![](media/image1.png)

**Movement of Cowpea, and its relatives (*Vigna unguiculata* (L.) Walp),
as Fresh Immature Fruit Pods from Hawaii into the Continental United
States**

**September 11, 2006**

**Rev: Original**

**Agency Contact:**

**United States Department of Agriculture**

**Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service**

**Plant Protection and Quarantine**

**Center for Plant Health Science and Technology**

**Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory, Hawaii**

**300 Ala Moana Blvd., Rm 8-109**

**Honolulu, HI 96850**

# Executive Summary

This risk assessment document examines the risks associated with the
importation of *Vigna unguiculata* (L.) Walp (cowpea, sow-pea,
asparagus-bean, pea-bean, yard-long bean, black-eyed pea, croweder-pea,
southern-pea) from Hawaii into the continental United States.
Information on pests associated with *Vigna* *unguiculata* in Hawaii
revealed that 11 quarantine pests (all of which are arthropods) exist
and could be introduced into the United States via this pathway.

**The following species are High risk:**

*Bactrocera cucurbitae* (Diptera: Tephritidae)

*Frankliniella schultzei* (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

*Lampides boeticus* (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

*Maruca vitrata* (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

*Spodoptera litura* (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

*Thrips palmi* (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

**The following species are Medium risk:**

*Aleurodicus dispersus* (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

*Cryptophlebia ombrodelta* (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

*Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)

*Maconellicoccus hirsutus* (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)

*Oligonychus biharensis* (Acari: Tetranychidae)

The quarantine pests were qualitatively analyzed based on international
principles and internal guidelines described in the PPQ Guidelines for
Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessments, Version 5.02 (USDA APHIS,
2002). This document examines pest biology in the context of
Consequences of Introduction and Likelihood of Introduction. These
elements help estimate Pest Risk Potential.

**Table of Contents**

[Executive Summary .......i](#executive-summary)

[I. Introduction 1](#__RefHeading___Toc145639834)

[II. Risk Assessment 3](#ii.-risk-assessment)

[**2.1 Initiating Event 3**](#initiating-event)

[**2.2 Assessment of Weediness Potential
3**](#assessment-of-weediness-potential)

[**2.3 Previous Risk Assessments, Decision History, Current Status and
Pest Interceptions
4**](#previous-risk-assessments-decision-history-current-status-and-pest-interceptions)

[**2.4 Pest Categorization--Identification of Quarantine Pests and
Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway
5**](#pest-categorizationidentification-of-quarantine-pests-and-quarantine-pests-likely-to-follow-the-pathway)

[**2.5 Consequences of Introduction: Economic/Environmental Importance
23**](#consequences-of-introduction-economicenvironmental-importance)

[**2.6 Likelihood of Introduction 46**](#likelihood-of-introduction)

[**2.7 Conclusions 49**](#conclusions)

[III. Authors & Reviewers 50](#iii.-authors-reviewers)

[IV. Literature Cited 50](#iv.-literature-cited)

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc145639834 .anchor}**I. Introduction**

The purpose of the risk assessment is to examine pest risks associated
with the importation of fresh, immature pods (fruits) of *Vigna
unguiculata* (L.) Walp. (cowpea, sow-pea, asparagus-bean, pea-bean,
yard-long bean, black-eyed pea, croweder-pea, southern-pea) from Hawaii
into the continental United States. This risk assessment is qualitative;
risk is expressed in the terms of High, Medium, and Low rather than
quantitative terms, such as probabilities or frequencies. The
methodology and rating criteria can be found in *Pathway-Initiated Pest
Risk Assessments: Guidelines for Qualitative Assessments, Version 5.0.2*
(USDA, 2000).

Regional and international plant protection organizations, North
American Plant Protection Organization \[NAPPO\] and the International
Plant Protection Convention \[IPPC\] administered by the Food and
Agriculture Organization \[FAO\] of the United Nations, provide guidance
for conducting risk analyses. The methods used to initiate, conduct, and
report this assessment are consistent with guidelines provided by NAPPO
and FAO. Our use of biological and phytosanitary terms conforms to the
*Definitions and Abbreviations* (Introduction Section) in *International
Standards for Phytosanitary Measures, Section 1-Import Regulations:
Guidelines for Pest Risk Analysis* (IPPC, 1996)*.*

The FAO guidelines describe three stages of pest risk analysis: Stage 1,
Initiation, Stage 2, Risk Assessment, and Stage 3, Risk Management. The
present document satisfies the requirements of FAO Stages 1 and 2.

Cowpeas (Fabacea: *Vigna unguiculata*) (Fig. 1) are also known as
black-eyed peas, crowder peas, asparagus beans, yard longbeans, catjang,
and many other common names (Weirsema and Leon, 1999). According to
Weirsema and Leon (1999), there are ten subspecies:

> *V.u.* subsp. *baoulensis* (A. Chev) Pasquet
>
> *V.u.* subsp. *burundiensis* Pasquet
>
> *V.u.* subsp. *cylindrica* (L.) Verdc.
>
> *V.u.* subsp. *dekindtiana* (harms) Verdc.
>
> *V.u.* subsp. *letouzeyi* Pasquet
>
> *V.u.* subsp. *pubescens* (R. Wilczek) Pasquet
>
> *V.u.* subsp. *sesquipedalis* (L.) Verdc.
>
> *V.u.* subsp. *stenophylla* (Harv.) Marechal et al
>
> *V.u.* subsp. *tenuis* (E. Mey.) Marechal et al
>
> *V.u.* subsp. *unguiculata* Walp

The main subspecies of agricultural importance are *cylindria,
sesquipedalis,* and *unguiculata* (CABI, 2004). Cowpea is native to
Africa, and is one of the most ancient crops known to man. It is
cultivated worldwide, primarily for its seeds, but also for its use as a
vegetable, cover crop and fodder (TJAI, 2005). Worldwide production is
estimated to be around 20 million acres (TJAI, 2005). Africa produces
two-thirds of the total amount grown globally, with Nigeria and Niger
accounting for approximately half of the world's production. Brazil
produces about one-quarter of the world's total (CABI, 2004). Haiti,
India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Australia, the United States, Bosnia and
Herzegovina all have significant production (TJAI, 2005).

