
ocean and subsequent education of the public.

**Federal Agencies**

Identifying the federal agencies involved in informal marine education
is not entirely straightforward. Determining how much these agencies
spend on informal education is an impossible task. The problem is that
many agencies have a general responsibility for education with no
specific staff educators or budget. To a large extent, responsibility
lies in a public affairs office, as in the case of the U.S. Coast Guard.
Then too, it also depends on the definition of informal marine
education. For example, if one includes boater education, The U.S. Coast
Guard plays a large role. For this report, agencies with a budget and
legislative mandate for informal marine education will be highlighted.

In the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the
Department of Commerce, programs in three offices have specific informal
marine education responsibilities. Obviously, the National Weather
Service is a major provider. With more than 50 percent of the nation's
population living within 100 miles of the coast, information about
weather, tides, and waves along the coast is of continuing interest to
the public. The National Weather Service maintains local forecast
offices, provides information on the Weather Channel and other broadcast
outlets for television and radio, and has special severe storm watch
centers. The National Weather Service does an outstanding job of meeting
its informal marine education responsibilities.

The National Sea Grant College Program in NOAA's Oceanic and Atmospheric
Research Division supports informal education through its local programs
in 30 coastal and Great Lake states and Puerto Rico. In Fiscal Year
1997, Sea Grant funds six special informal education projects for
\$486,000. Most of its activities in this area are carried out by marine
educators and marine advisors through local marine extension programs.
The activities are diverse and range from teacher workshops to boater
education and safe handling of seafood. Some of the activities are
community-based efforts such as beach clean-ups. Others are national in
scope such as MarinaNet, which provides information and education to
marina owners and operators, and the Hazard Analysis and Critical
Control Point system, which provides Food and Drug
Administration-approved safe handling techniques to people in the
seafood industry. Testimony in Congress at the recent Sea Grant
reauthorization hearings and a recent study by the National Research
Council endorse the success and high quality of these efforts.

The National Marine Sanctuaries Program and the National Estuarine
Research Reserves System in NOAA's National Ocean Service also have
informal marine education responsibilities. One of their mandates is
"resource protection through enhanced public awareness, understanding,
appreciation, and wise use of the coastal and marine environments."
There are presently 12 sanctuaries and 22 estuarine reserves.
Sanctuaries has been granted special authority to organize "friends"
groups to help support local sanctuaries. Sanctuaries and Reserves both
have education visitor centers for the public and school children. They
provide supplemental school curricular activities, sponsor nature walks,
and publish informative newsletters. These activities are limited in
scope but highly successful and effective at their local sites.

Coastal America is a partnership of representatives of eleven federal
agencies including NOAA, the Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S.
Navy, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the Department of the
Interior. Their activity in informal marine education is to designate
Coastal Ecosystem Learning Centers at various aquaria and to provide
appropriate enrichment materials from each participating agency at the
Centers. This is a new effort and only five learning centers, such as at
the New England Aquarium, are functioning. It shows great potential for
disseminating materials from diverse agencies. Also, Coastal America
offers an opportunity to coordinate informal marine education activities
among the partnering agencies.

The Smithsonian Institution has a long record of high quality informal
education. Each of the Smithsonian museums has its own education
program. None of the museums is specifically marine oriented, although
the Museum of Natural History has many marine exhibits including special
displays, and a traveling exhibit and documentary movie for "1997,
International Year of the Coral Reef." Their outreach effort on coral
reefs has reached millions of Americans during the past year. Their
magazine, *The Smithsonian*, sometimes carries marine-related articles
and has substantial public circulation. The Smithsonian also has another
traveling exhibit called "Project Ocean Planet Awareness."

The U.S. Coast Guard, as previously mentioned, has a significant and
important role in informal marine education. The principal
responsibility rests in the Office of Navigation, Safety and Waterway
Services. The specific responsibilities include enforcement of federal
laws and regulations (and dissemination of knowledge about them),
supervision of local Coast Guard Auxiliary operations, establishment of
pleasure craft safety standards, administration of public education and
training programs (especially regarding handling of all vessels and
pollution control), and liaison with other organizations and state and
local agencies concerned with boating safety and water pollution. The
Boating Education Branch administers an extensive public information
program which includes distributing literature, offering courses, and
making announcements for the media. Recreational boating represents a
\$20 billion dollar industry in the United States with a 10 percent
annual growth rate. The main problem for the USCG is its multiple
responsibilities. It does an outstanding job with limited resources.

