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NATIONAL ASSESSMENT OF\
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

INTERIM REPORT TO CONGRESS

2002

Marsha Silverberg

Elizabeth Warner

David Goodwin

Michael Fong

U.S. Department of Education

Office of the Under Secretary

**U.S. Department of Education**

Rod Paige

###### Secretary

Office of the Under Secretary

Eugene W. Hickok

###### Under Secretary

Planning and Evaluation Service

Alan Ginsburg

###### Director

Postsecondary, Adult and Vocational Education Division

David Goodwin

###### Director

September 2002

This report is in the public domain. Authorization to reproduce it in
whole or in part is granted. While permission to reprint this
publication is not necessary, the citation should be: U.S. Department of
Education, Office of the Under Secretary, Planning and Evaluation
Service, *National Assessment of Vocational Education: Interim Report to
Congress*, Washington, D.C., 2002.

This report is available on the Department's Web site at:
www.ed.gov/offices/OUS/PES/NAVE/reports.html.

On request, this publication is available in alternate formats, such as
Braille, large print, audiotape or computer diskette. For more
information, please contact the Department's Alternate Format Center
(202) 260-9895 or (202) 205-8113.

Accompanying Statement from Independent\
Advisory Panel

Chairman John A. Boehner Chairman Edward M. Kennedy

Committee on Education and Workforce Committee on Health, Education,
Labor,

U.S. House of Representatives and Pensions

Washington, DC 20515 U.S. Senate

Washington, DC 20510

Dear Chairman Boehner and Chairman Kennedy:

In the amendments to the 1998 Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical
Education Act, the Congress called upon the Secretary of Education to
appoint an independent panel of vocational and technical education
administrators, educators, and researchers, as well as parents and
representatives of business, labor, and other interested parties to
advise the U.S. Department of Education on the evaluation and assessment
of programs authorized under this statute.

This Independent Advisory Panel---which has met a number of times to
advise the Department on research issues and priorities---wanted to use
the occasion of this first, interim report of the National Assessment of
Vocational Education (NAVE) to express its views on several issues
related to the forthcoming reauthorization of the Perkins Act. This
panel will have more extensive comments and recommendations when the
final NAVE report is completed. However, this interim report is rich in
findings that should play an important role in shaping congressional and
public discussion of the future of career and technical education in the
United States.

Vocational education has occupied a significant place in American
education since the first federal legislation was enacted in 1917 to
help ensure that our nation's young people had the skills necessary to
succeed in a changing world of work. Eighty-five years later, after 13
legislative reviews and revisions and far-reaching economic, social and
technological changes, one thing remains constant: America's young
people still need the skills to succeed in a changing world of work,
although the mix of skills is constantly evolving.

Three points are especially worth bearing in mind:

1\. At the beginning of the 21st century, vocational education remains
an important part of the high school curriculum, although its function
may be changing. Many students take vocational courses to prepare
themselves both for the world of work and further educational programs.
Moreover, while high school students are taking increasing numbers of
academic courses, the decline in vocational course taking prior to the
1990s leveled off during the last decade. In short, these are courses
that millions of students find valuable.

2\. Whereas all students should be well-prepared academically and have
the opportunity to pursue a bachelor's degree or other postsecondary
training, it is important to recognize that two-thirds of America's
young people do not obtain a four-year college degree and at least 25
percent go to work directly after high school. The reality is that most
young people must draw on skills learned outside of four-year colleges
to succeed in the workforce. That's where good career and technical
education at secondary schools and community and technical colleges
comes in. Moreover, these vocational students can be held to high
standards. States such as New York are working to provide rigorous
career and technical courses, and the standards embedded in them are
reflected in state assessments.

3\. Against a backdrop of frequent business complaints that young
workers lack both general (literacy, numeracy, etc.) and specific
technical skills, it is essential that our education system produce
young people whose skills are a match for the jobs in our nation's
workforce. Many jobs require technical skills, as well as strong
academic skills, that can be learned in secondary and postsecondary
vocational courses but do not require a bachelor's degree. That is one
reason many Americans with bachelors' degrees are also turning to career
and technical courses in community colleges. In the Los Angeles
transportation industry, for example, three-fourths of all transit jobs
do not require a degree yet demand high-level skills. These are
well-paying jobs, because these skills translate into the high
productivity that has brought the United States the world's highest
standard of living. For many young Americans, career and technical
courses can make the difference between living in poverty or entering
the middle class.

This interim report provides ample material to begin the debate on how
best to support quality career and technical education. On behalf of the
entire panel (see list on next page), we urge the reader to carefully
examine the data and analysis in this report.

Sincerely,

Naomi Nightingale

###### NAVE Advisory Panel Chairperson

Nightingale & Associates

Paul F. Cole

###### NAVE Advisory Panel Co-Vice Chairperson

New York State AFL-CIO

Russ McCampbell

###### NAVE Advisory Panel Co-Vice Chairperson

Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary Education (retired)

Independent Advisory Panel

Karl A. Anderson

Workforce Development Team Leader

Saturn Corporation

June S. Atkinson

Director of Instructional Services

North Carolina Department of Public\
Instruction

John H. Bishop

Professor of Human Resource Studies

Cornell University

Gene Bottoms

Senior Vice President

Southern Regional Education Board

Betsy Brand

Co-Director

American Youth Policy Forum

Paul F. Cole

Secretary-Treasurer

New York State AFL-CIO

Jay Cummings

Dean of the College of Education

Texas Southern University

Philip R. Day, Jr.

Chancellor

City College of San Francisco

James H. Folkening

Director of the Office of Postsecondary\
Services

Michigan Department of Career Development

Stephen F. Hamilton

Professor of Human Development

Cornell University

James Jacobs

Director, Center for Workforce Development and Policy

Macomb Community College

Jack Jennings

Director

Center on Education Policy

Dale Kalkofen

Assistant Superintendent of Instruction

Chesterfield County Public Schools

Christopher T. King

Director of the Ray Marshall Center for the Study of Human Resources

University of Texas at Austin

Joanna Kister

State Director of Career-Technical and Adult Education (Retired)

Ohio Department of Education

Russ McCampbell

Assistant Commissioner for Vocational and Adult Education (Retired)

Missouri Department of Elementary and\
Secondary Education

Mark D. Milliron

President

League for Innovation in the Community\
College

Naomi Nightingale

Principal

Nightingale & Associates

Katharine M. Oliver

Assistant State Superintendent

Maryland State Department of Education

Robert A. Runkle

Administrative Director

Berks Career & Technology Center

Anthony R. Sarmiento

Executive Director

National Senior Citizens' Education and\
Research Center, Inc.

Ellen O'Brien Saunders

Executive Director

Washington State Workforce Training and Education Coordinating Board

Contents

Page

Accompanying Statement from Independent Advisory Panel iii

List of Figures ix

List of Tables xi

Acknowledgments xiii

Executive Summary xv

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1998 Perkins Act 1

National Assessment of Vocational Education 5

Interim Report 8

Chapter 2 Context for Assessing Federal Support for Vocational Education
11

Overarching Education, Labor Market, and Policy Issues 13

Objectives of Federal Vocational Education Policy 18

Implications 23

Chapter 3 Participation in Secondary Vocational Education 25

Background 27

Trends in Vocational Course Taking 31

Participation by Occupational Program Area 38

Academic Course Taking of Students Participating in Vocational Education
43

Characteristics of Vocational Education Students 45

Implications 54

Chapter 4 Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education 57

Background 59

The Extent of Postsecondary Vocational Education 64

The Characteristics of Postsecondary Vocational Participants 71

The Varied Goals and Pathways of Participants through Postsecondary
Vocational\
Education 77

Implications 84

Page

Chapter 5 Summary and Next Steps 89

Key Themes of the Interim Report 89

The Final Report 91

Conclusion 94

References 95

Upcoming NAVE Study Reports 101

List of Figures

Page

1 Perkins Vocational Education Funding (Appropriations) as a Percentage
of Total U.S. Department of Education Budgets: 1980--2002 xvii

2 Selected U.S. Department of Education Spending on High Schools: FY
2001 xvii

3 Average Credits Earned by High School Students, by Type of Course
Work:\
1982--1998 xix

4 Average Credits Earned by High School Students, by Subject Area: 1998
xxi

5 Percentage Distribution of Postsecondary Vocational Students, by Age
and Reported Primary Goal xxii

6 Percentage of Sub-baccalaureate Students, by Major and Age and Number
of Months of Course Work Completed within a Five-year Period xxiii

2.1 Relationship between Math Literacy and Earnings, by Level of
Educational Attainment 15

2.2 Perkins Vocational Education Funding (Appropriations) as a
Percentage of Total\
U.S. Department of Education Budgets: 1980--2002 17

2.3 Selected U.S. Department of Education Spending on High Schools: FY
2001 17

3.1 Secondary School Taxonomy 28

3.2 Percentage of Students Meeting Different Definitions of Vocational
Participation: 1998 30

3.3 Percentage of Students Participating in Vocational Education:
1982--1998 32

3.4 Average Credits Earned by High School Students, by Type of Course
Work:\
1982--1998 33

3.5 Average Credits Earned by High School Students, by Subject Area:
1998 34

3.6 Percentage of Occupational Investors Who "Concentrate" Their
Occupational\
Courses in a Single Program Area: 1982--1998 35

**Page**

3.7 Percentage Distribution of Vocational Credits Earned, by Grade
Level: 1982, 1990, and 1998 38

3.8 Average Credits Earned by High School Graduates in Computer
Technology:\
1982--1998 40

3.9a Percentage of Students Concentrating in Various Occupational
Programs: 1982 and 1998 41

3.9b Percentage Change from 1983 to 1996 in Number of Jobs, by
Occupational\
Grouping 42

4.1 Percentage of Students, by Degree Level and Program Type 65

4.2a Percentage of Students Enrolled in Vocational Associate Degree
Programs, by Field of Study: 1990 and 1996 68

4.2b Percentage Change in Number of Jobs, by Selected Occupational
Fields Requiring a Vocational Associate Degree: 1986--1996 69

4.3 Distribution of Sub-baccalaureate Students, by Major and Parents'
Highest Education Level 74

4.4 Characteristics of Sub-baccalaureate Students in Credit and
Noncredit Courses 76

4.5 Percentage Distribution of Postsecondary Vocational Students, by Age
and Reported Primary Goal 80

4.6 Percentage Distribution of Sub-baccalaureate Students, by Major and
Reported Primary Goal 80

4.7 Percentage of Postsecondary Vocational Students, by Number of Months
of Course Work Completed within a Five-year Period 82

4.8 Percentage of Sub-baccalaureate Students, by Major and Age and
Number of Months of Course Work Completed within a Five-year Period 83

List of Tables

Page

1 Academic Credits and Course Taking for Occupational Concentrators and\
Non-concentrators: 1998 xx

1.1 Overview of Previous Federal Vocational Legislation 2

1.2 Key Policy and Research Issues for NAVE 7

1.3 Outline of Interim Report 9

3.1 Key Secondary Participation Measures 30

3.2 Changes in Vocational Education Participation Measures, by Change in
State Graduation Requirements: 1990--1998 37

3.3 Percentage of 1992 High School Graduates, by Level of 8th-Grade Math
and Reading Achievement Test Scores 43

3.4 Academic Credits Earned by High School Graduates: 1982 and 1998 44

3.5 Academic Course Taking Patterns for Occupational Concentrators and\
Non-concentrators: 1998 45

3.6 Measures Used to Define Special Population Groups 47

3.7 Factors Related to Becoming an Occupational Concentrator 48

3.8 Participation Measures, by Characteristics of the Students: 1990 and
1998 51

4.1 Illustrative Offerings of Vocational Associate and Certificate
Programs, Florida Community Colleges: 1997--1998 61

4.2 Percentage of Participants Taking For-credit and Noncredit,
Job-Related Courses,\
by Provider 63

4.3 Percentage of Students Completing Vocational Certificate Programs,
by Field of Study: 1991--92 and 1996--97 70

4.4 Percentage Distribution of Baccalaureate and Sub-baccalaureate
Students, by High School Test Scores and High School Program 72

**Page**

4.5 Percentage of Sub-baccalaureate Students Who Report Taking Remedial
Courses,\
by Major 72

4.6 Percentage of Male and Female Students Enrolled in Fields Preparing
Them for High-Wage Occupations: 1996 75

4.7 Percentage Distribution of Sub-baccalaureate Students' Age and
Attendance Patterns, by Major 78

Acknowledgments

This first report of the National Assessment of Vocational Education
(NAVE) benefited from the contributions of many persons, both inside the
U.S. Department of Education and in other organizations. The NAVE staff
would like to extend its appreciation to all of these individuals and to
acknowledge those whose assistance and advice were particularly crucial.

First, the work of the NAVE is conducted with the support of the
Independent Advisory Panel, whose names and affiliations appear at the
front of this report. Their guidance has been invaluable.

Several colleagues at the Department played important roles. At the
Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE), we are especially
grateful for the input and cooperation provided by Assistant Secretary
Carol D'Amico, Deputy Assistant Secretary Hans Meeder, Dennis Berry,
special assistant for research, and Sharon Belli, OVAE's liaison to
NAVE. We would also like to thank former Assistant Secretary Patricia
McNeil for providing the initial support for this assessment. Our
partnership with Lisa Hudson, at the National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES), was extremely productive. We also received useful
advice from Alan Ginsburg, director of the Planning and Evaluation
Service (PES).

The foundation of this report is the analysis undertaken by several
contractors with whom we collaborated closely. In particular, we would
like to thank Karen Levesque and Gary Hoachlander at MPR Associates, and
Tom Bailey of Teachers College, Columbia University, for their careful
work with the data and their help in interpreting results.

Finally, we appreciate the efforts of all those who helped with the
production of the report. Andrew Yarrow of PES provided editorial
support. Angela Clarke and Ann Nawaz from PES assisted with early
document preparation and report dissemination. Barbara Kridl and Leslie
Retallick of MPR Associates are responsible for the cover and layout
design.

In the end, however, the judgments expressed in this report are those of
the authors. While conducted by PES in the Office of the Under
Secretary, this assessment is an independent study and does not
necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Department of Education.

Marsha Silverberg

Elizabeth Warner

David Goodwin

Michael Fong

Executive Summary

Nearly half of all high school students and about one-third of college
students are involved in vocational programs as a major part of their
studies. Perhaps as many as 40 million adults---one in four---engage in
short-term, postsecondary occupational training. Given the magnitude of
the vocational education enterprise, the ways in which students
participate and the benefits they may receive can have significant
consequences for the nation's workforce.

1998 Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act

Federal support for vocational education, and for understanding its
outcomes, has a long history. Most federal objectives for improving the
quality and availability of vocational programs are articulated through
the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act and its
predecessors since the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917. The most recent act
(known as Perkins III) was passed in October 1998, and reflects both
continuity with previous vocational legislation and some substantive
departures. As policymakers begin to consider further changes in
law---in anticipation of the reauthorization scheduled for 2003---they
will be examining vocational education as a field in transition,
prompted by sweeping changes in federal, state, and local education and
training priorities.

As was true with previous vocational legislation, Perkins III directs
the secretary of education to complete an "independent assessment of
vocational and technical education programs." This report, the first in
a series by the new National Assessment of Vocational Education (NAVE),
provides information to help policymakers shape future improvements in
this particular component of American education.

Interim Report Highlights

This interim report presents a small, but significant part of a
comprehensive research agenda being conducted under NAVE. Studies still
underway will examine the effect of vocational education on student
outcomes, the quality of implementation, and the role of accountability
provisions and other aspects of federal policy; these results will be
presented in a final report. The interim report provides both a context
for examining vocational education and a description of participation at
the secondary and postsecondary levels, a logical first step in
evaluating the status and effectiveness of vocational education. Four
key themes emerged.

1\. Current education, labor market, and policy trends are likely to
broaden Perkins reauthorization debates.

Each time Congress considers federal aid for vocational education, the
outcome reflects an understanding of the economic and educational
priorities of the time and the nature of the federal role in education.
The upcoming reexamination of the Perkins Act is likely to be shaped by
several factors:

-   ***High schools increasingly emphasize academic reform and college
    preparation.*** The poor performance of seniors on national and
    international tests, declining graduation rates, and high rates of
    college remediation have raised concerns about academic achievement
    at the high school level. Partly in response, nearly every state has
    set higher academic standards for high school graduation, and many
    have begun to include exit exams. The challenge many students,
    including those in vocational programs, face in meeting the new
    standards has raised questions about the role of high school courses
    lacking clear academic focus.

-   ***Good jobs require at least some postsecondary education.*** Both
    high- and low-paying employment are available in the labor market,
    but a college credential of some kind is needed for the
    better-paying jobs. Employment growth in occupations requiring a
    vocational associate's degree is projected to be higher (30 percent)
    than overall employment growth (14 percent) through 2008 (Erard
    forthcoming). Thus, demand for postsecondary vocational education is
    likely to remain strong.

-   ***For the past 20 years Perkins has represented a declining share
    of federal education budgets, but it is still the largest single
    source of Department funds spent on high schools.*** Perhaps because
    the primary objective of vocational education has not appeared well
    aligned with other priorities, appropriations for the Perkins Act
    and its predecessors have not kept pace with either inflation or the
    expansion of other Department of Education (ED) programs and ED's
    overall budget. In fiscal year 1980, funding for vocational
    education represented about 6 percent of total ED appropriations; it
    is now less than 3 percent (Figure 1). Despite the relative
    declining share, Perkins III remains the largest single source of
    federal education funds used to support high schools. Comparing
    dollars spent at the high school level, vocational education appears
    to be of equal federal priority as other programs focused on raising
    academic achievement (Title I) and preparing students for college
    (TRIO) (Figure 2).

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2\. Federal vocational policy attempts to achieve multiple goals and
objectives.

Evolving priorities clearly have moved federal support for vocational
education toward fulfilling a broader set of objectives than training
students for work in factories and on farms after high school, the
original aim of federal vocational legislation at the turn of the 20th
century. For example, the stated purpose of the 1998 Perkins III is to
enhance not only the vocational and technical skills of students who
choose to participate in vocational education but also their academic
skills. In addition, other sections of the legislation suggest that
vocational education is expected to contribute to high school
completion, entry into postsecondary education and training,
postsecondary degree completion, and employment.

Currently, federal policy allows states, school districts, and
postsecondary institutions to decide which objectives are the highest
priority for Perkins spending. In contrast, Title I of the recently
enacted No Child Left Behind Act, with funding now 10 times greater than
Perkins, is unambiguously focused on one core mission: raising the
academic achievement of disadvantaged students.

3\. Secondary vocational education remains a large component of the high
school curriculum, but the full effects of academic reform are not yet
evident.

Although there has been little change in the amount of vocational course
work taken by high school students over the past decade, vocational
education's share of the overall high school curriculum has declined as
students earned more academic credits (Figure 3).

-   ***Vocational participation rates have been relatively stable during
    the last decade.*** Across most of the 1990s, almost 45 percent of
    all high school graduates earned three or more occupational credits,
    the equivalent of three, year-long courses. Most of these students
    (25 percent of all graduates) "concentrated" their courses in a
    single program area (e.g., health or business). Occupational
    "concentrators" are the closest proxy for vocational program
    completers.

-   ***Many types of students continue to be involved in vocational
    education, including those in "special population" groups.*** For
    the most part, there has been little change in who participates in
    vocational education over the last decade. Vocational education
    serves a diverse set of students, with most coming from the middle
    range of academic and income advantage. Still, some groups continue
    to participate more substantially than others: students who enter
    high school with low academic achievement, have disabilities, are
    male, English-language proficient, or from lower-income or rural
    schools. Gender differences remain. Girls' vocational course taking
    has been declining while that of boys has remained consistent.
    Despite these trends, differences in the rates of participation in
    computer technology courses, geared to a potentially high-paying
    field, virtually disappeared by 1998.

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-   ***Students who participate most in vocational education have
    increased their academic course taking, but important gaps remain
    between them and other students.*** By 1998 the gap in academic
    credits earned between occupational concentrators and other students
    had grown smaller (from 1.6 in 1982 to 1.1 credits in 1998).
    However, vocational students still take less rigorous academic
    courses than do other students: for example, substantially fewer
    concentrators (26 percent) than non-concentrators (42 percent)
    completed a college preparatory curriculum (Table 1).

**Table 1**

### Academic Course Taking Patterns for Occupational Concentrators and Non-concentrators: 1998

[Course Taking Occupational Concentrators
Non-concentrators^1\ ^]{.underline}

New Basics^2^ 45.7% 59.4%

College Prep Curriculum^3^ 25.9% 43.2%

Algebra 1 87.1% 93.2%

[Advanced Math^4^ 26.0% 42.4%]{.underline}

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

^1^Among the non-concentrators, the academic course taking of those
students who earned three credits in occupational vocational education
but who did not "concentrate" their course taking ("explorers") was most
similar to that of the concentrators.

^2^The "New Basics" curriculum, as measured here, is equivalent to four
years of English or language arts, and three years each of math,
science, and social studies.

^3^The "College Prep" curriculum is defined as earning four or more
credits in English; three or more credits in mathematics at the algebra
1 or higher level; two or more credits in biology, chemistry, or
physics; two or more credits in social studies with at least one credit
in U.S. or world history; and two or more credits in a single foreign
language (see Levesque et al. 2000).

^4^"Advanced Math" includes algebra 3, trigonometry, analytical
geometry, linear algebra, probability, statistics, precalculus,
introduction to analysis, and calculus.

-   ***Students take more vocational than math or science courses***
    (Figure 4). Despite the emphasis placed on academic reforms over the
    last decade, high school students earn more credits in vocational
    education (4.0) than they do in math (3.4) or science (3.1).

These course-taking patterns may well change, as school reform continues
and as rigorous state exit exams become more common. By 1998--1999,
nearly 20 states were already phasing in these assessments, and 6 more
were in the process. Many students who pursue a vocational program of
study come to high school with lower levels of academic achievement and
are therefore likely to face the stiffest challenges in passing the new
assessments. Participation in secondary vocational education and other
electives may decline as students focus their efforts on passing these
exams. Some evidence suggests that even the minimum competency exams
required for graduation in some states or districts in the early 1990s
may have reduced vocational course taking (Bishop and Mane forthcoming).

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4\. Postsecondary vocational education serves a diverse set of students,
many of whom will not complete the course work needed to fulfill their
objectives.

About one-third of all students in undergraduate postsecondary education
are considered to be in vocational programs. The Perkins Act defines
vocational education as occupational programs requiring less than a
baccalaureate degree (P.L. 105-332, Section 3(29)), some of which are
offered at four-year postsecondary institutions. Not only do
sub-baccalaureate students outnumber those in baccalaureate programs,
but twice as many sub-baccalaureate students choose a vocational over an
academic major.