Green pods are harvested by hand when they are still immature and tender
(12-15 days after flowering). Pod picking may continue for 6-8 weeks for
yard-long bean. When grown as a pulse, harvesting is complicated by the
prolonged and uneven ripening of many cultivars. The time of harvesting
is critical, as mature pods shatter easily; as a result, hand-picking
can be advantageous. Plants are usually pulled when most of the pods are
mature. For hay, the crop is cut when most of the pods are
well-developed (CABI, 2004).

![](media/image2.png)

**Figure 1:** **Cowpea, *Vigna unguiculata* (L.) Walp.**

(CABI, 2004).

# II. Risk Assessment

## 2.1 Initiating Event

This risk assessment was developed in response to a request by the
Hawaii Department of Agriculture for USDA authorization to permit
imports of fresh fruit pods of cowpeas into the continental United
States. Entry of this commodity into the continental United States
presents the risk of introduction of exotic plant pests. Title 7, Part
318, Section 13 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations (7 CFR
§318.13) provides regulatory authority for the movement of fruits and
vegetables from Hawaii into the continental United States.

## 2.2 Assessment of Weediness Potential 

The results of weediness screening of yard-long-bean from Hawaii
(Table 1) did not prompt a pest-initiated risk assessment.

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Table 1. Process for Determining Weediness Potential of the         |
| Commodity**                                                           |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Commodity**: Immature pods of *Vigna unguiculata* (L.) Walp. subsp. |
| s*esquipedalis* (L.)Verdc. ( yard-long-bean, long-bean,               |
| asparagus-bean) (Fabaceae) for consumption.                           |
|                                                                       |
| **Phase 1**: Yard-long-beans are cultivated throughout the United     |
| States.                                                               |
|                                                                       |
| **Phase 2**: Is the subspecies listed in:                             |
|                                                                       |
| [NO]{.underline} *Geographical Atlas of World Weeds* (Holm *et al.*,  |
| 1979).                                                                |
|                                                                       |
| [NO]{.underline} *World\'s Worst Weeds* (Holm *et al*., 1977).        |
|                                                                       |
| [NO]{.underline} *Report of the Technical Committee to Evaluate       |
| Noxious Weeds; Exotic*                                                |
|                                                                       |
| *Weeds for Federal Noxious Weed Act* (Gunn and Ritchie, 1982).        |
|                                                                       |
| [NO]{.underline} *Economically Important Foreign Weeds* (Reed, 1977). |
|                                                                       |
| [NO]{.underline} *Composite List of Weeds* (Weed Science Society of   |
| America, 1989).                                                       |
|                                                                       |
| [NO]{.underline} *World Weeds* (Holm, *et al.*, 1997).                |
|                                                                       |
| [NO]{.underline} Is there any literature reference indicating         |
| weediness (*e.g.*, *AGRICOLA*,                                        |
|                                                                       |
| *CAB*, *Biological Abstracts*, and *AGRIS* search on \"subspecies     |
| name\" combined                                                       |
|                                                                       |
| with \"weed\").                                                       |
|                                                                       |
| **Phase 3: Conclusion**: The species has not been reported to be      |
| weedy. Seeds are available from garden centers and seed suppliers.    |
| The weediness potential of importing the commodity from Hawaii is     |
| negligible.                                                           |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

## 2.3 Previous Risk Assessments, Decision History, Current Status and Pest Interceptions 

### [Previous Risk Assessments:]{.underline}

In December 2001, a risk assessment was completed on Yard-Long-Bean

(*Vigna unguiculata* (L.) Walp. subsp. *sesquipedalis* (L.) Verdc.)
imported as fresh immature fruit pods from Nicaragua into the
continental United States by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA),
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), Plant Protection and
Quarantine (PPQ), Center for Plant Heath Science and Technology (CPHST).

### [Decision History:]{.underline}

2002- Nicaragua: Yard-long-bean (*Vigna unguiculata* ssp.
*sesquipedalis*): Beans permitted entry with treatment T101-k-2 or
T101-k-1 (fumigation with Methyl Bromide).

1995- Honduras: Yard-long-bean, pod or shelled (*Vigna unguiculata)*:
Beans without pods are permitted entry subject to inspection. Unshelled
beans in fruit pods are permitted entry with treatment T101-k-2 for *M.
vitrata* and *Epinotia aporema* (Walsingham) (Federal Register, 1996).

1971- Guam: Asparagus bean (*Vigna sesquipedalis):* Entry was
disapproved due to pathogens *Phakopsora pachyrhizi* Syd., *Phyllosticta
noackiana* Allesch., and *Septoria vignae sinensis* Saw.

1948- Mexico: Asparagus bean (*Vigna sesquipedalis):* Entry was approved
subject to careful inspection for *Epinotia opposita* Hein, *Laspeyresia
leguminis* Hein, and *Maruca testulalis* (Geyer).

**[Current Status:]{.underline}**

Cowpea (*Vigna unguiculata*) exports from Hawaii into the continental
United States are not authorized by 7 CFR §318.13. PPQ records indicate
that unauthorized *Vigna* cargo has occasionally been shipped to the
United States.

### [Pest Interceptions:]{.underline} 

The PIN 309 database (USDA APHIS PPQ, 2005) is a searchable computer
record of interceptions by APHIS inspectors maintained for internal use
by the USDA (February, 2005).

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
  **Table 3. USDA Pest                                             
  Interceptions on                                                 
  *Vigna* sp. from                                                 
  Hawaii (1985-2004)                                               
  (PIN 309, 2005)**                                                
  -------------------- ------------------- ----------- ----------- -----------
  **Pest**             **Host**            **Plant     **Where     **Freq.**
                                           Part**      Found**     

  *Aleurodicus         *Vigna sp.*         Leaf        Permit      1
  dispersus*                                           Cargo       

  *Auchenorrhyncha     *Vigna sp.*         Leaf        Permit      1
  sp.*                                                 Cargo       

  *Lampides boeticus*  *Vigna sp.*         Fruit/Pod   Baggage     1

  *Lampides boeticus*  *Vigna sp.*         Fruit/Pod   General     1
                                                       Cargo       

  *Lampides boeticus*  *Vigna sp.*         Seed        Baggage     1

  *Maruca vitrata*     *Vigna sp.*         Fruit/Pod   Baggage     2

  Thripidae, species   *Vigna sp.*         Leaf        Permit      1
  of                                                   Cargo       

