Session No. 9

Course Title: Hazards, Disasters and U.S. Emergency Management -- An
Introduction

Session Title: Historical Overview of U.S. Emergency Management

Author: B. Wayne Blanchard Time: 3 Hours

**Objective:**

9.1 To better understand the driving events, public pressures, and
political and policy outcomes that have shaped emergency management in
the United States.

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**Scope:**

To introduce this session, the professor briefly describes the ad hoc
event-specific disaster relief of the Nineteenth and early Twentieth
Centuries. Next, the discussion turns to the period of World War II, as
civil defense programs were established to make the nation less
vulnerable to attack. Then, the session focuses on the fallout shelter
era of the early 1960s, with policymakers and citizens aware of progress
by the Soviet Union in missile and satellite technology. The professor
then presents the evolution of dual-use policy, making wartime-related
civil defense resources available for peacetime applications. Discussion
includes various natural and technological disasters and media and
Congressional scrutiny that provoked pressure for organized Federal
assistance. The creation of the Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA) and the emphasis on the Integrated Emergency Management System
(IEMS) are examined. The emphasis on mitigation, and then the heightened
focus on terrorism lead, finally, to the creation of the Department of
Homeland Security and the consequences, so far, for FEMA.
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**Suggested Student Homework Reading Assignment:**

Need to determine specifics.

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Additional Sources to Check:

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#### General Requirements:

PowerPoint slides have been prepared to support this session. The
session is not dependent upon the utilization of these visual aids. They
are provided as a tool that the professor is free to use as PowerPoints
or overhead transparencies.

Objective 9.1 To better understand the driving events, public pressures,
and political and policy outcomes that have shaped emergency management
in the United States.

*You may wish to introduce this session by explaining that emergency
management in the Nineteenth Century consisted generally of ad hoc
event-specific disaster relief.*

**1800-1900**

-   As a formal responsibility of government in the United States, what
    we now call emergency management began with efforts to address
    growing threats of fire and disease in large cities and towns in the
    Nineteenth Century.

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-   **Wooden construction** and increasingly **crowded urban areas**
    raised the risks of catastrophic disaster.

-   At the same time, **government services were minimal** and only a
    few social services were available through churches and other
    non-governmental institutions.

-   There was thus **little capacity for disaster response**.

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-   1803: Passage of Congressional Fire Disaster Relief Legislation:

> "In 1803, **American responses to disaster took a significant turn**,
> beginning a pattern of federal involvement that continues to this day.
> When an **extensive fire** swept through **Portsmouth, New
> Hampshire**, community and state resources were taxed severely by the
> recovery effort. This situation was **dramatized to Congress**, which
> responded with the **first legislative action making federal resources
> available to assist a State and a local government. This congressional
> act of 1803 is commonly regarded as the first piece of national
> disaster legislation.**" (Drabek 1991, 6)

-   Major fires during the 1800s continued killing hundreds in
    vulnerable major cities such as New York, Chicago, and San
    Francisco, which was devastated by the fires that swept much of the
    city in the wake of the Great Earthquake of 1906.

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-   **Foreign immigrants**, as well as **emigrants from rural areas,
    crowded America\'s cities** and created even greater potential risk
    of disaster.

-   **Large facilities,** such as **theaters, hospitals, hotels,
    factories, and department stores,** were vulnerable to fire and
    structural failure and, often, city fire services were inadequate.

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-   The national response to disasters that took place during the 19th
    century -- such as fires, floods, and hurricanes -- was to pass
    disaster relief legislation for specific events.

> "Between 1803 and 1950, more than one hundred disasters of various
> types across the nation were combated with federal resources made
> available under ad hoc legislative decrees." (Drabek 1991, 6)

-   However:

> "During the twentieth century, the federal involvement initially took
> the form of little more than the congressional chartering of the Red
> Cross in 1905, federal troops to help maintain order in the wake of
> the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, and the granting of authority to
> the Army Corps of Engineers over flood control in the Mississippi
> Valley after the horrific 1927 flood."[^1]

-   1916: In August, Congress establishes the Council of National
    Defense.

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-   The goal was to coordinate "Industries and resources for the
    national security and welfare" and to create "relations which will
    render possible in time of need the immediate concentration and
    utilization of the resources of the Nation." The Council consisted
    of the Secretaries of War, Navy, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce and
    Labor.

-   The establishment of the Council **led to the creation and
    coordination of civil defense** **units**. (DCPA 1972, 3)

> "A total of **182,000 State and local defense councils**...directed
> 'home-front' activities deemed important to the war effort but which
> had virtually no relation to civilian protection....\[e.g.\] **morale,
> conservation, economic stability, and Americanization.**" (Yoshpe
> 1981, 57-58)

-   Civil defense was defined at the time as **"...a system that
    protects civilian population and private and public property against
    attack by an enemy."** (FEMA 1990, II-12)

-   During the pre-war years, civil defense \[as we understand it\] did
    not exist, though the legislation passed during World War I provided
    a foundation for the program adopted after 1950. (DCPA 1972, 3)

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-   1928: The Lower Mississippi Flood Control Act of 1928 is passed.

-   Passage of the Act is prompted by the great lower Mississippi River
    Flood of 1927. The Act authorizes:

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-   A **series of dams** and **flood storage projects**,

-   **Channel improvements, floodways,** and **other measures** for the
    valley.

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-   These events mark the scrapping of the "levees only" policy of
    previous years and expansion of the range of engineering approaches
    to controlling the river. (Platt 1998, 38)

-   1933: President Franklin Roosevelt grants the Reconstruction Finance
    Corporation "authority to provide loans for the repair and
    reconstruction of certain public facilities that had been damaged by
    earthquakes...." (Drabek 1991, 6)

\[Drabek notes that other disasters were later included within this
authority.\]

-   1934: The Bureau of Public Roads is given authority to provide
    grants for repair of federal-aid highways and bridges damaged by
    natural disasters. (FEMA 1999, 1)

-   1936: The National Flood Program is set up under the Flood Control
    Act of 1936.

> "The Flood Control Act of 1936 provided for a wide variety of
> projects, many of which were completed under the authority granted to
> **the Army Corps of Engineers**. Reflecting the **proactive approach
> advocated by engineers, hundreds of dams, dikes, and levees were
> erected to reduce vulnerability to floods.**" (Drabek 1991, 7)

-   1939 (September 8): President Roosevelt issues Executive Order 8248.
    This order:

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-   Established the **divisions of the Executive Office of the
    President** and

-   Defined their **functions and duties**.

> This order provided for divisions that included, among others, ". . .
> in the event of a national emergency, or threat of a national
> emergency, **such office for emergency management as the President
> shall determine**."[^2]

-   President Roosevelt follows with Administrative Order of May 25,
    1940[^3], which:

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-   **Established the Office for Emergency Management** in the Executive
    Office of the President.

-   Prescribed **regulations governing its activities**:

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-   Assisting the President in the **clearance of information** about
    measures needed to respond to the emergency.

-   **Maintaining liaison** with the Council of National Defense, its
    Advisory Commission, and other agencies, to meet the threatened
    emergency.

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-   Then, the President issues Administrative Order of January 7, 1941,
    which further defined the duties and functions of the Office for
    Emergency Management, including:

> "To advise and assist the President in the discharge of extraordinary
> responsibilities imposed upon him **by any emergency arising out of
> war, the threat of war, imminence of war, flood, drought, or other
> condition threatening the public peace or safety**^.^"[^4]

**War Years**

-   During World War II, civil defense programs are established in the
    Executive Office of the President to make the nation less vulnerable
    to attack.[^5] Among its activities (DCPA 1972, 3,5) were:

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-   Air raid watch, warning and alert systems.

-   Rescue units.

-   Shelter management.

-   Public Information.

-   Volunteer Training---upwards of 10 million. (Drabek 1991, 13; Yoshpe
    1981, 69[^6]).

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-   Office of Civil Defense Administrator, Mayor Fiorello La Guardia
    (New York City) "established nine Regional Civilian Defense Areas...
    coterminous... with the Army Corps...." (Yoshpe 1981, 63)

Thus, the **origination of the Regional System that FEMA uses today**.

-   **1941:** In September, La Guardia hires **Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt**
    as Assistant Director in Charge of Voluntary Participation.

> **"Terms such as 'boondoggling,' 'fan dancers,' 'strip-tease artists,'
> 'picolo players,' 'parasites,' and 'leaches' were liberally used to
> describe Mrs. Roosevelt's personnel and programs...some members of
> Congress hinted that ...the OCD \[was turning\] into a 'pink tea
> party'."**[^7] (Kerr 1969, 33-34)

-   **1941:** La Guardia announces the establishment of the **Civil Air
    Patrol**. (DCPA 1972, 3) on December 8^th^, the day after Pearl
    Harbor. (Yoshpe 1981, 516)

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-   1945: Effective June 30th, the Office of Civil Defense is
    abolished.[^8] (Yoshpe 1981, 72)

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-   One commentator's summary of the WWII legacy of civil defense:

> **"The civil defense worker was depicted as an air raid warden
> equipped with an arm band, tin helmet, bucket of sand, and a
> flashlight whose foremost duty was to get people to pull down their
> window shades during an air raid drill."** (Quoted in Yoshpe 1981, 72)

-   Further:

> "When the field of disaster research began **in the early 1950s, the
> local civil defense director was likely to be a retired military man
> operating part-time out of a small office** that was both **physically
> removed from** and **programmatically marginal** to centers of
> community decision making. The **civil defense office,** which at that
> time **spent more time on war-related crisis planning than on
> disasters**, typically **lacked both resources and ties to other
> governmental units.** The civil defense office was **a place where
> people generally went to finish out their careers. Disasters** were
> given a **low priority by civil defense and other public safety
> agencies, except on those occasions when disasters actually did
> strike."**[^9]

**Post War Years**

-   Prior to 1949 there had been several studies[^10], as well as calls
    by some State and local governments, for a federally-led civil
    defense effort. (DCPA 1972, 3-4)

> **President Truman declined** to develop and forward a national civil
> defense law and program because in his opinion population protection
> measures were basically a **State and local responsibility.**
> (Blanchard 1986, 2)
>
> He was **supported in this by the Department of Defense,** which did
> not believe that the threat warranted such action and which was
> concerned that civil defense would become their responsibility and
> thus eat into their budget, perceived already as being too meager.
> (Blanchard 1986, 2)

-   In August 1949, however. . .