The Department of the Interior's National Park Service, through some of
its parks, monuments, and national seashores, maintains site specific
programs in informal marine education. There are visitor centers at each
of these sites with educational exhibits, special programs, nature
hikes, and book stores. The National Park Service has a World Wide Web
site called The Learning Place (http://www.nps.gov/interp/learn.htm)
with many educational materials, especially for teachers.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) provides and supports a
wide array of marine education mechanisms that reach targeted technical
audiences, children, the general public, and industry groups. EPA's
Marine Debris Curriculum, available in both English and Spanish,
provides lesson plans and activities to help teach grade school students
about marine debris, where it comes from, how it can harm the
environment, and what they can do to help reduce the amount of debris
entering marine waters. The National Estuary Program contains a public
outreach and education component, and all 28 estuary programs around the
country include a Citizens Advisory Committee to educate citizens about
threats to their estuaries and involve them in devising solutions to
those threats. Numerous training courses are offered to EPA constituent
groups on topics such as coastal resource protection at the local level,
consensus-building for watershed planning, and volunteer monitoring in
estuarine waters. Technology transfer is also emphasized in many of
EPA's ocean and coastal programs such as an effort underway in the wider
Caribbean to share low-cost methods for managing land-based sources of
marine pollution, and EPA's support of the *Coastlines* newsletter to
provide local communities with a source of applied coastal management
techniques and contacts to protect their coastal watersheds.

**K-12 MARINE EDUCATION**

**National Standards**

The *National Science Education Standards* by the National Research
Council (National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1996) contain almost no
mention of the ocean.[^1] There is no mention of the oceans or life in
the sea in the major sections on Physical Science, Life Science, Science
and Technology, Science in Personal and Social Perspectives, or History
and Nature of Science. The citations above are in Earth and Space
Science. Inferred references can be found in the citations regarding
water, although a knowledgeable person would need to point these out. In
the references to fossils, evolution and biological diversity, the ocean
connection is never explicit. The words "ocean," "sea," "marine," or
even "water," do not appear in the index. This omission is appalling. Of
course, no oceanographers were on the consulting advisory panel. There
is a crucial need for an addendum to the *National Science Education
Standards* detailing how the ocean fits in with the cited standards.

Admiral (ret.) James Watkins, President of the Consortium for Ocean
Research and Education (CORE), recognized this omission and pointed out
that, in fact, the ocean sciences comprise "one perfect implementation
mechanism to meet national standards." In his address to the National
Marine Educators Association conference in Chicago, August 1997, he
said, "The so-called content standards of the *National Science
Education Standards* include categories, each of which I will discuss in
conjunction with utilizing ocean sciences as the ideal implementing
tool." To this end , Admiral Watkins remarked on the following
categories:

> **Unifying Concepts and Processes in Science.** "The science of
> biochemistry, which is one of the most interdisciplinary fields ever
> developed, was invented by marine scientists in order to understand
> the global carbon budget and its role in controlling climate."
>
> **Science as Inquiry.** "Ocean science is still a science of untold
> discoveries. Each research cruise raises as many new questions as it
> answers old ones. Some refer to oceans as the last frontier here on
> earth."
>
> **Physical Science.** "Study of the sea covers every aspect of
> physics, from the classical dynamics of wave theory, to the most
> fundamental aspects of high energy physics related to how sea water
> interacts with deep undersea muons and neutrinos. It is these studies
> which will feed into our understanding of such seemingly unrelated
> subjects as nuclear fusion as an energy source."
>
> **Life Science.** "The ocean holds the key to the origins of life, as
> shown in the chemosynthetic behavior of deep-sea vent biota. How can
> life exist in the absence of sunlight, and often in hostile
> environments prohibitive to their counterparts with which we are
> familiar in shallower waters?"
>
> **Earth and Space Science.** "Even a subject as seemingly remote as
> the study of asteroids is now being addressed through analysis of
> deep-sea cores where sediments have revealed the clues to the
> extinction of dinosaurs 65 million years ago."
>
> **Science and Technology.** "Every aspect of technology, including
> communications, advanced materials, information technology, and sensor
> design, is critical to ocean sciences, and made even more difficult by
> the forces of the operating environment. Arguably, in many aspects,
> deep ocean research is more technologically challenging than studying
> rocks on Mars."
>
> **History and Nature of Science.** "The history of oceanography is one
> of basic research feeding immediately into societal needs \-- defense
> and fisheries are the classic examples, but new issues such as coastal
> hazard mitigation and sustainable development of mineral resources
> will demand even stronger ties between the social sciences and ocean
> sciences."

**Textbooks**

None of the major publishers of public school textbooks publishes one on
oceanography, marine science, or marine biology for the K-12 portion of
formal education. Many publishers have sections of Earth Science
textbooks that relate to the oceans. Most are compendia of facts or
concepts about the ocean such as tides and plate tectonics, which tend
to be complicated. The coverage of other topics in the ocean sciences is
sparse. The authors and editors of these volumes appear to have little
knowledge about the oceans except what they may have read in a college
textbook. They also seem unaware that many children in the United States
have been to the ocean often; after all, 50 percent live within 100
miles of the shore. Many children thus have an experiential base to
build on. There is a major need for a national conference/workshop to
educate the authors and editors of the major textbook publishing
companies about the ocean and how this knowledge can be infused into the
K-12 science and social science curriculum.