  *Maruca vitrata*     *Vigna sp.*         Seed        Baggage     1

  *Maruca vitrata*     *Vigna sp.*         Fruit/Pod   General     2
                                                       Cargo       

  Aphidae, species of  *Vigna unguiculata* Stem        General     1
                                                       Cargo       

  *Hypothenemus sp.*   *Vigna unguiculata* Seed        General     1
                                                       Cargo       

  *Lampides boeticus*  *Vigna unguiculata* Fruit/Pod   Permit      2
                                                       Cargo       

  *Lampides boeticus*  *Vigna unguiculata* Seed        Baggage     1

  *Maruca vitrata*     *Vigna unguiculata* Fruit/Pod   Baggage     4

  *Maruca vitrata*     *Vigna unguiculata* Fruit/Pod   Permit      2
                                                       Cargo       

  *Maruca vitrata*     *Vigna unguiculata* Fruit/Pod   General     4
                                                       Cargo       

  *Maruca vitrata*     *Vigna unguiculata* Fruit/Pod   Mail        1

  *Maruca vitrata*     *Vigna unguiculata* Seed        General     1
                                                       Cargo       

  *Maruca vitrata*     *Vigna unguiculata* Seed        Baggage     4

  *Maruca vitrata*     *Vigna unguiculata* Seed        Permit      2
                                                       Cargo       

  *Monolepta sp.*      *Vigna unguiculata* Fruit/Pod   General     1
                                                       Cargo       

  Cicadellidae, sp.of  *Vigna unguiculata, Fruit/Pod   Permit      1
                       ssp. sequipedalis*              Cargo       

  *Maruca vitrata*     *Vigna unguiculata, Fruit/Pod   Mail        1
                       ssp. sequipedalis*                          

  **Total                                                          **37**
  Interceptions**                                                  
  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------

## 2.4 Pest Categorization--Identification of Quarantine Pests and Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway

Pests that are associated with cowpea and occur in the Hawaiian Islands
are depicted in Table 4. This list includes information on the presence
or absence of these pests in the United States, the affected plant
part(s), the quarantine status of the pest with respect to the United
States, an indication of the pest-host association, and pertinent
references for pest distribution and biology.