> . . . the **Soviet Union explodes its first atomic device**, years
> earlier than had been thought possible. (Yoshpe 1981, 114)
>
> **Congress holds hearings** on establishing a **Federal Civil Defense
> Program**. (Yoshpe 1981, 116)

-   Then, in June, 1950 North Korea invades the South.

-   Followed in November by intervention of the People's Republic of
    China.

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-   U.N. **forces are pushed back** all along the front.

-   In Washington, **concern grows that Korea was a diversion** to tie
    U.S. forces down as a **prelude to an attack in Europe---or even the
    U.S.**

> It was in this crisis atmosphere[^11] that **President Truman created
> the Federal Civil Defense Administration** within the Office for
> Emergency Management of the Executive Office of the President (in
> December of 1949)[^12]. (Blanchard 1986, 2)
>
> Then in September 1950, he forwarded to Congress civil defense
> legislation, which passed, and Truman signed into law in January 12,
> 1951---the **Federal Civil Defense Act of 1950.** (DCPA 1972, 5)

-   The Federal Civil Defense Act (FCDA) of 1950 (Public Law 920):

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-   Stipulated that **civil defense was still primarily a State/local
    responsibility.**[^13]

-   The **Federal Government would be given the authority to
    participate** by being given the authority to:

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-   Prepare **plans and programs** (including sheltering and
    evacuation).

-   Provide **guidance.**

-   Provide **assistance.**

-   Provide **training for State/local government personnel.** (FEMA
    1990, II-12)

-   Provide **matching 50/50 grants for procurement of supplies and
    equipment.** (Blanchard 1986, 2)

-   Develop suitable **communications and warning systems or
    capabilities.** (Yoshpe 1981, 156, 158)

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-   1950: On September 30, the Disaster Relief Act of 1950 (PL 81-875)
    is passed, replacing ad hoc event-specific aid packages with general
    disaster relief law. (Yoshpe 1981, 523; Birkland 1997, 49.)

> With the passage of this act:

-   A **national and permanent disaster relief program was
    established.**

-   Basic philosophy: **Supplement State/local resources**.

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-   **Funds are provided only to State and local governments -- not
    individuals.**

-   **Principle of cost-sharing is introduced.** (FEMA 1998, 8-4)

-   **Authority to declare disaster is given to the President, not
    Congress.**

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-   For most of the 1950s, however, the Federal government\'s thrust was
    toward State and local civil preparedness for wartime
    emergencies---as noted above, defined in law as "primarily" a State
    and local responsibility.

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-   First was an attempt to fund and build a **nationwide blast shelter
    program**:

(1) **Locate and mark existing basement shelter areas.**

(2) **Upgrade potential shelter areas.**

(3) **Construct shelters in deficit areas in "critical target cities."**
    (Blanchard 1986, 2)

-   But, the blast shelter program was **not funded**---for several
    reasons:

> **(1) The crisis atmosphere in Washington had waned** as the Korean
> War stabilized and the feared Soviet attack in Europe failed to
> materialize.
>
> **(2) Key Congressmen disagreed** with a Federal blast shelter
> program. (Blanchard 1986, 2-3)
>
> **(3)** The idea was **viewed as expensive** and a **State and local
> responsibility.**

-   1951: The FCDA announces the original cartoon character, "Bert the
    Turtle," as the "star" of "Duck and Cover," an FCDA cartoon film
    produced in cooperation with the National Education Association and
    FCDA.[^14]

> "A turtle was chosen as the star of a children's civil defense
> campaign because his ability to duck and cover into his shell
> illustrates the basic principle of self-protection." (Harris 1975; in
> Yoshpe 1981, 529)

-   1951: FCDA announces 1.5 million people had volunteered for civil
    defense duty.[^15]

-   1952: "Alert America" convoy exhibit on civil defense
    self-protection measures starts a tour of the country. (Harris 1975;
    in Yoshpe 1981, 530)

-   1952: President Truman issues Executive Order 10346, the first
    Executive Order to provide for the continuity of government "during
    the existence of a civil-defense emergency."[^16]

> The **National Security Resources Board** (NSRB) **is tasked** to
> establish standards and policies for uniformity of planning.
> **Reorganization Plan** **No. 3 of 1953** will, however, **abolish the
> NSRB**.[^17]

-   1953: President Truman confers upon the FCDA the authority to direct
    and coordinate Federal assistance in major natural disasters.[^18]

-   1953: Evacuation Policy comes to the fore under the Eisenhower
    Administration.

> This policy follows the **explosion in 1953 of a Soviet hydrogen
> nuclear weapon** and **partial release of information** soon
> thereafter on the **effects of a 1952 U.S. hydrogen bomb explosion.**
> (Blanchard 1986, 4)

-   The FCDA Administrator concluded that. . .

> . . . the **blast and thermal effects of such weapons were so great
> cities would be doomed** in a nuclear attack. (Blanchard 1986, 4-5)

-   This conclusion came **after** the initiation of **"Operation
    Doorstep"** on March 17, 1953, wherein **footage of an atomic bomb
    detonation was shown on television** and on **newsreel films** to
    "show explosive power of such a bomb and **tests of shelter
    precautions which could increase chances for survival.**" (Harris
    1975; in Yoshpe 1981; 531)

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-   1954: Evacuation policy comes into question following the 1954
    explosion by the U.S. of the hydrogen bomb named BRAVO---when the
    lethal hazard of long-range radioactive fallout is discovered.
    (Blanchard 1986, 5)

> Until then fallout, while known about, had seemed to be a concern only
> in the immediate vicinity of a nuclear explosion---and even then, not
> a major concern relative to a weapon's blast and thermal effects.
> (Ibid., 5)
>
> However, with new knowledge that **lethal fallout could cover
> thousands of square miles, sheltering regained significance**. (Ibid.,
> 5)

-   1958: Federal Civil Defense Act is amended.[^19]

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-   It makes civil defense a **"joint responsibility"** of the Federal
    government on the one hand and State and local governments on the
    other.[^20]

-   Authorized, though not funded for several years[^21], was a **50/50
    matching fund** program for **"Personnel and Administrative
    Expenses"** of State and local government civil defense personnel.

> When funded a few years later, this led to the **creation of a civil
> defense cadre for the first time at the State and local government
> level**.
>
> Consequently, many hundreds of **civil defense offices sprang up in
> counties, towns, cities, and States throughout the country.**

-   1958: On April 24, President Eisenhower sends to Congress his
    Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1958 which, among other things:

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-   Consolidated the Federal Civil Defense Administration and the Office
    of Defense Mobilization into the **Office of Civil and Defense
    Mobilization** within the Executive Office of the President. (DCPA
    1972, 6)

> The OCDM was a Presidential staff agency and its head was given a
> **seat on the National Security Council**. (Yoshpe 1981, 252)

**Early 1960s---Fallout Shelter Era**

-   President Kennedy came into office and, early in his administration,
    proposes a federally funded nationwide fallout shelter program.

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-   **The Gaither Committee, appointed by President Eisenhower, had
    recommended such a program.**[^22]

-   **The Soviet Union** had launched the **world's first successful
    Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs),**[^23]

-   And, it had launched the **world's first earth-orbiting
    satellite---Sputnik I**.[^24] (Blanchard 1986, 7)

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-   Federal Civil Defense is reorganized---from an independent
    organization within the Executive Office of the President to the
    Office of Civil Defense \[OCD\] within the Department of Defense
    (reporting to the Secretary of Defense)[^25]. (DCPA 1972, 6)

-   May 1961: Following one of the Berlin Crises of the time, President
    Kennedy delivers a "Special Message to Congress on Urgent National
    Needs," which outlines his policies on a number of issues, including
    civil defense:

> "One major element of the national security program which this Nation
> has never squarely faced up to is civil defense....\[W\]e have never
> adopted a consistent policy. Public considerations have been largely
> characterized by apathy, indifference, and skepticism....
>
> "This Administration has been looking very hard at exactly what civil
> defense can and cannot do. It cannot be obtained cheaply. It...cannot
> deter a nuclear attack....this deterrent concept assumes rational
> calculations by rational men. And the history of this planet is
> sufficient to remind us of the possibilities of an irrational attack,
> a miscalculation, or an accidental war which cannot be either foreseen
> or deterred. The nature of modern warfare heightens these
> possibilities. It is on this basis that civil defense can readily be
> justified -- as insurance for the civilian population in the event of
> such a miscalculation. It is insurance we trust will never be needed
> -- but insurance which we could never forgive ourselves for foregoing
> in the event of catastrophe." (Quoted in Blanchard 1986, 8; see, also,
> 9)