**Curricula**

While textbooks in marine education are scarce and inadequate for K-12
education, the same cannot be said for available curricula. The
Consortium for Ocean Research and Education (CORE) is compiling an
inventory of K-12 marine education programs. This is due to be published
in 1998 and will provide much needed information on a national basis.

Federal agencies, especially Sea Grant and the National Science
Foundation (NSF), have funded the development of marine science
curricula for K-12 use. Some of these have been in use for several years
by many teachers, and have been cited for excellence by various
organizations such as the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA)
and the U.S. Department of Education.

The Hawaii Marine Science Studies program was developed by the
Curriculum Research and Development Group at the University of Hawaii.
It is designed as a one or two year integrated science program for
grades 9-14. It is a hands-on, multidisciplinary program with a marine
theme that integrates science, technology, and environmental studies.
The Fluid Earth portion has units on waves and beaches, physical
oceanography, chemical oceanography, and transportation. The Living
Ocean portion deals with fish, invertebrates, plants, and ecology. This
is not a Hawaiian-only program. The program has been reviewed by at
least 50 marine scientists and tested in the classroom by over 400
teachers to date. Clearly, this is a high quality program that fits a
new niche in grades 9-12, namely, a two-year "integrated science" course
for all students. This type of course is especially applicable in
California where the State Science Framework calls for some physical,
life, and earth sciences in each science course.

At the Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, Berkeley, the
Marine Activities Resources and Education program is a comprehensive
ocean exploration program developed for K-8 (elementary and middle
schools) . This program devotes the attention of an entire student body
of a school to the ocean for a week. Students read books and stories
about the ocean, create ocean-related art, listen to music about the
sea, and study ocean-related topics in mathematics, science, and social
science. There are special programs for teachers, parents, and even the
community. This program provides a short but intense and comprehensive
approach to marine education, not just to marine science education.

A new international environmental curriculum is underway that has the
endorsement of the Clinton/Gore Administration. Called "Global Learning
and Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE),". its focus was on
making measurements and observations related to lakes, rivers, and
weather. Recently, GLOBE is expanding to include coastal waters.
Students make measurements and observations based on a GLOBE protocol
and share data via the Internet. To date, more than 3,000 schools in 50
countries are participating.

Under an NSF grant, three curriculum projects spanning K-12 have been
refined and enhanced. They will become available soon on two multimedia
compact discs. The discs will contain all the text and graphics from the
three projects. The three are the Marine Activities Resources and
Education program, FOR SEA (developed by the Marine Science Center at
Poulsbo, WA), and "Living in Water," an aquatic science curriculum for
grades 5-7 developed at the National Aquarium, Baltimore.

"Oceanic Education Activities for Great Lake Schools " was developed at
Ohio State University under the leadership of Dr. Rosanne Fortner. These
are activities that are designed to take a concept or idea from the
existing school curriculum and develop it into an oceanic and Great
Lakes context using teaching approaches and materials appropriate for
grades 5-9. Dr. Fortner has also developed "Great Lakes Instructional
Materials for the Changing Earth System." The topics include fisheries,
shipping, pollution, biodiversity, climate, and estuaries (wetlands).
These were developed mainly with Sea Grant funding.

In 1998, CORE is sponsoring a national "Ocean Sciences Bowl" along with
CORE member institutions and the National Marine Educators Association
(NMEA). This will be the first time a national high school competition
on the ocean is held. Awards will include scholarships, research cruise
participation, visits to ocean research laboratories, computer hardware
and software, and laboratory supplies and equipment. The grand prize
will be a trip to the International Year of the Ocean celebration at
EXPO '98 in Lisbon, Portugal. This bowl will be modeled after the
National Science Bowl, now in its seventh year. There will be regional
competitions (16) followed by a final competition in Washington, D.C.,
during Earth Week in April, 1998. It is expected that teams from up to
500 high schools will compete. Funding is provided by NSF, NASA, NOAA,
U.S. Navy, and other agencies, and private sources. This competition
should provide national visibility for the ocean sciences and be highly
motivational for students. It is great to see such cooperation between
ocean science-related agencies.

A "new kid on the block," the National Ocean Partnership Program (NOPP)
has recently appeared on the marine science education scene. Following a
very short notice and limited Internet announcement, this program has
nonetheless already funded five K-12 ocean-related projects that may
prove to have major national impact potential. These are as follows:

-   "The Bridge: A Marine Education Clearinghouse" is a project to
    provide teachers access to the multiplicity of marine-related
    educational and curriculum materials or, at least, annotated reviews
    of commercial materials. This is an update and extension of a Sea
    Grant-funded project begun over 15 years ago at the Virginia
    Institute of Marine Sciences. "The Bridge" will be developed in
    consultation with the National Marine Educators Association and will
    be linked to NMEA on the Internet.