+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Table 4.     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Pests in       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Hawaii         |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Associated     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| with Cowpea    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (*Vigna        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| u              |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| nguiculata*)** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+================+=========+===+======+=========+======+================+
| **Pest**       | **Geogr | * |      | **Quara | **Li | **References** |
|                | aphic** | * |      | ntine** | kely |                |
|                |         | P |      |         | to   |                |
|                | **Dist  | l |      | **Pes   | Fo   |                |
|                | ributio | a |      | t**[^3] | llow |                |
|                | n**[^1] | n |      |         | P    |                |
|                |         | t |      |         | athw |                |
|                |         | P |      |         | ay** |                |
|                |         | a |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | r |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | t |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | * |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | * |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | * |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | * |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | A |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | f |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | f |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | e |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | c |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | t |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | e |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | * |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | * |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | [ |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | ^ |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | 2 |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | ] |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **ARTHROPODS** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **ACARI**      |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **             |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Tarsonemidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Polyp         | HI, US  |   | P/F, | No      | Y    | CABI, 2004;    |
| hagotarsonemus |         |   | L,   |         |      | Kessing and    |
| latus* Banks   |         |   | I, S |         |      | Mau, 1993      |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **T            |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| etranychidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Oligonychus   | HI      | P |      | Y       | Y    | Chia *et al,*  |
| biharensis*    |         | / |      |         | [^4] | 1997; IDIDAS,  |
| Hirst          |         | F |      |         |      | 2004; CABI,    |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 2004; Bishop   |
|                |         | L |      |         |      | Museum, 2002;  |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | Bolland *et    |
|                |         | I |      |         |      | al*., 1998     |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Tetranychus*  | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2003;    |
| *cinnabarinus* | (CA,    |   |      |         |      | Hill, 1994;    |
| (Boisduval)    | TX)     |   |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Maes and       |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Robleto, 1988, |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 2002; Jeppson  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | *et al,* 1994. |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Tetranychus   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2003;    |
| desertorum*    |         |   |      |         |      | Schuster and   |
| Banks          |         |   |      |         |      | Cherry, 1975;  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 2002; Bolland  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | *et al,* 1998; |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Jeppson *et    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | al,* 1994.     |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Tetranychus   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Bolland *et    |
| gloveri* Banks |         |   |      |         |      | al,* 1998;     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Jeppson *et    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | al,* 1994.     |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Tetranychus   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Bolland *et    |
| ludeni* Zacher |         |   |      |         |      | al,* 1998;     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 2002; CABI,    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 2003; Jeppson  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | *et al,* 1994. |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Tetranychus   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Bolland *et    |
| n              |         |   |      |         |      | al,* 1998;     |
| eocaledonicus* |         |   |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| Andre          |         |   |      |         |      | 2002; Jeppson  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | *et al,* 1994. |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Tetranychus   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Bolland *et    |
| urticae* Koch  |         |   |      |         |      | al,* 1998;     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 2002; Jeppson  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | *et al,* 1994. |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **INSECTS**    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **COLEOPTERA** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Anobiidae**  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Lasioderma    | HI, US  |   | L,   | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| serricorne*    |         |   | R,   |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| Fabricius      |         |   | Sd   |         |      | 2002; Arnett   |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | *et al,* 2002; |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Hill, 1994     |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Apionidae**  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Cylas         | HI, US  |   | L,   | N       | N    | CABI, 2003,    |
| formicarius*   |         |   | S, R |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| Fabricius      |         |   |      |         |      | 2002; Arnett   |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | *et al,* 2002; |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Hill, 1994     |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Bruchidae**  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Anthonomus    | HI, US  |   | P/F, | N       | Y    | CABI, 2004:    |
| eugenii* Cano  |         |   | I, L |         |      | Kessing and    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Mau, 1993      |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *A             | HI, US  |   | Sd   | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| canthoscelides |         |   |      |         |      | Metcalf and    |
| obtectus       |         |   |      |         |      | Metcalf, 1993; |
| (Say)*         |         |   |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 2002; Hill,    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 1994; Jackai   |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | and Daoust,    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 1986           |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *              | HI, US  |   | Sd   | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| Callosobruchus |         |   |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| chinensis*     |         |   |      |         |      | 2002;          |
| (Linnaeus)     |         |   |      |         |      | Capinera, 2001 |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *              | HI, US  |   | Sd   | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| Callosobruchus |         |   |      |         |      | Metcalf and    |
| maculatus*     |         |   |      |         |      | Metcalf, 1993; |
| (Fabricius)    |         |   |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 2002; Arnett   |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | et al, 2002;   |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Hill, 1994;    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Jackai and     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Daoust, 1986;  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Capinera, 2001 |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Zabrotes*     | HI, US  |   | Sd   | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| *subfasciatus* |         |   |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| (Boheman)      |         |   |      |         |      | 2002; Arnett   |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | et al, 2002;   |
| (Coleoptera:   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Bruchidae)     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **C            |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| hrysomelidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Octotoma      | HI      |   | L, S | Y       | N    | CABI, 2003;    |
| scabripennis*  |         |   |      |         | [^5] | Bishop Museum  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 2002; Davis,   |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 1972; Baars &  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Heystek, 2003  |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **C            |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| urculionidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Pantomorus    | HI, US  |   | L,   | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| cervinus*      |         |   | R,   |         |      | Jackai and     |
| (Boheman)      |         |   | P/F  |         |      | Daoust, 1986   |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| = Asynonychus  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| godmanni       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Sitophilus    | HI, US  |   | Sd   | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| oryzae*        |         |   |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| (Linnaeus)     |         |   |      |         |      | 2002; Hill,    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 1994; Koehler, |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | P. G.          |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Elateridae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Conoderus     | HI, US  |   | P/F, | N       | Y    | CABI, 2004;    |
| amplicollis*   |         |   | L,   |         |      | Stone and      |
| (Gyllenhal)    |         |   | S,   |         |      | Wilcox, 1979   |
|                |         |   | I,   |         |      |                |
|                |         |   | Sd,  |         |      |                |
|                |         |   | I    |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *              |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *Nitidulidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Carpophilus   | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| dimidiatu*     |         | / |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| (F.)           |         | F |      |         |      | 2002; Hill,    |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 1994           |
|                |         | L |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Carpophilus   | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| hemipterus*    | (NM,    | / |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| (L.)           | CA)     | F |      |         |      | 2002; Hill,    |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 1994;          |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Carpophilus   | HI, US  | S |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| humeralis      |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| (Fabricius)*   |         | P |      |         |      | 2002           |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **DIPTERA**    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *              |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *Agromyzidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Liriomyza     | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| sativae*       |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum  |