These sub-baccalaureate vocational students vary in age and work
experience, and they report enrolling for different reasons---to get an
associate's degree or institutional certificate, to transfer and pursue
a bachelor's degree, to enhance their job skills, or to engage in
personal enrichment activities (Figure 5). The students also differ in
their personal resources, with students enrolled in for-credit,
degree-oriented course work more economically disadvantaged than those
who enroll in noncredit courses.

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height="3.3805555555555555in"}

However, like their academic counterparts, many vocational participants
leave sub-baccalaureate institutions and programs having completed few
courses (Figure 6). Just under half (47.5 percent) of the younger
students---those less than 24 years old---in vocational programs
complete eight or fewer months of postsecondary course work over a
five-year time period. Nearly three-quarters (72.5 percent) of older
vocational participants complete no more than eight months of course
work. Eight months of full-time equivalent course work corresponds to
what might be considered a year of postsecondary education and training.

For older students with substantial work experience who enroll primarily
to improve their job skills, a course or two may be exactly what is
needed or desired. Some may participate to help them obtain one of the
newly emerging industry- or employer-developed certifications (e.g.,
Microsoft, Cisco, Automotive Service Excellence), which may be an
important way to realize labor market gains without actually earning a
degree or institution-based certificate.

Those same one or two courses, though, fall well short of expectations
for those working toward a postsecondary education credential. About
half of all postsecondary vocational students indicate wanting to earn a
degree or certificate, including those who intend to transfer to obtain
a bachelor's degree (Figure 5). Many of these students are younger,
recent high school graduates with limited job history. For these
students, in particular, a college degree can lead toward labor market
success as well as the fulfillment of a personal goal. But it is likely
that the half of younger vocational students who leave postsecondary
education with fewer than eight months of course work (Figure 6) do so
without having achieved their objectives and without a concrete signal
of their skills.

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height="4.168055555555555in"}

Conclusions and Next Steps

Vocational education and its place in American education continue to
evolve. The broadening of its goals, the increasing diversity of
participants, and the changing education and labor market climate in
which it operates, suggests vocational education is a flexible option
for schools and students.

With this flexibility comes some challenges, however. At the high school
level, participation in vocational education is an elective choice that
faces increasing pressure from emphasis on academic improvement and
testing. For both secondary and postsecondary vocational education, the
wide range of participants and objectives raises a question about how
effective a role federal policy plays and whether that policy can or
should promote a clearer set of priorities.

The data in this initial report addressed one of several important
questions for policy: Who enrolls in vocational education and for what
purpose? That analysis raises additional questions about the
effectiveness of vocational education in improving student outcomes, the
consequences of new funding and accountability provisions for programs
and participants, the implementation and quality of vocational
education, and its alignment with other major reform efforts. The final
NAVE report, scheduled for submission later this year, will provide more
rigorous evidence to help policymakers and practitioners respond to
these issues.

1\. Introduction

Nearly half of all high school students and about one third of college
students are involved in vocational programs as a major part of their
studies. Perhaps as many as 40 million adults---one in four---engage in
short-term, postsecondary occupational training (Darkenwald and Kim
1998). Given the magnitude of the vocational education enterprise, the
ways in which students participate and the benefits they may receive can
have significant consequences for the nation's workforce. This report,
the first in a series by the new National Assessment of Vocational
Education (NAVE), provides information to help policymakers shape future
improvements in this particular component of American education.

Federal support for vocational education, and for understanding its
outcomes, has a long history. Most federal objectives for improving the
quality and availability of vocational programs are articulated through
the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act and its
predecessors since the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917.[^1] The most recent
act, passed in October 1998, reflects both continuity with previous
vocational legislation and some substantive departures. As policymakers
begin to consider further changes in law---in anticipation of
reauthorization scheduled for 2003---they will be examining vocational
education as a field in transition, prompted by sweeping changes in
federal, state, and local education and training priorities. Solid
evidence will be needed to enable new policy to be responsive to these
shifts.

1998 Perkins Act

Signed into law on October 31, 1998, the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and
Technical Education Act (referred to as "Perkins III") represented
almost four years of deliberations over how to modify federal vocational
legislation. Previous periods of legislative change had focused on
particular policy concerns (Table 1.1). Over time, these changes
increasingly promoted educational equity, improvement in program
quality, and movement away from vocational education's origins as a
separate program or "track." These objectives were also evident in the
Perkins III debates, but the Congress that passed the 1998 law sought to
address additional concerns and to do so in different ways.

Key Changes

Congress made several important substantive changes to the Perkins Act
in 1998. These changes reflected certain themes, or priorities for
education and the role of the federal government in education policy:

-   ***Increased emphasis on academics:*** Continuing the trend begun in
    earlier legislation, Perkins III further focused attention on
    improving the academic performance of vocational students; the
    stated purpose of the 1998 law suggests that federal vocational
    education funds be directed toward improving both academic and
    vocational-technical skills, and new accountability provisions
    require state and local grantees to ensure that vocational students
    be held to the same academic standards as other students.

-   ***Greater flexibility in the use of funds:*** Congress released
    state and local agencies from certain federal rules governing how
    Perkins grants were allocated and used for program improvement;
    set-aside funding streams for gender equity were eliminated, as were
    most other funding distribution requirements weighted toward special
    population groups (e.g., students with disabilities).

-   ***More funds directed to the local level:*** Congress wanted a
    larger share of funding allocated to local programs, expecting that
    additional resources would reach the classroom and have the
    potential to affect student outcomes more directly; elimination of
    the set-asides allowed a higher proportion of Perkins funds to pass
    to local districts, schools, and postsecondary institutions.

-   ***Creation of a "higher stakes" accountability system:*** Although
    states had been expected to gather information on vocational
    students' outcomes since 1990, Perkins III imposed requirements for
    state reporting to the U.S. Department of Education and potential
    rewards and consequences for states that can and cannot improve
    student performance, including the performance of special
    populations.

-   ***Improved coordination with related initiatives:*** After debating
    but discarding the option of combining the two laws, Congress
    enacted Perkins III right after passage of the Workforce Investment
    Act (WIA); language in both laws were intended to provide
    opportunities to integrate vocational education institutions into
    state and local workforce development and job training systems.

Continuity with the 1990 Perkins Act Amendments

Congress did not alter the basic structure of the Perkins Act in the
1998 reauthorization, however. Perkins remains primarily a formula grant
program.[^2] Funds are still distributed to states based on population
counts, while states allocate grants to local secondary and
postsecondary institutions based largely on the numbers of low-income
students the institutions serve. States continue to have discretion to
determine the proportion of their state grant that will be allocated to
secondary versus postsecondary vocational education.

Moreover, Perkins III continues to emphasize the major programmatic
strategies reflected in the 1990 Perkins amendments (Perkins II).
Specifically, it promotes:

-   Integration of academic and vocational education, by implementing
    coherent sequences of academic and vocational and technical
    instruction.

-   Broadening the focus of vocational education content to emphasize
    industries and careers in place of entry-level, job-specific
    training.

-   Strengthening the links between secondary and postsecondary
    education through Tech-Prep and other strategies.

Unresolved Policy Debates

While the strategies outlined in the 1998 Perkins Act can be interpreted
as reflecting policymakers' current priorities and guidance for
vocational education, the legislation in no way puts to rest fundamental
questions that have been raised about its future role. Both in
congressional deliberations prior to passage of Perkins III and in
continuing discussions in the vocational education community, several
issues remain unresolved that could have implications for
reauthorization:

-   ***How essential is vocational education at the secondary level?***
    High schools' and policymakers' priorities increasingly seem to be
    on academic improvement and college entry. Perhaps as a result,
    vocational programs have become a less substantial part of the high
    school curriculum (see Chapter 3), and postsecondary institutions,
    particularly community colleges, have come to play a much larger
    role in career and job preparation. Given this trend, the limited
    federal resources available for high schools, and the costs of
    keeping both secondary and postsecondary vocational programs
    up-to-date, some question whether vocational education as a program
    of study belongs in high school or whether this type of
    specialization should occur at the college level.

-   ***Who is secondary vocational education for and what is its
    purpose?*** Vocational education has long been supported, in part,
    as an important strategy---a "second-chance" opportunity---for high
    school students with weaker academic skills or little interest in
    pursuing college credentials. Over the last decade, however, federal
    legislation and most state agencies have promoted the notion of
    vocational education as preparation for high-tech, high-skill
    careers---where the academic skills required may be substantial. In
    fact, over the last decade, states and local programs have sought to
    attract more academically talented students into vocational
    education programs (see Chapters 2 and 3).

-   ***What is the federal role in postsecondary vocational
    education?*** To many, the Perkins Act reads as a set of strategies
    designed to improve secondary vocational education. In fact,
    policymakers' concerns mostly have been with secondary vocational
    education, leaving little imprint of the specific goals or problems
    federal Perkins funds are expected to address at the postsecondary
    level. Currently, Perkins grants can be used for any of the wide
    array of offerings eligible institutions provide and to support any
    of the varied objectives pursued by those who participate in
    postsecondary vocational education. One issue policymakers may
    consider is whether Perkins can or should address all of these
    populations and purposes or whether a targeted approach for federal
    resources might have benefits.

-   ***Should vocational education be "education" or "training"?*** For
    the past decade, the Perkins Act has emphasized teaching about "all
    aspects of the industry"---not just an entry-level job. But much of
    vocational education remains organized around traditional
    occupational categories (Hoachlander 1998). In recent years, many
    schools have been attracted to---and policymakers have
    touted---vocational programs offered by high-tech firms such as
    Microsoft and Cisco; to some, this emphasis on firm-specific skill
    training seems inconsistent with the broader approaches promoted in
    federal policy. At the postsecondary level, Perkins provides some
    legislative signals of preference for for-credit occupational
    programs culminating in an associate's degree (education), as
    compared to noncredit, short-term training courses. But some groups
    reporting growth in noncredit enrollments have wondered whether this
    federal emphasis is appropriate.

-   ***What is the best way to help special populations?*** Deep
    concerns that different groups have uneven access to high-quality
    education, including vocational education, initially led
    policymakers to set aside funds for underserved groups. In 1998,
    that approach was replaced by one focused on holding grantees
    accountable for improving the education outcomes of all vocational
    education participants, including targeted special populations. It
    may be many years before the full effects of performance reporting
    will be known.

These debates are as much philosophical as practical, reflecting some
divergence of opinion about the role of federal vocational education
policy and the specific objectives it addresses. Research and data can
contribute to and inform these discussions but are not likely to settle
them. Federal policymakers may choose to take up these issues directly
or leave them to be determined by state and local agencies, as is
currently the case.

National Assessment of Vocational Education

As was true with previous vocational legislation, Perkins III directs
the secretary of education to complete an "independent evaluation and
assessment of vocational and technical education programs under this
Act" (Section 114 (c)(3)). This National Assessment of Vocational
Education (NAVE) is intended to support the broad goals of improving
vocational education and to provide Congress with information to guide
reauthorization of the Perkins Act, scheduled for 2003. Based on this
schedule, the law called for the NAVE to deliver an interim report in
early 2002 and a final report later in the year.

Independent Advisory Panel

Following earlier legislative tradition, Perkins III also directs the
secretary to appoint an Independent Advisory Panel to provide advice on
conducting NAVE. Such a panel was selected in mid-1999, and includes
employers, secondary school and district administrators, representatives
of postsecondary institutions, state directors of vocational education
at both the secondary and postsecondary levels, union representatives,
education and workforce development policy experts, and researchers with
experience in relevant fields.

This panel has met on a number of occasions to: (1) identify the key
policy and research questions NAVE will address, (2) review the analytic
framework and study designs, and (3) receive and help interpret results
from NAVE analyses, including those described in this interim report.
Perkins III requires the panel to submit to Congress and the secretary
its own independent analysis of NAVE findings and recommendations. The
letter to Congress found at the front of this report represents the
panel's first official communication.

Research Objectives and Questions

As a key source of policy information, NAVE will examine the status of
vocational education across the country and, to the extent possible,
evaluate the early impacts of the new law on vocational education
practice. The research agenda must also take into account the wide range
of topics Congress mandated in Perkins III (Section 114), including: (1)
implementation of state and local programs; (2) the impact of changes in
federal funding formulas; (3) teacher quality and teacher supply and
demand; (4) student participation in vocational education; (5) academic
and employment outcomes; (6) employer involvement and satisfaction with
vocational education programs; (7) education technology and distance
learning; and (8) the effect of accountability requirements on program
performance.

At a broader level, however, NAVE is guided by three key policy issues
(Table 1.2):

**Table 1.2**

**Key Policy and Research Issues for NAVE**

**How does, or can, vocational education improve the outcomes of
secondary students who choose to enroll in vocational and technical
programs?**

Perhaps the most important issue for vocational education is who
participates at the secondary level and how well they fare in school and
beyond. In an era of accountability for results, policymakers are
interested in both changes in vocational course-taking patterns and how
the varied ways of participating contribute to key student outcomes,
such as academic skills, success in college, and earnings. NAVE will
explore these important trends, as well as the role of federal policy in
efforts to improve vocational education. The evaluation will examine the
extent to which federal strategies for improving program quality are
reflected in school and classroom practice and the relationship between
vocational education and school reforms under way in many states and
communities.

**What is the nature and impact of vocational education at the
sub-baccalaureate level, and what is its relationship to current
workforce development efforts?**

Given the labor market value of college credentials, "life long
learning," and flexibility in skills, the role of sub-baccalaureate
vocational education may be of increasing policy interest. NAVE will
assess patterns of enrollment and participation in postsecondary
vocational education, and their relationship to outcomes and impacts. In
examining the current and potential influence of federal vocational
policy, studies will also evaluate: (1) the role that postsecondary
vocational education is playing in state and local workforce development
strategies and (2) the extent to which the 1998 federal Workforce
Investment Act is having an effect on the delivery of postsecondary
vocational education.

**Is the policy shift from set-asides and legislative prescription to
flexibility and accountability likely to improve program quality and
student outcomes? How do special populations fare?**

For the past two decades, federal policy has focused on serving those
most at-risk, commonly termed the "special populations." Perkins III
represents a major shift in direction, eliminating both set-aside funds
for certain special population groups and requirements that local funds
be prioritized to serve the highest concentrations of special
populations. In their place is an increased emphasis on accountability,
including the requirement that states track the progress of special
population groups. NAVE will assess whether: (1) increased flexibility
seems to be changing educational priorities or practices, (2) special
populations are being helped or hurt as a result, and (3) accountability
requirements appear to be improving the quality of vocational education
for all students.

Evaluation Strategies

Addressing the primary vocational policy questions requires a set of
interrelated but distinct studies. NAVE commissioned an extensive set of
independent assessments (see Upcoming NAVE Study Reports at the end of
this report). The overall research agenda calls for diverse data
collection and analysis methods: qualitative case studies, national
surveys, use of state administrative databases, and both descriptive
statistics and sophisticated econometric estimation of program effects.
NAVE will also draw on relevant, high-quality studies sponsored by other
organizations and federal agencies. NAVE reports, including this one,
seek to integrate information from a variety of data sources to address
the key research and policy questions.

NAVE's short time line ultimately affects the particular studies
undertaken and the ways in which the information can be used. First,
NAVE often had to rely on existing data for national estimates.
Available national data, mostly from the Department's National Center
for Education Statistics (NCES), are often not as current as
policymakers would like.

Second, Congress mandated both an interim and a final NAVE report in
2002. As with other studies of federal legislation, NAVE is operating in
a period when many of the important changes in Perkins III will have
barely begun. Most states opted for "transitional plans" which, in
effect, deferred implementation of Perkins III provisions until fall
2000. Thus, new data collected to meet NAVE reporting dates will reflect
very early efforts made in response to new legislative provisions.
Conclusions regarding the longer-term prospects for Perkins III will
require further evaluation.

Interim Report

This Interim Report presents a small, but significant part of the
comprehensive NAVE research agenda. The report is based on findings from
analyses completed prior to November 2001, with most of the NAVE studies
still under way. As a result, any conclusions or policy recommendations
will be included in the final report. Nonetheless, important
implications can be, and have been, drawn from the results described
here.

The report focuses on describing patterns of participation at the
secondary and postsecondary levels. Analysis of participation is a
logical first step in examining the status and effectiveness of
vocational education. The extent and nature of involvement, how students
combine vocational and academic course taking, and the characteristics
and goals of those who participate---are all important factors in
determining the importance of vocational education to current and
prospective students and to society as a whole. An evaluation of the
contribution of vocational education to student outcomes will be a
central component of the NAVE final report.

Organization of the Report

Specifically, the interim report is divided into five chapters (Table
1.3):

2\. Context for Assessing Federal Support\
for Vocational Education

It has been more than 80 years since the federal government first
committed to vocational education as a national priority. Thirteen
reviews, revisions or reauthorizations later, Congress enacted the Carl
D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act of 1998 (Perkins III).
Each time Congress considered federal aid for vocational education, the
outcome reflected an understanding of the economic and education
priorities of the time and the nature of the federal role in education.
Legislative actions often have sought to push vocational education in
new directions.

The upcoming reexamination of Perkins III is likely to be no exception.
Policymakers will need to consider prevailing issues in deciding whether
and what kinds of changes in law are needed. This chapter reviews
several factors that are likely to shape policymakers' considerations
for vocational education legislation. These same concerns have guided
the design of the NAVE agenda:

1\. Key education, labor market, and policy trends.

2\. The evolution of federal objectives for vocational education.

Key Findings

Context for Assessing Federal Support for Vocational Education

-   ***High schools increasingly focus on academic reform and college
    preparation.***

> Nearly every state has set higher academic standards for high school
> graduation, including exit exams. In part, new requirements reflect
> students' growing expectation to attend college and their inadequate
> academic preparation for college-level work. The challenges many
> students face, including those in vocational programs, in meeting the
> new standards has raised questions about the role of high school
> courses lacking clear academic focus.

-   ***Most well-paying jobs require postsecondary technical skills.***

> Data from many studies clearly indicate that some postsecondary
> credential is required for better-paying jobs, even those in technical
> fields; jobs requiring a vocational associate's degree are among the
> fastest growing. Thus, demand for postsecondary vocational education
> is likely to remain strong.

-   ***For the past 20 years, Perkins has represented a declining share
    of federal education budgets, but it is still the largest single
    source of U.S. Department of Education (ED) funds spent on high
    schools.***

> Perhaps because the primary objective of vocational education has not
> appeared well aligned with other federal education priorities,
> increases in Perkins appropriations have not kept pace with either
> inflation or the expansion of other ED programs and the overall ED
> budget. As a result, vocational education appropriations shrank from
> about 6 percent of ED funds in 1980 to less than 3 percent in 2002.
> Still, comparing dollars spent at the high school level, vocational
> education appears to be of equal federal priority as other programs
> focused on raising academic achievement and preparing students for
> college.

-   ***Over time, legislative changes have broadened---not
    clarified---the goals of vocational education.***

> According to Perkins III, vocational education now must contribute to
> academic achievement, technical competency, school completion, college
> attendance, and employment. Federal policy does not prioritize these
> objectives in promoting program implementation nor in judging the
> program's success.

Overarching Education, Labor Market, and Policy Issues

External trends can affect vocational education in several ways. They
can point to problems in society or areas of public underinvestment that
federal legislation can help to address. They can also underscore
conflicts in priorities that may impede implementation of vocational
education or legislative effectiveness. Because it straddles the
education and job-training systems, secondary and postsecondary
institutions, and local, state, and federal agencies, vocational
education legislation is always influenced by the larger education,
labor market, and policy considerations.

High schools increasingly focus on academic improvement and college
preparation.

Nearly 20 years ago, the Nation at Risk report identified a "sea of
mediocrity" in education and called for a commitment to improving
academic performance as a gateway to college and careers. Several trends
have been evident since then.

-   ***Academic reform dominates the high school agenda.*** Academic
    performance at the high school level has become a significant
    concern. The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
    shows little gain since the 1970s in test scores (Campbell, Hombo,
    and Mazzeo 2000), and the recent Third International Mathematics and
    Science Study (TIMSS) underscores the poor math performance of
    American 12th-graders relative to those in other countries (Wirt et
    al. 2000, pp. 28--29).[^3] Nationally, the high school graduation
    rate has declined (Kaufman 2001), with many nongraduates eventually
    obtaining GEDs or other alternative certificates that have less
    value in the labor market than traditional high school diplomas have
    (Boesel, Alsalam, and Smith 1998).

    Partly in response to this evidence, nearly every state has
    established new and higher standards for high school graduation.
    These include increases in total credits, academic credits, and the
    rigor of minimum course taking required for graduation. As of the
    1998--99 school year, 19 states had established high-stakes exit
    exams for high school graduation, and nine other states were
    developing such exams (Council of Chief State School Officers 2000).
    The prospect that large numbers of students, including those in
    vocational programs, could fail to meet new standards has raised
    questions about the role of high school courses lacking clear
    academic focus. These concerns also have led to a hypothesis that
    student enrollments in elective courses such as vocational education
    will decline sharply.

-   ***College expectations have been growing, but the need for
    remediation is large once students get there.*** One reason for the
    emphasis on academics is the growing belief that nearly all students
    should, and expect to, attend college---at either a two- or
    four-year institution. The most recent data indicate that more than
    95 percent of 1992 high school seniors reported expecting to attend
    college (Berkner and Chavez 1997, p. 17); about 80 percent expected
    to do so immediately after high school and 60 percent planned to
    earn bachelors' degrees (Sanderson et al. 1996, p. 4). Students'
    actual behavior does not always follow expectations; about
    three-quarters of the high school graduates had enrolled in
    postsecondary education two years later (Berkner and Chavez 1997)
    and fewer than half of those students---or just over a third of all
    graduates---are likely to eventually earn their bachelors' degrees
    (Wirt et al. 2001, p. 152). However, students' educational
    expectations can influence how they select high school course work.

    High schools' focus on academics also reflects an understanding that
    inadequate preparation is a serious barrier to success in college.
    The best available data, collected in the 1980s before the recent
    increases in college attendance, suggest that nearly half of those
    enrolled in four-year colleges, and slightly more than 60 percent of
    those at community colleges, took some remedial course work (Wirt et
    al. 2000, p. 152). Another measure, still high, puts the figures at
    one in five and two in five entering freshmen at each type of
    institution, respectively (Smith et al. 1997, p. 102). Students who
    have taken remedial course work are much less likely to persist and
    eventually earn a college degree than are other students (Wirt et
    al. 2000, p. 52).

    The gap between students' expectations, their level of preparedness
    for college during their last years in high school, and what they
    ultimately may do after graduation poses a dilemma for teachers and
    counselors. Although high school vocational education has often been
    viewed as a way to provide job skills for those not going on to
    college, at the time when students actually choose electives, nearly
    all still say they plan to attend college. Moreover, some guidance
    counselors, fearful of discouraging students from aiming high, may
    be reluctant to suggest that students acquire backup occupational
    skills while in high school should their college plans fail to be
    realized.