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-   "JASON IX" will continue under the leadership of Dr. Robert Ballard.
    This is an ocean exploration project which links Dr. Ballard in a
    submersible, usually Alvin, to students at remote, scattered sights
    via telecommunication/satellite. This is a real-time, live, exciting
    experience for students and teachers (and sometimes Dr. Ballard!).

-   "COAST: Consortium for Oceanographic Activities for Students and
    Teachers" builds on the past five years experiences of "Operation
    Pathfinder," the Sea Grant initiated teacher training workshops. It
    also will extend Operation Pathfinder to high school teachers and
    pre-service teachers in training at the college level. As with
    Operation Pathfinder, a shipboard, at-sea experience for teachers is
    included.

-   "Bringing the Ocean into the Pre-college Classroom Through Field
    Investigations at a National Underwater Laboratory" will be carried
    out through Rutgers University and NOAA. There is presently a
    shallow water laboratory located offshore of New Jersey doing
    comprehensive ocean data monitoring. The experimental project will
    be linked to classrooms enabling students not only to learn about
    the nearshore marine environment, but also to appreciate the
    technical problems inherent in real-time ocean monitoring in the
    environment.

-   The University of South Florida will extend its "Project
    Oceanography" live via educational television to middle school
    science students. In Fall, 1997, seven weeks are devoted to coral
    reefs and seven weeks to plankton. NOPP is joined in supporting this
    project by National Geographic Society and five private sector
    corporations (Honeywell, K-Mart, Northern Trust Bank, TASA Graphic
    Arts, and Time-Warner Communications).

Sea Grant has funded fifteen K-12 education projects for 1996-97 at
fifteen different educational institutions from Hawaii to Maine to
Puerto Rico. These projects are for teacher training, curriculum
development, and student field experiences. They include Operation
Pathfinder, which will be publishing 50 activities of its "best of the
best" designed for middle school students by the teacher participants.

The Environmental Protection Agency is funding a compilation of 50 coral
reef education activities for middle school teachers. This effort will
employ both English and Spanish editors. The activities are compiled by
Dr. Sharon Walker, Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, Biloxi, Mississippi.
Teacher workshops will be held in Humacao, Puerto Rico, in summer, 1998,
in conjunction with the annual conference of the National Marine
Educators Association.

In an innovative new program being developed currently with funding from
NOAA's Oceanic and Atmospheric Research Division, real-time
oceanographic data will be accompanied by lesson plans and instructions
for using the data through OAR's home page on the WWW.

**Teacher Training**

The National Science Foundation has funded summer institutes and other
programs to train teachers in marine education. In fact, the author
directed the first summer institute in oceanography for teachers in
1972-73. NSF has recently been funding the "Maury Project" at the U.S.
Naval Academy. This teacher training project was originally a
partnership between the Naval Academy. and the American Meteorological
Society. With its early success, sponsorship has grown and now includes
the U.S. Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command, the Office of Naval
Research, and NOAA's National Environmental Satellite, Data, and
Information Service, and NOAA's National Ocean Service. This project
concentrates on physical oceanography in a two-week summer workshop
including laboratory and ship-board experiences. To date, 76 teachers
have been trained and each summer 25 more are expected to be trained.
After attending, teachers are expected to become "peer trainers" to
conduct local workshops for teachers in physical oceanography. This has
been a highly successful program that deals with a topic rarely or
poorly covered in K-12 curricula.

Sea Grant initiated a teacher- training program called "Operation
Pathfinder," now in its fifth year under the leadership of Dr. Sharon
Walker at the Scott Marine Education Center and Aquarium in Biloxi, MS.
The project name derives from the USN survey ship Pathfinder. Two week
summer workshops are held regionally for elementary and middle school
teachers. In 1997, six were held in Connecticut, North Carolina,
Mississippi, California, Minnesota, and Ponape Island (Mariannas). The
following agencies were co-sponsors with Sea Grant: NOAA's National
Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service, Office of Naval
Research, U.S. Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command, and the
Department of the Interior. Teachers were trained in oceanography and
coastal processes. They also had a shipboard at-sea experience. About
300 teachers have been trained to date. "Operation Pathfinder" was the
basis for an expanded teacher training program called "COAST," which has
been funded by the previously mentioned NOPP.

NOAA maintains a "Teacher-At-Sea" program. Teachers are invited to
participate in fishery cruises under the research program of the
National Marine Fisheries Service. As many as 40 teachers participate
annually. The National Undersea Research Program in NOAA funds an
"Aquanaut Program" which allows some teachers and students to go to sea
to use remotely operated vehicles in research projects. The U.S. Navy
and the National Geographic Society run Project Marco Polo which enables
middle school teachers and students to go to sea on a Navy oceanographic
ship.