| (Blanchard)    |         | S |      |         |      | 2002; Hill,    |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 1994; Spencer  |
|                |         | S |      |         |      | and Steyskal,  |
|                |         | d |      |         |      | 1986           |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Liriomyza     | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| trifolii*      |         | , |      |         |      | Maes and       |
| Burgess        |         | S |      |         |      | Robleto, 1988; |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| (Diptera:      |         | S |      |         |      | 2002; Hill,    |
| Agromyzidae)   |         | d |      |         |      | 1994; Jackai   |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | and Daoust,    |
|                |         | R |      |         |      | 1986; Spencer  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | and Steyskal,  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 1986           |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Ophiomyia     | HI      | L |      | Y       | N    | CABI, 2003;    |
| phaseoli*      |         | , |      |         | [^6] | Bishop Museum, |
| Tryon          |         | S |      |         |      | 2002; Hill,    |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 1994; Jackai   |
|                |         | R |      |         |      | and Daoust,    |
|                |         | . |      |         |      | 1986; Hardy    |
|                |         | P |      |         |      | and Delfinado, |
|                |         | / |      |         |      | 1980; Spencer  |
|                |         | F |      |         |      | and Steyskal,  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 1986; PKNTO    |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *              |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *Tephritidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Bactrocera    | HI      | L |      | Y       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| cucurbitae*    |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| Coquillett     |         | S |      |         |      | 2002; Mathew   |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | *et al.,*      |
|                |         | R |      |         |      | 1999; Allwood  |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | *et al,* 1998; |
|                |         | I |      |         |      | White and      |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | Elson-Harris,  |
|                |         | P |      |         |      | 1994; SPC,     |
|                |         | / |      |         |      | 2002; USDA     |
|                |         | F |      |         |      | APHIS PPQ,     |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 2005;          |
|                |         | S |      |         |      | Capinera, 2002 |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **HEMIPTERA**  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *              |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *Aleyrodidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Aleurodicus   | HI, FL  | L |      | Y[^7]   | Y    | Anonymous,     |
| dispersus*     |         | , |      |         | [^8] | 2004;          |
| Russell        |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      | Martin,        |
|                |         | F |      |         |      | Kessing & Mau, |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 1993           |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Bemisia       | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2004;    |
| argentifolii*  |         |   |      |         |      | Kessing and    |
| Bellows,       |         |   |      |         |      | Mau, 1993      |
| Perring, Gill  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| & Hendrick     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Bemisia       | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2004;    |
| tabaci*        |         |   |      |         |      | Kessing and    |
| (Gennadius)    |         |   |      |         |      | Mau, 1993      |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Trialeurodes  | HI, FL  | L |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2004;    |
| vaporariorum*  |         |   |      |         |      | Kessing and    |
| Westwood       |         |   |      |         |      | Mau, 1993      |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Miridae**    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Lygus elisus* | HI, US  | I |      | N       | Y    | Jackai and     |
| Van Duzee      |         | , |      |         |      | Daoust, 1986;  |
|                |         | S |      |         |      | Henry and      |
|                |         | d |      |         |      | Froeschner,    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 1998           |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **             |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Pentatomidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Nezara        | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| viridula*      |         | , |      |         |      | Maes and       |
| (Linnaeus)     |         | S |      |         |      | Robleto, 1988; |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| (Hemiptera:    |         | G |      |         |      | 2002; HDOA,    |
| Pentatomidae)  |         | , |      |         |      | 2004; Hill,    |
|                |         | I |      |         |      | 1994; Jackai   |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | and Daoust,    |
|                |         | P |      |         |      | 1986           |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **HOMOPTERA**  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Aphididae**  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Acyrthosiphon | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2003;    |
| pisum* Harris  |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         | G |      |         |      | 2002; Hill,    |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 1994           |
|                |         | I |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Aphis         | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2003     |
| craccivora*    |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| Koch           |         | S |      |         |      | Blackman and   |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | Eastop, 2000;  |
|                |         | G |      |         |      | CABI, 2003;    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | IIE, 1983;     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 2002; Hill,    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 1994; Jackai   |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | and Daoust,    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 1986           |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Aphis fabae*  | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2004     |
| Scopoli        |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | I |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Aphis         | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2004     |
| gossypii*      |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| Glover         |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | I |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Aphis         | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2004     |
| spiraecola*    |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| Patch          |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | I |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Macrosiphum   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2003;    |
| euphorbiae*    |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| (Thomas)       |         | S |      |         |      | 2002; Hill,    |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 1994           |
|                |         | I |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Myzus         | HI, US  | I |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2003;    |
| persicae*      |         | , |      |         |      | Maes and       |
| (Sulzer)       |         | L |      |         |      | Robleto, 1988; |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         | S |      |         |      | 2002; Hill,    |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 1994           |
|                |         | G |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **             |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Cicadellidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Empoasca      | HI, US? | L |      | N       | N    | Kessing and    |
| solana* DeLong |         |   |      |         |      | Mau, 1993      |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Coccidae**   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Coccus        | HI, US  | S |      | N       | N    | Scalenet,      |
| longulus*      |         | , |      |         |      | 2005; Anon.,   |
| (Douglas)      |         | L |      |         |      | 2004           |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Saissetia     | HI, US  | S |      | N       | Y    | Scalenet,      |
| neglecta* De   |         | , |      |         |      | 2005; Anon,    |
| Lotto^4^       |         | L |      |         |      | 2004           |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *              |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *Diaspididae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Aspidiotus    | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| destructor*    |         | / |      |         |      | Dekle, 1965;   |
| Signoret       |         | F |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 2002;          |
|                |         | L |      |         |      | Scalenet, 2004 |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Ps           |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| eudococcidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Dysmicoccus   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | Scalenet,      |
| brevipes*      |         | , |      |         |      | 2004; Bishop   |
| (Cockerell)    |         | S |      |         |      | Musuem, 2002;  |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | Hill, 1994     |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Dysmicoccus   | HI (PR, | L |      | Y[^9]   | Y    | Scalenet,      |
| neobrevipes*   | VI, AS, | , |      |         |      | 2004; Bishop   |
| Beardsley      | GU)     | S |      |         |      | Museum, 2002;  |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | CABI, 2004;    |
|                |         | R |      |         |      | USDA APHIS     |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | PPQ, 2005      |
|                |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Ferrisia      | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | Arnett, 1985;  |
| virgata*       |         | , |      |         |      | Ben-Dov, 1994; |
| (Cockerell)    |         | P |      |         |      | CABI, 2003;    |
|                |         | / |      |         |      | IIE, 1966;     |
|                |         | F |      |         |      | Scalenet,      |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 2001; Bishop   |
|                |         | S |      |         |      | Museum, 2002   |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *M             | HI,     | L |      | Y[^10]  | Y    | Scalenet,      |
| aconellicoccus | US\*    | , |      |         |      | 2004; Bishop   |
| hirsutus*      |         | S |      |         |      | Museum, 2002;  |
| (Green)        |         | , |      |         |      | Hill, 1994;    |
|                |         | P |      |         |      | Hoy *et al,*   |
|                |         | / |      |         |      | 2003; Persad,  |
|                |         | F |      |         |      | 1995; USDA     |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | APHIS PPQ,     |
|                |         | R |      |         |      | 2005\*         |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | I |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Phenacoccus   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | Scalenet, 2005 |