-   ***Academic skills are also important for employment and
    earnings.*** Students with higher-level math skills earn
    substantially more---as much as 108 percent more---than do students
    with the same level of educational attainment but weaker skills
    (Figure 2.1). A similar pattern exists with regard to reading
    skills. Other analyses indicate that jobs with the highest literacy
    requirements are growing faster than those with the lowest
    requirements (Barton 2000, p. 14). Thus, even students who enter the
    job market directly out of high school must have a strong foundation
    of academic competencies.

![](media/image8.wmf){width="5.998611111111111in"
height="4.429861111111111in"}

Most well-paying jobs require technical skills that can be obtained
through postsecondary education.

High- and low-paying employment are both available, but a postsecondary
credential of some kind is required for the better-paying jobs. In
decades past, high school graduates were able to get well-paying jobs in
manufacturing and other occupational sectors. Few such jobs exist today,
although as recently as two years ago some vocational educators claimed
that a high school graduate with solid information technology skills
could do quite well in the computer industry. The evidence indicates
that for most students, the skills and credentials acquired in college
are, by far, the best route to good wages.

-   ***Postsecondary education matters.*** Job projections through 2008
    indicate that among the 30 job categories with the largest expected
    growth, all those requiring at least an associate's degree (with the
    exception of social worker) are in the highest quartile of median
    earnings (Braddock 1999, p. 73). Although many job opportunities are
    projected in fields that require only short-term on-the-job training
    beyond high school, none of these is in the highest quartile of
    median earnings, and most are in the lowest quartile (jobs paying
    less than \$7.76 per hour).

-   ***Occupational and technical skills and credentials that can be
    acquired at the sub-baccalaureate level are in demand.*** Employment
    growth in occupations requiring a vocational associate's degree is
    higher than overall employment growth. The Bureau of Labor
    Statistics projects a 14.4 percent increase in employment across all
    occupations between 1998 and 2008 but double that rate of
    increase---30.9 percent---in those jobs requiring a vocational
    associate's degree (Erard forthcoming). Other analyses suggest that
    the job market values technical skills in general (Bishop 1995).[^4]

Competing policy objectives are likely to broaden reauthorization
debates.

Perkins will be examined in light of these education and economic trends
and also from the point of view of current federal priorities. Taken
together, several policy indicators suggest that more than modest
changes to Perkins may be considered.

-   ***Smaller relative funding increases for Perkins may indicate that
    policy priorities are elsewhere.*** Federal budgets are widely
    regarded as a basic indicator of policy priorities. Although
    appropriations for the Perkins Act and its predecessors increased
    over the last two decades, this increase has kept pace with neither
    inflation nor the expansion of other Department of Education (ED)
    programs and ED's overall budget.[^5] In fiscal year 1980, funding
    for vocational education represented about 6 percent of total ED
    appropriations; it is now less than 3 percent (Figure 2.2). This
    trend suggests that, for two decades, vocational education may have
    been viewed as less worthy of federal investment than other areas,
    perhaps because its primary objective does not appear well aligned
    with other priorities.

-   ***Perkins is the largest single source of Department funds used at
    the high school level*** (Figure 2.3). ED funding that goes to
    secondary vocational education is greater than the funds spent in
    high schools either by Title I of the Elementary and Secondary
    Education Act or by the TRIO (college preparatory) program, or only
    slightly less than the two other programs combined.[^6] Thus, as far
    as high schools are concerned, vocational education appears to stand
    on equal footing in federal policy with academic improvement and
    college preparation.

![](media/image9.wmf){width="5.997222222222222in"
height="3.542361111111111in"}

-   ***Key laws related to workforce development are expiring
    shortly.*** Several major laws---Temporary Assistance for Needy
    Families (TANF), the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) and
    Perkins---are expected to expire in the next two years. Although
    enacted as separate legislation, Congress envisioned them,
    particularly WIA and Perkins, as complementary and closely connected
    efforts to streamline the workforce development system. It is too
    early to determine whether the expected benefits of these laws will
    be fully realized. However, policymakers may need to consider the
    tensions that already have emerged between the "work-first,"
    short-term training philosophy that underpins WIA and TANF, and the
    educational, credential-oriented philosophy that many believe
    Perkins promotes (D'Amico 2001).

Objectives of Federal Vocational Education Policy

A variety of issues may influence how policymakers think about Perkins
reauthorization, but one good starting point is to examine what
vocational education was, and is now, expected to achieve. For example,
when the Smith-Hughes Act was enacted in 1917, federal aid promoted a
single objective: to train high school students for work in factories
and on farms.

Later versions of legislation addressed other salient issues. In the
1950s, it was the perceived gap in U.S.-Soviet science and technology
following the launch of Sputnik. In the 1960s and 1970s, vocational
legislation dealt with youth unemployment resulting from the post-war
baby boom, and equity issues raised by the civil rights and women's
movements. Concern about U.S. international competitiveness during
periods of slow economic growth was a focus in the 1980s. Throughout
these periods, however, and for much of its history, vocational
education was intended for the large majority of students entering the
job market immediately after high school. Employment and earnings were
the primary measures of success.

Vocational education today represents a wide range of activities,
offered in many types of institutions to a diverse set of students, with
different goals. The extent to which state and local implementation
reflects the legislative evolution and current federal objectives is a
key issue for NAVE.

Current Federal Goals

The most recent phase of federal policy corresponds to a period of great
economic benefit for individuals who possess higher-level skills and
education, and sharply diminished opportunities for those who are less
well educated. The pressing need for improving the academic achievement
of all students, reflected in the 1990 Perkins Amendments and continuing
in Perkins III, clearly moved federal support for vocational education
toward fulfilling a much broader set of objectives than in the past.

These program objectives are conveyed through the stated goals of the
law, the strategies it emphasizes, the targeting of funds, and the
measures by which the program's effectiveness will be judged. Nowhere is
this more clearly identified than in the "Purpose" of the law (Section
2):

> *"The purpose of this Act is to develop more fully the academic,
> vocational, and technical skills of secondary students and
> postsecondary students who elect to enroll in vocational and technical
> education programs...."*

-   ***Academic performance.*** Perkins III language indicates the
    congressional expectation that vocational education will contribute
    to vocational students' academic improvement. The purpose statement
    suggests that programs funded under Perkins should assume
    responsibility for this outcome. In addition, specified "core
    indicators of performance" for which states will be held accountable
    include student attainment of: (1) challenging state-established
    academic skill proficiencies and (2) a school diploma or degree or
    its equivalent. Perkins intends to support these goals by promoting
    the integration of academic and vocational education as well as
    teaching "all aspects of the industry."[^7] In theory, these same
    goals hold true at the postsecondary level.

-   ***Vocational and technical competencies.*** Not surprisingly,
    Perkins is expected to develop students' occupational skills. Not
    only is attainment of challenging state-established vocational and
    technical competencies a core accountability measure, but many of
    the practices encouraged by Perkins are aimed at improving these
    skills.

-   ***Postsecondary education or training.*** Vocational education now
    must also encourage students to enroll and be successful in further
    education and training. The Perkins Act promotes stronger links
    between high school and postsecondary vocational programs through
    Tech-Prep programs and articulation agreements that enable high
    school students to earn postsecondary credit in their high school
    vocational courses. No comparable strategies are specified to
    encourage postsecondary vocational students to pursue baccalaureate
    degrees, although Perkins includes further education and training as
    a core performance indicator for both the secondary and
    postsecondary levels.[^8]

-   ***Employment.*** What used to be the primary measure of a program's
    performance is now only one of several equally important indicators.

-   ***Access.*** Improving access of potentially at-risk students to
    high-quality vocational programs has been a longstanding goal of
    federal policy. Despite the elimination of set-aside grant funds for
    this purpose, enrollment in nontraditional programs of study is one
    of the program's core performance measures and states are expected
    to report on all performance indicators for various special
    population groups.

Perkins III includes other goals and priorities, sometimes seemingly in
conflict. For example, legislative language restricts vocational
education to preparation for occupations that do not require bachelors'
degrees, yet at the same time encourages preparing students for
high-wage, high-tech careers---where four-year college degrees are
typically required.

Programmatic Responses: The Changing Face of Vocational Education

Vocational education now has a variety of different missions. Over the
past decade, federal legislation and emerging trends have encouraged the
field to develop courses and programs reflecting this wider set of
objectives, and to target a broader group of students. Aimed primarily
at the secondary level, many of these efforts are intended to reduce the
stigma traditionally associated with vocational education and to
encourage broad career preparation as a beneficial strategy for all
students.

These initiatives were supported in various ways by the federal
School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994. This grant program provided
states and local partnerships of educators, employers, and community
groups with "venture capital" to initiate strategies that help students
develop better educational foundations for long-term career preparation.
Although the legislation has expired, many School-to-Work tenets can be
found in the "new vocational" strategies.

Strategies geared toward improving academic performance are gaining
momentum.

Reflecting the growing pressures of academic reform during the last two
decades, two occupationally oriented efforts to strengthen students'
academic skills and better prepare them for college have gained
substantial attention.

-   ***High Schools That Work (HSTW).*** Originally designed by the
    Southern Regional Education Board (SREB) as a strategy to improve
    the academic achievement of "career bound" students, HSTW emphasizes
    raising academic graduation requirements for all students, students'
    completion of either an academic or career major or both, new
    guidance and advising systems, and tutorial assistance for students
    who need extra help. According to the SREB, HSTW began with 28 sites
    in 13 states in 1987; it now has been adopted as either a vocational
    education or comprehensive school reform strategy by more than 1,100
    schools in 36 states.

-   ***Career Academies.*** Originally developed in the 1970s as a
    dropout prevention strategy targeted to at-risk students, career
    academies now serve a more diverse set of goals and student groups.
    Academies are typically implemented as a school-within-a-school
    program of two to four years that offers students a sequence of
    vocational and college preparatory academic course work organized
    around broad career themes. In collaboration with an academy
    business partner, students may obtain work experiences, take field
    trips, or complete school assignments based on the career theme. One
    recent study estimated that there are between 2,000 and 2,500
    efforts called career academies nationwide (Kemple 2001).

Initiatives to improve vocational and technical skills take two
different approaches.

Efforts to expand vocational competencies have pursued somewhat separate
approaches. One strategy focuses on upgrading the rigor of occupational
and technical training.

-   ***Skill standards and certification.*** For nearly a decade,
    efforts to develop national skill standards and portable credentials
    for many occupations have received federal, industry, and labor
    support.[^9] These standards were intended to identify the skills
    required in particular fields and provide a focus for efforts to
    update vocational curricula. Employers were expected to value the
    certificates that students earned in the upgraded vocational
    programs. While the results of the National Skill Standards Board
    have been limited so far, some national, state, and regional
    industry groups have produced their own sets of standards which
    local programs report using. A 1998 survey of School-to-Work
    partnerships nationwide suggested that 14.6 percent of secondary
    schools offered students in at least some vocational program
    certificates denoting mastery of skills identified by industry
    groups at the partnership, regional, state, or national level
    (Hulsey, Van Noy, and Silverberg 1999).

    Skill standards and certifications recently have emerged in new ways
    and in new fields. Perhaps the most prominent new offerings in
    vocational education are the high-tech Cisco Academies, Microsoft
    A+, and Novell certification programs, which emphasize the
    high-wage, high-demand end of vocational education offerings.

-   ***Youth apprenticeships.*** Developed as a precursor to the
    School-to-Work program, youth apprenticeships are multi-year
    programs of academic and vocational courses combined with work
    experience. Offered as preparation for a specific occupational area,
    youth apprenticeships are designed to lead to related one- or
    two-year postsecondary programs, entry-level jobs, or registered
    apprenticeship programs leading to journeyman status. A 1996 survey
    suggested that as many as one in five high schools offered at least
    one youth apprenticeship program (Visher et al. 1998).

An alternative approach has been to broaden the content of the
occupational training rather than to deepen it. One perspective holds
that as individuals have become more likely to hold multiple jobs during
the course of their working lives, focusing vocational education on
specific entry-level positions is less sensible. Several initiatives try
to give students wider exposure to the career or industry around which
their vocational studies are organized.

-   ***All aspects of the industry.*** Since 1990, the Perkins Act has
    emphasized teaching about the diverse set of issues and occupational
    pathways related to a particular industry or career focus (including
    financial, management, technology, and environmental roles and
    responsibilities). The 1998 School-to-Work partnership survey
    indicated that as many as half of all secondary schools have made
    efforts to introduce "all aspects" into at least some of their
    vocational curricula (Hulsey, Van Noy, and Silverberg 1999).

-   ***Career majors or pathways.*** Promoted in the School-to-Work
    Opportunities Act of 1994, these were to be defined sequences of
    relevant academic and vocational courses that students could commit
    to follow based on their career interest. The vocational content of
    the majors was expected to be broad, allowing students a wide set of
    postsecondary options. This definition easily overlaps with those of
    other career-focused programs, such as career academies and youth
    apprenticeships. In the 1998 School-to-Work survey, nearly half of
    all partnership schools reported forming career majors of some type
    around written course sequences used to help at least some students
    make course selections (Hulsey, Van Noy, and Silverberg 1999).

Tech-Prep is the primary strategy for improving transitions to college.

The growing emphasis on preparing all students to continue their
education beyond high school has led to special efforts to encourage
stronger ties between secondary and postsecondary vocational education.

-   ***Tech-Prep.*** Tech-Prep was originally designed as a four-year
    program of related academic and vocational course work spanning the
    last two years of high school and first two years of community
    college in order to prepare students for technical careers. Rarely
    implemented in this programmatic form, many schools instead have
    focused on establishing articulation agreements that allow students
    to earn college credit for high school vocational course work that
    meets college standards (Hershey et al. 1998). Since 1990, Perkins
    legislation has set aside specific funds to support Tech-Prep. A
    1996 survey suggests that about half of all high schools offer a
    Tech-Prep initiative of some sort (Visher et al. 1998).

Relatively few new approaches explicitly aim to increase employment.

The newer initiatives typically have shied away from the traditional
outcome of vocational education: to help students obtain a good
entry-level job after high school. Even where workplace experiences have
been promoted, their purpose is often described as an opportunity for
students to apply their academic learning or gain broader exposure to a
particular field while they are in high school, rather than as an
explicit strategy for finding employment. There are some exceptions:

-   ***Youth apprenticeships.*** In many youth apprenticeship programs,
    the substantial commitment of employers to provide training or paid
    work experience is at least partly based on the hope that successful
    student participants will remain with the firm.

-   ***Cooperative education.*** Cooperative education has been
    available to vocational education students for many years. In an
    organized co-op, students earn school credit for work experience and
    typically there is an agreed upon training plan for the students'
    time at the workplace. It is not unusual for a student to continue
    to work at their co-op placement after high school. About half of
    all secondary schools in 1996 offered co-op experiences (Visher et
    al. 1998).

The result of these varied vocational efforts is a field that continues
to evolve. New terminology abounds; in fact, the field now refers to
itself as "Career and Technical Education (CTE)" rather than vocational
education. Some programmatic strategies overlap; many are implemented in
combination or as separate options within the same school. Certainly, in
many places vocational education has moved far beyond construction and
cosmetology. Exactly what vocational education does look like and how
much it truly has changed on a broad scale is less clear but will be
explored in the NAVE final report.

Implications

As the economy, social conditions, and educational expectations have
changed, so too have general perceptions of vocational education's
relevance to contemporary concerns. During the past decade, federal
vocational education policy has come to embrace an ever-expanding array
of goals related to education, employment, and economic development
and---perhaps in response---spawned a variety of program offerings.
These developments have made vocational education more flexible but left
the answers to the following fundamental questions less clear:

-   What is the basic objective of federal policy in vocational
    education?

-   For whom is vocational education intended?

-   What are the key strategies by which objectives are to be achieved?

-   How should the program's success be measured?

-   Can vocational education be expected to meet all of these goals?

3\. Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

One concern increasingly raised by policymakers is whether vocational
education is still relevant to the core mission of secondary education.
While part of this question requires examining the quality and impacts
of vocational education, participation trends are also a key indicator.
Patterns of participation signal some sense of priorities---on the part
of schools that must decide to offer vocational courses and programs, of
students who choose to enroll in them, and of parents who oversee
student selections.

This chapter examines three questions regarding participation in
secondary vocational education:

1\. Has the nature of vocational course taking changed during the past
15 years?

2\. Are vocational students taking more---and more
challenging---academic courses?

3\. Who participates in vocational education? To what extent are these
courses and programs attracting the same, or a different, group of
students over time?

Key Findings

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

-   ***There is little evidence of a continuing drop in student
    participation during the 1990s.***

> Despite earlier trends, declines in participation in the 1980s appear
> to have leveled off during the last decade.

-   ***Vocational course work is a declining, though still significant,
    share of the overall high school curriculum.***

> Even though the extent of vocational course taking steadied in the
> 1990s, academic course taking increased; as a result, students are
> spending less of their overall high school experience in vocational
> education. Vocational education, as a share of average total credits
> earned, declined from 21.8 percent in 1982 to 17.8 percent in 1990, to
> 15.9 percent in 1998. Still, in 1998 students earned more credits in
> vocational education (4.0) than in math (3.4) or science (3.1).

-   ***Like other students, those in vocational programs are now earning
    more academic credits, but these vocational students still take
    fewer and less rigorous academic courses.***

> During the 1990s, the gap between vocational and other students in the
> number of academic credits earned dropped from 1.6 to 1.1 credits.
> However, substantially fewer vocational students (about 26 percent)
> than other students (43 percent) complete the advanced course work
> considered a "college preparatory" curriculum.

-   ***Vocational education serves a relatively diverse and consistent
    set of students.***

> For the most part, there has been little change in who participates in
> vocational education during the last decade. Although vocational
> education serves a varied group of students, those with low prior
> academic achievement, with disabilities, who are male, from
> lower-income or rural schools, and proficient in English continue to
> participate more substantially than do other students. However, some
> evidence suggests that, over time, vocational education may be serving
> relatively more academically advantaged students.

Background

Far more than academic subjects, secondary vocational education is
provided in diverse ways in a varied set of institutions. Available data
cannot measure participation along all these different dimensions, but
understanding where and how vocational education is offered is important
background for interpreting participation.

Vocational Course Work and the Institutions That Offer It

The best evidence suggests that, in 1998--99, vocational programs were
offered in at least 11,000 public secondary schools (roughly 66 percent
of such schools nationally), including 9,450 comprehensive high schools,
and 1,800 vocational schools (Phelps et al. 2001). Vocational schools
include two types. The first type, vocational high schools, emphasizes
vocational instruction but also offers the full set of academic courses
required of a high school curriculum; students spend their full day at
the school. The second type, area or regional vocational schools or
centers (AVSs), usually provides only vocational instruction; students
typically attend part-time and receive their academic instruction at
their home high school. Compared to comprehensive high schools, both
types of vocational schools are considered by many to offer
higher-quality occupational instruction because of their superior
equipment and facilities and the greater depth and breadth of training
available at these specialized institutions. However, most secondary
vocational education is provided in comprehensive high schools (Boesel
et al. 1994b, p. 3).

Regardless of where it is offered, secondary vocational education
encompasses three types of courses (Figure 3.1):

-   ***Specific Labor Market Preparation ("occupational education"):***
    Teaches skills and knowledge required in a particular occupation or
    set of related occupations, such as health, business, food service
    and hospitality; 10 broad occupational program areas were defined by
    the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), some with
    subspecialty areas.[^10]

-   ***General Labor Market Preparation (GLMP):*** Provides general
    employment skills that are not specific to any particular
    occupational area, such as typing or keyboarding, introductory
    technology education, career education, and general work experience
    courses.

-   ***Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS):*** Intended to prepare
    students for family and consumer roles outside the paid labor
    market, including consumer and home economics.

    ![](media/image11.wmf){width="5.995138888888889in"
    height="8.259722222222223in"}

Students take these courses in varying numbers, and with different
objectives in mind. Many schools offer sequences ("programs") of
related, increasingly advanced courses in one or several specific
occupational areas (e.g., health, drafting, child care). However, actual
course taking does not necessarily follow these organized offerings.
Most vocational courses and programs have no prerequisites; students are
free to enroll in courses across occupational areas and levels, although
some choose to focus their course taking on a single occupation (Boesel
et al. 1994b, pp. 85--87). The exceptions are specialty programs like
career academies and youth apprenticeships, in which students' decisions
to enroll in the programs are at least tentative commitments to follow
the programs' defined course sequences.

Key Measures of Participation

Because students in the nation's secondary schools take vocational
education courses in varying numbers and sequences, it is difficult to
identify a group for evaluation purposes whose participation and
outcomes would be best to measure.[^11] Previous research has focused on
"occupational concentrators"---students who take three or more credits
(corresponding to approximately three, year-long, single-period courses)
within a single occupational program area---because they are the closest
proxy to program completers and are thought to be most intent on
preparing for a job or career.

From a policy perspective, however, concentrators are not the only group
of interest. The larger population of all students (43.8 percent) who
earn three or more occupational credits, of which concentrators are a
subset, is also important. Perkins grants are distributed to
institutions---districts and schools---to fund courses and programs not
individual students. Therefore the federal investment is similar whether
students concentrate their vocational course taking in a single
occupational program area (25.0 percent) or "explore" across several
areas (18.8 percent). Together, concentrators and explorers account for
the vast majority of credits earned in vocational or occupational
education (Figure 3.2).

To better assess the nature of vocational course taking, the remainder
of this report will examine several ways in which students can
participate (Table 3.1).

![](media/image12.wmf){width="5.997222222222222in"
height="4.260416666666667in"}

**Table 3.1**

### Key Secondary Participation Measures

## [Participation Measure Description]{.underline} 

Total credits earned in vocational education The sum of all credits
earned in occupational education, general labor market preparation, and
family and consumer science.

Vocational Course Taker Graduate earning any credits in any form of
vocational education.

Occupational Investor Graduate earning three or more credits in
occupational courses, regardless of how these credits are organized;
made up of two subgroups (below).

Occupational Concentrator Graduate earning three or more occupational
credits but in a single program area (e.g., health care or business
services).

Occupational Explorer Graduate earning three or more occupational
credits but in more than one program area (e.g., business services and
agriculture).

Data

National trends in vocational and academic course taking come from
analysis of public high school transcripts for the graduating classes of
1982, 1990, 1992, 1994, and 1998, collected by NCES.[^12] These data are
too early to capture shifts in participation that may result from
Perkins III (passed in July 1998). Also, transcripts do not typically
record participation in special programs---such as career academy, youth
apprenticeship, or Tech-Prep programs. Nor do transcripts provide
information on the type of school at which the vocational courses were
taken. Some of this information can be obtained from recent data
collections that have not yet been completed or released for public use.
If more current (class of 2000) and comprehensive data become available
in time, they will be included in the NAVE's final report. The current
limitations in the data, however, do not impede the most important types
of participation analyses.