Nationally, pre-service teaching and teacher credential programs rarely
provide any special instruction in oceanography. Some universities offer
oceanography or ocean-related courses as electives for those planning to
teach. Teaching methods courses frequently provide information about
water, but rarely about the ocean specifically. Some colleges that train
teachers in dissection techniques do use fish as a vertebrate example;
more generally however, teacher training at universities ignores areas
that pertain to the ocean. One noteworthy exception is Oregon State
University, which offers an MS degree in science education with marine
emphasis for teachers. The teachers go to Newport, Oregon, and take
courses every summer for three years at the Mark Hatfield Marine Science
Center. This is the only degree program in marine education in the
United States and it graduates about five students per year while
maintaining enrollment at fifteen students.

CORE led an education workshop on ocean sciences and K-12 education in
1996 sponsored by NSF. The participants included ocean scientists,
classroom and informal science education experts, and leaders in science
education. The participants agreed on the following general conclusion:

> "\...the workshop participants strongly support the theme that the
> ocean agencies present outstanding opportunities and untapped
> resources for K-12 education, and that oceanographic processes and
> features are ideally suited for constructing and demonstrating
> knowledge and science-based skills in the fundamental principles of
> science across all disciplines, including the social sciences, and
> over a wide range of levels of sophistication. The challenge is for
> the ocean sciences research community and K-12 educators to reach out
> and develop partnerships (both formal and informal) to, over the long
> term, mutually develop new ways to infuse the ocean sciences into K-12
> education at all levels and throughout the curriculum."

The CORE report recommended urgent action in these priority areas:

1.  Develop a formal umbrella partnership directed at ocean sciences and
    K-12 education reform with professional societies and associations
    which share similar goals and concerns. These include, but are not
    limited to: the American Association for the Advancement of Science
    (including Project 2061), the National Science Teachers Association,
    the National Marine Educators Association, the Association of
    Science-Technology Centers, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums,
    The American Geophysical Union, and The Oceanography Society. The
    basic purposes of these partnerships should be to:

a\. facilitate implementation of the recommendations in this report;

b\. ensure the highest standards of quality are met throughout this
process;

c\. foster the development of standards for ocean science literacy;

d\. enhance visibility of ocean sciences in educational reform;

e\. explore new linkages between ocean sciences and education
communities.

2\. Develop, publish and disseminate "Standards for Oceans/Ocean Science
Literacy." In other words, what are the basic knowledge components (by
discipline, such as physics and by topic, such as ocean currents) that
should be understood by students at different grade levels (K-4, 5-8,
9-12) and which can be explored and tested through grade appropriate
inquiry-base study? At the adult level, what should a science literate
person know about the oceans and their influence on global environment
and impact (both now and likely in the future) on the global economy?

> 3\. Issue a policy statement strongly endorsing the need for
> pre-college outreach on the part of ocean science researchers. Federal
> agencies concerned with the support of ocean sciences should advocate
> pre-college outreach by ocean science researchers and include outreach
> as an evaluation criterion in the review of research proposals by
> these agencies. Strong endorsement by funding agencies of the need and
> value of pre-college outreach is particularly necessary in order to
> change the reward system (tenure) for younger faculty at academic
> institutions.
>
> 4\. Prepare a thorough inventory of existing K-12 ocean sciences
> programs and curricula. Initial focus should be placed on gathering
> information on pre-college outreach programs conducted by
> universities. The inventory should then be expanded to include other
> sites and locations through the assistance of the education societies
> including the AAAS, the National Marine Educators Association and the
> National Science Teachers Association. This inventory should be made
> available in readily usable format to classroom teachers and informal
> science educators. In addition, working with scientists and K-12
> educators, standards or guidelines which could be used by teachers and
> educators to judge the quality, currency, and utility of existing K-12
> ocean science education programs should be developed.

Another recommendation called for CORE to expand and enhance its current
home page on the World Wide Web (http://core.cast.msstate.edu) to
include information on K-12 programs and opportunities. This home page
should also "point" to those other home pages in the ocean sciences
research community which include K-12 information. The CORE Home Page
will also be the site for the maintenance and display of an inventory of
current K-12 programs, particularly those involving and impacting
teachers.

Consistent with these urgent needs for action, the universities should
encourage and provide incentives for faculty members to engage in K-12
outreach to teachers and students. These activities could include, but
are certainly not limited to: working with teachers in nearby schools to
help incorporate ocean sciences research into classrooms; designing and
delivering outreach skills-training to faculty and scientists; providing
opportunities for field trips and research internships for teachers and
their students; mentoring and counseling both teachers and students,
etc.

The CORE/NSF workshop participants also made general recommendations for
the improvement of K-12 marine education:

1\. Creation of a national program of summer research internships for
K-12 teachers at oceanographic institution research sites.

2\. Development of a model pre-service ocean sciences course for use in
pre-service K-12 math/science teacher education.

3\. Continued support for K-12 curriculum development.

4\. Increased teacher and student participation through technology in
ocean sciences data collection and analysis.