-   July 25, 1961: President Kennedy addresses the nation:

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-   Describes **threat of war brought on by the Berlin Crisis.**

-   Notes that he is **calling up certain reserve units to cope with the
    threat.**

-   **Stresses need for civil defense---was ordering speed-up of citizen
    self-help information.**

-   The President **will ask Congress for \$207 million for a group
    fallout shelter program that could save 10-15 million lives in a
    nuclear attack**. (Harris 1975; in Yoshpe 1981, 541)

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-   To implement his new civil defense policy, President Kennedy sends
    to Congress a special request for an emergency supplement
    appropriation---\$207 million---about twice that of any civil
    defense request of the previous Eisenhower Administration. Congress
    passed the act. (DCPA 1972, 7)

-   These "no-year" funds (could be spent in any year as opposed to
    expiring at the end of the fiscal year appropriated), with a buying
    power of over \$1 billion in 1986 dollars, were used during the next
    decade to try to develop a nationwide system of:

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-   **Fallout shelter identification.**

-   **Marking.**

-   **Stocking (food, water and medical supplies).**

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-   October, 1962---Cuban Missile Crisis:

> The full-blown crisis brings the U.S. and the Soviet Union to the
> brink of war when Intermediate-Range ballistic missiles are discovered
> in Cuba---with more on ships on the way.

-   **All over the country people started asking their civil defense
    director, if they had one, what could they do? Where could they go?
    Why wasn't more being done?**

-   **Many build home fallout shelters -- sometimes referred to now as
    the "fallout shelter craze."** (Blanchard 1986, 10)

-   **OCD accelerates fallout shelter survey, marking and stocking
    program**. (Harris 1975; in Yoshpe 1981, 543)

> But, the **Crisis ended, war was averted, President Kennedy was
> assassinated**[^26], many in and out of government resolved that
> **nuclear war must not happen**, and **Vietnam** came onto the
> national radar screen.
>
> The nationwide **fallout shelter system was not completed**, and
> supplies that had been purchased and placed within shelters were
> turned over to State and local governments---eventually to be disposed
> of.[^27]

-   In April of 1964, under President Johnson, Civil Defense is
    reassigned to a lower level within the Department of
    Defense---placed under the Secretary of the Army. (DCPA 1972, 7)

-   1964 marks a major turning point for nuclear attack oriented civil
    defense.

> The focus turns **from fallout shelters to crisis-implemented
> programs---such as evacuation---later to be called Crisis Relocation
> Planning**. (Blanchard 1986, 14-15)

-   1964: President Johnson signs the National Plan for Emergency
    Preparedness drafted by the Office of Emergency Preparedness (a FEMA
    predecessor agency). The Plan addressed continuity of Federal
    Government operations.

**Mid-1960s and 1970s**

-   Policies were adopted to make wartime-related civil defense
    resources available for peacetime hazard dual-use applications.

> This was due to **growing concerns about the potential for other kinds
> of catastrophic natural and technological disasters** and lessening
> concerns about nuclear attack. (Blanchard 1986, 16-17)

-   E. L. Quarantelli presents this generalization about the dynamics of
    the relationship between civil defense and civil protection
    activities:

> "In some instances, a civil defense emphasis at the *national* level
> has led to the emergence or development of *local* civil protection
> systems."[^28]
>
> Quarantelli presents the following **trends in community disaster
> planning in the 1960s:**
>
> **(1) The scope of disaster planning was broadened to include a wider
> range of disaster agents.**
>
> **(2) There was a decline in the assumption that preparation for a
> nuclear attack was sufficient planning for all types of disaster
> contingencies.**
>
> **(3) There was a shift in the focus of disaster planning from the
> emphasis on security of the nation to the concern with the viability
> of the local community.** (Dynes and Quarantelli 1977, 17)[^29]

-   1965: OCD Eastern and Western Instructor Training Centers Closed.
    (Harris 1975; in Yoshpe 1981, 541)

-   1965: (September 6-10) Hurricane Betsy causes \$6.5 billion (1990
    dollars) in damage in south Florida and Louisiana and 75 deaths.

> **It measured 600 miles** from one end to the other by the time it hit
> S. Florida---and caused flooding in Miami and Fort Lauderdale from a
> 6-foot storm surge.[^30]

-   1965---Congress calls for a study of floods:

> "In 1965, Congress called for a study of flood insurance and other
> measures as alternatives to structural flood control and disaster
> assistance." (Platt 1998, 40).
>
> "The geographic focus of flood policy attention shifted to the
> Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts in the wake of a series of vicious
> hurricanes during the 1950s and 1960s." (Platt 1998, 40)
>
> "Two ensuing reports, respectively authored by resource economist
> Marion Clawson and geographer Gilbert F. White, recommended that a
> national flood insurance program might be feasible if it contained
> requirements for land use controls and building standards to reduce
> future losses." (Platt 1998, 40)
>
> **"Congress responded by passing the National Flood Insurance Act."**
> (Platt 1998, 40)
>
> "This act established the **National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP),**
> which has become the primary vehicle of federal flood policy." (Platt
> 1998, 40)

-   1968-69: National Oil & Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency
    Plan is drafted.

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-   Precipitated by 1967 **Torrey Canyon Tanker Spill** (Rubin and
    Tanali 1999)---a 100,000-ton oil spill off the coast of Cornwall
    England. [^31]

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-   1969, August 17-18: Hurricane Camille:

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-   A **Category 5** hurricane, the **second strongest ever to hit the
    United States**.

-   Hit the **Mississippi Gulf Coast** on Sunday night, August 17 and
    continued into **Louisiana and Alabama** during the early morning
    hours of the 18th.[^32]

-   Brought **winds in excess of 200 mph and tides of 20 feet**. (FEMA
    1998, 2-10)

-   Caused **256-258 deaths.** (FEMA 1998, 2-10) and left **68 persons
    missing.** (DeAngelis/Nelson, 5)

-   **World's longest bridge, the Pontchartrain Causeway, was
    submerged.**[^33]

-   Moved up inland East Coast causing **record rainfalls---**more than
    **25 inches** in some locations.[^34]

-   Caused an **estimated \$1.42 billion in total damages**. (DeAngelis
    and Nelson, 5)

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-   Silverstein writes that:

> "At the time of Hurricane Camille, the federal government viewed its
> responsibility in natural disasters as limited to issuing regional
> alerts to populations that were in projected paths of storms and,
> after disaster struck, assisting in emergency recovery efforts for
> people exposed to health hazards and other threats to personal safety.
> Hurricane Camille marked the beginning of an era when the U.S. federal
> government recognized that its responsibility ran deeper than the
> traditional emergency food kitchens and temporary shelters it had
> previously provided." (Silverstein 1992, ix)

-   This understanding leads to the development and passage of the
    Disaster Relief Act of 1969:[^35]

-   Also: The Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973 (and Program) are
    enacted, canceling the 1965 Act.

> This action was influenced by **Hurricanes Camille in 1969 and Agnes
> in 1972**.[^36]

-   1972: On May 5th, the Nixon Administration reorganizes Office of
    Civil Defense into the Defense Civil Preparedness Agency (DCPA)
    within the Department of Defense. (DCPA 1972, 8)

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-   **Dual-Use** and **Crisis Relocation Planning** will be the major
    philosophies.[^37]

> **Based on "...the premise that a community prepared to deal with
> peacetime hazards is that much better prepared to cope with the
> effects of a nuclear attack"** (DCPA 1972, 8).

-   The term **"Dual-Use"** is **officially used for the first time.**
    (FEMA 1990, II-13)

> "The new agency will provide preparedness assistance planning in all
> areas of civil defense and natural disasters. The goals of the DCPA
> are to provide an effective National Civil Defense Program and
> planning guidance to State and local governments in their achievement
> of total disaster preparedness"[^38]. (DCPA 1972, 8)

-   1973: The Nixon Administration dismantles the Office of Emergency
    Preparedness.[^39]

> "The General Services Administration (GSA) fell heir to OEP's civil
> defense, continuity of government, resource management, and other
> emergency preparedness functions;[^40] and OEP's disaster preparedness
> and relief functions devolved on the Department of Housing and Urban
> Development (HUD)." (Yoshpe 1981, 438)

-   A former FEMA historian offers this commentary:

> "With a particularly astonishing piece of reasoning, the president
> maintained that his office of emergency preparedness had done its work
> so effectively that it was no longer needed---at least in the White
> House and on the National Security Council. Although it would later be
> claimed that the president merely wanted to reduce his executive staff
> so as to appear to be honoring the national shiboleths \[sic\] of
> *Economy* and *Efficiency*, he appears to have had in mind the
> eventual establishment of a cabinet-level department of community
> development. In any case, reorganization effectively submerged the
> vestiges of national preparedness."[^41]
>
> The **Federal Disaster Assistance Administration** was established in
> HUD in July. (Harris 1975; in Yoshpe 1981, 548)

-   1974: The Disaster Relief Act of 1974 is passed following the
    destruction left in the wake of Hurricane Agnes, impacting six
    States. (Rubin and Tanali 1999)

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-   **Authority to provide individual and family assistance** was
    granted pursuant to the new Act. (FEMA 1998, 8-4)

-   **Agnes** struck the U.S. **on June 19, 1972** when it moved inland
    near **Panama City, Florida and soon spawned 15 tornadoes in Florida
    and 2 more in Georgia.**

-   Downgraded to a Tropical Storm, **Agnes moved northward over the
    coastal and Appalachian regions, producing very heavy rainfalls in
    Virginia, New York, Pennsylvania, and the New England States.**

-   On June 22, Agnes joined forces with a large system moving southward
    from Canada. In the words of Burton, Kates, and White:

> "The result was a tremendous conjunction of rain-producing mechanisms
> moving westward across New York State and Pennsylvania. In some places
> 19 inches fell over a 2-day period...A third of the stream-gauging
> stations in the Susquehanna Basin were washed out, as were the lines
> used to report their readings...downtown Harrisburg \[PA\] was under 3
> feet of water...and at many places in the region the streams were
> running higher than ever before recorded. At Richmond, Virginia, the
> James River was 2 meters above the record set in 1771....Property
> damage was estimated to exceed \$3.5 billion. At least 118 people had
> lost their lives. In monetary terms it was the greatest material
> disaster in the history of the United States....More than 250,000
> people in Pennsylvania alone were obliged to leave their homes."