Trends in Vocational Course Taking

Vocational education has long played a role in students' high school
experience. For the last several decades, virtually every student has
left high school with at least one vocational course and some have taken
many. Some aspects of vocational participation are changing, however.
School reforms, evolving social and economic conditions, and other
factors are helping to shape the availability of and interest in
vocational education programs.

Little evidence of an ongoing drop in student participation.

A common concern in the vocational education community has been that
increasing college aspirations and emphasis on academic achievement
might reduce student participation in vocational education. However, at
least through 1998, student involvement has not decreased as
dramatically as these concerns and some earlier reports seemed to
predict (Levesque et al. 2000). The most commonly used measure of
participation indicates that a decade of decline through the 1980s
appears to have leveled off; the share of occupational concentrators
fell substantially between 1982 and 1992 but has been fairly steady
since then, at about one quarter of all high school graduates (Figure
3.3).

![](media/image13.wmf){width="3.6798611111111112in"
height="3.6104166666666666in"}

Perhaps more importantly, researchers have typically ignored the larger
share of students who take at least three occupational credits
("investors"), of which concentrators are only a subset. Examining the
trends in this broader measure suggests that, in fact, there has been
little change over the past 15 years. Between 42.0 and 46.2 percent of
all high school graduates since 1982 have invested in vocational
education in this way. In part, this level of participation in
occupational courses has been maintained because increasing numbers of
students are taking at least one computer technology course, at the same
time that enrollments in some other occupational program areas have
declined.

Vocational course work is a declining, though still significant, share
of the high school curriculum.

Despite relatively stable student participation rates over the last
decade, however, vocational education is clearly a shrinking portion of
the way students spend their time in high school (Figure 3.4). Average
credits earned in vocational education fell from 4.7 in 1982 to 4.0 in
1992 (mostly the result of fewer keyboarding or typing classes in high
school) and remained steady at 4.0 credits through 1998.[^13] At the
same time, academic credits increased substantially---from 14.3

![](media/image14.wmf){width="5.998611111111111in"
height="3.564583333333333in"}

to 18.3, making total credits rise. As a result, vocational education's
share of total credits dropped from 21.8 percent in 1982 to 17.9 percent
in 1990 to 15.9 percent in 1998.

Even with the overall declining share, high school students still earn
more credits in vocational education (4.0) than in math (3.4) or science
(3.1) (Figure 3.5). Moreover, in 1998, the 4.3 English and language arts
credits students earned on average are not statistically different from
the credits they earned in vocational education. These findings are
particularly striking, given the emphasis that has been placed on
academic reforms and higher graduation requirements during the last two
decades.

![](media/image15.wmf){width="3.41875in" height="3.8916666666666666in"}

Students may now be taking vocational education for different reasons.

Historically, students enrolled in vocational education to prepare for
entry-level jobs after high school. Meeting this objective called for
skill development in a particular occupational area, and likely
encouraged students to "concentrate" their course taking as a way to
maximize their appeal to potential employers. Federal law, particularly
in Perkins II and III, supported this goal by promoting school
implementation of, and student participation, in "sequences" of related
vocational courses.

Despite these efforts, however, the clear trend in vocational course
taking has been toward "exploring" across occupational program areas
rather than "concentrating" (Figure 3.6). Among students who earn at
least three occupational credits (investors), concentrating is a less
common way to organize course work now (57.0 percent) than in 1982 (72.8
percent); a higher proportion of students are taking their three or more
credits in multiple program areas. In addition, students are
increasingly less likely to take advanced course work in their area of
concentration; in 1998, 56.3 percent of concentrators earned credit in
related advanced-level courses, down from 69.9 percent in 1982.

![](media/image16.wmf){width="4.419444444444444in"
height="4.336111111111111in"}

These data suggest that fewer students may now view skill development in
a specific program area to be their main objective for enrolling in
vocational education. Some students may take occupational courses for
career exposure purposes, to help them select a college major, to pursue
a leisure interest, or because these courses present less of an
intellectual challenge than do other courses.

There are several possible, alternative explanations for the change in
vocational course-taking patterns. First, schools may be increasingly
less likely to *offer* full sequences of related courses, choosing to
trade off depth in the programs they offer in favor of giving students
more breadth across program areas. Whether student or school preference,
however, the priority on specific job skill development appears to be
lessening over time.

It is also possible, however, that recent vocational course taking
reflects broader conceptions of career preparation. Students may be
organizing what appears to them and to their counselors to be a logical
sequence of occupational courses representing different program areas as
classified by NCES. For example, a student who wants to run a
landscaping firm might appropriately enroll in both agriculture and
business courses; a student interested in pediatric nursing could view
both child care and health care skills as important preparation for
later college courses. More analysis of students' reasons for enrolling
in vocational education is necessary and will be presented in the next
NAVE report.[^14]

Full effects of school improvement policies on vocational participation
perhaps have not yet been felt; future declines are likely.

Most of the decline in vocational course taking occurred between 1982
and 1990, before many would think the policies associated with school
reforms were fully implemented. During the decade of reform efforts
since then, vocational participation in the aggregate remained
relatively stable, suggesting that these reforms have not had much of an
effect.

Looking beyond tabulations of the aggregate participation measures tells
a slightly different story, however, which foreshadows possible declines
in vocational education course taking.

-   ***Course graduation requirements increased only slightly during the
    1990s and not across the board.*** While the 1990s often have been
    referred to as the decade of school reform, certain reform policies
    that might be expected to affect vocational participation were not
    as evident during this period. Between 1980 and 1990, approximately
    39 states increased their total course graduation requirements, and
    vocational participation did decline substantially during that time.
    However, only 12 states increased or further increased graduation
    requirements between 1990 and 1998 (Education Commission of the
    States 1990; Snyder et al. 2001).

> Moreover, the six states that increased their requirements by 2.0
> credits or more between 1990 and 1998 exhibited: (1) a significant
> decrease of 1.0 vocational credits earned by high school students and
> (2) a decline of 9.6 percent in the proportion of occupational
> concentrators, both statistically significant results (Table 3.2).
> Many factors could account for the decline in vocational participation
> in these states, but the significant increase in graduation
> requirements is certainly a strong hypothesis. Further efforts to
> raise graduation requirements may well have adverse consequences for
> participation in vocational education.

**Table 3.2**

**Changes in Vocational Education Participation Measures, by Change in
State Graduation\
Requirements: 1990--1998**

Number Average Vocational Percent of Graduates

[of States]{.underline} [Credits Earned]{.underline} [Who Are
Concentrators]{.underline}

[1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change]{.underline}

Change in Total Graduation

Requirements

Increase of 2 + credits 6 4.1 3.1 -1.00\* 30.3 20.6 -9.6\*

Increase of LT 2 credits 6 4.5 4.1 -0.4 33.8 28.7 -5.1

No increase 32 4.0 4.1 0.1 24.2 24.0 -0.2

[Not applicable^1^ 6 4.6 4.2 -0.4 29.5 29.6 0.1]{.underline}

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

^1^States that allowed local school districts to set high school
graduation requirements in one or both years.

\*Statistically significant at 1.96 critical level for comparison
between 1990 and 1998.

-   ***Students mostly maintained vocational participation by expanding
    total credits earned***. Nationally since 1990, high school students
    greatly increased their academic course taking while reducing only
    slightly their vocational credits. If the increase in academic
    credits reflects schools' emphasis on academic improvement,
    vocational course taking might have fallen further, if not for the
    fact that students could make room for additional academic courses
    by increasing their total credits earned. However, such expansion
    may have reached its limits by 1998; students on average earned a
    total of 25.2 credits, out of a likely 28 possible credits in a
    traditional school schedule (Figure 3.4).[^15] Alternative "block
    scheduling" approaches may allow students to increase their total
    credits further.

-   ***Shifts in vocational course taking do not yet reflect emphasis on
    preparation for academic assessments.*** A major reform policy that
    could have a direct effect on vocational participation is the
    introduction of state assessments. As noted in Chapter 2, by the
    1998--99 school year, nearly 20 states had established high-stakes
    exit exams for high school graduation, typically offered first at
    the end of 10th grade so that students who fail have several
    opportunities to retake the tests. One hypothesis was that schools
    would increasingly focus students in the early high school grades on
    academic courses and preparation for the assessments, potentially
    crowding out vocational courses until later in the high school
    years. Such a shift was not evident between 1990 and 1998, however.
    During that period, vocational credits earned in 11th grade declined
    somewhat. As a result, students were taking a similar or slightly
    higher share of their vocational credits before the typical
    10th-grade state assessment (Figure 3.7).

![](media/image17.wmf){width="5.997916666666667in" height="3.36875in"}

> In fact, by 1998 few states had yet phased in the consequences for
> students who passed or failed to pass the assessments. The aggregate
> decline in 11th-grade vocational participation is more likely due to
> increased graduation requirements in those 12 states that raised them,
> leading to more academic rather than vocational course taking in grade
> 11.[^16] As assessments become more fully implemented, and if states
> maintain their high standards for passing, the hypothetical decline in
> vocational participation is much more likely. One piece of evidence
> that supports this future scenario is a study (Bishop and Mane
> forthcoming) that suggests that even the minimum competency exams
> required for graduation in some states or districts in the early 1990s
> may have reduced vocational course taking.

Participation by Occupational Program Area

Examining occupational course taking by program area is important for
two reasons. First, there is a presumption about the quality of programs
in different fields: program areas that prepare students for high-skill,
high-wage jobs are generally considered more beneficial than those that
prepare students for jobs with fewer skill demands and lower pay. A
second, and more overarching, concern is that students who invest in
vocational education should be able to find jobs. Therefore, some match
between vocational program offerings and labor market needs is
desirable. Transcript analysis cannot adequately assess quality, so some
judgment about program areas is necessary.

Enrollment in computer technology courses does not yet reflect the
"Internet boom."

While Perkins III does not emphasize one occupational program area over
another, no program has received as much recent attention---by
educators, employers, policymakers, and the media---as information
technology (IT). By 1998, when Perkins III was passed, the potential of
the Internet and the demand for technicians skilled in hardware,
computer programming languages and applications seemed limitless. At
that time, some high schools and area vocational centers began offering
courses that prepared students for certifications in Microsoft office
applications, Cisco "networking," or other IT areas.

Between 1990 and 1998, the data indicate that participation in computer
technology courses did increase in some ways. During this period, the
proportion of high school students taking at least one course rose by
21.1 percent but the proportion concentrating in computer technology
(taking at least three credits in this program area) stayed roughly the
same. Although the average number of credits earned in computer
technology was small (.31), by 1998 34.3 percent of high school
graduates took at least one computer technology course.

However, trends in the national transcript data are not consistent with
the more recent increased attention and school demand. Average credits
earned in computer technology appear to have peaked in 1992, declining
afterwards at the same time that employment demands in this area were
growing (Figure 3.8). Even if 1992 were an anomaly, the data suggest at
most level overall participation through most of the 1990s. Likewise,
although computer-related course taking occurs in other program
areas---primarily business services and drafting---participation in
those courses did not increase markedly during the period.

It seems likely that the available national data, reflecting the course
taking of seniors in 1998, is too early to capture the effects of the
Internet expansion and school interest in offering IT courses. It is
expected that transcripts now being collected for seniors in the class
of 2000 will show a marked increase in computer technology
participation.

![](media/image18.wmf){width="3.6277777777777778in"
height="4.002777777777778in"}Other changes in program participation are
consistent with labor market trends.

Policymakers have long called for stronger linkages between employers
and vocational educators, in part to ensure that the availability and
quality of vocational programs reflect employer needs.[^17] Perkins III,
for example, mandates funding for national and state-level entities to
coordinate and disseminate occupational and employment information.
However, labor market demand may do more than influence administrative
judgments about program offerings; students may be more likely to take
courses or concentrate in vocational program areas that prepare them for
occupations with increasing job opportunities.

A recent NCES analysis (Hurst and Hudson 2000) supports the hypothesis
that vocational course taking may be responsive to labor market demand
to some degree (Figure 3.9). A substantial portion of the change in the
proportion of concentrators in specific occupational program areas
between 1982 and 1998 appears to coincide with projected job growth from
1983 to 1996. For example, four programs experienced the largest gains
in the proportion of concentrators: health

![](media/image19.wmf){width="6.0in" height="5.517361111111111in"}

![](media/image20.wmf){width="5.993055555555555in"
height="5.040972222222222in"}

care, child care and education, food service and hospitality, and
technology and communications.[^18] During the same period, the
corresponding job categories---health service occupations, child care
workers and teacher aides, food preparation and service occupations, and
technicians and related support occupations---had higher than average
employment growth. Similarly, the largest declines in vocational
concentrators were in the trade and industry and business program areas;
these areas approximately correspond to occupations that had experienced
below average projected growth rates since the early 1980s. It is
unclear whether the consistency in course taking and job growth reflects
changes in school program offerings, changes in student preferences, or
both.

While some responsiveness to employment trends is desirable, it is worth
noting that a substantial share of the recent vocational participation
and job growth has been in low-wage sectors. There can be great
variation in wages and earnings within each occupational grouping,
particularly in the technology and communications fields. However,
recent data indicates that in 2000, average annual earnings were
\$21,040 for health care support workers, \$16,070 for food preparation
and serving related workers, \$18,770 for teacher assistants and
\$16,350 for child care workers (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2001).
Although these occupations are certainly important to society, the data
provide little evidence that vocational education is concentrating its
efforts on preparation for high-skill, high-wage jobs.

Academic Course Taking of Students Participating in Vocational Education

With academic improvement increasingly the marker of a high school's
success, policymakers have sought to ensure that students who
participate in vocational education are not left behind. Perkins III
accountability provisions, for example, require states to report on the
proportion of vocational students who meet state-established academic
standards.

Vocational educators and their academic colleagues face certain
challenges. Historically, many of the occupational concentrators and
other students who take at least three credits of occupational education
have *entered* high school with lower academic achievement than other
students (Table 3.3). It therefore should not be surprising if
vocational students' academic course taking follows a different path
than that of other students, as described below.

**Table 3.3**

### Percentage of 1992 High School Graduates, by Level of 8th-Grade Math and Reading Achievement Test Scores 

[Occupational Concentrators Non-concentrators^1\ ^]{.underline}

Average math score

Low 44.6 29.7

Middle 36.0 33.4

High 19.4 36.9

Average reading score

Low 47.4 28.9

Middle 33.7 34.1

#######  High 18.9 37.0 

SOURCE: Agodini forthcoming. Analysis of NELS 88 data.

^1^Among the non-concentrators, those who earned three credits in
occupational vocational education but who did not "concentrate" their
course taking (i.e., the "explorers") had math and reading test scores
closest to the concentrators.

Vocational students, like other students, are earning more core academic
credits than in the past, but a gap remains.

More than a decade of attention to school reform appears to have helped
improve the academic course taking of all students, including those who
participate in vocational education. Public high school graduates earned
2.6 more core academic credits---in English or language arts,
mathematics, science, or social studies---in 1998 than they did in 1982
(Table 3.4). This increase is equivalent to about two and one half
full-year academic courses.

**Table 3.4**

**Academic Credits Earned by High School Graduates: 1982 and 1998**

[Average Academic Credits Earned, by Year]{.underline}

#### Type of Students 1982 1998 Change 

All public high school graduates 11.9 14.5 + 2.6

Occupational concentrators 10.8 13.7 + 2.9

#######  Non-concentrators 12.4 14.8 + 2.4 

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

Occupational concentrators increased their academic course taking even
more than other students, perhaps because they had farther to go in
meeting new graduation requirements. As a result, by 1998 the gap in
academic credits earned between occupational concentrators and
non-concentrators had been reduced (from 1.6 to 1.1 credits). Most of
the remaining gap is due to differences in science course taking.

Vocational students still take less rigorous courses than other students
do.

Despite the success in increasing the *number* of academic courses that
vocational students take, not as much progress has been made in
narrowing the gap in the *types* of courses they take. During the 1990s,
concentrators and other students became more similar in their taking of
such "gatekeeper" courses as Algebra 1 and in whether they completed
what has been termed, "the New Basics" curriculum---four years of
English and three years each of math, science, and social studies.
However, in 1998, occupational concentrators were much less likely than
non-concentrators to complete a more demanding college prep curriculum
or to take advanced math (Table 3.5).

**Table 3.5**

### Academic Course Taking Patterns for Occupational Concentrators and Non-concentrators: 1998

[Course Taking Occupational Concentrators
Non-concentrators^1\ ^]{.underline}

New Basics^2^ 45.7% 59.4%

College Prep Curriculum^3^ 25.9% 43.2%

Algebra 1 87.1% 93.2%

[Advanced Math^4^ 26.0% 42.4%]{.underline}

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

^1^Among the non-concentrators, the academic course taking of those
students who earned three credits in occupational vocational education
but who did not "concentrate" their course taking ("explorers") was most
similar to that of the concentrators.

^2^The "New Basics" curriculum, as measured here, is equivalent to four
years of English or language arts, and three years each of math,
science, and social studies.

^3^The "College Prep" curriculum is defined as earning four or more
credits in English; three or more credits in mathematics at the algebra
1 or higher level; two or more credits in biology, chemistry, or
physics; two or more credits in social studies with at least one credit
in U.S. or world history; and two or more credits in a single foreign
language (see Levesque et al. 2000).

^4^"Advanced Math" includes algebra 3, trigonometry, analytical
geometry, linear algebra, probability, statistics, precalculus,
introduction to analysis, and calculus.

This disparity in the rigor of course taking raises some concern.
Because many students who pursue vocational education as a major part of
their studies begin high school with lower levels of academic
achievement, if they then take less challenging academic courses they
are more likely to have difficulty passing state academic assessments
required for graduation. These problems have already become evident in
states such as New York and Massachusetts, where some local vocational
educators have lobbied for a separate set of passing standards or what
they view as more relevant tests for vocational students. The
comparatively low rate at which vocational students complete a college
preparatory curriculum is also a consideration for the future of
vocational education, as more and more students aspire to baccalaureate
degrees.

Characteristics of Vocational Education Students

Who participates in vocational education has been a continuing policy
concern. While federal legislation in the 1960s and 1970s aimed to
improve access to vocational education for certain special populations,
the current debate is whether vulnerable groups are overrepresented in
and well-served by vocational education. Some previous reports suggested
that, by the early 1990s, vocational education had come to be
stigmatized as a high school track for students with poor academic
capabilities, special needs, or behavioral problems (Boesel et al.
1994b).

During the last decade, however, career education has been given new
prominence by several initiatives targeted to students other than those
traditionally served by vocational programs (see Chapter 2). In
addition, some states and districts have worked to strengthen the appeal
of vocational courses---for example, moving away from training for what
used to be considered blue-collar jobs, such as manufacturing,
secretarial work, and child care, and toward programs in
pre-engineering, information technology, and education.

Policymakers and educators remain committed to providing students from
special populations access to vocational education. However, many
believe that the quality of vocational programs is unlikely to improve
without attracting a broader segment of the student population or that
the participation of a more diverse set of students will signal that
quality improvements are being made.

For these reasons, it is important to examine the characteristics of
students involved in vocational education. While a variety of
characteristics were analyzed, particular attention was paid to those
that define the special population groups named in Perkins III (P.L.
105-332, Section 3(23)) and that can be identified in available data
(Table 3.6).[^19]^0^ The participation of two other groups defined in
the law---single parents and displaced homemakers---could not be
addressed with the current data and are probably more important to
examine at the postsecondary level.

**Table 3.6**

### Measures Used to Define Special Population Groups

#### Special Population Group

Individuals with disabilities

Individuals from economically disadvantaged

families

Individuals preparing for nontraditional training and employment

Individuals with other barriers to educational achievement, including
individuals with limited English proficiency (LEP)

##### 

##### Measures Used

Students with Individual Education Plans

Students in schools in which more than 50.0

percent of students are eligible for the National School Lunch Program

Students in occupational programs that are

nontraditional for their gender

Students who: (1) take low-level math in 9th grade (proxy for prior
achievement) or (2) are limited English proficient (LEP)

Historically, low college aspirations, prior achievement, and
socioeconomic status have been the strongest predictors of participation
in vocational education.

Vocational education has long struggled with the perception that it
mostly serves students who are disadvantaged in some way---who have no
plans for college, are struggling academically, are disabled, are
low-income, exhibit behavioral problems, or are from minority racial or
ethnic groups. Previous studies have contributed to this impression, but
most have relied primarily on qualitative impressions from school site
visits and descriptive statistics of seniors who meet certain thresholds
of participation. These efforts provide a useful picture of
participants. However, few have explored how the various student
characteristics are related to each other in determining who
participates. Prior research has also failed to identify which
characteristics or factors make the greatest difference in attracting
students to vocational education or, as some see it, in how school
counselors encourage students into high schools' various curriculum
paths.

A recent study commissioned for NAVE suggests that several of the
factors previously thought to influence participation do matter, while
others may not (Agodini, Uhl, and Novak forthcoming). Using multivariate
regression techniques so that many characteristics could be
simultaneously taken into account, the study estimated the relationship
between each factor or characteristic and whether or not a student
became an occupational concentrator. The analysis indicates (Table 3.7):

Table 3.7

**Factors Related to Becoming an Occupational Concentrator**

Overall [Student Subgroups]{.underline}

1992

High School Low In Non-College

[Graduates Achievers Poor Schools Bound]{.underline}

**Demographics**

Sex (male v. female) **+ +** **+**

Race/ethnicity (black or Hispanic v. white/other) **-- -- --**

Socioeconomic status (low v. high) **+ +**

Disability (yes v. no)

Ever held back (yes v. no) **+**

Number of risk factors (one or more v. none) **--** **+**

Advanced 8th-grade course taking (yes v. no) **--**

8th-grade achievement (low or average v. high) **+** NA **+**

Mother's education (HS/less v. more than HS)

School location (North-Central/South v. other) **+ +** **+**

School urbanicity (rural v. other) **+ +** **+**

Type of school (public v. other) **+**

School enrollment (small v. large)

School reduced-price lunch participation (high v. low) NA

**Behaviors** (select list from those examined)

Problem student behaviors:

Misbehave (yes v. no)

School problems (yes v. no)

Fight (yes v. no)

Cut/skip class (yes v. no)

Tardy (yes v. no) **--**

Good student behaviors:

Homework done per week (a lot v. little)

Discuss program with counselor (yes v. no) **+**

Discuss courses with counselor (yes v. no) **--**

Parental involvement:

Attend school meetings (yes v. no) **--**

Speak to teacher/counselor (yes v. no) **+**

Check student\'s homework (yes v. no) **--**

**Expectations**

Student's college plans (HS/less v. more than HS)) **+ + +** NA

Locus of control (low or average v. high)

Parent's college plans for student (HS/less v. more than HS)

[School has high academic standards (yes v. no)]{.underline}

SOURCE: Agodini, Uhl, and Novak forthcoming. Analysis of NELS 88 data.