The National Marine Educators Association has provided leadership for
some 20 years, and has kept marine education "alive and kicking" through
a network of educators and a professional journal. The organization has
a membership of just over 1,000 teachers and informal educators. It is
not a grant receiving institution, nor does it have political clout in
Washington, DC. CORE could provide the clout and grant attracting
ability to expand and improve K-12 marine education.

Federal granting agencies such as Sea Grant, NSF, and the Department of
Education need to maintain and expand where feasible their support for
K-12 marine education.

> **HIGHER EDUCATION**

Thirty- six universities or consortia offer a graduate degree (MS/Ph.D.)
in a marine related field in the United States. Some of the consortia
(e.g., Dauphin Island) consist of several universities. About 650 Ph.D.
degrees are granted annually. These figures come from the Marine
Technology Society (MTS) publication, "Education and Training Programs
in Oceanography and Related Fields" (1995). NSF annually supports about
500 graduate students in ocean sciences research. Sea Grant supports
another 250 graduate students (personal communications).

Again, based on figures from the MTS directory, about 200 BA/BS degrees
are earned annually in marine-related areas and about 1,100 MA/MS
degrees are earned. The purpose of the MTS directory was not to collect
this data; however, there was a line for respondees to report "Number of
Degrees Granted." Not all universities reported, so the numbers are less
than the actual number of degrees granted. On the other hand, the
reported degrees are in "Oceanography Related Fields," which would
indicate that the numbers probably exceed the marine science or
oceanography degrees earned at reporting universities. In any case, this
provides a general sense of university output in the field. Some figures
are startling: Coastal Carolina University has an undergraduate Marine
Science major with 400 students! The University of Miami and the
University of Rhode Island do not report degrees granted.

According to a survey by CORE of alumni of U.S. marine science and
policy graduate institutions, there were only 157 MS degrees and 309
Ph.D. degrees granted in 1994. This represents a much narrower survey of
marine science than the MTS Directory uses and is based on graduates of
the major ocean research institutions.

The California Sea Grant College Program publishes a "Directory of
Academic Marine Programs" (1993, 3rd edition). There are ten programs at
two-year colleges. There are 38 four-year colleges with oceanography or
marine-related programs. Most are, for example, biology (with marine
emphasis). The University of Southern California offers both an MS and
Ph.D. in ocean sciences. The University of San Diego and Humboldt State
University offer a BS in marine science and oceanography, respectively.
The U.S. Naval Postgraduate School offers a Ph.D. in oceanography. The
University of California, Berkeley offers a Ph.D. in ocean engineering.
The University of California at Santa Barbara offers both the MS and
Ph.D. in ocean engineering. Scripps Institution of Oceanography offers
both an MS and a Ph.D. in applied ocean sciences, biological
oceanography, geological, sciences, geophysics, marine biology,
geochemistry, marine chemistry, and physical oceanography.

In discussions with experts in these fields, a need exists for trained
graduates in maritime law, marine affairs, seafood technology,
recreation, and naval architecture that are not being met. Marine
recreation, for example, is now a \$17 billion industry in California.
Based on the MTS Directory and additional personal communications,
national needs are similar to those in California. In recognition of
these needs, new graduate programs in marine affairs are emerging.

The strength of marine higher education in California and the nation
lies in the research training area for the basic sciences. There is no
question that the United States has the best marine research and
training in the sciences available in the world. The number of
graduating trained researchers certainly meets or exceeds the needs of
the nation at this time. The main support comes from NSF, Sea Grant and
the U.S. Navy.

In addition to grant support of graduate students in research, there are
Fellows and Internship programs supported by NSF, Sea Grant, AAAS and
the U.S. Navy. The Knauss Sea Grant Fellows program provides Washington,
D.C.-based experience in both the executive and legislative branches of
government for about 24 graduate students per year. This kind of
practical training enhances the university experience. Sea Grant is
beginning an Industrial Fellows program which will place graduate
students in private industry. This program should be expanded.

One of findings made by Dr. Andreas Rechnitzer's in California in 1969
persists. That is, graduate students are mainly prepared to be research
professors at graduate research institutions. The reality is that the
majority of MS and Ph.D. graduates in ocean sciences will find
employment in government agencies and private industry. University
faculty and placement offices need to be more aware of this reality and
help students prepare better for this eventuality.

There are eight maritime academies or institutes in the United States.
The U.S. Merchant Marine Academy at King's Point, New York, is the only
federal academy. Six are state-run (New York, California, Massachusetts,
Maine, Texas, and Michigan). The Maritime Institute of Technology and
Graduate Studies (MITGS) is the training arm of the International
Organization of Masters, Mates and Pilots at Linthicum, Maryland. These
are all high quality institutions that maintain a tradition of training
U.S. merchant mariners. Most have from three to six hundred students.
The MITGS trains about 1,400 working professionals annually in
specialized courses for upgrading and modernization. With a relatively
small fleet of non-military U.S. flag ships, these institutions meet the
current U.S. need.