| solani*        |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| Ferris^4^      |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *              |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *LEPIDOPTERA** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Cos          |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| mopterigidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Pyroderces    | HI, US  |   | P/F, | N       | Y    | CABI, 2004;    |
| rileyi*        |         |   | Sd   |         |      | Robinson *et   |
| (Walsingham)   |         |   |      |         |      | al.*, 2003     |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Lycaenidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Lampides      | HI      | I |      | Y       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| boeticus*      |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| Linnaeus       |         | P |      |         |      | 2002; Zhang    |
|                |         | / |      |         |      | 1994; Hill,    |
|                |         | F |      |         |      | 1994;          |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | Zimmerman,     |
|                |         | S |      |         |      | 1958; USDA     |
|                |         | d |      |         |      | APHIS PPQ,     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 2005           |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Noctuidae**  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Achaea        | HI      | L |      | Y       | N[   | Robinson *et   |
| janata* L.     |         | , |      |         | ^11] | al,* 2003;     |
|                |         | S |      |         |      | Hill, 1994;    |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         | P |      |         |      | 2002; CABI,    |
|                |         | / |      |         |      | 2004; USDA     |
|                |         | F |      |         |      | APHIS PPQ,     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 2005\*         |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Agrotis       | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| ipsilon*       |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| (Hufnagel)     |         | S |      |         |      | 2002; Zhang    |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 1994; Hill,    |
|                |         | P |      |         |      | 1994; Jackai   |
|                |         | / |      |         |      | and Daoust,    |
|                |         | F |      |         |      | 1986           |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Argyrogramma  | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | Poole, 1989;   |
| verruca*       |         | , |      |         |      | CABI, 2004;    |
| Fabricius      |         | S |      |         |      | Zhang, 1994    |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Helicoverpa   | HI, US  | I |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| zea* (Boddie)  |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         | L |      |         |      | 2002; Zhang    |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 1994; Jackai   |
|                |         | S |      |         |      | and Daoust,    |
|                |         | P |      |         |      | 1986           |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Heliothis     | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2004;    |
| virescens*     |         | / |      |         |      | Robinson *et   |
| (Fabricius)    |         | F |      |         |      | al.*, 2003     |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | I |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | L |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Penicillaria  | HI, US? | L |      | Y       | N[   | CABI, 2004;    |
| jocosatrix*    |         | , |      |         | ^12] | Nafus, 1991;   |
| (Guenée)       |         | I |      |         |      | Robinson *et   |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | al.*, 2003     |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Stictoptera   | HI      | L |      | Y       | N[   | Zhang, 1994;   |
| cucullioides*  |         | , |      |         | ^13] | Bishop Museum, |
| (Guenee)       |         | S |      |         |      | 2002; Khatua,  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 1997           |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Spodoptera    | HI, US  | L |      | Y       | N    | CABI, 2004;    |
| exempta*       |         | , |      |         |      | Robinson *et   |
| Walker         |         | S |      |         |      | al*., 2003     |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Spodoptera*   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| *exigua*       |         | , |      |         |      | Maes and       |
| (Hubner)       |         | I |      |         |      | Robleto, 1988; |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         | G |      |         |      | 2002; Zhang,   |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 1994; Hill,    |
|                |         | P |      |         |      | 1994; Pogue,   |
|                |         | / |      |         |      | 2003           |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Spodoptera    | HI      | L |      | Y       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| litura*        |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| (Fabricius)    |         | I |      |         |      | 2002; Zhang,   |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 1994; Hill,    |
|                |         | G |      |         |      | 1994; Pogue,   |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 2003; USDA     |
|                |         | P |      |         |      | APHIS PPQ,     |
|                |         | / |      |         |      | 2005           |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Spodoptera    | HI      | L |      | Y       | N[   | CABI, 2003;    |
| mauritia*      |         | , |      |         | ^14] | Bishop Museum, |
| subsp.         |         | I |      |         |      | 2002; Zhang,   |
| *              |         | , |      |         |      | 1994; Hill,    |
| acronyctoides* |         | G |      |         |      | 1994; Pogue,   |
| Guenée         |         | , |      |         |      | 2003; USDA     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | APHIS PPQ,     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 2005           |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Trichoplusia  | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| ni* (Hübner)   |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         | I |      |         |      | 2002; Zhang,   |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 1994; Hill,    |
|                |         | G |      |         |      | 1994           |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Pyralidae**  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Cadra         | HI, US? | P |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2004;    |
| cautella*      |         | / |      |         |      | Kessing and    |
| Walker         |         | F |      |         |      | Mau, 1993      |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Elasmopalpus  | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2003;    |
| lignosellus*   |         | , |      |         |      | Zhang, 1994;   |
| (Zeller)       |         | S |      |         |      | Robinson *et   |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | al,* 2003;     |
|                |         | R |      |         |      | Hill, 1994;    |
|                |         | . |      |         |      | Jackai and     |
|                |         | G |      |         |      | Daoust, 1986   |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Maruca        | HI      | I |      | Y       | Y    | APHIS, 2000;   |
| vitrata*       |         | , |      |         |      | Julius, *et    |
| Fabricius^9^   |         | L |      |         |      | al*.*,* 1992;  |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | CABI, 2003;    |
| ^=^ *Maruca    |         | P |      |         |      | Federal        |
| testulalis*    |         | / |      |         |      | Register,      |
| Geyer          |         | F |      |         |      | 1996; IIE,     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 1996; Ke, *et  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | al.*, 1985;    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Maes and       |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Robleto, 1988; |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Oakley, 1953;  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Zhang 1994;    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 2002; Robinson |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | *et al,* 2003; |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Hill, 1994;    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Jackai and     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Daoust, 1986;  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | USDA APHIS     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | PPQ, 2005      |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Spoladea      | HI, US  | S |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2004;    |
| recurvalis*    |         | , |      |         |      | Robinson *et   |
| (Fabricius)    |         | I |      |         |      | al.*, 2003     |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | L |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **             |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Tortricidiae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Cryptophlebia | HI      | P |      | Y       | Y    | CABI, 2004;    |
| ombrodelta*    |         | / |      |         |      | Robinson *et   |
| (Lower)        |         | F |      |         |      | al.*, 2003     |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Platynota     | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| stultana*      |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| Walsingham     |         | I |      |         |      | 2002           |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **             |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| THYSANOPTERA** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Thripidae**  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Frankliniella | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003:    |
| fusca* (Hinds) |         | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         | S |      |         |      | 2002; Hill,    |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 1994;          |
|                |         | G |      |         |      | Capinera, 2001 |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | I |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Frankliniella | HI,     | L |      | \[Y\]   | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| schultzei*     | (US:    | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
| (Trybom)       | repo    | G |      |         |      | 2002; Hill,    |
|                | rtable) | , |      |         |      | 1994; USDA     |
|                |         | I |      |         |      | APHIS PPQ,     |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 2005           |
|                |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Thrips palmi* | HI, US  | L |      | \[Y\]   | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| Karny          | (FL)    | , |      |         |      | Bishop Museum, |
|                |         | G |      |         |      | 2002;          |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | Nakahara,      |
|                |         | P |      |         |      | 1994; Hill,    |
|                |         | / |      |         |      | 1994; Jackai   |
|                |         | F |      |         |      | and Daoust,    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 1986; USDA     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | APHIS PPQ,     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 2005           |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **NEMATODES**  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *              |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *DORYLAIMIDA** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **             |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Longidoridae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Xiphinema     | HI, US  | R |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2003     |
| americanum*    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Cobb           |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **TYLENCHIDA** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Anguinidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Ditylenchus   | HI,     | S |      | \[Y     | N    | CABI, 2003;    |