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
  \+ Indicates a positive and statistically significant influence on
  vocational education participation, all other characteristics in the
  table equal.

  \- Indicates a negative and statistically significant influence on
  vocational education participation, all other characteristics in the
  table equal.

  NA indicates not applicable because the subgroup only includes students
  with this characteristic. HS = high school
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

NOTE: In reading the table, for example, the "+" in the row labeled
"sex" and the column labeled "Overall 1992 High School Graduates"
indicates that males were more likely than females to become an
occupational concentrator, all other characteristics in the table held
equal. The presence of a "+" or "-" indicates that a relationship is
statistically significant.

-   ***Low prior academic achievement is associated with participation
    in vocational education, but it is not the only factor that has an
    effect***. Consistent with earlier research, low 8th-grade test
    scores are highly correlated with becoming an occupational
    concentrator, investor, or explorer, even taking other
    characteristics into account. However, among students with similar
    8th-grade scores, many other factors also affect the program of
    study the students pursue.

-   ***College plans have the strongest relationship with vocational
    education participation.*** Regardless of their demographic
    characteristics, disability status, prior achievement, or behavior
    in school, students who in 8th grade did not plan to pursue
    postsecondary education were more likely (by about 15 percentage
    points) to become occupational concentrators than those who planned
    to earn baccalaureate degrees. This finding suggests that, for many
    students, vocational studies may be a planned strategy for life
    after high school.

-   ***Socioeconomic status (SES) has an independent effect on
    participation.*** Even among those with similar prior achievement,
    college plans, and other characteristics, students from lower
    socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to participate in
    vocational education than are students from higher socioeconomic
    backgrounds. This result suggests that low-income students
    regardless of academic ability, are more likely to choose or be
    encouraged to choose vocational programs of study.

-   ***Disabilities, problem student behaviors, and minority racial or
    ethnic statuses do not appear to increase the likelihood that
    students participate in vocational education, as some other studies
    have suggested.*** Certainly, a higher proportion of students with
    disabilities, problem behaviors, and minority status participate in
    vocational education than do other students. However, in contrast to
    previous research examining participation rates (e.g., Levesque et
    al. 2000), once prior achievement, SES, and college plans are
    controlled for, disability is no longer a factor. The same is true
    when examining the role of problem behaviors, such as tardiness,
    class cutting, and suspensions. Although some studies of a few
    select high schools have suggested that African American and
    Hispanic students are more likely to be counseled into vocational
    programs, on a national level students from minority racial or
    ethnic groups are *not* more likely to participate in vocational
    education, once adjustments have been made for other characteristics
    such as SES and prior academic achievement. In fact, Hispanic
    students are less likely to participate, holding all else equal.

However, these results are based on data for 1992 seniors, the last time
comprehensive national data on high school students was collected.
Whether these factors play the same role in how *current* students
become occupational concentrators (or investors or explorers) is less
clear. New programs and initiatives implemented during the last
decade---many intended to change the mix of high school students
interested in career preparation---could affect the stability of these
findings. It is therefore important to examine whether the
characteristics of contemporary students are similar to those of
graduates in 1992.

For the most part, there has been little change in who participates in
vocational education during the last decade.

The data suggest that vocational education serves a diverse group of
students, with most coming from the middle range of academic and income
advantage. Some groups of students are more likely to participate
substantially, although most characteristics of the vocational student
population were relatively stable throughout the 1990s (Table 3.8).

-   ***Vocational education continues to serve a somewhat
    disproportionate share of students with disabilities.*** In 1998,
    students with disabilities represented 2.8 percent of all high
    school graduates but 4.2 percent of all occupational concentrators.
    As in previous years, these students were much more likely to become
    concentrators (37.5 percent) and earned substantially more credits
    in vocational education (5.9) than did students without disabilities
    (24.6 percent and 3.9 credits). In fact, students with disabilities
    take a much higher share of their total credits in vocational
    education (23.5 percent) than do other students (15.7 percent).

> However, there is little recent support for a prediction of a report
> produced under the previous NAVE (Boesel et al. 1994a)---that students
> with special needs are becoming *more* concentrated in vocational
> education. Data between 1982 and 1990 show a modest trend in that
> direction, but it is not sustained during the 1990s. In addition, with
> special needs students accounting for less than five percent of all
> concentrators nationally, the notion of vocational education in
> general as a "dumping" ground for these students is not warranted. On
> the other hand, students with disabilities are overrepresented in some
> of the more traditional vocational program areas---agriculture,
> construction, mechanics and repair, and materials production.

-   ***Participation in vocational education is highest in low-income
    schools.*** Despite reform efforts during the 1990s that targeted
    low-income schools for academic improvement, students in these
    schools were taking more vocational education than were students in
    the most advantaged schools. In 1998, students in schools with more
    than 50.0 percent of students eligible for the federal free- or
    reduced-price lunch program earned 4.7 vocational credits, while
    students in schools with 5.0 percent or less eligible for the
    federal lunch program earned only 3.2 credits. Students in "moderate
    income" schools earned 4.1 vocational credits, an amount that is
    statistically similar to those in the lowest-income schools. The
    proportion of students who concentrate in an occupational program
    also follows this pattern based on school poverty levels. Changes
    between 1994 and 1998---the only years for which comparable data on
    school poverty are available---are not statistically significant.

**Table 3.8**

### Participation Measures, by Characteristics of the Students: 1990 and 1998

+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
|                  | Av    |       |       | Pe    |       |       |
|                  | erage |       |       | rcent |       |       |
|                  | N     |       |       | of    |       |       |
|                  | umber |       |       | Stu   |       |       |
|                  | of\   |       |       | dents |       |       |
|                  | Vocat |       |       | Who   |       |       |
|                  | ional |       |       | Are\  |       |       |
|                  | Cr    |       |       | Oc    |       |       |
|                  | edits |       |       | cupat |       |       |
|                  | E     |       |       | ional |       |       |
|                  | arned |       |       | Con   |       |       |
|                  |       |       |       | centr |       |       |
|                  | 1990  |       |       | ators |       |       |
|                  | 1998  |       |       |       |       |       |
|                  | C     |       |       | 1990  |       |       |
|                  | hange |       |       | 1998  |       |       |
|                  |       |       |       | C     |       |       |
|                  |       |       |       | hange |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
|                  |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| All Students     | 4.2   | 4.0   | -0.2  | 27.8  | 25.0  | -     |
|                  |       |       |       |       |       | 2.8\* |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
|                  |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| Gender           |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > Male           | 4.3   | 4.3   | +0.0  | 32.3  | 30.7  | -1.6  |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > Female         | 4.1   | 3.8   | -     | 23.6  | 19.9  | -     |
|                  |       |       | 0.3\* |       |       | 3.6\* |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
|                  |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| Race or          |       |       |       |       |       |       |
| Ethnicity        |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > Native or      | 4.6   | 4.0   | -     | 38.0  | 25.5  | -1    |
| > American\      |       |       | 0.6\* |       |       | 2.5\* |
| > Indian         |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > Asian or       | 3.1   | 3.2   | +0.1  | 16.6  | 16.8  | +0.2  |
| > Pacific\       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
| > Islander       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > African        | 4.4   | 4.3   | -0.1  | 27.3  | 27.2  | -0.1  |
| > American,      |       |       |       |       |       |       |
| > Black          |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > Hispanic       | 4.1   | 4.0   | -0.1  | 27.9  | 22.9  | -5.0  |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > White          | 4.2   | 4.0   | -0.2  | 28.5  | 25.3  | -     |
|                  |       |       |       |       |       | 3.2\* |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
|                  |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| Disability       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
| Status           |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > Has disability | 6.0   | 5.9   | +0.1  | 42.2  | 37.5  | -4.7  |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > None indicated | 4.1   | 3.9   | +0.2  | 27.4  | 24.6  | -     |
|                  |       |       |       |       |       | 2.8\* |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
|                  |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| English          |       |       |       |       |       |       |
| Proficiency      |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > Limited (LEP)  | 2.9   | 3.2   | +0.3  | 12.4  | 8.7   | -3.7  |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > Proficient     | 4.2   | 4.0   | -0.2  | 27.8  | 25.1  | -     |
|                  |       |       |       |       |       | 2.7\* |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
|                  |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| Grade 9          |       |       |       |       |       |       |
| Mathematics      |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > Geometry or    | 2.7   | 3.0   | +0.3  | 12.0  | 17.5  | +     |
| > Higher         |       |       |       |       |       | 5.5\* |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > Pre-algebra    | 3.9   | 4.1   | +0.2  | 25.3  | 26.2  | +0.9  |
| > or\            |       |       |       |       |       |       |
| > Algebra 1      |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > No or low math | 5.3   | 4.8   | -0.   | 39.3  | 29.6  | -9.   |
|                  |       |       | 5\*\* |       |       | 7\*\* |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
|                  |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| School Locale^1^ |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > Urban          | 3.7   | 3.6   | -0.1  | 21.4  | 23.1  | -1.7  |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > Suburban       | 3.6   | 3.6   | 0.0   | 21.9  | 21.5  | -0.4  |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > Rural          | 4.8   | 4.8   | 0.0   | 31.3  | 31.0  | -0.3  |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
|                  |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| School Income    |       |       |       |       |       |       |
| Level            |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > Low            | n/a   | 4.7   | n/a   | n/a   | 29.2  | n/a   |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > Medium         | n/a   | 4.1   | n/a   | n/a   | 26.8  | n/a   |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| > High           | n/a   | 3.2   | n/a   | n/a   | 15.7  | n/a   |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

^1^A comparable school locale variable was not available in 1990, so
1992 data were used instead.

n/a = not available LEP=Limited English proficient \*Significant at the
1.96 critical level for comparison between 1990 and 1998.

Importantly, while students in low-income schools are involved in
vocational education at high rates, their participation does not appear
to be concentrated in the traditional, blue-collar vocational program
areas or in those that prepare students for generally low-wage jobs.
That is, economically disadvantaged students are no more likely than
more advantaged students to concentrate in construction, materials,
production, mechanics and repair, personal services, or food and
hospitality. Moreover, disadvantaged students are as *likely*, if not
slightly more likely, to concentrate in the growing fields of health
care and computer technology.

-   ***Some progress has been made, although substantial disparities
    remain, in participation by gender.*** On average, high school
    preparation for occupations and careers has become neither more nor
    less gender balanced, despite the goals of Perkins gender equity
    provisions. Females still dominate enrollments in programs that
    prepare students for occupations such as health care, child care and
    education, and personal services (e.g., cosmetology). Males continue
    to dominate participation in agriculture and the traditional trade
    and industry programs (e.g., construction, mechanics and repair,
    print and materials production), fields that generally command
    higher wages than those for which female high school students are
    preparing. However, there are two notable program areas in which
    participation rates for males and females have moved closer
    together.

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-   ***Computer Technology:*** The gender difference in credits earned
    in computer technology has grown smaller. By 1998 girls earned .30
    credits while boys earned .32 credits, a statistically insignificant
    gap of 6.7 percent, down from 17.9 percent in 1990. This narrowing
    of the gap was accomplished largely by an increase in girls'
    participation in this vocational field while boys' participation
    remained relatively steady.

-   ***Business Services:*** The reverse trend has occurred in business
    services; girls have been increasingly less likely, while boys are
    now more likely, to concentrate in this program field. One
    hypothesis is that interest in secretarial training has declined at
    the same time that computer-related business courses (e.g.,
    spreadsheets, business data processing), which might have more
    appeal to boys, have become increasingly available.

> Overall girls' vocational course taking has declined since 1990, at
> the same time that their academic course taking has risen
> substantially. In 1998 girls earned a lower share of their total
> credits in vocational education (14.9 percent) than did boys (17.1
> percent).

-   ***Students in rural schools are more likely to be involved in
    vocational education than are students in other locales.*** As
    historically has been the case, much of vocational education happens
    in small, generally rural communities. Although nationally, rural
    schools serve 32.3 percent of all public high school graduates,
    these same schools serve about 40.1 percent of all occupational
    concentrators. Urban and suburban schools account for 26.2 and 33.8
    percent of concentrators (compared to 28.4 percent and 39.3 percent
    of all graduates). Although there have been modest declines in
    participation across all types of locales, students in rural schools
    earn more vocational credits (4.8 in 1998) than do students in urban
    and suburban schools (both groups earned 3.6 credits on average in
    1998).

-   ***African American students participate in vocational education
    somewhat more, and Asian students somewhat less, than students in
    other racial or ethnic groups.*** There is little evidence of any
    statistically significant change in vocational education
    participation by race or ethnicity during the last decade. However,
    African American students do earn more credits in vocational
    education (4.3) and Asian students earn fewer credits (3.2) than do
    other racial/ethnic groups (4.0 for Hispanic, white, and Native
    American students). Among all students in 1998, African Americans
    earned a higher share of their total credits in vocational education
    (17.4 percent) than did Asians (12.6 percent), and Asian students
    earned a lower share than did students from all other groups.

-   ***Students with limited English proficiency (LEP) are much less
    likely to participate in an occupational program.*** The
    participation of LEP students in vocational education has fluctuated
    since 1990 (when data on this group first became available), perhaps
    because of the small sample of these students who can be identified
    in the data. However, LEP students earn significantly fewer credits
    in vocational education (3.2 in 1998) and are much less likely to be
    occupational concentrators (8.7 percent) than are students who are
    English-language proficient (4.0 credits and 25.1 percent
    concentrators).

Whether these participation patterns are viewed as reassuring or with
concern depends on whether vocational education improves student
outcomes in general and specifically for those who participate at high
rates. Analysis of the effects of vocational education on subgroups of
students is under way and will be discussed in the final NAVE report.

Vocational education may be attracting somewhat more academically
talented students.

During the past two decades, students overall have entered high school
more prepared to take higher level math. In large part, this trend is
due to the higher proportion of students now taking algebra in middle
school---one consequence of many states' efforts to raise academic
standards.

Students who become occupational concentrators are no exception to this
trend. For example, more occupational concentrators entered high school
taking high-level mathematics (geometry or higher) in grade 9 in 1998
than in 1990, an increase similar to that of non-concentrators (Table
3.8). Perhaps more importantly, the increase in middle-level 9th-grade
math course taking (pre-algebra and algebra 1) was greater for
occupational concentrators than for other students. Conversely, the
proportion of occupational concentrators taking low-level mathematics in
ninth grade declined more between 1990 and 1998 than did the proportion
of other students taking low-level math. This suggests that, over time,
vocational education may be serving relatively more academically
advantaged students. Certainly, recent data from a NAVE collaboration
with Texas and Florida suggests that the eighth-grade test scores of
1998 concentrators were relatively evenly distributed across quartiles
of achievement---indicating that vocational education in those two
states is drawing an academically diverse group of students (Hoachlander
et al. forthcoming). These patterns are consistent with efforts during
the 1990s to broaden the appeal of vocational education, as described in
Chapter 2.

Implications

Vocational education remains an integral part of the high school
experience. Nearly all students participate to some degree, and more
than 40 percent do so substantially. While a comprehensive assessment of
vocational education requires additional types of analyses (forthcoming
in the final report), some implications can be drawn from the
participation data. These data may help to address three policy
concerns.

Is secondary vocational participation likely to decline as school
reforms progress?

Vocational participation must be viewed against the backdrop of academic
reform and changing school priorities. During the last decade of school
improvement efforts, students have faced pressures to increase their
academic course taking but have maintained their vocational
participation largely by increasing the total number of credits they
earn (e.g., eliminating study hall periods). If academic graduation
requirements were to rise further, a reduction in vocational education
course taking seems likely. These new requirements are most likely to
affect students with disabilities and those in low-income schools,
groups that take particularly high numbers of vocational courses
relative to academic courses.

Far more important for vocational education is what will happen once
state academic assessment programs are fully in place.[^20]^1^ While
vocational education may be attracting more academically able students,
the overall population of students who pursue a vocational program of
study come to high school with lower levels of academic achievement.
These same students are likely to face the stiffest challenges in
passing rigorous state exams. Some schools, like Patterson High School
in Baltimore, will choose to double up on math and language arts courses
in ninth grade to help students achieve necessary proficiency levels
(McPartland and Jordan 2001). Other schools will require extra academic
course work and remediation for those who fail the initial round of
testing. In either case, participation in vocational education and other
electives may decline as students concentrate their efforts and course
taking on passing the exams.

There is an alternative possibility. Several high school strategies that
have gained popularity in recent years may generate *more* vocational
course taking, particularly among students who might not be as
challenged by state assessments. New programs such as career academies
have proliferated since the mid-1990s and are increasingly available and
targeted to high academic achievers. High Schools That Work, another
reform effort, promotes the notion that all high school students should
major in some field, pursuing some subject in depth whether it is
academic or vocational. As large high schools seek to implement smaller
learning communities, the use of careers as an organizing theme for
course planning has expanded and may draw in some students who might not
ordinarily have taken vocational courses. Block scheduling is allowing
more students to earn more credits, providing room for students to
expand vocational participation or maintain current levels even in the
face of increased academic course taking. Additional NAVE studies will
bring more information to bear on the relationship between high school
reform and vocational education.

Is there evidence that the academic performance of vocational students
has been---or can be---improved?

The answer to this question is almost certainly yes. During the last two
decades of school improvement efforts, students who become occupational
concentrators, investors, and explorers have taken increasingly more and
more rigorous academic courses, although a gap remains between them and
other students who take few vocational courses. These trends demonstrate
that it is indeed possible to impose higher academic course requirements
on this group of students. Whether academic *achievement* has improved
over time as a result of the more advanced course taking cannot yet be
measured, but trends in NAEP 12th-grade test scores will be analyzed for
the NAVE final report.

The larger issue is whether further advances in academic performance
have to come at the expense of vocational course taking. Based on
current data, some tools for improvement---academic standards and
assessments---appear likely to have an adverse effect on vocational
participation although, in the end, the students who do participate are
more likely to be academically prepared for both college and employment.
Given the poor performance of American high school students on
international tests of math and science, and the fact that students earn
more credits in vocational education than they do in either of those
subjects, some educators would argue that a trade-off in courses might
be beneficial to student outcomes. Such an analysis is being conducted
for NAVE and will be discussed in the later report.

Other strategies, such as emphasizing academic skills in vocational
course work, have been promoted in both Perkins II and Perkins III,
although with some ambiguity. The legislative call for "integration of
academic and vocational education" does not explicitly place
responsibility on vocational educators for academic content. And so far,
there is little evidence of its prevalence or effectiveness. Additional
information on how states and local communities are working to improve
the academic performance of vocational students also will be presented
in the final report.

What do vocational course taking patterns indicate about the purpose and
objectives of vocational education and of federal policy?

Some trends suggest that vocational education in high schools is on a
trajectory away from its traditional objective of providing well-trained
technical workers. First, students are less likely to concentrate their
occupational course taking. This pattern may indicate that students'
participation is less about preparation for entry-level jobs, whether
sought immediately after high school or after some postsecondary
education. Some might argue that the less vocational education
represents a defined program of related and advanced courses, the more
similar it is to other electives---designed for personal exploration and
enrichment rather than for society's economic benefit. On the other
hand, many educators view less "concentrated" vocational course taking
as consistent with labor market trends, which increasingly emphasize the
need for workers to have broad-based skills and adaptability across
jobs.

Second, the more vocational education attracts academically talented
students, the less relevant are some aspects of federal policy. In
particular, Perkins III and its precursors have emphasized preparation
for occupations requiring less than a sub-baccalaureate degree. This
stipulation largely runs contrary to recent state and local efforts to
broaden career education and make it appealing to a wider set of
students. This provision also does not take into account the reality of
students' education aspirations, which increasingly emphasize
baccalaureate degrees. Although students may not ultimately achieve that
goal, in high school they believe it is possible.

4\. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education

Vocational education is both a postsecondary and high school program,
but the fundamental policy concerns for each are quite different. At the
postsecondary level, few doubt the value or benefit of supporting
vocational education. Rather, the issues are, first, whether
postsecondary activities supported by the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and
Technical Education Act (Perkins III) can or should be better integrated
with those conducted under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA). The
second is whether or not legislative language reflects federal
priorities and is aligned with current postsecondary vocational
education activity. Postsecondary vocational programs can help students
to obtain a postsecondary degree or certificate, provide entry level
skill training, skill upgrading, or retraining so that individuals can
find jobs or get better jobs, and build capacity in particular strategic
industries or occupations. Although not mutually exclusive, each of
these objectives has different implications for the ways in which funds
are used, key educational strategies are pursued by institutions, and
criteria by which performance is best judged.

This chapter examines three questions about participation in
postsecondary vocational education that can help address these policy
concerns:

1\. What is the extent and nature of postsecondary vocational education?

2\. Who participates?

3\. What are the goals of participants and to what extent are their
patterns of participation consistent with their objectives?

Key Findings

Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education

-   ***Participants in vocational programs are a significant proportion
    of all undergraduates.***

> One third of all students taking courses leading to a postsecondary
> credential---baccalaureate or sub-baccalaureate---are considered
> "vocational students." Post-secondary vocational students are defined
> as those who choose a vocational major and either attend a
> sub-baccalaureate institution or pursue an educational goal that does
> not include a baccalaureate degree or higher.

-   ***Postsecondary vocational students, like the sub-baccalaureate
    population more generally, are often academically challenged and
    economically disadvantaged.***

> As is true for sub-baccalaureate students majoring in academic fields,
> a significant share of vocational students are from households with
> annual earnings of no more than \$25,000 (about 30 percent of students
> still living with their parents and 57 percent of independent
> students). Among those who enter a sub-baccalaureate program soon
> after high school, a majority of vocational students (67 percent)
> score in the lowest two quartiles on a 12th-grade standardized
> academic test compared to 56 percent of those in academic programs.

-   ***Students participate in postsecondary vocational education for
    different reasons, which only partially explains why many do not
    complete the course work needed to obtain a degree or
    certificate.***

> The majority of postsecondary vocational students completes eight
> months or less of postsecondary course work within a five-year time
> period. This amount of course taking may be consistent with acquiring
> job skills---the primary stated goal of just over 40 percent of
> sub-baccalaureate vocational students. However, it falls well short of
> attaining a less-than-baccalaureate's degree or the ability to
> transfer---the primary reason for course taking given by 46 percent of
> students majoring in vocational programs.

Background

The nature of postsecondary vocational education has evolved in the past
30 years. Education is no longer, if it ever was, a one-time event
preceding employment. Rather, lifelong learning and training are both
increasingly important to the success of the modern labor force. The new
model more likely involves a cycle of education and labor market
experiences. In response, the nature of postsecondary offerings has
significantly expanded and changed form, with students able to choose
from a multitude of providers---including business, industry
associations, and unions---for their education and training.
Increasingly students also can decide whether they want their
instruction in conventional classroom settings or online. This evolving
environment, though, presents new challenges for federal policy.