-   1975: The National Shelter Survey program "through mid-1975 had
    brought the inventory up to 230 million public fallout shelter
    spaces." (Yoshpe 1981, 427)

-   1976: Congress passes legislation (Public Law 94-361; July 13)
    sanctioning "Dual Use."

> This legislation "established as a matter of national policy that
> resources acquired and maintained under the Federal Civil Defense Act
> should be utilized to minimize the effects of natural disasters when
> they occurred." (Yoshpe 1981, 32)

-   1977: The National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act (NEHRA) is
    passed, creating the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program
    (NEHRP), and mandating a Federal Response Plan for Catastrophic
    Earthquakes.

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-   This was prompted in part by 1971 **San Fernando, CA** earthquake.
    (Rubin & Tanali 1999)

> Though **a moderate-range 6.6 Richter Scale quake, it created much
> damage** "because it occurred only 13 km below the surface and was on
> the margin of a highly urbanized area...." (Smith 1996, 126)
>
> **Direct damage** to buildings and other structures exceeded **\$500
> million** **(\$1.8 billion in 1997 dollars).** (Aurelius 1994, 3)
>
> The quake **caused partial collapse of lower Van Norman Dam north of
> Los Angeles** and **80,000 people** had to be **evacuated.**
>
> Damage to hospitals, most notably a **Veterans Administration
> Hospital**, highlighted the vulnerability of such facilities to
> earthquakes. (Gates 1972)

-   Before this time, as one commentator notes, "**no coherent *federal*
    policy existed to encourage research on and implementation of ways
    to reduce earthquake losses**." (Birkland 1997, 49.)

> "Before the NFIP and the NEHRA, the primary goal of federal disaster
> policy, across all types of disasters, was post-disaster relief.
> Except for federal flood control programs, which combined elements of
> disaster mitigation with a healthy degree of distributive federal
> spending on local construction projects, the federal government had
> largely left disaster mitigation duties to state and local officials,
> through a decentralized process centered on state and local building
> codes. A series of disasters in the 1960s and early 1970s caused
> members of the disaster policy community, and the earthquake community
> in particular, to consider how federal policy might be reoriented
> toward mitigating disasters rather than simply responding to them
> after the fact. Central to this shift was the understanding that while
> we cannot predict many disasters nor prevent them from happening, we
> can alter our behaviors before events occur to make them less
> damaging." (Birkland 1997, 138)

-   1977: National Oil & Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan
    revised.

> Followed 1976 **Argo Merchant oil spill**. (Rubin and Tanali 1999) on
> December 21st off of **Nantucket Island**, MA,[^42] spilling entire
> cargo of 7.7 **million gallons** of No. 6 fuel oil.[^43]

-   Quarantelli writes that:

> ". . . in the decade of the 1970s, the research showed that: Local
> civil defense offices vary considerably in the scope of the hazards
> with which they are concerned. Some are completely focused on planning
> and the associated task dealing with nuclear attack. Others are
> primarily concerned with natural disaster hazards. Many are concerned
> with both but the degree of emphasis on one or the other will vary. A
> smaller number show a range of concern with a wide range of
> hazards---man-made, nuclear, natural disaster, etc." (Dynes and
> Quarantelli 1977, 39)

-   1978: National Governor's Association (NGA) Report on Emergency
    Preparedness[^44]:

> "The stimulus for the \[DCPA funded\] project was an NGA policy
> statement describing the **governors' increasing concern about 'the
> lack of a comprehensive national emergency policy, as well as the
> dispersion of federal responsibilities among numerous federal
> agencies, which has hampered states' ability to manage disaster
> situations'**" (Drabek 1991, 17).

-   Among the more important positions advocated by the **NGA Report**:

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-   **Consolidation of disperse Federal programs (led to the creation of
    FEMA.)**

-   **Greater State and local discretion in the use of Federal funds.**

-   **Adoption of a Comprehensive Emergency Management philosophy.**

-   **Greater attention paid to mitigation and recovery.** (Drabek 1991,
    17-18)

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-   The report called for "federal, state, and local governments to
    enter into an equal partnership and to adopt a comprehensive
    approach to emergency management.[^45]

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-   1978: President Carter initiates a reorganization of Federal
    programs (Reorganization Plan #3 of 1978).[^46] This was in response
    to:

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-   **Criticism of the Federal response** to the **Three Mile Island**
    nuclear power plant incident.

-   **Criticisms in the National Governor's Association Report**.

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-   1979: Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is created[^47]
    pursuant to Reorganization Plan #3 of 1978. (Drabek 1991, 17)

> Previously scattered Federal activities to prepare for, respond to,
> mitigate and recover from all types -- natural, technological, or
> attack-related -- were consolidated within FEMA.

-   Brought into the new agency were:

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-   **Defense Civil Preparedness Agency**, Department of Defense.

-   **Federal Preparedness Agency**, General Services Administration.

-   **Federal Insurance Administration**, Housing and Urban Development.

-   **Federal Disaster Assistance Administration**, Housing and Urban
    Development.

-   **National Fire Prevention and Control Administration**, Department
    of Commerce.

-   **National Fire Academy**, Department of Commerce.

-   **Community Preparedness Program**, National Weather Service
    (Commerce).

-   **Dam Safety Coordination**, Executive Office of the President.

-   **Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program**, Executive Office of the
    President.

-   **Consequences Management of Terrorism**, Executive Office of the
    President.

-   **Warning and Emergency Broadcast Program**, Executive Office of the
    President. (Drabek 1991, 10)

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-   Reorganization Plan #3 gave FEMA the primary responsibility for:

> **(1) Establishing Federal disaster policies.** (FEMA 1998, 8-5)
>
> **(2) Mobilizing Federal resources for disaster response.**
>
> **(3) Coordinating Federal efforts with those of State and local
> governments.** (FEMA 1998, 8-5)

(4) **Managing Federal disaster response activities.**[^48]

-   With the creation of the FEMA in **1979, congressional policies**
    fostered **hazard-specific planning** for a range of disasters,
    including peacetime and wartime nuclear disasters, earthquake,
    hurricanes, and floods.

-   John Macy, former Chairman of the U.S. Civil Service Commission,
    became FEMA's first Director. (FEMA 1999, 2)

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-   1979: President Carter issues Presidential Decision (PD) 41---New
    Civil Defense Policy.

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-   PD 41 stipulated that Civil Defense (CD) should:

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-   Enhance the survivability of the American people.

-   Enhance deterrence and stability.

-   Include planning for population relocation in time of international
    crisis.

-   Be adaptable to help deal with natural disasters and peacetime
    emergencies. (Yoshpe 1981, 492)

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-   A 1979 paper submitted by the DCPA assesses points of view on civil
    defense as it relates to the strategic balance and outlines the
    Executive Branch studies on U.S. and Soviet civil defense that led
    to PD 41. The paper suggests the level of political fallout if there
    were not an effective program of civil defense:

> **"Should a severe crisis have found the U.S. unprepared, it is
> virtually certain that the Administration of the time would afterwards
> be called to account for its omissions and those of its
> predecessors.** . . . In short, there will be no public outcry for
> civil defense in normal times. There will be modest political profit,
> if any, for an administration proposing enhanced civil defense, or a
> Congress approving it; the subject is not a congenial one. **But
> should a frightening crisis find civil defense in disarray, the people
> (and the Congress) would surely demand to know what had been done. .
> ."**[^49]

-   The DCPA majority viewpoint on "dual use" was that **preparedness
    for peacetime emergencies would be a "secondary but desirable
    objective."** Many in DCPA believed that:

> **"FEMA would do well to stress attack preparedness while of course
> recognizing preparedness for peacetime disasters as a welcome bonus,
> and a significant and legitimate concern of States and localities.**
> The latter can be relied on to add an ample tincture of emphasis on
> peacetime disaster readiness, so there is **no compelling need for
> FEMA to stress peacetime preparedness at the expense (real or
> perceived) of attack readiness."**[^50]
>
> It is important to note that Executive Order 12148, July 15, 1979,
> transferred DCPA to FEMA.

-   1980: The President issues Executive Order 12241, National
    Contingency Plan for Accidents at Nuclear Power Plants.

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-   This was precipitated by **Three Mile Island** nuclear power plant
    incident, Harrisburg, PA.