The U.S. government also supports the U.S. Naval Academy and the U.S.
Coast Guard Academy, both of which maintain high quality undergraduate
level programs in ocean-related studies. These institutions meet the
current U.S. needs.

**ETHNIC MINORITIES**

The ocean sciences community continues to have extremely low numbers of
people from ethnic minorities. This means that all universities,
government agencies, and private industries dependent on graduating
students are affected.

At NOAA, each line office (National Weather Service, Oceanic and
Atmospheric Research, etc.) has a program to encourage participation and
professional training of ethnic minorities. The Sea Grant program, for
example, has granted \$50,000 per year for three years to five
"historically black colleges and universities" to develop and encourage
undergraduate participation and studies in ocean sciences. NOAA's total
annual investment is about \$1.5 million. Unfortunately, there is no
coordination of the program in NOAA.

The U.S. Navy probably has the best record for recruiting ethnic
minorities into the ocean sciences by virtue of its overall record in
this area.

NSF has funded projects to encourage ocean science study by ethnic
minorities as well. An example is a summer program between Harbor Branch
Oceanographic Institution and Savannah State University. This provides
research and ship-board opportunities for both faculty and students from
Savannah State.

NOAA is also supporting an Earth Systems Science curriculum at Clark
Atlanta University which includes an agreement with Oklahoma University
leading to a BS in Earth Systems Science and an MS in Meteorology.
Students spend three years at Clark Atlanta and two years at Oklahoma.

There is no clear answer to the glaring problem of low numbers of people
from ethnic minorities in the ocean sciences community. Surely more
intra- and inter-agency coordination would help matters. Universities
and K-12 educators also need to direct more attention to this matter and
must shoulder some of the blame for the present condition. New ideas in
this regard are urgently needed[.]{.underline}

**CAREER OPPORTUNITIES**

Too often, ocean scientists advise students only about careers in
research. High school students receive little information about ocean
related careers. The best job opportunities today are in marine
recreation and tourism. In California alone, it has already been noted
that this is a \$17 billion per year industry. There are a few good
publications that provide information about marine careers. Sea Grant
has a recent publication, *Marine Science Careers: A Sea Grant Guide to
Ocean Opportunities*. This can be obtained from Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution Sea Grant Program, 193 Oyster Pond Road, Woods Hole, MA
02543-1525. A good source for information about ocean-related careers
other than the sciences is *Opportunities in Marine and Maritime
Careers* by William Ray Heitzmann (VGM Career Horizons, 4255 West Tonky
Avenue, Lincolnwood, IL 60645). Additional resources include the
organizations and publications listed below:

**Publications:**

*Careers in Oceanography and Marine-Related Fields.* The Oceanography
Society, 4052 Timber Ridge Drive, Virginia Beach, VA 23455,
(804)464-0131, fax: (804)464-1759, e-mail: jrhodes@ccpo.odu.edu.

*Education and Training Programs in Oceanography and Related Fields.*
Available from the Marine Technology Society, 1828 L Street, NW, Suite
906, Washington, D.C. 20036-5104, (202)775-5966, fax: (202)429-9417.

*Strategies for Pursuing a Career in Marine Mammal Science.* Allen
Press, P.O. Box 1897, Lawrence, KS 66044-8897, 800/627-0629.

*Taking the Initiative: Report on a Leadership Conference for Women in
Science and Technology.* Available from the Association for Women in
Science, 1522 K Street, NW, Suite 820, Washington, D.C., 20005,
(202)408-0742, fax:(202)408-8321, e-mail:awis@digex.net.

*Careers in Oceanography.* Neritic Enterprises, PO Box 5485, Santa
Barbara, CA 93108.

There is a need to communicate information about marine careers to high
school guidance counselors. California Sea Grant sends its Directory of
Marine Programs to every counselor in the state. NOAA, the U.S. Navy,
and/or CORE should consider buying a booth at the national conference of
career and guidance counselors.

**CONCLUSIONS**

Informal marine education is extensive and growing in the United States.
The media has improved its coverage in both extent and quality over the
past 25 years. There are many aquaria and similar institutions available
for public viewing and education. These institutions have extensive and
usually high quality education programs. SeaWeb has begun a worthy
program of raising the awareness of the public about ocean issues. The
U.S. Congress has also shown new interest about ocean issues and policy
after a 25-year hiatus. Government agencies are extensively involved in
a wide range of informal marine education endeavors and maintain a high
level of quality.

K-12 marine education appears to lag other aspects of marine education.
There are a few curricular programs and materials that are available
from aquaria and government agencies. Science textbooks have little
coverage of the ocean. Teacher training in marine education is almost
non-existent in universities. Several government agencies have
in-service teacher training programs. The new NRC *National Science
Education Standards* ignore the ocean.

Higher education is a bright spot in marine education. Graduate programs
are high quality and produce adequate members of scientists to meet
national needs with the exception of marine affairs (social sciences).
Marine affairs is of growing importance to the nation and there is a
need to develop new graduate degree programs. Maritime academies meet
the national needs at this time considering the low availability of jobs
in the merchant sector. NSF and Sea Grant are the main supporters of
ocean science graduate students.