Enrollment patterns tell only one part of the story about postsecondary
vocational education, which receives about 40 percent of Perkins funds
(Boesel et al. 1994b). Subsequent NAVE reports will examine how
participating students benefit from their education. The combination of
participation in, and the impacts of, postsecondary vocational education
are intended to provide policymakers with a complete picture of
postsecondary vocational education if, and whether, federal objectives
in supporting vocational education are to be further specified at the
postsecondary level.

Key Definitions and Participation Measures

The Perkins Act defines vocational education as a sequence of courses
that provide academic and technical skills needed for careers requiring
less than a baccalaureate degree (P.L. 105-332, Section 3(29)). Many
types of institutions are eligible to receive Perkins grants, with
community and technical colleges the most common postsecondary
recipients.[^21] Institutions that receive Perkins funding typically
offer a range of vocational education and training activities---degree
and certificate programs as well as job-related, noncredit courses and
customized contract training.[^22]

-   ***Sub-baccalaureate:*** Refers to programs offered in
    less-than-four-year institutions or those that lead to less than a
    bachelor's degree (including no degree) at a four-year institution.
    Sub-baccalaureate students are those who participate in these
    programs or indicate no degree goal or the goal of attaining less
    than a baccalaureate degree. Because of the stipulation in Perkins
    policy, this level of activity is the main focus of NAVE analysis.

-   ***Vocational students:*** According to NCES classifications,
    postsecondary vocational students are defined as sub-baccalaureate
    students who major in the following areas: agricultural business and
    production, agricultural sciences, business, computer and
    information science, engineering, health professions, health-related
    professions, business management, communication technologies,
    personal services, engineering technologies, home economics,
    vocational home economics, science technologies, protective
    services, construction, automotive technology, precision production,
    and transportation (Choy and Horn 1992).

-   ***Vocational associate degree programs:*** Generally comprised of
    both academic and vocational for-credit course work, totaling
    roughly 60 credits. Typically individual institutions decide whether
    vocational associate programs culminate in an associate of arts
    (AA), associate of science (AS) or associate of applied science
    (AAS) degree in fields defined as vocational. As a group, these
    programs can take two or more years to complete, depending on how
    many credits students earn each term. Despite the open-enrollment
    policies of most public sub-baccalaureate institutions, students
    still may need to apply and be accepted to a specific vocational
    program, particularly those in high demand (e.g., nursing).

-   ***Institutional certificate programs:*** Typically designed to
    upgrade job-related skills, these programs require about one year's
    worth of full-time instruction in for-credit courses (24--30
    credits) and, compared to associate degree programs, involve far
    less, if any, academic courses. However, certificates can be of
    varied duration and can be earned for quite diverse activities.
    Examples range from a floral arranging program lasting only a few
    weeks to a two-year certificate program in airframe and power plant
    mechanics (see Table 4.1 for additional examples). Like associate
    degree programs, these certificates are awarded by institutions
    based on credits accumulated. They are distinct from the
    increasingly popular industry skill certificates described below.

-   ***Industry skill certifications:*** These industry-developed and
    recognized certificates designed to signal job skills are awarded to
    students based on their demonstrating well-defined skills (often
    through a test). Preparation for these tests includes self-study and
    courses offered at postsecondary institutions and other training
    providers. However, an industry association or employer group, not
    the training provider, grants the certificates.

-   ***Noncredit course work:*** Intended mostly to accommodate those
    seeking specific job-related skills, e.g., Introduction to Windows
    98 (3 hrs), Introduction to Fiber Optics (20 hrs), Catering and Food
    Preparation (96 hrs), and Real Estate License Exam Preparation (20
    hrs) or personal enrichment activities, e.g., ceramics or aerobics.
    Like courses within certificate programs, noncredit courses are
    diverse in their content and contact time. These can be stand-alone
    courses or sequenced courses in a nondegree-granting program
    (sometimes similar or even indistinguishable from for-credit courses
    offered in vocational degree or certificate programs).

**Table 4.1**

**Illustrative Offerings of Vocational Associate and Certificate
Programs,\
Florida Community Colleges: 1997--98**

######## Associate in Science Vocational Certificate 

Accounting Airframe and Power Mechanics

Architectural Design Auto Collision Repair

Automotive Service Management Automotive Machine Shop

Aviation Operations Automotive Service Technician

Building Construction Technology Barbering

Business Administration Brick Masonry

Business Marketing Management Carpentry

Civil Engineering Technology Child Care Center Operator

Computer Engineering Corrections Officer

Criminal Justice Technology Cosmetology

Culinary Management Credit Union Service Marketing

Dental Hygiene Dental Assisting

Drafting and Design Electricity

Early Childhood Management Facials Specialty

Electronics Technology Heating and Air Conditioning

Fire Science Technology Massage Therapy

Graphic Design Technology Medical Secretary

Interior Design Nails Specialty

Legal Assisting Network Support Services

Medical Laboratory Technician Office Systems Specialist

Nursing, Registered Nurse (RN) Paramedic

Radiography Plumbing

Respiratory Care Practical Nursing

Teller Training

Travel Agency Operations

[Webmaster and Web Development]{.underline}

SOURCE: Teitelbaum, Bradby, and Hoachlander forthcoming.

Data Sources

This report draws on multiple, nationally representative surveys
conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES): the
National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS 1996), National
Household Education Surveys Program (NHES 1995, 1999), High School and
Beyond Longitudinal Study (HS&B 1992 follow-up), Beginning Postsecondary
Students Longitudinal Study (BPS 1994) and, to a limited extent, the
National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS 1994 follow-up).[^23]
Although no single survey sufficiently covers the entirety of the
diverse populations and the many providers, in combination, the surveys
offer a fairly comprehensive description of postsecondary vocational
education. As is true with the secondary vocational education analysis,
current NCES postsecondary data are not able to capture changes in
participation that might result from Perkins III provisions
specifically. If more current data become available, a further
assessment of postsecondary vocational participation will be included in
the NAVE final report.

Postsecondary Vocational Education and Training Institutions and the
Courses They Offer

Vocational education at the postsecondary level is a complex enterprise.
There are many types of providers, programs, and credentials as well as
single, noncredit courses that do not lead to degrees. Institutions
eligible for Perkins grants often provide a full array of these
offerings and are free to determine which of the many choices to support
with Perkins funds. Whether all of these types of programs and courses
are equally worthy of federal investment is a potentially important
issue for policymakers. Understanding the full extent and nature of the
different offerings therefore provides important context (Table 4.2).

-   ***Community colleges are the main provider of for-credit vocational
    courses.*** Based on student counts in 1999, 40.4 percent of those
    participating in for-credit vocational courses---those that could
    lead to a postsecondary credential of some kind---do so at a
    community college. Fewer participate in for-credit course work at
    proprietary institutions (22.6 percent), postsecondary technical
    schools (13.5 percent), or at baccalaureate-granting institutions
    (5.2 percent).

-   ***Most noncredit courses are taken at institutions that are not
    eligible for Perkins grants.*** By far, business and industry
    account for most of the noncredit, job-related classes, seminars,
    and training programs offered nationally (36.7 percent of
    participants). Government agencies and professional associations or
    labor unions each serve 10.4 percent of noncredit vocational
    participants. In contrast, a small share of job-related noncredit
    participants report taking their courses at "formal" postsecondary
    education institutions, such as a four-year college or university
    (11.9 percent), a community college (4.3 percent) or public two-year
    vocational or technical school (1.9 percent).

**Table 4.2**

**Percentage of Participants Taking For-credit and Noncredit,\
Job-Related Courses, by Provider**

######### Provider Credit Noncredit 

Area Vocational Centers 0.9 4.3

Two-year Community College 40.4 4.3

Public Two-year Vocational or Technical School 13.5 1.9

Four-year College or University 5.2 11.9

Proprietary School 22.6 9.1

Adult Learning Center 2.2 1.3

Business or Industry 5.2 36.7

Professional Association or Labor Union 2.0 10.4

Government Agency and Public Library 4.9 11.6

Community, Religious, or Other Organization 3.1 8.6

[Total 100.0 100.0]{.underline}

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of National Household
Education Surveys Program 1999.

-   ***Noncredit vocational course participation is substantial, but
    for-credit courses still dominate in formal postsecondary
    institutions.***[^24] Of those who pursue job-related courses in and
    outside of the formal postsecondary education system over the course
    of a year, most (81.7 percent) take noncredit courses exclusively.
    Only 13.7 percent are exclusively in for-credit courses, with
    another 4.6 percent participating in both credit and noncredit
    courses simultaneously. Even so, most participants (64.1 percent)
    with a vocational emphasis at community colleges enroll in
    for-credit courses.

This distinction between credit and noncredit vocational participation
is important to Perkins policy for several reasons. First, Perkins has a
long history of promoting equal access to services by providing
relatively more financial support to institutions serving large numbers
of economically disadvantaged students. This approach is executed at the
postsecondary level by requiring that, within states, Perkins grants are
allocated to postsecondary institutions based on a formula weighted
toward the number of Pell grant---federal financial aid---recipients the
institutions serve.[^25]

However, Pell grants are available only to income-eligible students who
pursue *for-credit* (degree-oriented) course work; federal policy
supports noncredit education and training through the Lifelong Learning
Tax Credit and Individual Training Account vouchers available under WIA.
Still, community colleges serve a significant number of noncredit
vocational participants and some have questioned whether Perkins'
funding allocation emphasis on for-credit course work is appropriate. In
considering this question, policymakers may want to know whether
participation in noncredit courses is consistent with Perkins
compensatory goals and other objectives.

The second related concern about credit versus noncredit course work
regards accountability. New Perkins III accountability provisions
include "completion of a postsecondary degree or credential" as a key
measure of performance (P.L. 105-332, Section 113(b)). Perkins III
contains no language that prevents institutions from spending grant
funds on shorter-term noncredit training but, if taken seriously, the
accountability requirements provide further incentive to emphasize
for-credit programs and credentials. This legislative signal may or may
not be well aligned with current federal policy priorities. These issues
will be explored in this chapter, and in more detail in the NAVE final
report.

The Extent of Postsecondary Vocational Education

Although a majority of high school students aspire to a bachelor's
degree (Sanderson et al. 1996), by some key measures, most postsecondary
students actually enroll in sub-baccalaureate programs, including
vocational ones.[^26] The relative size of these groups is important,
given that transitions to and completion of a college degree remains a
key goal of federal education policy generally, particularly for
disadvantaged students.

Participants in vocational programs are a significant share of all
undergraduates.

In 1996, one-third of all for-credit postsecondary education
students---nearly 5.5 million youths and adults---were enrolled in
sub-baccalaureate vocational courses and programs (Figure 4.1).\
\
These vocational student enrollments (33.6 percent) nearly equal those
in programs that lead to bachelor degrees (39.3 percent).

-   ![](media/image21.wmf){width="3.5993055555555555in"
    height="3.7805555555555554in"}***All sub-baccalaureate students
    outnumber baccalaureate students.*** Among those pursuing for-credit
    course work, a substantially higher proportion of students are
    sub-baccalaureate (60.7 percent)---vocational, academic, and
    undeclared---than baccalaureate (39.3 percent). If noncredit
    participants were included in the sub-baccalaureate counts, of
    course the share of all postsecondary students that are enrolled in
    sub-baccalaureate education would be even greater.

-   ***At the sub-baccalaureate level, more students choose a vocational
    than an academic major.*** Among sub-baccalaureate students, twice
    as many (55.3 percent) choose a vocational major as an academic
    major (26.7 percent). The remaining students are "undeclared" (18.0
    percent).[^27] There is some evidence of a shift during the 1990s
    from vocational majors to "undeclared," but whether this signals a
    real decline in interest in sub-baccalaureate vocational programs is
    unclear (Levesque et al. 2000, p. 161).

Both institutional certificates and industry-developed skill
certifications are not as popular as associate degrees, but the industry
credentials appear to be growing in popularity.

Postsecondary institutions supported by Perkins grants traditionally
have offered both associate degree and institutional certificate
programs, each resulting in a different credential based on
institutional and, in some cases, state requirements. Both are
credentials conferred by higher education institutions and are included
in the data collection efforts of NCES.

Institutional certificates are distinct from skill certificates
conferred by industry, trade, and professional associations (e.g.,
information technology (IT) certifications offered by Novell, Cisco, and
Microsoft; Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) certifications offered by
the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence). Although
formal postsecondary institutions may be increasingly offering courses
to support these emerging industry-developed skill certificates, the
institutions do not grant the certificates and therefore are not a
systematic source of information on certification attainment. As a
result, there are no national statistics that measure the number of
industry certificates awarded. Still, available data from industry and
associations do suggest some trends.

-   ***Enrollment in vocational associate degree programs far exceeds
    that in institutional certificate programs.*** Among students
    declaring a vocational major, two-thirds aim to obtain associate
    degrees while only one-third pursues institutional certificates. In
    addition, there is some indication that the number and proportion of
    certificates conferred by Perkins-eligible postsecondary
    institutions may have declined slightly in recent years.[^28]

-   ***The number of industry-developed certifications is growing, but
    the role of Perkins institutions in this growth is still unclear.***
    Although NCES data do not provide information on certificates
    conferred by employers or by national industry, trade, and
    professional associations, the groups themselves report that the
    number of certifications both offered and granted is increasing. For
    example, there was nearly a ten-fold increase in Microsoft Certified
    Systems Engineer (MCSE) certificates awarded between the years 1997
    and 2000---from about 35,000 to more than 280,000. Much of this
    growth, however, may have no bearing on Perkins-eligible
    postsecondary institutions; at least in the prominent area of IT,
    courses supporting this growth are predominantly taken outside the
    formal postsecondary education system, offered instead by commercial
    training providers (Adelman 2000).

Enrollments in vocational associate degree programs appear responsive to
labor market trends.

The primary purpose of postsecondary vocational education is to prepare
individuals to enter and succeed in specific occupations in the labor
market. The ability of postsecondary institutions to offer up-to-date
programs that are responsive to fluctuations in employment supply and
demand is crucial to maintaining program quality and enrollments. At the
postsecondary level, it is often argued that these market forces should
encourage participation in those programs that increase wages and
employment the most. This outcome, however, presumes that consumers are
sufficiently informed about job opportunities to make enrollment
decisions based on them. Examining the relationship between national
labor market trends and postsecondary occupational education patterns
partially tests these assumptions and has implications for federal
policy.

The data indicate that, between 1990 and 1996, enrollments in vocational
associate degree programs grew substantially (27.0 percent), perhaps in
response to strong employment growth during a comparable period in
fields that require such training. Both health- and computer-related
fields have experienced and are expected to continue to have substantial
job growth. Possibly in anticipation of good employment opportunities,
the proportion of sub-baccalaureate vocational students enrolled in
health programs has increased. The share of students enrolled in
computer associate degree programs has also increased, although by a
small amount. Similarly, those fields that have experienced relatively
slow or even declining job growth are also the fields in which the
proportion of postsecondary vocational enrollments has fallen. For
example, relative enrollments in the business field declined at the
associate degree level (Figures 4.2a and 4.2b).

Some evidence suggests that the relationship between certificate program
participation and job growth may be more mixed. Unfortunately, the
categories used to classify major fields of study for the certificate
program enrollment data are not sufficiently comparable between 1990 and
1996 to allow an analysis of certificate program enrollment and
employment trends by field. However, certificate *completion* data have
been consistent for this time period.[^29] These data indicate that,
among the occupations with the highest historical and projected rates of
employment growth (emergency medical technician, medical assistant,
library technician, surgical technologists and technicians, and dental
assistants), the proportion of students completing related certificate
programs significantly increased between 1992 and 1997. However, there
are several occupations (e.g., hairdressers, automotive body repair and
other related occupations, automotive mechanics, bus and truck
mechanics) in which actual and projected employment growth is below
average, and yet certificate completion in these fields has increased
(Table 4.3).

![](media/image22.wmf){width="5.997222222222222in"
height="6.101388888888889in"}

![](media/image23.wmf){width="5.998611111111111in"
height="6.079166666666667in"}

**Table 4.3**

**Percentage of Students Completing Vocational Certificate Programs, by
Field of Study: 1991--92 and 1996--97**

[Percent]{.underline}

######### Detailed Field of Study 1991--92 1996--97

*Fields with an increasing proportion of students completing:*

Dental Assistant 1.40 3.63

Emergency Medical Technician 1.98 5.04

Surgical Technician and Technologist 0.51 1.21

Medical Assistant 8.25 16.02

Practical Nurse 7.03 13.25

Medical Secretary 1.98 3.55

Electroneurodiagnostic Technician 0.01 0.03

Technical Assistant, Library 0.03 0.06

Human Service Worker, including Resid. County Welfare Interviewers 0.03
0.05

Tool and Die Maker 0.12 0.19

Welder and Cutter 2.23 3.11

Motorcycle Repairer 0.14 0.46

Automotive Mechanic 4.07 5.49

Automotive Body Repair and Other Related Occupations 1.08 1.32

Bus and Truck Mechanics and Diesel Engine 1.11 1.24

Drafter 2.41 2.88

Broadcast Technician 0.74 0.75

Other Telecommunications Mechanics, Installers, or Repairers 0.18 0.18

Hairdressers, Hairstylists, and Cosmetologists 18.77 19.26

*Fields with a decreasing proportion of students completing:*

Survey and Mapping Technicians and Scientists 0.11 0.09

Mobile Heavy Equipment Mechanic 1.12 0.88

Secretary, except Legal and Medical 17.59 14.67

Legal Secretary 1.48 1.11

Stenographer and Court Reporter 0.55 0.31

Interior Designer 0.40 0.16

Aircraft Mechanic 1.63 1.07

Small Engine Specialist 0.77 0.30

Travel Agent 8.14 2.77

Photographer and Camera Operator 1.93 0.35

Dancer and Choreographer 0.08 0.01

Sales Agent, Real Estate 14.18 0.56

[All Listed Fields 100.00 100.00]{.underline}

SOURCE: Erard forthcoming. Analysis of the Integrated Postsecondary
Education Data System 1991, 1996.

The Characteristics of Postsecondary Vocational Participants

If policymakers choose to reexamine the role of Perkins at the
postsecondary level, it will be important to have an accurate picture of
whom vocational programs serve. Sub-baccalaureate students are quite
distinct from their peers in bachelor degree programs. They are far more
disadvantaged, both academically and economically, and are more likely
to pursue their postsecondary education at any time (not just
immediately following high school), with less intensity and continuity.
In contrast, there are fewer differences between sub-baccalaureate
students who choose vocational rather than academic programs. Students
in postsecondary vocational education tend to be academically
challenged.

Sub-baccalaureate students, overall, often enter college lacking the
necessary academic skills to succeed (Coley 2000). As noted in Chapter
2, nearly two-thirds of students enrolled in community colleges take
some remedial courses. The educational needs signaled by these
statistics are particularly important for federal policy, because
academic ability and prior academic preparation are among the strongest
predictors of postsecondary persistence and completion (Horn and Kojaku
2001). Vocational students, at least those in for-credit courses and
programs, may face some particular challenges.

-   ***Postsecondary vocational students tend to enter with low levels
    of academic achievement.***[^30]^0^ Examination of 12th-grade
    achievement test scores for younger sub-baccalaureate students
    indicates that a higher proportion of vocational than academic
    students (66.5 percent compared to 56.2 percent) are in the lowest
    two test quartiles (Table 4.4).

-   ***Postsecondary vocational students are somewhat less likely to
    have pursued a rigorous high school program.*** Like their academic
    peers, vocational students in sub-baccalaureate programs are
    typically not as well prepared for college as are those who pursue
    baccalaureate programs. Although substantial proportions of younger
    sub-baccalaureate academic (84.7 percent) and vocational (79.0
    percent) majors met the "New Basics"[^31]^1^ standard for high
    school course taking, both are less than the percentage of younger
    baccalaureate students (94.5 percent) who met those same
    requirements. Postsecondary vocational students are also more likely
    than their academic peers to have pursued a vocational program in
    high school (Table 4.4).

### 

### Table 4.4

**Percentage Distribution of Baccalaureate and Sub-baccalaureate
Students,\
by High School Test Scores and High School Program**

Standardized Reading

[and Math Test Quartiles]{.underline} [High School
Program^1^]{.underline}

Lowest Highest At Least Both

Two Two New Vocational/

#### Program Quartiles Quartiles Basics^2^ New Basics Vocational General

Baccalaureate 22.4 77.6 90.8 3.7 0.7 4.8

Sub-baccalaureate 61.2 38.9 71.1 10.0 5.1 13.9

Vocational 66.5 33.5 67.5 11.5 7.0 14.1

####  Academic 56.2 43.8 76.1 8.6 2.7 12.6

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of National Education
Longitudinal Study 1992.

^1^Based on high school transcripts

^2^New Basics=Math, English, Science, Social Studies totaling at least
12 high school credits

-   ***Postsecondary vocational students report less remedial course
    taking than do academic students, probably because vocational
    programs have fewer academic requirements.*** Among all students
    beginning postsecondary study (younger and older) vocational
    students are less likely than academic students to take remedial
    courses, particularly in math (Table 4.5).[^32]^2^ However, this
    measure does not necessarily reflect a difference in the *need* for
    improvement in basic skills. Rather, a significant proportion of
    sub-baccalaureate students who choose vocational majors pursue
    programs that have few academic requirements (e.g., certificate
    programs), and therefore the students are less likely to be required
    to take any remedial courses.

**Table 4.5**

**Percentage of Sub-baccalaureate Students Who Report Taking^1^ Remedial
Courses, by Major**

Some [Specific Remediation]{.underline}

[Remediation]{.underline} [Math Writing Basic Skills]{.underline}

Vocational 11.1 8.0 4.9 2.8

#### Academic 15.4 11.2 5.3 3.1 

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of National Postsecondary
Student Aid Study 1996.

^1^Self-reports of course taking

-   ***Few students who pursue a sub-baccalaureate vocational major
    already have a postsecondary credential.*** Although some measures
    suggest that vocational students are less academically prepared than
    those in academic majors, there seems to be little difference in
    terms of the credentials they bring to their sub-baccalaureate
    education. There is no evidence for either group that large numbers
    of students with prior postsecondary degrees are returning for
    additional education in the degreed programs, as some have
    suggested. In fact, the vast majority of students in for-credit
    sub-baccalaureate programs (80.5 percent) have no prior
    postsecondary degree. And among those who do have a postsecondary
    credential, most have attained only an institutional certificate. In
    contrast, recent analyses conducted by the American Association of
    Community Colleges (AACC) and ACT, Inc. suggest that over a quarter
    of *noncredit* enrollees at community colleges had already attained
    a bachelor's degree or higher (Phillippe and Valiga 2000).

Vocational education serves somewhat more disadvantaged students.