| destructor*    | US\*    | , |      | \][^15] |      | USDA APHIS     |
| Thorne         |         | R |      |         |      | PPQ, 2005      |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Be           |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| lonolaimidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Belonolaimus  | HI, US  | R |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2003;    |
| longicaudatus* |         |   |      |         |      | Minton and     |
| Rau            |         |   |      |         |      | Baujard, 1990  |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Tylenchida:)  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **H            |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| oplolaimidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *H             | HI, US  | R |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2003;    |
| elicotylenchus |         |   |      |         |      | Whitehead,     |
| dihystera*     |         |   |      |         |      | 1998           |
| (Cobb) Sher.   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Rotylenchulus | HI\*,   | R |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2004     |
| reniformis*    | US      |   |      |         |      |                |
| Linford &      |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Oliveira       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *H             | HI,     | R |      | \[      | N    | CABI, 2003;    |
| elicotylenchus | US\*    |   |      | Y\]^14^ |      | Whitehead,     |
| multicinctus*  |         |   |      |         |      | 1998; USDA     |
| (Cobb) Golden  |         |   |      |         |      | APHIS PPQ,     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 2005           |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Scutellonema  | HI, US  | R |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2003     |
| brachyurus*    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Steiner (1938) |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Andrássy       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Me           |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| loidogynidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Meloidogyne   | HI, US  | R |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2003;    |
| arenaria*      |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Neal)         |         |   |      |         |      | Sikora and     |
| Chitwood       |         |   |      |         |      | Greco, 1990;   |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Whitehead,     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 1998           |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **Pr           |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| atylenchidae** |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Pratylenchus  | HI, US  | R |      | N       | Y    | ARS, 1960;     |
| brachyurus*    |         | , |      |         |      | CABI, 2003;    |
| (Godfrey)      |         | S |      |         |      | Minton and     |
| Filipjev &     |         |   |      |         |      | Baujard, 1990; |
| Schuurmans     |         |   |      |         |      | Whitehead,     |
| Steckhoven     |         |   |      |         |      | 1998           |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **FUNGI**      |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Alternaria    | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| alternata*     |         | , |      |         |      | 2005           |
| (Fr.:Fr.)      |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| Keissl. (syn.  |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| *A. tenius*)   |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Ascochyta     | HI, US  | S |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| boltshauseri*  |         | , |      |         |      | 2005           |
| Sacc. (syn.    |         | L |      |         |      |                |
| *St            |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| agonosporopsis |         | P |      |         |      |                |
| hortensis*     |         | / |      |         |      |                |
| (Sacc. &       |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| Malbr.) Petr.) |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Ascochyta     | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al.*, |
| pisi* Lib.     |         | , |      |         |      | 2005           |
| (syn. *A.      |         | P |      |         |      |                |
| pisicola*)     |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Aspergillus   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| flavus* Link   |         | , |      |         |      | Farr *et al,*  |
|                |         | S |      |         |      | 2005;          |
| (Anamorphic    |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| fungi)         |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Aspergillus   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| niger* Tiegh.  |         | , |      |         |      | 2005           |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Aspergillus   | HI, US  | S |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| parasiticus*   |         | d |      |         |      | 2005           |
| Speare         |         | ? |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *              | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| Botryodiplodia |         | / |      |         |      | 2005           |
| theobromae*    |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| Pat. (syn.     |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| *Lasiodiplodia |         | L |      |         |      |                |
| theobromae*    |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| (Pat.) Griffon |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| & Maubl.)      |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Botrytis      | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| cinerea*       |         | / |      |         |      | 2005           |
| Pers.:Fr.      |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | L |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | I |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Cercospora    | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Farr *et al*., |
| apii*          |         |   |      |         |      | 2005           |
| Fresen*.*      |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Cercospora    | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Thurston,      |
| canescens*     |         |   |      |         |      | 1998; Farr *et |
| Ellis & G.     |         |   |      |         |      | al,* 2005;     |
| Martin         |         |   |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| \[=*Cercospora |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| vignicaulis*   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Tehon\]        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Ps            | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Thurston,      |
| eudocercospora |         |   |      |         |      | 1998; Farr *et |
| cruenta        |         |   |      |         |      | al,* 2005;     |
| (Sacc.)*       |         |   |      |         |      | Raabe, 1981    |
| Deighton       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| \[*=           |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Cercospora     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| cruenta*       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Sacc.;         |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *Cercospora    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| phaseoli*      |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Dearn. &       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Barth;         |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *Cercospora    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| phaseolorum*   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Cooke\]        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Cercospora    | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Farr *et al*., |
| nicotianae*    |         | , |      |         |      | 2005           |
| Ellis & Everh. |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| (syn. *C.      |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| raciborskii*   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Sacc. & Syd. ) |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Choanephora   | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| cucurbitarum*  |         | / |      |         |      | 2005           |
| (Berk. &       |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| Ravenel)       |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| Thaxt. (syn.   |         | I |      |         |      |                |
| *C. amaricana* |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| A. Mölle)      |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Cicinobolus   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Farr *et al*., |
| cesatii* de    |         |   |      |         |      | 2005           |
| Bary           |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Cladosporium  | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    |                |
| cl             |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| adosporioides* |         | P |      |         |      |                |
| (Fresen.) G.A. |         | / |      |         |      |                |
| De Vries       |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Cochliobolus  | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2003;    |
| h              |         | , |      |         |      | CMI, 1971a;    |
| eterostrophus* |         | S |      |         |      | CMI, 1981,     |
| (Drechs)       |         | , |      |         |      | Raabe, 1981    |
| Dresch.        |         | I |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| (Loculoasco-   |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| mycetes:       |         | d |      |         |      |                |
| Dothidales)    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| \[=            |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *Ophiobolus    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| h              |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| eterostrophus* |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Drechs;        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *Bipolaris     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| maydis*        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Nisikado &    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Miyake)        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Shoemaker -    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Anamorph \]    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Cochliobolus* | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2003;    |
| *lunatus*      |         | , |      |         |      | CMI, 1975;     |
| Nelson &       |         | S |      |         |      | Farr *et al,*  |
| Haasis-        |         | , |      |         |      | 2005;          |
|                |         | I |      |         |      |                |
| Pleosporales   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| \[=*Pseu       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| docochliobolus |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| lunatus* (R.R. |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Nelson &       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Haasis) Tsuda, |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Ueyama &       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Nishihara;     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *Curvularia    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| lunata*        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Wakk.)        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Boedijn --     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Anamorph\]     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Loculoasco-   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| mycetes:       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Dothidales)    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *              | HI, US, | L |      | N       | Y    | Allen, *et     |
| Colletotrichum |         | , |      |         |      | al.*, 1998;    |
| lindemuthianum |         | P |      |         |      | ARS,1960;      |
| (Sacc. &       |         | / |      |         |      | CABI, 2003;    |
| Magnus)        |         | F |      |         |      | Thurston,      |