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-   1980, December 11: The Comprehensive Environmental Response,
    Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) is passed, commonly known
    as the Superfund Law[^51].

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-   **Purpose:** Locate, investigate, clean up worst hazardous chemical
    waste sites.[^52]

-   **Provisions:**

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-   Established prohibitions and requirements concerning closed and
    abandoned hazardous waste sites.

-   Provided for liability of persons responsible for releases of
    hazardous waste at these sites.

-   Established a trust fund to provide for cleanup when no responsible
    party can be found.[^53]

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-   **Chemical and petroleum industries to be taxed to create and
    maintain the fund.**

-   This was precipitated by **Love Canal (1978**). (Rubin and Tanali,
    1990)

-   Love Canal is a neighborhood in Niagara Falls, NY:

> "The nickname 'Love Canal' came from the last name of William Love who
> in 1896 began digging a canal connecting Lake Ontario and Lake Erie
> (bypassing Niagara Falls) in order to serve as a water power conduit.
> It was never completed but the Hooker Chemical Company...had
> the...idea of turning the uncompleted canal into a dumping ground for
> the chemical by-products of its manufacturing process. Once the canal
> was filled with waste, the land was covered over and sold to the
> Niagara Falls city school board for \$1.00 and a school and
> subdivision of homes was built right on top of the waste. The
> chemicals were detected leaking out of the site in 1977 and many
> health problems were...reported.[^54] Residents were evacuated after a
> lengthy fight with the New York State government. Today, it remains a
> ghost town."[^55]

-   1980: Congress amends the Federal Civil Defense Act of 1950 (adding
    Title V) to:

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-   **Emphasize crisis relocation** to enhance the survival of both the
    population and the leaders of the U.S.

-   **Enhance deterrence and stability and reduce possibility of
    coercion by an enemy during a crisis.**

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-   Previous dual-use policy is Congressionally sanctioned---peacetime
    use of resources provided for defense against attack could be used
    "to the extent that the use of funds is consistent with, contributes
    to, and does not detract from attack preparedness." (FEMA 1990,
    II-13)

-   Also in 1980, the National Governor\'s Association endorses the
    all-hazards emergency management approach.

-   1981: FEMA begins to adopt an all-hazards emergency management
    approach designed to provide a single, flexible system capable of
    adjusting to many kinds of hazards.

-   1982: President Reagan issues a National Security Decision Directive
    (NSDD-26), which:

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-   Outlines goals for a proposed seven-year, **\$4.2 billion civil
    defense program,** and

-   States that those goals were **to be achieved by 1989**. (Blanchard
    1986, 22)

> This program was **never completely funded by Congress**.

It elicited strong opposition from **anti-nuclear war groups** who
viewed it as part of a **war-fighting strategy,** attempting to "make
nuclear war plans credible to the Soviets and acceptable to Americans."
(Ibid.)

> It was viewed by many in **Congress** as **useless, unworkable, or
> provocative**.

-   Options were put forth for developing effective approaches to
    achieving broad understanding of the civil defense program. One
    option---not to be promoted as part of a defense strategy---was:

> ". . . building an approach from the stance that **nuclear war is
> unthinkable;** and that **no one would "win"** in an all-out attack;
> and that **chances for survival in a habitable world after an all-out
> attack would be extremely bleak**. It also includes **focusing efforts
> on non-nuclear wartime emergencies and nuclear and non-nuclear
> peacetime emergencies**. A **comprehensive approach emergency
> management** would be stressed. In employing this option, we would be
> "preparing just in case," and we would be prepared for **the full
> range of possible emergency situations**."[^56]

-   Quarantelli comments on the relationship between disaster planning
    and civil defense:

"Early in the 1980s, the **emphasis turned sharply to a focus on
disasters and away from civil defense**, as symbolically indicated by
the fact that **many of the local offices changed their names from
"Office of Civil Defense" to usually something with the terms "Emergency
Management" or "Disaster Planning** in their titles. . . ."[^57]

-   1983: FEMA attempts a new approach to Congressional support in 1983
    -- positioning its programs within a new philosophy called
    IEMS---standing for the Integrated Emergency Management System.

> IEMS emphasized **that both attack and peacetime emergencies required
> similar responses.** For example, a plan to evacuate a city in
> response to an accident at a nuclear power plant, or a hurricane,
> would be useful also for evacuation in case of an international
> crisis. (Blanchard 1986, 23)
>
> "FEMA instituted **IEMS** in 1983. Its objective was to develop and
> maintain a credible emergency management capability nationwide by
> integrating activities along functional lines at all levels of
> government and, to the fullest extent possible, across all hazards.
> Through a 13-step process, IEMS collected basic information from State
> and local emergency management organizations on which reasonable and
> justifiable plans could be made and implemented to increase emergency
> management capabilities nationwide" (FEMA 1997, *Multi Hazard*...,
> xxii).

-   The stated goal of IEMS was to develop and maintain credible
    emergency management capabilities nationwide for all types of
    emergencies, at all levels of government.

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-   As noted above, this all-hazards, or IEMS, approach emphasized that
    **common functions** need to be considered in planning for and
    responding to all catastrophic emergencies. These include:

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-   Warning & Communications.

-   Evacuation.

-   Sheltering.

-   Direction and Control.

-   Continuity of Government (or Operations).

-   Resource Management.

-   Maintenance of Public Safety.

-   Maintenance of Essential Public Services (food, medical care, etc.).

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-   Even though the IEMS concept stresses the functions common to all
    hazards facing a jurisdiction or organization, it recognizes that
    there **are unique aspects of individual hazards** that warrant
    special consideration.

-   The process is aimed toward a continual **upgrading of emergency
    response capability and a reduction of duplicated efforts and
    resources** through joint, community planning.

-   It is **applicable to all jurisdictions** regardless of size or
    level of sophistication, even though not all are confronted by the
    same hazards, and not all have or require the same capability.

> In one community the following separate plans and procedures existed:
> the county disaster plan; a separate emergency plan for each school
> prepared by the principal; an overall school emergency procedure
> planning guide; a storm response manual for both gas and electricity
> prepared by the utility; planning procedures for the fire department;
> a police department emergency plan; a citywide post-disaster cleanup
> plan; a countywide post-disaster plan; an emergency medical services
> response plan; and an emergency plan for each of the military
> facilities in the area. Few of these plans are referenced or
> coordinated with each other." (Perry/Mushkatel 1986, 142-143; citing
> Greene and Gori 1982, 10)

-   1985: The Federal Radiological Emergency Response Plan is
    promulgated.

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-   It had been put into development after the **Three Mile Island
    nuclear emergency**. Events such as this have sometimes led to
    changes in the way disasters are managed.

-   The **Bhopal disaster** influenced legislation affecting
    preparedness for chemical emergencies.

-   The **Exxon oil spill** led to new Federal oil spill
    management[^58].

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-   1986, October 17: Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
    (SARA) (re: CERCLA, 1980)[^59] This Act:

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-   Stressed the importance of permanent remedies to cleaning up
    hazardous waste sites.

-   Required Superfund actions to consider standards and requirements
    found in other State and Federal environmental laws and regulations.

-   Provided new enforcement authorities and settlement tools.

-   Increased State involvement in every phase of the Superfund program.

-   Increased the focus on human health problems posed by hazardous
    waste sites.

-   Encouraged greater citizen participation in making decisions on how
    sites should be cleaned up (leads to creation of Local Emergency
    Preparedness Committees).

-   Increased the size of the trust fund to \$8.5 billion.[^60]

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-   1986: The National Contingency Plan for Oil Spills and Hazardous
    Materials Releases (40 C.F.R., Part 300) is promulgated.

-   1987: Denied the increased funding sought pursuant to the 1982
    Presidential National Security Decision Directive, in 1987 President
    Reagan issues a new Presidential Policy Guidance document that
    reduced his civil defense goal to an ability to "surge" such
    capabilities in a future international crisis.

> This new approach emphasized funding for elements that could not be
> quickly surged in a crisis -- such as the construction of **emergency
> operations centers**.
>
> Not significantly funded by Congress, this initiative essentially
> marks **the last attack-related civil defense program in the U.S.**

-   1987: The Federal Response Plan for Catastrophic Earthquakes is
    published in the Federal Register and in

-   1988: FEMA Planning Assistance to Commercial Nuclear Power Plants,
    Executive Order 12657, is issued.

    Both of these were influenced by the Chernobyl disaster.

-   1988: The Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency
    Assistance Act (Public Law 93-288) is passed. The Stafford Act:

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-   **Legislated cost sharing for the Public Assistance Program.**

-   **Redefined meaning of eligible private nonprofit facility.**

-   **Encouraged hazard mitigation via cost-sharing program:**

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-   75% Federal, 25% State

-   Emphasis was to reduce vulnerability to natural hazards.

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-   **Confirmed the importance of individual assistance:**

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-   Individual Family Grant Program authorized.

-   Disaster Housing Program authorized.

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-   **Added authority for non-natural disasters and the term
    \"emergency\" was redefined.**

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-   1989: FEMA comes under severe criticism for its response to
    Hurricane Hugo.

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-   SC Senator Fritz Hollings calls FEMA "the sorriest bunch of
    bureaucratic jackasses I've ever known."

> "FEMA, the agency in charge of the response process, received most of
> the blame; **FEMA, not Hurricane Hugo, was referred to as the real
> disaster**."[^61]

-   1990: FEMA comes under criticism for its response to the Loma Prieta
    earthquake.