For nearly four decades, federal vocational policy has encouraged the
participation of students from specific groups that Congress believed to
be underserved or facing particular barriers to involvement in
postsecondary education and ultimately in the labor market. Whether due
to these legislative provisions or simply individuals' personal
preferences and circumstances, it is certainly the case that in the
1990s many of the "special populations" were well represented in
sub-baccalaureate vocational as well as academic programs.

As described in Chapter 3, these designated "special populations"
include individuals with disabilities, individuals from economically
disadvantaged families, individuals preparing for nontraditional
training and employment, single parents, displaced homemakers, and
individuals with other barriers to education achievement, including
limited-English proficiency. Nationally representative data on the
postsecondary participation of each of these groups are limited and
available only for those students taking for-credit courses.

-   ***Students with disabilities are about equally likely to be
    enrolled in a vocational or an academic major.*** Students with
    disabilities make up a small share of either baccalaureate or
    sub-baccalaureate students---both are less than two percent. These
    students participate in vocational education and in academic
    sub-baccalaureate programs at similar rates.

-   ***In terms of economic disadvantage, vocational students may face
    greater challenges.*** Sub-baccalaureate students in households
    earning less than or equal to \$25,000 a year are about equally
    likely to select a vocational as compared to an academic
    major.[^33]^3^ However, a significantly higher share of vocational
    students (55.9 percent) than academic students (47.4 percent) are
    the first in their families to attend college, an indicator highly
    associated with limited economic resources and significant barriers
    to postsecondary enrollment and success (Warburton, Bugarin, and
    Nuñez 2001; Figure 4.3).

![](media/image24.wmf){width="3.9194444444444443in" height="3.79375in"}

-   ***Single parents are more likely to pursue vocational than academic
    programs.*** A higher share of sub-baccalaureate vocational students
    (16.1 percent) than academic students (11.4 percent) are single
    parents, a group that, until Perkins III in 1998, were the focus of
    targeted programs with set-aside funding.

-   ***Enrollments in vocational programs preparing students for
    high-wage occupations follow gender-traditional patterns, but
    neither males nor females are clearly advantaged.***[^34]^4^ Female
    enrollment dominates in fields such as nursing and social work. Male
    enrollment dominates in engineering, mechanics, and electronics.
    However, among other majors that prepare students for high-wage
    occupations (such as finance, mortuary science, and design),
    enrollment is fairly balanced by gender. Computer programming and
    computer and information sciences also have balanced male-female
    enrollments (Table 4.6).

**Table 4.6**

**Percentage of Male and Female Students Enrolled in Fields Preparing
Them\
for High-Wage^1^ Occupations: 1996**

[Gender]{.underline}

#### Major Field of Study Male Female

Precision Production (e.g., lithography, upholstery, metal work,

drafting, welding) 96.3 3.7

Mechanics: Transportation 96.1 3.8

Electronics 93.1 6.9

Engineering Technology 83.8 16.2

Communications Technology 81.6 18.4

Computer and Information Sciences (hardware and software other

than programming) 51.7 48.4

Computer Programming 51.4 48.6

Allied Health: General and Other 50.1 49.9

Business: Finance 49.2 50.9

Design (e.g., graphic, illustration, industrial, interior, product
design) 47.3 52.7

Mortuary Science 41.2 58.8

Data Processing Technology 30.4 69.6

Social Work 28.0 72.0

Allied Health: Therapy and Mental Health 27.9 72.1

Allied Health: Dental and Medical Technician 19.6 80.4

Nursing: Registered Nurse 9.7 90.3

#### Nursing: Nurse Assisting 4.3 96.7

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of National Postsecondary
Student Aid Study 1996; Erard forthcoming. Analysis of Bureau of Labor
Statistics employment data.

^1^High-wage occupations are defined as those with average annual wages
in 1998 that were greater than \$35,000.

-   ***Vocational students, like all sub-baccalaureate students, are
    racially and ethnically diverse.*** A higher proportion of African
    Americans choose to enroll in sub-baccalaureate vocational programs
    (16.1 percent) compared to academic programs (10.7 percent).
    Hispanic students, however, are more likely to pursue academic (16.8
    percent) than vocational programs (11.1 percent). Asian Americans
    and Native Americans are just as likely to enroll in an academic as
    in a vocational sub-baccalaureate program (Figure 4.4).

![](media/image25.wmf){width="5.997222222222222in"
height="3.7736111111111112in"}

Credit and noncredit courses at postsecondary institutions serve
different populations.

Students who participate in sub-baccalaureate vocational education are a
diverse group, with many facing economic and educational challenges.
Within the group, however, there are some differences in characteristics
by the types of courses students take---for-credit versus noncredit. In
general, job-related noncredit courses serve more advantaged
populations.

-   ***Participants in noncredit vocational courses have higher
    incomes.*** The vast majority of noncredit participants in
    job-related courses (82.0 percent) have a household income greater
    than \$25,000. In comparison, only 54.7 percent of students enrolled
    in for-credit vocational courses have household incomes greater than
    \$25,000 (Figure 4.4).

-   ***Noncredit courses are primarily taken by those already
    employed.*** Perhaps helping to account for the income differences,
    virtually all participants in noncredit courses (90.1 percent) work
    while they are enrolled in job-related noncredit courses.[^35]^5^
    Most of them (88.4 percent) report "improving in their current job"
    or "training for a new job" as their primary reason for taking the
    noncredit courses. In contrast, 84.9 percent of students in
    for-credit courses work while participating in postsecondary
    vocational courses. Of those who work, just over half (52.5 percent)
    view themselves primarily as a student working to meet expenses.

-   ***Students of color are less likely to pursue noncredit course
    work.*** Many of the noncredit vocational participants are white
    (80.7 percent), while only 67.2 percent of vocational students in
    for-credit courses are white (Figure 4.4).

The Varied Goals and Pathways of Participants through Postsecondary
Vocational Education

Many, perhaps including policymakers, view "college participation" in a
traditional way. They think of 18-year-olds attending college in the
fall immediately following high school graduation and continuing to
attend full-time until they obtain baccalaureate degrees approximately
four years later. However, this description of participation does not
describe the vast majority of sub-baccalaureate students or of
vocational students in particular. Vocational students often do not
participate full-time or continuously and often have goals other than
completing a degree.

Postsecondary vocational programs serve many objectives, but whether or
not Perkins III can or is intended to address all of them is a question
policymakers may wish to consider. If so, then what constitutes
completion is a key issue. Current legislated accountability provisions
emphasize completion of a postsecondary degree or certificate or
transfer to another institution for further education. However, the
diversity of participants and their objectives makes assessing
achievement of these objectives complicated. On the other hand, current
accountability provisions may be appropriate given the long-standing
federal goal of promoting degree completion.

Postsecondary vocational students have primarily "nontraditional"
attendance patterns.

Students participating in sub-baccalaureate programs---both academic and
vocational---do not typically follow the attendance patterns often
associated with "college" enrollment (Table 4.7). "Nontraditional
attendance"---part-time, at multiple institutions, with
interruption---is common and has increased over time. About
three-quarters of sub-baccalaureate students (69.8 percent of the
vocational and 83.0 percent of the academic students) attend
postsecondary education in nontraditional ways. Among students less than
24 years old, the proportion pursuing vocational programs either
part-time, at multiple institutions, or discontinuously increased from
46.1 percent in 1982 to 69.5 percent in 1989. Several factors contribute
to the prevalence of nontraditional attendance patterns.

### 

### Table 4.7

**Percentage Distribution of Sub-baccalaureate Students' Age and
Attendance Patterns, by Major**

####  Vocational Academic 

Worked while Enrolled 84.9 88.6

Age

Under 20 18.6 21.2

20--23 23.7 30.3

24--29 22.5 18.1

30 and older 35.2 30.4

Full-time, full-year participation 24.8 25.7

Delayed entry^1^ 50.9 42.0

Nontraditional attendance^2^

1989 (all ages) 69.8 83.0

(24 and older) 70.4 83.0

(18- to 23-year-olds) 69.5 83.0

[1982 (18- to 23-year-olds) 46.1 53.5]{.underline}

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of NPSAS 1996, BPS 1989--94,
and HS&B 1982.

^1^Delayed enrollment follows the National Postsecondary Student Aid
Study definition, which includes any student who either enrolls in
postsecondary education a year or more after high school graduation or
is a General Educational Development (GED) recipient prior to
enrollment.

^2^Participating in postsecondary education less than full-time or less
than a full year, with interruption, or at multiple institutions are all
patterns of nontraditional attendance. Any combination of these
participation patterns defines attendance as nontraditional. In order to
identify these patterns during a five-year period, both the High School
and Beyond Study (limited to the first five years immediately following
enrollment in postsecondary sub-baccalaureate programs) and the
Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (also five years)
were used.

-   ***Most postsecondary vocational students work.*** A large
    proportion of sub-baccalaureate students (almost 90 percent of
    either vocational or academic majors) are employed while in
    postsecondary education. Some work to defray expenses associated
    with pursuing postsecondary education. Some are primarily workers
    who are pursuing additional education, perhaps to improve their
    skills for a better job.

-   ***Postsecondary vocational students tend to be older than their
    academic peers.*** Most (57.7 percent) of those students declaring a
    vocational major are 24 years old or older. Students 30 years of age
    and older make up 35.2 percent of all vocational students. In
    comparison, just less than half (48.5 percent) of the
    sub-baccalaureate students enrolled in an academic program are 24
    years old or older and only 30.4 percent are aged 30 years and
    older.

-   ***Delayed entry and part-time attendance in postsecondary
    sub-baccalaureate education are common.*** Half of vocational
    program participants (50.9 percent) begin postsecondary education
    more than a year after graduation from high school. This delayed
    entry is somewhat more likely among vocational than academic
    sub-baccalaureate students. Only one-quarter of either vocational or
    academic students in sub-baccalaureate programs attend full-time,
    full-year.

On the one hand, the ability for students to attend postsecondary
institutions part-time, as they can, and to attend the most convenient
campus are all hallmarks of sub-baccalaureate institutions. On the other
hand, these attendance patterns raise concerns about the labor market
prospects for sub-baccalaureate students, including those in vocational
programs, because research indicates a relationship between
nontraditional enrollment patterns and lower earnings (Scott and
Bernhardt 1999; Light 1995).

Postsecondary vocational students vary in their reasons for
participation.

Given the diversity of those who participate in sub-baccalaureate
vocational education---in age, employment status, income, and other
circumstances---it is not surprising that vocational courses serve a
variety of purposes. Recent surveys asked students for the primary
reason they enrolled in postsecondary course work, with a set of fixed
possible response categories: job skills, degree or certificate
completion, transfer (to a higher-level educational institution), or
personal enrichment.[^36]^6^ The variation in students' goals and
expectations has implications for judging the success of both students
and institutions (Figure 4.5 and Figure 4.6).

-   ***Obtaining a sub-baccalaureate credential or transferring is the
    most common objective for vocational students.*** Nearly half of all
    those enrolled in postsecondary vocational programs say they want to
    earn a degree or certificate (23.6 percent) or are intending to
    transfer (22.4 percent). Younger students are most likely to be
    seeking these objectives: most vocational majors younger than 20
    years of age report earning a credential (20.5 percent) or
    transferring to further education (37.6 percent) as their primary
    reason for participating.

> The goal of obtaining a degree or certificate or of transferring to
> another institution is even more common among students in
> sub-baccalaureate academic majors (a total of 62.4 percent). The
> biggest difference by major is that fewer vocational students (22.4
> percent) than academic students (38.0 percent) cite transferring as
> their primary reason for enrollment. These differences in transferring
> as an objective are consistent with differences in students' stated
> educational aspirations. Vocational students are less likely (75.4
> percent) than academic students (89.6 percent) to expect to complete
> bachelor-level or higher degrees. Instead, certificate and associate
> degrees are a relatively more common aspiration among those who enroll
> in postsecondary vocational programs.

![](media/image26.wmf){width="4.266666666666667in"
height="4.058333333333334in"}

![](media/image27.wmf){width="5.997222222222222in"
height="3.3805555555555555in"}

-   ***Many students enrolled in sub-baccalaureate vocational programs
    want to increase their job skills.*** Among those choosing a
    vocational major, a significant share (41.0 percent) do so to
    enhance their job skills, probably in hopes of better employment
    opportunities. In contrast, only 19.7 percent of academic students
    cite job skills as their primary reason for enrolling.

> Older vocational students are most likely to pursue this goal. Just
> more than half (51.4 percent) of those 30 years and older cite
> increasing job skills as their primary reason for participating in
> vocational courses and programs. However, even for some older
> students, obtaining a credential is still important (36.9 percent cite
> a sub-baccalaureate credential or higher as their primary objective).

-   ***Some vocational students participate for enrichment purposes.***
    Fewer vocational and academic students (13.0 percent and 17.9
    percent, respectively) cite personal enrichment as their primary
    reason for enrolling in postsecondary course work.

Many students do not complete enough course work to achieve their likely
goals.

Many students, both vocational and academic, leave sub-baccalaureate
institutions and programs having completed few courses. In fact, most
postsecondary vocational students (65.5 percent) complete a year or less
of courses within a five-year time period (Figure 4.7).[^37]^7^ Given
these low levels of participation, a large share will fail to obtain any
credential or to earn sufficient credits for transferring to a
baccalaureate program.

![](media/image28.wmf){width="3.85in" height="4.308333333333334in"}

The varied reasons that individuals participate in vocational programs,
and the influence these reasons may have on the number of months
students attend suggest that the only or best measure of student success
may not be whether or not they obtain a credential. Another or perhaps
better indicator might be whether students complete what they intended
to; this suggests examining postsecondary participation patterns by
education goals. The available data do not allow such analyses but do
support comparisons by age.[^38]^8^ Because older students are much more
likely to report job skills as their primary reason for enrolling, while
younger students are more likely to cite degree completion or
transferring as a primary reason (Figure 4.5),[^39]^9^ examining the
extent of participation by age probably provides a picture similar to
that of persistence by goal. Age is also a reasonable proxy for labor
market experience. Therefore, comparing persistence by age may also
provide information about whether or not completion and credential
attainment might matter less to participants who have longer work
histories (Figure 4.8).

![](media/image29.wmf){width="5.9944444444444445in"
height="4.146527777777778in"}

-   ***Older vocational students have short periods of participation.***
    During a five-year period, nearly three-fourths of the older
    students in vocational majors are enrolled in the equivalent of
    eight full-time months or fewer of course work.[^40]^0^ In contrast,
    just less than half of the younger vocational participants are
    enrolled for only eight months.

-   ***Younger vocational students complete more postsecondary course
    work than older students but less than their academic peers.***
    Within the same five-year time period, just over half of the younger
    vocational participants (52.5 percent) accumulate more than eight
    months of course work, while only 27.5 percent of older vocational
    participants do so. Even so, the persistence of younger vocational
    students falls well short of that of academic sub-baccalaureate
    students; 73.6 percent of younger academic students compared to the
    52.5 percent of younger vocational students complete more than eight
    months of course work.

The comparatively short period of postsecondary participation among some
vocational students, particularly older students, is in keeping with
their stated goals. First, many of the older students cite improving job
skills as their primary reason for enrolling (51.4 percent among those
30 and older). These participants likely opt for shorter-term education
and training. Second, a significant proportion of vocational students
enrolls to earn a certificate, and these programs are typically of short
duration (about a year of full-time equivalent course work or sometimes
less). Some of those certificate seekers probably complete the necessary
course work within an eight-month time frame; others probably do not. To
the extent that older students already have labor market experience,
obtaining a postsecondary credential may be less crucial for
employability.

However, the persistence of the youngest vocational students, those
least likely to have significant labor market experience, does raise
some concern. Most of them (58.1 percent of those less than 20 years of
age) seek degrees, certificates, or transfers to a higher-level
educational institution. Degree completion requires many more courses
than might typically be the case for job skill training and is not
attainable within eight months or less.

It is certainly possible that completing a few courses provides
sufficient economic benefits for this group of younger students.
However, it is more likely that the 47.5 percent of younger vocational
students who leave postsecondary education with fewer than eight months
of course work (Figure 4.5) do so without having achieved their
objectives and lacking a sufficient signal of their job skills. Even
among those younger students enrolled in vocational associate degree
programs, a significant proportion (34.6 percent) completes only a year
or less of course work---a higher proportion than that of their academic
peers (26.4 percent completes only a year or less of course work). These
results suggest that the goal of increasing degree and certificate
completion, as reflected in current Perkins policy, at least for this
younger group of participants, may be appropriate. The NAVE final report
will examine whether such students attain economic benefits despite
their limited attendance.

Implications

Vocational programs and courses are an important part of postsecondary
education and training. Not only do vocational students account for
about one-third of all students in postsecondary education, but also
they tend to be more disadvantaged than academic students at either the
sub-baccalaureate or baccalaureate level.

Postsecondary vocational students are themselves a diverse group. They
arrive at Perkins-eligible institutions---community and technical
colleges, area vocational centers, etc.---with a wider and more
disparate set of goals than do students with academic majors. Younger
students tend to enroll seeking a degree or certificate or seeking to
transfer to higher-level institutions. Older participants are more
likely to enroll to upgrade their skills to obtain better jobs. About
one quarter of sub-baccalaureate vocational participants enroll in
noncredit course work, and they look different---they are more
advantaged and less interested in degrees and certificates---than the
vast majority of participants who enroll in for-credit courses and
programs. Whether any of these students accomplish what they set out to
do is a key concern, given that most leave vocational education after a
relatively short period of enrollment. Their characteristics and
participation patterns raise several additional issues.

Are federal objectives aligned with actual participation in
postsecondary vocational education?

Perkins III has many objectives, as discussed in Chapter 2: to improve
academic and technical competencies, to promote degree completion and
further education, to encourage placement in employment, and to provide
better access for disadvantaged and other special populations. To what
extent does participation in vocational education reflect these
priorities and support a federal investment in postsecondary vocational
education?

For the most part, enrollment patterns are consistent with the federal
emphasis on promoting postsecondary attendance and completion,
particularly for disadvantaged students. First, Perkins funding
mechanisms and accountability provisions support a preference for
for-credit programs that lead to a credential over short-term,
noncredit, nondegree training. As it turns out, Perkins-eligible
institutions serve almost twice as many vocational students in
for-credit courses and programs than they do students in noncredit
courses. In addition, participants in for-credit programs are more
likely to be disadvantaged, making the for-credit emphasis consistent
with Perkins' priority on serving disadvantaged students. Second,
vocational students' stated goals for participation suggest that high
proportions of students at least intend to pursue a degree or
certificate (23.6 percent) or to transfer to a baccalaureate program
(22.4 percent).

On the other hand, the objectives of some postsecondary vocational
participants highlight a potential conflict with Perkins' degree
completion emphasis. A significant proportion of vocational students
(41.0 percent) enrolls primarily to upgrade their job skills rather than
to obtain a credential. Moreover, because most of the job-skill seekers
are already working, as are other vocational students, they may not
contribute to another Perkins accountability measure---increased job
placement. Further assessment of Perkins accountability requirements
will be included in the NAVE final report.

Although participation information is a first step in discussing whether
or not and how federal policy might support vocational education, it is
only a first step. Perhaps of greater importance is to understand the
*effect* of participating in postsecondary vocational programs,
particularly in light of the different circumstances under which
students enroll, their varied objectives, and the offerings in which
they might participate. These key issues will also be discussed in the
final NAVE report.

To what extent is the population served by postsecondary vocational
education similar to intended participants in the WIA system?

When Congress enacted the Workforce Investment Act and Perkins III, it
believed a plethora of job training programs created excessive
administrative burdens upon states and discouraged access to services.
The call for better coordination between WIA and Perkins, in part,
reflected a perspective that providers in the job training and education
systems already did or could offer similar services to similar groups of
participants. Although too early for the national participation data
described above to measure any actual changes in those served, the
analyses can offer some indication of the potential overlap in
populations.

These data suggest that the proportion of vocational participants with
characteristics similar to expected WIA participants is small. Training
services are offered only to those WIA participants who are unemployed,
are below an income threshhold, and are identified as requiring further
training to become employable or employed. Such individuals are most
likey to be found among the sub-baccalaureate vocational students who
enroll to enhance their job skills (41.0 percent), since an emphasis on
improving "job skills" is most in keeping with the short-term training
envisioned in WIA.[^41]^1^ These vocational students are typically older
and many are disadvantaged: 62.7 percent have parents whose highest
level of education was a high school diploma or less and 18.8 percent
are single parents. However, only about a third of the older students
emphasizing a job skill objective---about one in ten vocational students
taking for-credit courses---earn less than or equal to \$20,000 per
year, the self-sufficiency income standards set by some local Workforce
Investment Boards.[^42]^2^

Thus, vocational programs currently appear to serve a relatively small
number of individuals similar to those most likely to be targeted for
intensive services under WIA. However, it remains to be seen: (1) to
what extent states allocate job training resources to services such as
those offered at postsecondary institutions and (2) how many of those
receiving WIA training vouchers (individual training accounts) actually
enroll in Perkins-eligible institutions and programs. These actions will
play a significant role in the potential integration of vocational
education and workforce development programs. A study examining these
issues is being conducted for the NAVE and its results will be discussed
in the final report.

5\. Summary and Next Steps

This interim report is one part of a broader assessment of vocational
education in the United States. Though many students in secondary and
postsecondary education are engaged in vocational studies, the most
important question is how the reexamination of the Carl D. Perkins
Vocational and Technical Education Act (Perkins III)---scheduled for
2003---can be used to improve student success.

In preparation for those discussions, this first NAVE report lays the
groundwork for the more comprehensive report to follow. The interim
report describes historic trends in federal vocational education policy
and the key legislative changes that were enacted in 1998. To help
policymakers understand what vocational education is today, the report
outlined the current signals of federal policy objectives, the broad
changes occurring in the field of vocational education, and recent
trends in both the number and characteristics of students engaged in
vocational education at the secondary and postsecondary levels. The
major results from this report are worth summarizing, but much of the
information central to an assessment of vocational education is yet to
come.

Key Themes of the Interim Report

Although several topics are addressed in this document, four themes
stand out.

Federal policy attempts to achieve multiple goals and objectives.

Over time, federal vocational policy has attempted to address changing
social, educational, and labor market concerns. These evolving
priorities have moved federal support for vocational education toward
fulfilling a broad set of objectives. For example, the stated purpose of
the 1998 Perkins III is to enhance not only the vocational and technical
skills of students who choose to participate in vocational education,
but also their academic skills. In addition, other sections of the
legislation suggest that vocational education is expected to contribute
to high school completion, entry into postsecondary education and
training, postsecondary degree completion, and employment.

Currently, federal policy allows states, school districts, and
postsecondary institutions to decide which objectives are the highest
priority for Perkins spending. In contrast, Title I of the recently
enacted No Child Left Behind Act, with funding now 10 times greater than
Perkins, is unambiguously focused on one core mission: raising the
academic achievement of disadvantaged students.