Ethnic minorities while under-represented in science are even more
under-represented in the ocean sciences. Women are generally represented
in oceanography similar to their representation in other sciences.

There are some publications available for career opportunities in the
ocean sciences. Students at all levels are poorly informed about the
range of careers available in the ocean sciences. The best job
opportunities lie in the area of marine recreation and tourism.

**OPTIONS FOR CONSIDERATION**

-   Provide leadership and visibility for marine education;

-   Seek new international/national advocates for marine education;

-   Coordinate efforts and new ideas to promote diversity of people in
    marine education;

-   Increase public awareness of ocean issues;

-   Educate the public regarding the role of the ocean in global
    climate;

-   Coordinate marine education support by federal agencies;

-   Revise/amend the *National Science Education Standards* (National
    Research Council) to infuse ocean sciences;

-   Fund and organize a national conference/workshop to educate K-12
    textbook authors and editors about the oceans;

-   Support CORE and National Ocean Partnership Program;

-   Make real-time oceanography accessible and useful for teachers and
    students;

-   Encourage more university programs in marine affairs, law, coastal
    engineering, and ports and harbor management and planning;

-   Improve career education information about ocean-related employment
    at all levels of education;

-   Provide marine career information to career and guidance counselors.

**REFERENCES**

1\. Advisory Committee on Protection of the Sea*. Report of the
Conference: Oceans and Security*. U.S. House of Representatives,
Washington, DC, 1997.

2\. Benson, Keith. *History of Marine Education*. Proceedings of the IV
Congress on the History of Oceanography, La Jolla CA, 1993 (in press).

3\. California Sea Grant, *Directory of Academic Marine Programs in
California*. 3rd edition, University of California, La Jolla, CA, 1993.

4\. CORE. "Report from Education Workshop on Ocean Sciences and K-12
Education." Washington, DC, 15 October 1996 (unpublished:
cast.msstate.edu).

5\. CORE. "National Ocean Sciences Bowl." (unpublished:
cast.msstate.edu).

6\. Eisenhower National Clearinghouse. *The Guidebook of Federal
Resources for K-12 Mathematics and Science.* U.S. Department of
Education, Washington, DC. 1996.

7\. Fabry, C.M. (Editor). *Education Training Programs in Oceanography
and Related Fields.* Marine Technology Society, Washington, DC, 1995.

8\. Fortner, R.W. and Mayer, V.J. "Marine and Aquatic Education - A
Challenge for Science Education." *Science Education*, vol. 73, no. 2,
pp. 135-154, 1989.

9\. Goodwin, H.L. and Schaadt, J.G. "The Need for Marine and Aquatic
Education." Delaware Sea Grant, University of Delaware, 1978.

10\. Lanier, James. "The National Marine Educators Association:
Historical Notes." *Current*, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 5-20.

11\. Mellman Group. "Presentation of Findings From a Nationwide Survey
and Focus Groups." SeaWeb, Washington, DC, 1996.

12\. Rechnitzer, A.B. *Marine Sciences in California Institutions of
Higher Education.* A Report Prepared for the Coordinating Council for
Higher Education of the State of California, Council Report Number 1037;
1969.

13\. Smith, D.R. et al. "The Maury Project: An Educational Partnership
for Oceanography. *Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society*,
vol. 78, no. 7, July 1997, pp. 1497- 1502.

14\. Spinrad, R.W. and Nowell, A.R.M. "Ocean Science Educators Retreat."
AGU Conference, Fall, 1996 (unpublished: cast.msstate.edu).

15\. Watkins, Adm (ret.) James D. "A New Agenda for Science in
Education." National Marine Educators Association Conference, Chicago,
1997 (unpublished: cast.msstate,edu).

16\. Wildman, R.D. and Ross, D.A. "Sea Grant's Role in Marine
Education." *Oceanus*, vol. 33, no. 3, Fall, 1990, pp. 39-45.

**LIST OF ACRONYMS**

COAST Consortium for Oceanographic Activities for Students and Teachers

CORE Consortium for Ocean Research and Education

GLOBE Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment

MTS Marine Technology Society

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NMEA National Marine Educators Association

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOPP National Ocean Partnership Program

NRC National Research Council

NSF National Science Foundation

UN United Nations

USCG United States Coast Guard

USN United States Navy

[^1]: Here are the only citations: (1) page 159, "ocean floors are the
    tops of thin oceanic plates," "\...to change continuously earth's
    crust, oceans, atmosphere\..."; (2) page 160, "Water
    evaporates\...collects in lakes, oceans, soil\...", "Oceans have a
    major effect on climate, because water in the oceans holds a large
    amount of heat." (3) page 189, "This energy transfer is influenced
    by\...static conditions such as the position of mountain ranges and
    oceans."