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-   Norman Y. Mineta (D-CA) declared that FEMA "could screw up a two-car
    parade."

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-   1990: The Oil Pollution Act is enacted, a response to the 1989 Exxon
    Valdez oil spill.

-   1990: The Federal Response Plan for Natural Hazards is published in
    draft.

-   1992: Federal Response Plan completed in April, reflecting emergency
    mission agreements between twenty-six Federal agencies and the
    American Red Cross.

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-   Twelve (thirteen, considering the crosscutting Public Information
    Function) **Emergency Support Functions** (ESFs) comprise the
    Federal Response Plan[^62]:

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-   ESF 1: Transportation

-   ESF 2: Communication

-   ESF 3: Public Works and Engineering

-   ESF 4: Firefighting

-   ESF 5: Information and Planning

-   ESF 6: Mass Care

-   ESF 7: Resource Support

-   ESF 8: Health and Medical Services

-   ESF 9: Urban Search and Rescue

-   ESF 10: Hazardous Materials

-   ESF 11: Food

-   ESF 12: Energy

-   ESF 13: Public Information

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-   1992 (June): House Appropriations Committee issues a damning report
    concerning FEMA.

> "The report found that the agency's morale not only was low but that
> there was **outright bureaucratic war within the agency between the
> political appointees and the career officials**. The committee's
> report not only accused the upper administration of **mismanagement
> and incompetence**, but also publicly labeled the agency as a
> **'dumping ground' for political appointees."**
>
> Director Wallace Stickney, who was the former head of the New
> Hampshire Department of Transportation and a close personal friend of
> John Sununu, the White House chief of staff, "retorted that the report
> was full of 'innuendo. . . downright gossip and hallway speculation,'
> but he nonetheless faced **powerful congressional forces opposed to
> the continuation of the agency's existence**. (Schroeder, et al., in
> Farazmand 2001, 378)

-   1992 (August 24): FEMA comes under criticism for its response to
    Hurricane Andrew.

> "Andrew had. . . shown that the **system at all levels was inadequate
> to deal with a disaster of \[its\] magnitude**. . . \[T\]**he state
> system seemed immobilized** and **FEMA, operating from its normal
> posture of 'responder of last resort,' was waiting for state officials
> to ask** for assistance and to say what they needed." (Schroeder, et
> al., in Farazmand 2001, 378-379)
>
> "Where the hell is the cavalry on this one? We need food. We need
> water. We need people. For God's sake, where are they?" (Newsweek
> 1992:23). "The **politically explosive sound bite** \[Kate Hale, Dade
> County's director of emergency preparedness in a nationally televised
> news conference 3 days after Andrew struck\] was a perfect example of
> the **camcorder policy process** in action." (Schroeder, et al., in
> Farazmand 2001, 379)

-   Sen. Barbara A. Mikulski (D-MD), chairman of the appropriations
    subcommittee demands a **General Accounting Office (GAO) study of
    the disaster relief system**, intending to open hearings for a
    **"complete overhaul of the system within 1 year."** (Congressional
    Quarterly 1992). In September, she prods the GAO for **a second
    study of FEMA**. She also spearheads a requirement that **FEMA fund
    a study by the National Academy of Public Administration (NAPA) of
    itself and the entire emergency system.** In early 1993, all 3
    reports were issued, calling for a "major redesign of both FEMA and
    the system of federal emergency management response. (Schroeder, et
    al., in Farazmand 2001, 380).

> "As the widespread criticisms and the subsequent investigation of
> federal emergency management policies following Hurricane Andrew
> showed, the **public expects government to respond swiftly and
> effectively** in emergencies and **has little tolerance when those
> expectations are not met**." (Tierney 2001, 152)

-   1993: Federal Interagency Recovery Committee is established.

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-   This was precipitated by the Midwest Floods of 1993:

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-   **Nine States receive Presidential Disaster Declarations.**

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-   **Thousands of miles of nonfederal levees breached or overtopped.
    (Platt 1996, 50)**

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-   **31,250 square miles flooded.**[^63]

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-   **75 towns submerged.**

-   **\$15-20 billion in losses. (DOC 1994)**

> "Unlike the earlier disasters. . . the governmental **response seemed
> to work quite well** during this situation. . . Officials from the
> Federal Emergency Management Agency were on hand from the beginning to
> provide technical assistance and support.
>
> **"FEMA personnel never tried to take over** the relief operations or
> supplant the activities of lower-level governmental personnel.
> Instead, they **acted in a supportive capacity**, working closely with
> other emergency management personnel to assess the extent of the
> damage and channel resources into the affected areas. As a result,
> **FEMA was praised for its responsiveness and leadership**. Overall,
> the entire government relief effort operated quite well. By the
> standards of both the disaster-stricken population and the
> governmental officials involved, the **recovery effort was highly
> successful.**"[^64]

-   1993: Congress repeals the Federal Civil Defense Act of 1950, Title
    II Authorized National Civil Defense Plans, via Public Law 103-337.

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-   Drawing from the repealed Civil Defense Act, **Title VI is added to
    the Stafford Act, mandating All-Hazard Planning.**

> "...The Federal government shall provide necessary direction,
> coordination, and guidance, and shall provide necessary
> assistance,...so that a comprehensive emergency preparedness system
> exists for all hazards." (42 U.S.C., para 5195.)
>
> "As a direct result of the disasters of the early 1990s, in particular
> the Midwest Floods of 1993, the U.S. **Congress directed FEMA to place
> its highest priority on working with State and local agencies to
> mitigate the impacts of future natural hazard events**. This marked a
> **fundamental shift in policy: rather than placing primary emphasis on
> response and recovery,** FEMA's focus broadened to **incorporate
> mitigation as the foundation of emergency management**." (FEMA 1997,
> *Multi Hazard...Risk Assessment*, xviii.)

-   1993: James Lee Witt is nominated by President Clinton to become the
    new FEMA Director.

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-   Director Witt had been the head of the Arkansas Emergency Management
    Agency when President Clinton had been the State Governor. Director
    Witt was the first FEMA Director with this kind of experience. (FEMA
    1999, 2)

-   Director Witt soon:

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-   Brings **Mitigation** to the **forefront** of FEMA activities.

-   **Reorganizes the Agency** and **creates a Mitigation
    Directorate.**[^65]

-   "Initiated sweeping **reforms that streamlined disaster relief and
    recovery** operations..." (FEMA 1999, 2).

-   Made **Customer Service** a FEMA priority. (FEMA 1999, 2)

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-   1993: Congress passes the Hazard Mitigation and Relocation Act of
    1993.

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-   In response to the 1993 Midwest floods, this legislation, for the
    first time, allowed FEMA to proactively reduce flood risk by
    increasing money for hazard mitigation.

-   The legislation allowed FEMA, for example, to purchase 10,000 homes
    and businesses in the Midwest floodplains and to remove this
    property from harm's way.

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-   By 1993, more than 70 requests for presidential declarations are
    received each year.

> "\[T\]here is a growing consensus that this **increase in defining
> natural disasters as "national" and calling for a national response**
> is due to the advent of 'live,' 'action,' and 'on the scene'
> **coverage by national media**; a related **need for presidents to
> appear to be 'strong leaders** that take action in response to the
> needs of citizens; and **heightened politicization** (not necessarily
> partisan) of the disaster declaration and response process in general.
> One FEMA official emphasized the point to which things had gone by
> wryly remarking that, '. . . in Texas they want a declaration every
> time a cow pisses on a flat rock.'" (Schroeder, et al. in Farazmand
> 2001, 364)

-   Thus is evolving a "**camcorder policy process**" under which:

> ". . . a **stopwatch is ticking as the public, through the eye of the
> media, watches** the developing response **and assesses** the speed
> with which the agencies deliver aid and support to the affected area."
>
> "The normal process of funneling aid and resources into the area are
> often seen as too slow or 'bureaucratic,' especially as **the media
> personalize the event by presenting interview after interview of
> individual victims and families bemoaning their lack of physical
> support within an atmosphere of personal and community shock. . .
> elected officials feel compelled to step forward and assume the
> 'strong person' role**, seeking to gain the political mantle of
> 'leadership' that can 'jump start' the presumably ineffective
> government bureaucracy.
>
> ". . . the siren's call of media coverage is a **tantalizing lure for
> any elected official, especially if one can project an image to a
> national audience**. This national audience potential fuels efforts to
> have the disaster escalated to a national level, and the device chosen
> for such escalation is a **presidential declaration, which is often
> followed by a presidential or vice presidential 'inspection tour' of
> the stricken area**. In our new media age, the national executive is
> often more than happy to oblige local and state officials.
>
> "The nationalization of disasters is inextricably linked with the
> **expansion of the president's role as a symbolic leader** and the
> related phenomenon of the **'photo-op presidency.'** . . . Few events
> offer such potential for dramatic staging as a natural disaster, where
> the 'chief executive officer' can stand in the midst of rubble,
> offering assistance and compassion to the citizen victims on behalf of
> all the citizens of the nation. . . **Lost, though in the political
> theater starring the president as disaster hero, are all of the
> essential administrative and policy decisions** that must both precede
> and follow that moment.
>
> **"\[T\]oday's presidents have the tools needed to do heroic deeds**
> in the form of presidential declarations of disasters and release or
> emergency funds. These can be **dramatic and politically profitable if
> handled effectively**." (Schroeder, et al., 366)

-   1995: President Clinton recognizes the improved disaster work of
    FEMA in his State of the Union Address---attributed, in part, to his
    reinvention of government efforts.