Vocational programs vary, perhaps to meet different objectives.

Though once regarded as programs to prepare students for jobs after high
school, many vocational programs at the secondary level are now much
more than that. Over the past decade, new program initiatives have been
undertaken to promote other objectives---such as academic improvement
and college enrollment. Other efforts have tried to broaden students'
knowledge of careers, both vocational education's traditional ones as
well as those requiring four-year college degrees. Although students who
are economically and educationally disadvantaged still participate at
higher rates, the overall group of participants is quite diverse and may
be growing more so. There is some evidence that vocational education has
begun to serve relatively more academically talented students, possibly
as a result of the new programmatic efforts.

At the postsecondary level, sub-baccalaureate vocational education is
equally diverse. Associate degree programs differ from certificate
programs, and the for-credit courses that make up these programs may or
may not differ from the noncredit occupational courses offered by the
same institutions. These different ways of offering and organizing
courses, in part, reflect the varying goals of those who participate in
postsecondary vocational education. They come for different reasons---to
get a degree or certificate, to transfer to four-year degree programs,
or to enhance their job skills. They also bring different life
experiences in terms of age and employment history, and some students
are more disadvantaged than others. Although there may be a trend away
from degree seeking among sub-baccalaureate students as a whole, the
seeming priority in Perkins III on for-credit, degree-oriented course
work is consistent with the law's emphasis on serving disadvantaged
students, because for-credits courses are more likely than noncredit
courses to be taken by these students.

Secondary vocational education remains a large component of the high
school curriculum, but the full effects of academic reform are not yet
evident.

Although vocational education's overall share of the high school
curriculum has declined as students have earned more academic credits,
there has been little change in the amount of vocational course work
taken by high school students over the past decade. Students still earn
more credits in vocational education than they do in math or science. As
challenging high-stakes exit exams become more common, however,
vocational enrollments are likely to face serious challenges.

Low levels of course completion in postsecondary vocational education is
a concern.

Students enroll in postsecondary vocational programs for varied reasons.
Unfortunately, many of them, like their academic counterparts, leave
sub-baccalaureate institutions and programs having completed few
courses. For older students with substantial work experience who enroll
mostly to improve their job skills, a course or two may be exactly what
is needed or desired. Some may even obtain one of the newly emerging
industry- or employer-developed certifications (e.g., Microsoft, Cisco,
Automotive Service Excellence), which may be an important way to realize
labor market gains without actually earning a degree or
institution-based certificate.

Those same one or two courses, though, fall well short of expectations
for those working toward a postsecondary education credential. About
half of all sub-baccalaureate vocational students indicate they want to
earn a degree or certificate, including those who intend to transfer to
obtain their bachelors' degrees. These students tend to be younger, and
many are recent high school graduates with limited job history. For
these students, in particular, college degrees can lead toward labor
market success as well as the fulfillment of personal goals. But it is
likely that the nearly half of younger vocational students who leave
postsecondary education with eight or fewer months of course work do so
without having achieved their objectives and without a concrete labor
market signal of their skills.

The Final Report

The data in this initial report addressed one of several important
questions for policy: Who enrolls in vocational education in high
schools and postsecondary institutions and for what purpose? That
analysis, however, raised questions about the effectiveness of
vocational education for different subgroups of students, the
consequences of new funding and accountability provisions for programs
and participants, the implementation of vocational education, and its
alignment with other major reform efforts. All of these key issues will
be examined in the final report.

What is the contribution of vocational education to student outcomes?

Perhaps the most important issue is whether students are better off as a
result of participating in vocational education, either in high school
or at the postsecondary level. In light of changing objectives for
vocational education, the NAVE final report will use both national and
state-level data to examine a broad set of concerns:

-   What effect does secondary vocational education have on students'
    academic achievement, chances of attending and succeeding in
    college, and wages and earnings?

-   What is the "value added" at the postsecondary level in terms of
    labor market success---for both those who complete a degree and
    those who leave without a credential? How important is the degree?

-   How do impacts for secondary and postsecondary participants vary by
    course taking patterns, by field of study (e.g., cosmetology as well
    as technical engineering), and by student characteristics (academic
    achievement, disability status, income)?

-   To what extent do the new secondary vocational education strategies
    (e.g., career academies, Tech-Prep, High Schools that Work) make a
    difference in key student outcomes? Is there evidence that these new
    programs are "better" than traditional vocational course sequences?

How effective are the performance measurements systems established by
the states?

For most federal education programs, establishing an effective, workable
accountability system has proven to be more difficult and time-consuming
than initially thought to be the case (Goertz, Duffy, and Le Floch
2001). Congress first enacted Perkins performance measures in 1990, and
in 1998 significantly raised the requirements for state reporting on
student performance. Today, state responses to federal accountability
requirements are still under development. Based on early implementation
experiences, the NAVE final report will examine:

-   How much progress has been made under Perkins III by states,
    schools, and postsecondary institutions in developing appropriate
    measures, standards, and data-gathering systems?

-   To what extent is performance data used to manage and improve
    programs versus to comply with federal and state laws?

-   Is there any evidence that incentive systems incorporated into
    Perkins and WIA have the potential to affect behavior?

-   Is the reporting of performance data for special populations
    feasible and useful?

To what extent have the new funding provisions changed grant
distributions and state or local practice?

In 1998, Congress enacted several changes affecting the allocations of
federal Perkins funds, including giving states and local entities
greater flexibility by eliminating set-asides for special populations
and freeing up more money for use at the local level. Much of the basic
grant allocation process remained unchanged, however. The NAVE final
report will examine areas of both change and continuity in how federal
resources are allocated. The final report will address three main
questions:

-   What, if anything, has changed in the allocation of federal
    resources and the purposes for which they are used as a result of
    recent legislative provisions?

-   Do federal resources, and the methods by which they are allocated,
    spur program innovation and improvement or simply support program
    maintenance?

-   What has been the effect on special populations of eliminating the
    set-aside funding streams?

What is the quality of vocational education and to what extent are
federal improvement strategies reflected in classroom practice and
school organization?

For nearly a decade, federal policy has attempted to improve the quality
of vocational programs at the secondary level largely by strengthening
the connection between vocational education and mainstream education
objectives. Perkins III directs NAVE to examine a variety of issues
regarding teachers, curriculum, employers, and program implementation
that are loosely referred to as "program quality":

-   What are the qualifications and classroom practices of vocational
    teachers, as they relate to achieving both the academic and
    technical objectives of federal legislation?

-   To what extent are Perkins program improvement
    strategies---integration of academic and vocational education,
    secondary-postsecondary linkages, and broadening the focus on
    industries and careers---evident in state and local practice?

-   How and how much do employers participate in vocational education
    programs? How satisfied are they with program graduates?

-   What is the academic and technical rigor of vocational curriculum in
    different settings in the United States? What can we learn about
    rigor from vocational curricula used in other countries?

How well aligned is vocational education with education reform efforts
at the secondary level and with workforce development efforts at the
postsecondary level?

Vocational improvements are intended to keep pace with and complement
other reform efforts in high school. For some districts and schools,
meeting these objectives requires substantial changes, including new
vocational policies or requirements, shifts in instructional methods, or
modifications to course content. The final report will assess the
relationship between vocational education improvement and school reforms
underway in many states and local communities, as well as the role of
federal policy in promoting or impeding these relationships.

Enacted months apart, Congress intended that Perkins III and WIA would
be coordinated in a manner that helped make a fragmented job training
system somewhat more orderly and rational. Provisions for development of
unified state plans, participation in One-Stop Centers, and the
potential for performance rewards were key provisions in WIA with
implications for how individuals gained access to vocational education,
the types of programs offered, and the outcomes by which performance was
measured. The NAVE final report will examine the early evidence of
change in the direction intended by Congress.

Conclusion

Vocational education and its place in American education continue to
evolve. The broadening of its goals, the increasing diversity of
participants, and the changing education and labor market climate in
which it operates, suggests vocational education is a flexible option
for schools and students.

With this flexibility comes some challenges, however. At the high school
level, participation in vocational education is an elective choice that
faces increasing pressure from emphasis on academic improvement and
testing. For both secondary and postsecondary vocational education, the
wide range of participants and objectives raises a question about how
effective a role federal policy plays and whether that policy can or
should promote a clearer set of priorities. The final NAVE report will
provide more rigorous evidence to help policymakers and practitioners
respond to these issues.

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Upcoming NAVE Study Reports\
*Reports to Be Delivered and Released in 2002 and 2003*

Secondary Vocational Education

Implementation and Quality

*Study to Assess the Quality of Vocational Education: Secondary School
Findings,* Rand Corporation.

*Access to Career Preparation Programs and their Key Support
Strategies,* MPR Associates.

*Analysis of Employer Participation in and Satisfaction with Vocational
Education,* NAVE staff.

*Secondary Vocational Teacher Quality: Analysis of the SASS,* MPR
Associates.

*The Role of Career Guidance Counseling,* Westat Inc.

*Information Technology External Certification Programs at the High
School Level: Program Implementation and Short-term Student Outcomes,*
Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.

*Examining Vocational Program "Rigor": Performance and Content in
European Apprenticeship Systems and American Vocational Programs,*
United States-European Network for Education and Training (US-EURO-NET).

Participation and Impacts

*Trends in Vocational Course Taking: 1982--1998,* MPR Associates.

*Who Participates in Vocational Education?* MPR Associates.

*Factors Related to Vocational Education Participation,* Mathematica
Policy Research, Inc.

*Reasons for Enrolling in Vocational Education and Satisfactions with
Experiences: Student Perspectives,* Branch Associates.

*Trends in the Reading Achievement of Vocational and Other Students:
1990--1998,* MPR Associates.

*Achievement Effects of Vocational and Integrated Studies,* Mathematica
Policy Research, Inc.

*Effects of Vocational Education on Dropping Out and College and Labor
Market Success,* Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.

*The Value Added of Secondary Vocational Education and Promising Career
Preparation Strategies in Two States,* MPR Associates.

*Evaluation of the High Schools That Work Initiative,* MPR Associates.

*The Impacts of Tougher Graduation Requirements on Course Selection and
Learning in High School and on the Post High School Experiences of
Vocational Students,* Cornell University.

Postsecondary Vocational Education

Implementation and Quality

*Study to Assess the Quality of Vocational Education: Postsecondary Case
Study Findings,* Rand Corporation.

*Information Technology External Certification Programs in Community
Colleges: Program Implementation and Short-term Student Outcomes,*
Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.

*Analysis of Postsecondary Vocational Faculty Characteristics,* NAVE
staff.

Participation and Impacts

*Study of Sub-baccalaureate Labor Market Trends and the Relatedness of
Postsecondary Enrollment Trends,* Erard and Associates.

*Participation Patterns in and Labor Market Effects of Postsecondary
Vocational Education,* Teachers College, Columbia University.

*The Value Added of Participating in Postsecondary Vocational Education
in Two States,* MPR Associates.

Funding and Accountability

*Assessment of Perkins Funding and Accountability Systems in Vocational
Education,* Westat, Inc.

*A Comparative Analysis of Evaluation Methods and Outcomes in Four
European Countries,* Regional Technology Strategies, Inc.

Commissioned Papers

*The Role and Scope of External Assessment Systems in Student
Credentialing and Accountability in States,* Robert Sheets, Northern
Illinois University.

*The Role of Distance Learning in Vocational Education,* Jacque Dubois,
Synergy Plus, Inc.

*Career and Technical Education in Indian Country,* Carrie Billy,
American Indian Higher Education Consortium.

*Efforts of Other Federal Agencies to Develop Occupational Curricula,*
James Jacobs, Macomb Community College.

[^1]: ^1^Other federal programs, such as student financial aid and tax
    credits, help provide access to occupational training at the
    postsecondary level; these programs are an important source of
    federal *financial* support for vocational education.

[^2]: ^3^The Perkins Act contains some set-asides (e.g., 1.25 percent of
    appropriations for grants to Native American tribes and tribal
    organizations) which are awarded by the U.S. Department of Education
    through a competitive grant program. In addition, funds allocated to
    states by formula under Title II of Perkins III, the Tech-Prep
    Education Act, can be awarded to local grantees using either a
    formula or a competitive grant process.

[^3]: Results from the Third International Math and Science Study
    indicate that, while American fourth-graders do relatively well,
    outperforming the international average in mathematics, by 12th
    grade their relative performance drops significantly, outperforming
    only Cyprus and South Africa.

[^4]: Bishop found a positive relationship between general technical
    competencies, as measured by the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude
    Battery (ASVAB) and hourly wages.

[^5]: In current dollars, vocational education funding increased by 58.6
    percent between 1980 and 2001 (from about \$784 million to \$1.2
    billion), compared to a 200.2 percent increase for ED funding
    overall (from \$14 billion to \$42.1 billion). In real dollars
    (converted using the 1996 GDP deflator) over the same period,
    vocational education appropriations experienced a 17.1 percent
    decline while overall ED appropriations increased by 57.0 percent.

[^6]: In the case of the Perkins Act and Title I, the amount of federal
    funds spent on high school activities is determined by state and
    local agencies. Estimates of national high school spending for these
    programs were calculated using the most recently available
    evaluation data. The high school estimate for TRIO includes total
    spending on the Upward Bound program for high school students and a
    fraction of Talent Search funds used for high school level programs.

[^7]: In addition, Sections 134 (Local Plan) and 135 (Local Use of
    Funds) of Perkins III refer to grantees' responsibility to
    strengthen the academic skills of students in vocational programs.

[^8]: One limited exception is Tech-Prep (Section 205), which requires
    that special funding consideration be given to consortium
    applications that "provide for the transfer of Tech-Prep students to
    baccalaureate degree programs."

[^9]: The National Skill Standards Board (NSSB), created as part of the
    federal Goals 2000 Act (1994), was charged with developing a
    voluntary, national system of skill standards, assessments and
    certifications. Even before the NSSB was formed, the U.S.
    Departments of Education and Labor funded 22 industry groups with
    similar objectives.

[^10]: ^1^The U.S. Department of Education's Office of Vocational and
    Adult Education (OVAE) is developing an alternative to the NCES
    vocational program classification system, but it is not yet
    completed.

[^11]: ^2^Historically, students could be clearly distinguished by the
    "track" or set of courses in which they participated---college
    preparatory, vocational, and general. However, these labels and the
    patterns of course participation they represent are no longer clear
    cut.

[^12]: ^3^These data have both advantages and limitations. Nationally
    representative data collected and coded in a uniform manner allow
    researchers to construct definitions of student participation that
    are consistent across states and localities. However, transcripts
    cannot provide reliable information about exactly what is taught in
    or what students learned from a course, nor do they indicate
    students' participation in special career-related programs such as
    career academies, Tech-Prep programs, or youth apprenticeships.

[^13]: ^4^During the period 1982--1998, General Labor Market Preparation
    courses declined from 1.0 credits to 0.6 credits at the high school
    level. In particular, many fewer students are taking keyboarding or
    typing courses in high school, perhaps because these courses are now
    offered in middle school. In contrast, average credits earned in
    occupational education---courses such as health, business, trade and
    industry---have been relatively constant since 1982.

[^14]: ^5^NAVE has commissioned a series of focus group discussions with
    students in order to examine reasons for enrollment in vocational
    education courses and programs.

[^15]: ^6^The maximum of 28 credits was calculated based on the
    assumption that most high schools offer seven periods of courses
    each day (1 credit for each year-long course) over four years, for a
    total of 28 credits. New "block scheduling" approaches can increase
    the total possible credits earned to 32.

[^16]: ^7^Most states, for example, increased the years of math or
    science (or both) required from two to three, which would most
    likely affect 11th-grade course taking.

[^17]: ^8^Perkins III requires that state plans describe how "vocational
    and technical education relates to state and regional occupational
    opportunities" (Sec. 122 (c)(15).

[^18]: ^9^Although enrollments in these program areas grew significantly
    in relative terms, the absolute number of students participating in
    these programs is still small.

[^19]: ^10^Unfortunately, transcripts do not contain many indicators of
    student characteristics; some measures were constructed based on the
    characteristics of the students' school.

[^20]: ^11^Although many states are now implementing high-stakes
    testing, most are still gradually phasing in the penalties for
    students who are unable to pass. For example, the Massachusetts
    Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS) has been in place since 1998,
    but students who were 10th-graders in fall 2001 were the first for
    whom the testing could have serious consequences.

[^21]: ^1^The legislative definition of eligible postsecondary
    institutions can be found in P.L. 105-332, Section 3(10). Less
    common, although eligible, institutions include: four-year
    institutions that offer sub-baccalaureate vocational programs, adult
    centers, secondary districts and area vocational schools serving
    postsecondary students, education service agencies, and tribally or
    Bureau of Indian Affairs-controlled colleges.

[^22]: ^2^Customized contract training consists of courses and programs
    provided by a postsecondary institution to meet the specific
    training needs of an employer and its employees.

[^23]: ^3^For additional information about these surveys, see:
    http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/.

[^24]: ^4^State financing policies, which vary from state to state, may
    play a role in the extent of noncredit offerings at public
    postsecondary institutions. For example, in Arizona the state does
    not pay individual institutions for noncredit courses and, perhaps
    as a result, for-credit enrollments are proportionally higher than
    in other states. In contrast, Texas reimburses its postsecondary
    institutions for enrollments in noncredit courses, and participation
    in these courses is relatively high. The prevalence of job-related
    noncredit courses varies widely from institution to institution as
    well. In Florida "supplemental vocational courses"---noncredit
    courses for people seeking to enhance their job skills---are about
    25 percent of a given institution's headcount. In contrast, a
    community college in Michigan reports that noncredit courses are
    less than 10 percent of their course offerings and less than half of
    those are job-related.

[^25]: ^5^Under P.L. 105-332, Section 132(b), the law does permit the
    secretary to approve alternative formulas that more effectively
    target funds to eligible institutions that have the highest numbers
    of economically disadvantaged individuals.

[^26]: ^6^National data on postsecondary enrollment are reported in
    different ways. Most commonly, the figures are based on fall
    enrollments provided by individual institutions of higher education
    (e.g., to NCES through the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data
    System (IPEDS)). However, limiting enrollment data to the fall
    greatly reduces the number of reported participants at the
    sub-baccalaureate level because many of these students enroll
    throughout the year. In addition, enrollment data in IPEDS are
    reported separately by institution type (four-year and two-year).
    Since 12.5 percent of sub-baccalaureate programs are offered at
    four-year institutions, aggregate IPEDS enrollment figures for just
    two-year institutions further underreport sub-baccalaureate program
    participation.

[^27]: ^7^The percentage of students by major---vocational, academic, or
    undeclared---reported here differ from those reported in Levesque et
    al. 2000 primarily due to sample differences. The calculations for
    this report exclude students who did not answer the NPSAS question
    about their major (i.e., missing values for this question). In
    contrast, the Levesque et al. 2000 report included these students as
    undeclared majors.

[^28]: ^8^Although NCES data indicate a small decline in institutional
    certificates earned, changes in data collection and reporting
    definitions over time make the accuracy of comparisons across years
    somewhat uncertain (Snyder et al. 1992--99).

[^29]: ^9^Unlike in associate degree programs, a majority of
    participants in certificate programs complete the program
    requirements and earn the credential. Thus, completion is a
    reasonably accurate proxy for enrollment.

[^30]: ^10^Detailed high school preparation and academic test scores are
    available only for younger students who transitioned right after
    high school and therefore do not represent the full population of
    postsecondary vocational students.

[^31]: ^11^The New Basics is defined as a high school program of study
    that includes math, English, science, and social studies courses
    totaling at least 12 high school credits.

[^32]: ^12^Because recent national surveys do not contain postsecondary
    transcript information, these are self-reports of remedial course
    taking and are likely to be underreported. However, the bias is
    likely to be similar for both academic and vocational students;
    hence the difference by major is still informative. Additionally,
    information from Florida community college participants based on
    institutional student records demonstrates the same finding that
    students in vocational programs are less likely to take a remedial
    course than their academic peers. Students who are enrolled in
    certificate programs are the least likely to take a remedial course.

[^33]: ^13^Among students in these low-income households, similar
    proportions of those living with their parents pursue vocational
    (29.5 percent) and academic (28.9 percent) programs, and similar
    proportions of independent students choose vocational (56.7 percent)
    and academic (54.1 percent) majors.

[^34]: ^14^In 1998, the mean annual wage among sub-baccalaureate
    occupations was \$30,775. Promoting gender equity in vocational
    education is of greatest interest in the high-wage occupations;
    therefore the high-wage occupations are defined as those with a mean
    annual wage greater than \$35,000.

[^35]: ^15^Among the noncredit students who were unemployed and seeking
    work, nearly one-third reported public assistance as a source of
    funds for their education (Phillippe and Valiga 2000). National
    statistics show that only 2.1 percent of community college students
    participating in noncredit work in 1999 were unemployed.

[^36]: ^16^Even though students were forced to select a primary reason,
    these reasons may not be mutually exclusive.

[^37]: ^17^Additional comprehensive information about postsecondary
    course taking comes from postsecondary transcripts. Although NCES is
    currently preparing the postsecondary transcripts of a nationally
    representative sample of 1992 high school graduates (NELS), the most
    up-to-date postsecondary transcript data currently available are for
    students who graduated from high school in 1982 (The High School and
    Beyond Study). Among the 1982 graduates who attended two-year
    institutions, more than half completed a semester's worth or less of
    credits over a 10-year period (Kane and Rouse 1999). Since a large
    share of sub-baccalaureate students are older, and older students
    have lower persistence rates, the figure based on the 1982 high
    school graduates certainly underestimates the proportion of
    sub-baccalaureate students who complete only a few courses.

[^38]: ^18^It is not possible to examine participation patterns by goals
    over time because student goals are only identified in NCES surveys
    for which there is currently insufficient follow-up data to
    determine students' completion.

[^39]: ^19^Younger students are defined as those enrolled at the ages of
    23 years old and younger. Older students are those older than 23
    years of age who are enrolled in postsecondary education.

[^40]: ^20^Given the limitations of the most recent data, the actual
    number of courses taken is not available. However, the number of
    months of postsecondary participation along with the intensity of
    participation allow for a calculation of full-time equivalent (FTE)
    months. Eight FTE months are roughly equivalent to one full year of
    course work.

[^41]: ^21^Relying solely on the stated goal "job skill" to identify
    participants in vocational education who most resemble potential WIA
    participants may underestimate the WIA relevant population. Some WIA
    participants may have a long-term goal of completing postsecondary
    degrees or certificates. Certainly, low-income students who state
    degree completion goals as their primary reason for enrolling in
    vocational education have characteristics consistent with potential
    WIA participants as well.

[^42]: ^22^A recent U.S. Department of Labor report (D'Amico et al.
    2001) indicates that self-sufficiency standards were set around
    \$20,000 in some of the visited sites.