-   1995: First National Mitigation Conference is hosted by FEMA.

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-   The conference is attended by 850 Federal, State and local emergency
    managers and others interested in hazard reduction.

-   FEMA unveils its **National Mitigation Strategy,** which:

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-   Provided a **conceptual framework** to reduce disaster losses.

-   Intended to engender **fundamental change in public perception** of
    hazard risk and mitigation.

-   Attempted to **demonstrate** that mitigation is the **most
    cost-effective and environmentally sound approach to reducing
    losses**.

> "Mitigation must go from a little used word after a disaster strikes
> to a household word 365 days a year." (Witt 1995)

-   1996: Congress passes Defense Against Weapons of Mass Destruction
    Act (also known as (Nunn-Lugar-Domenici Act), and FY 1997 Defense
    Authorization Bill Legislation:

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-   **Provides DoD funding** to enhance Federal/State/local capability
    to respond to **NBC (WMD) Terrorism**.

-   **Precipitated by:**

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-   World Trade Center Bombing, NYC (1993).

-   Tokyo, Japan Subway Sarin Gas Attack (1993).

-   Murrah Federal Office Building Bombing, Oklahoma City, OK (April 19,
    1995).

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-   **Other Results:**

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-   **Presidential Decision Directive 39, U.S. Policy on
    Counterterrorism**, June 1995. (EPN, 10Dec98, 1989)

(Defines roles and responsibilities of key agencies in a terrorist
incident response, with particular reference to crisis management and
consequence management response activities.)

-   President Clinton signs **Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty
    Act** (P.L. 104-132).

(Criminalizes participation in international terrorist activities on
U.S. soil and makes fundraising for a terrorist organization a criminal
offense.)

-   **Terrorism Incident Annex** to the **Federal Response Plan**, 1997.
    (Rubin/Tanali 1999)

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-   1996: The Federal Response Plan is updated.

-   In more recent years emergency management concepts at the Federal
    level have changed in response to the growing challenges from
    natural and technological disasters and continual innovations in
    disaster mitigation and response.

-   1997: FEMA initiates Project Impact:

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-   Primary focus is the creation of **disaster resistant communities**
    in every State of the Union.

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-   1998: FEMA is praised in a study of "reinvention" efforts.

". . . **management reforms** within FEMA have had a **positive impact**
on the agency's internal organization and operations. More importantly.
. . the **reinvention of FEMA has also improved the functioning of the
nation's entire emergency management system**." (Schneider, 1998. p. 1)

-   1998 (May 22) President Clinton signs Presidential Decision
    Directives (PDDs) 62 "Combating Terrorism and 63 "Critical
    Infrastructure Protection."

-   1999: Federal Response Plan is revised to ensure consistency with
    current policy guidance, integrate recovery and mitigation functions
    into the response structure, and describe relationships to other
    emergency operations plans.

-   2001 (February): Joseph Allbaugh is confirmed FEMA Director.

-   2001 (February 8): H.R. 525, "Preparedness Against Domestic
    Terrorism Act of 2001" introduced---amends Stafford Act to include
    acts of terrorism or other catastrophic events within its definition
    of "major disaster" for purposes of authorized disaster relief.[^66]

-   2001 (June 15): FEMA reorganizes; the Office of National
    Preparedness is established. The Planning, Exercise & Evaluation
    Division is established within the Readiness, Response and Recovery
    Directorate to work with State and local governments.[^67]

-   2001 (September 11): Terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and
    the Pentagon. President issues disaster declaration for New York
    City within 6 hours after Governor Pataki's State disaster
    declaration (approximately 6 hours after the initial attack at 8:43
    am, EDT).[^68]

-   2001 (October 8): President Bush signs Executive Order 13288
    establishing the Office of Homeland Security and the Homeland
    Security Council to be headed by the Assistant to the President for
    Homeland Security. Former Pennsylvania Governor, Tom Ridge is sworn
    in as first Director of Homeland Security.[^69]

-   2003 (March): FEMA joins 22 other federal agencies, programs and
    offices in the Department of Homeland Security (DHS).[^70]

"Today, FEMA is one of four branches \[directorates\] of DHS. About
2,500 full-time employees in the Emergency Preparedness and Response
Directorate are supplemented by more than 5,000 stand-by disaster
reservists."[^71]

-   The **Emergency Preparedness and Response (EP&R) Directorate** of
    DHS, which is to oversee preparedness training and coordinate
    disaster response brings together:

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-   Federal Emergency Management Agency.

-   Strategic National Stockpile.

-   National Disaster Medical System.

-   Nuclear Incident Response Team.

-   Domestic Emergency Support Teams (Department of Justice).

-   National Domestic Preparedness Office[^72].

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-   However:

"DHS's Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate is changing its
name to "FEMA" because people know what it stands for, if not every word
behind the initials.

"EP&R sounded clunky and confused people, Michael D. Brown, DHS
Undersecretary for Emergency Preparedness and Response, allowed during a
break in a House Appropriates Homeland Security Subcommittee hearing.
FEMA, he said, 'is the brand name people recognize.'

"But, he added, department officials aren't quite sure what the new FEMA
will actually stand for. With the addition of some nuclear response,
public health and Justice Department programs, the agency has expanded
well beyond its traditional role of responding to natural disasters. So,
Brown said, the administration may craft a new name around the old
abbreviation. Or, it might leave the old name in place.

"Brown also told the subcommittee the department will reorganize the new
FEMA into four divisions. Specifics on the reorganization will be
available 'soon,' he said, but the four divisions will be responsible
for preparedness, mitigation, response and recovery."[^73]

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Blanchard, B. Wayne. *American Civil Defense, 1945-1975: The Evolution
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(Doctoral dissertation, Department of Government and Foreign Affairs),
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Blanchard, B. Wayne. *American Civil Defense 1945-1984: The Evolution of
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Daniels, R. Steven, and Carolyn L. Clark-Daniels. 2000. *Transforming
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DeAngelis, Richard M. (Environmental Data Service, ESSA), and Elmer R.
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States*. "Societal Factors Influencing Emergency Management Policy and
Practice." Washington DC: Joseph Henry Press.

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Program in Historical Perspective* (Produced under contract to the
DCPA). Washington, DC: DCPA, April.

[^1]: Aaron Schroeder and Gary Wamsley with Robert Ward. "The Evolution
    of Emergency Management in America: From a Painful Past to a
    Promising but Uncertain Future." *Handbook of Crisis and Emergency*
    *Management*, Ali Farazmand, Ed. Marcel Decker, Inc. New York,
    Basel, 2001. p. 361

[^2]: Executive Order 8248. September 8, 1939

[^3]: Administrative Order of May 25, 1940

[^4]: Administrative Order, January 7, 1941

[^5]: The Office of Civil Defense was established within the Office of
    Emergency Management by Executive Order 8757, May 20, 1941, to
    assure, in part, for necessary cooperation with State and local
    governments with respect to measures for adequate protection of
    civilian population in war emergencies. (Yoshpe 1981, 515; citing
    *Significant Events in United States Civil Defense History* by Mary
    U. Harris, Information Services, DCPA, February 1975.

[^6]: Yoshpe cites Nehemiah Jordan. 1966. *U.S. Civil Defense Before
    1950: The Roots of Public Law 920*. Washington, DC: Institute for
    Defense Analysis.

[^7]: The February 21^st^, 1942 Congressional Appropriations Act
    providing \$100 million to the OCD included the stipulation that no
    part of the funding be used for "the employment of persons, the rent
    of facilities or the purchase of equipment and supplies to promote,
    produce or carry on instruction or direct instruction in physical
    fitness by dancers, fan dancing, street shows, theatrical
    performances or other public entertainment." (Quoted by Harris 1975;
    included in Yoshpe 1981, 517)

[^8]: Executive Order 9562, dated May 4, terminating the OCD on June
    30^th^, 1945.

[^9]: Kathleen J. Tierney, Michael K. Lindell, Ronald W. Perry. 2001*.
    Facing the Unexpected---Disaster Preparedness and Response in the
    United States*. "Societal Factors Influencing Emergency Management
    Policy and Practice Washington DC: Joseph Henry Press. p. 240

[^10]: See, for example, United States Strategic Bombing Survey. 1946.
    *The Effects of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki*. Washington,
    DC: Government Printing Office (June 30); U.S. War Department, Civil
    Defense Board. 1948. *A Study of Civil Defense* (commonly known at
    the time as the Bull Board Report). Washington, DC: Government
    Printing Office, (February); and Office of Civil Defense Planning.
    1948. *Civil Defense for National Security* (A Report to the
    Secretary of Defense, commonly referred to as the Hopley Report).
    Washington, DC: Government Printing Office (October 1).

[^11]: President Truman "on December 16, proclaimed the existence of a
    national emergency..." (Yoshpe 1981, 146)

[^12]: Pursuant to Executive Order 10186, December 1, 1950. (Yoshpe
    1981, 161)

[^13]: It is the policy and intent of Congress that the responsibility
    for civil defense "shall be vested primarily in the several States
    and their political subdivisions." (Quoted in Yoshpe 1981, 149)

[^14]: Three million copies of a 16-page illustrated "Duck and Cover"
    booklet were produced -- first released on December 2, 1951. (Harris
    1975; in Yoshpe 1981, 529)

[^15]: Announced on December 9^th^ in year-end FCDA report. (Harris
    1975; in Yoshpe 1981, 529)

[^16]: Executive Order 10346, April 17, 1952.

[^17]: Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1953. June 12, 1953.

[^18]: Executive Order 10427, January 16, 1953. (Yoshpe 1981, 166)
    Rescinded was Executive Order 10221, which had assigned this
    responsibility to Housing and Home Finance Administration. (Harris
    1975,; in Yoshpe 1981, 531)

[^19]: Public Law 85-606, August 8, 1958. (Yoshpe 1981, 216)

[^20]: The Administration bill that was passed was in reaction to HR.
    2125, submitted by Congressman Chet Holifield, which called, among
    other things, for the establishment of civil defense as a primarily
    Federal, rather than primarily State, local and citizen
    responsibility. (Blanchard 1986, 6)

[^21]: January 1961.

[^22]: Security Resources Panel of the Science Advisory Committee. 1957.
    *Deterrence and Survival in the Nuclear Age* (popularly known as the
    Gaither Report after its chairman). Washington, DC: (November 7).
    This classified report was declassified in 1973 and subsequently
    reprinted in 1976 by the U.S. Congress Joint Committee on Defense
    Production (94^th^ Congress, 2^nd^ Session, 1976).

[^23]: August 26, 1957.

[^24]: October 4, 1957.

[^25]: Executive Order 10952, July 20, 1961.

[^26]: November 22, 1963 in Dallas, Texas.

[^27]: At the time of Kennedy's death 110 million fallout shelter spaces
    had been identified and shelter supplies for 14 million spaces
    stocked. (Blanchard 1986, 11)

[^28]: E.L. Quarantelli. 2000. *Disaster Planning, Emergency Management
    and Civil Protection: The Historical Development of Organized
    Efforts to Plan for and to Respond to Disasters* (Preliminary Paper
    #301). Disaster Research Center, University of Delaware. Newark, DE.
    p. 10

[^29]: Ibid.

[^30]: *Bad Betsy Bashes Bahamas, Florida and Gulf Coast*. 1999.
    <http://hamptonroads.digitalcity.com/hurricane/betsy.htm>

[^31]: A 100,000 plus ton oil spill off the coast of Cornwall England.
    (*The Hutchinson Encyclopedia*. 1999. Helicon Publishers.
    http://ukdb.web.aol.com/hutchinson/encyclopedia/11/A0000411.htm

[^32]: FEMA/EMI 1998, 2-10

[^33]: FEMA/EMI 1998, 2-10

[^34]: DeAngelis and Nelson, 3

[^35]: Introduced role of Federal Coordinating Officer to represent the
    President in coordinating disaster relief. (FEMA 1998, 8-4)

[^36]: Rubin and Tanali. 1999.

[^37]: Presidential guidance was provided on August 14, 1972, directing
    that increased emphasis be given to dual-use planning, procedures
    and preparedness, including improvements in crisis management
    planning. (Harris 1975; in Yoshpe 1981, 547)

[^38]: Defense Department Directive No. 5105.43 is released on July 14,
    1972, detailing DCPA responsibilities for both civil defense and
    natural disaster preparedness. (Harris 1975; in Yoshpe 1981, 547)

[^39]: Pursuant to Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1973 (January 26), for
    the purpose of reducing the size of the Executive Office of the
    President. (Yoshpe 1981, 438 and 547)

[^40]: An Office of Preparedness (later renamed the Federal Preparedness
    Agency) was created in GSA on July 1st to house these functions.
    (Yoshpe 1981, 441).

[^41]: John J. Rumbarger, FEMA, 1982-86. Unpublished article, "Prologue:
    Crisis in Emergency Preparedness." 1983. P. 2. Rumbarger cites Part
    I, "Emergency Preparedness and Industrial Mobilization," Report by
    the Joint Committee on Defense Production, Congress of the United
    States, pp. 169-172, *Civil Preparedness Review Part I*, 1977 and
    "Excerpts from the President's Message to Congress Transmitting
    Reorganization Plan. No. 1 of 1973," *After Disaster Strikes*, 1974.
    pp. 111.112.

[^42]: Office of Response and Restoration, National Ocean Service,
    National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 30 April 1998.
    <http://www.wrc.noaa.gov/sites/hazmat/photos/ships/02.html;>

[^43]: Office of Response and Restoration, National Ocean Service,
    National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 30 April 1998.
    http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/photos/ships/03.html

[^44]: National Governors' Association. 1978. *Emergency Preparedness
    Project: Final Report*. Washington, DC: NGA.

[^45]: Kathleen J. Tierney, Michael K. Lindell, Ronald W. Perry. 2001*.
    Facing the Unexpected---Disaster Preparedness and Response in the
    United States*. "Societal Factors Influencing Emergency Management
    Policy and Practice Washington DC: Joseph Henry Press. p. 235

[^46]: The Reorganization Plan became effective on September 16, 1978,
    but the complexity inherent in establishing FEMA took almost a
    year---selecting new management, working out details of transfers of
    functions, for example. (Yoshpe 1981, 490)

[^47]: Executive Order 12127, issued March 31, 1979 activated FEMA,
    effective April 1, 1979, and provided for the transfer of FIA, USFA
    and EBS functions. Executive Order 12148, dated July 20, 1979
    implemented the remaining transfer of functions to FEMA (DCPA, FPA
    and FDAA). (Yoshpe 1981, 490-491, citing *Presidential Documents,
    Federal Register*, Vol. 44, No. 143, July 24, 1979, pp.
    43239-43245.)

[^48]: Saundra K. Schneider. 1995. *Flirting with Disaster --Public
    Management in Crisis Situations*. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, p. 22.

[^49]: William Chapman. July 13, 1979. Civil Defense for the
    1980's---Current Issues. DCPA. pp 57-58

[^50]: DCPA, 1979, p. 66.

[^51]: *About Superfund*.
    http://www.epa.gov/superfund/whatissf/index.htm

[^52]: *About Superfund*.
    http://www.epa.gov/superfund/whatissf/index.htm

[^53]: *About Superfund*.
    http://www.epa.gov/superfund/whatissf/index.htm

[^54]: E.g. birth defects, "miscarriages, still births, crib deaths,
    nervous breakdowns, hyperactivity, epilepsy, and urinary tract
    disorders" (*A History of Love Canal*.
    http://www.essential.org/cchw/lovcanal/lcsum.html

[^55]: *Love Canal USA*, pp.4-5.
    http://web.globalserve.net/\~spinc/atomcc/lovecana.htm

[^56]: Paula D. Gordon, PhD. March, 1982. *Approaches to Developing
    Understanding of the Civil Defense Program*. FEMA Issue Paper
    NF/OCP/CIV SYST 82-1. The George Washington University, Washington
    DC. p. 18

[^57]: E.L. Quarantelli. 1995. *Disaster Planning, Emergency Management,
    and Civil Protection: The Historical Development and Current
    Characteristics of Organized Efforts to Prevent and Respond to
    Disasters* (Preliminary Paper #227). Disaster Research Center,
    University of Delaware, Newark DE. p. 10

[^58]: Kathleen J. Tierney, Michael K. Lindell, Ronald W. Perry. 2001*.
    Facing the Unexpected---Disaster Preparedness and Response in the
    United States*. "Conceptualizing Disasters and their Impacts."
    Washington DC: Joseph Henry Press. p.3

[^59]: *CERCLA Overview*.
    http://www.epa.gov/superfund/whatissf/cercla.htm

[^60]: *SARA Overview.* http://www.epa.gov/superfund/whatissf/sara.htm

[^61]: Saundra K. Schneider. 1998. Reinventing Public Administration: A
    Case Study of the Federal Emergency management Agency. *PAQ* Spring.
    p. 47. (Citing Michael L. Cook, 1989. "FEMA: Bureaucratic Disaster
    Area." *The State*. November 1.)

[^62]: *Global Blueprints for Chan*ge, 1^st^ Ed. "A Model for Emergency
    Response---the Federal Response Plan in the United States. Prepared
    in conjunction with the International Workshop on Disaster Reduction
    convened in Reston VA. August 18-22, 2001.

[^63]: Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee. 1994.
    *Sharing the Challenge: Floodplain Management into the 21^st^
    Century---A Blueprint for Change*, p. 6

[^64]: Schneider, 1998. Pp 48-49. Citing William Claiborne (1992). "More
    Welcome than Disaster: For Once---in Midwest---FEMA is Relatively
    Well Received." *Washington Post* (August 13): A-23 and Marshall
    Ingwerson (1993). "FEMA Is 'Not Waiting' for the Winds to Die Down."
    *Christian Science Monitor* (September 1): 6.

[^65]: FEMA. 1993. *Reorganization Announcement* (Memorandum).
    Washington, DC: October 18.

[^66]: Thomas E. Baldwin. 2002. *History of FEMA Consequence Management
    Planning for Terrorist Incidents*. Argonne IL. p. 11

[^67]: Baldwin, 2002. p. 13

[^68]: Ibid.

[^69]: Baldwin, 2002. p. 14

[^70]: *About FEMA*. "FEMA History."
    [www.fema.gov/about/history.shtm]{.underline}

[^71]: Ibid.

[^72]: DHS Organization. "DHS Agencies."
    [www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/display/?theme-13]{.underline}

[^73]: David Clarke. *FYI*. "Nevermind." Congressional Quarterly, May 1,
    3001.