| Lams.-Scrib.*  |         | , |      |         |      | 1998; CMI      |
|                |         | S |      |         |      | 1971b; CMI     |
| (De            |         | , |      |         |      | 1978a;         |
| uteromycotina: |         | S |      |         |      | Wellman, 1977; |
|                |         | d |      |         |      | Farr *et al,*  |
| Coleomycetes)  |         |   |      |         |      | 2005;          |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Valenzuela and |
| \[Teleomorph   |         |   |      |         |      | Smith, 2002    |
| *Glomerella    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| lindemuthiana* |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| = *G.          |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| cingulata*\]   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *              | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| Colletotrichum |         | , |      |         |      | Farr, *et al,* |
| truncatum*     |         | S |      |         |      | 1995; Farr *et |
| (Schwein.)     |         | , |      |         |      | al,* 2005;     |
| Andrus & W.D.  |         | P |      |         |      |                |
| Moore, 1934    |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| \[=*           |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| Colletotrichum |         | I |      |         |      |                |
| dematium f.    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| truncatum*     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Schwein.)     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Arx;           |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *Vermicularia  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| polytricha*    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Cooke;         |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *              |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Colletotrichum |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| truncatum f.   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| truncatum*     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Schwein.)     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Andrus & W.D.  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Moore          |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Corynespora   | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| cassiicola*    |         | / |      |         |      | 2005           |
| (Berk. & M.A.  |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| Curtis) C.T.   |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| Wei (syn. *C.  |         | L |      |         |      |                |
| vignicola* E.  |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| Kawam)         |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | I |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Curvularia    | HI, LA  | L |      | N       | N    | Farr *et al*., |
| senegalensis*  |         |   |      |         |      | 2005           |
| (Speg.)        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Subram.        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *C             | HI, FL  | L |      | N       | N    | Farr *et al*., |
| ylindrocladium |         | , |      |         |      | 2005           |
| clavatum*      |         | R |      |         |      |                |
| Hodges & L.C.  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| May            |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Diaporthe     | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| phaseolorum*   |         | / |      |         |      | 2005           |
| (Cooke &       |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| Ellis) Sacc.   |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Erysiphe      | HI, US  | F |      | N       | Y    | Valenzuela and |
| polygoni* DC   |         | / |      |         |      | Smith, 2002;   |
|                |         | P |      |         |      | Farr *et al,*  |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | 2005           |
|                |         | I |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | L |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Fusarium      | HI, US  | S |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| graminearum*   |         | d |      |         |      | 2005           |
| Schwabe        |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| (anamorph)     |         | L |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| *Gibberella    |         | R |      |         |      |                |
| zeae*          |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Schwein.:Fr.) |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Petch          |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (teleomorph)   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Fusarium      | HI, US  | F |      | N       | Y    | Valenzuela and |
| oxysporum* vr. |         | / |      |         |      | Smith, 2002;   |
| *              |         | P |      |         |      | CABI, 2004;    |
| tracheiphilum* |         | , |      |         |      | Farr *et al,*  |
| (E.F.Sm.)      |         | L |      |         |      | 2005           |
| Snyder & H.N.  |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| Hansen         |         | R |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | . |      |         |      |                |
| (              |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| Pyrenomycetes: |         | d |      |         |      |                |
| Hypocreales)   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Fusarium      | HI, US  | S |      | N       | N    | Farr *et al.*, |
| oxysporum f.   |         | , |      |         |      | 2005           |
| sp.            |         | R |      |         |      |                |
| vasinfectum*   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Atk.) W.C.    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Snyder & H.N.  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Hans.          |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Fusarium      | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al.*, |
| solani*        |         | / |      |         |      | 2005           |
| (Mart.) Sacc.  |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| (anamorph)     |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | L |      |         |      |                |
| *Nectria       |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| haematococca*  |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| (Wollenw.)     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Gerlach        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (teleomorph)   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Fusarium      | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Farr *et al.*, |
| subglutinans*  |         |   |      |         |      | 2005           |
| (Wollenw. &    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Reinking) P.E. |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Nelson,        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Toussoun &     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Marasas        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (anamorph)     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *Gibberella    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| subglutinans*  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (E. Edwards)   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| P.E. Nelson,   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Toussoun &     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Marasas        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (teleomorph)   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Gibberella    | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| fujikuroi*     |         | , |      |         |      | CMI 1964a; CMI |
| (Sawada) Ito   |         | S |      |         |      | 1977; Farr *et |
| in Ito &       |         | , |      |         |      | al,* 2005      |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
| \[=*Gibberella |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| moniliforme*   |         | P |      |         |      |                |
| (J. Sheld.)    |         | / |      |         |      |                |
| Wineland;      |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| *Lisea         |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| fujikuroi*     |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| Sawada*;       |         | d |      |         |      |                |
| Fusarium       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| moniliforme*   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| J. Sheld. -    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Anamorph \]    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Kimura         |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (              |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Pyrenomycetes: |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Hypocreales)   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Glomerella    | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| cingulata*     |         | / |      |         |      | Wellmann, 1977 |
| (Stonem.)      |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| Spauld. &      |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| Schrenk        |         | I |      |         |      |                |
| (Ascomycetes)  |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| (teleomorph)   |         | L |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| *              |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| Colletotrichum |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| gl             |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| oeosporioides* |         | d |      |         |      |                |
| (Penz.) Penz.  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| & Sacc.        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (anamorph)     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Leveillula    | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Farr *et al*., |
| taurica*       |         | , |      |         |      | 2005           |
| (Lév.) G.      |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| Arnaud (syn.   |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| *Erysiphe      |         | I |      |         |      |                |
| taurica* Lév.) |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Macrophomina  | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2004;    |
| phaseolina*    |         | / |      |         |      | Farr *et al,*  |
| (Tassi)        |         | F |      |         |      | 2005;          |
| Goidanich      |         | , |      |         |      | Wellmann,      |
|                |         | I |      |         |      | 1977;          |
| =*Sclerotium   |         | , |      |         |      | Valenzuela and |
| bataticola*    |         | L |      |         |      | Smith, 2002    |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| (Coelomycetes) |         | R |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *              | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| Mycosphaerella |         | , |      |         |      | 2005           |
| pinodes*       |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| (Berk. &       |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| Bloxam)        |         | R |      |         |      |                |
| Vestergr.      |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| (teleomorph)   |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
| *Ascochyta     |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| pinodes* L.K.  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Jones          |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (anamorph)     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Penicillium   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Farr *et al*., |
| citrinum* Thom |         |   |      |         |      | 2005           |
| (syn.          |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *Penicillium   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| steckii )*     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Zaleski        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Penicillium   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Farr *et al*., |
| glabrum        |         |   |      |         |      | 2005           |
| (Wehmer)       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Westling*      |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Periconia     | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| byssoides*     |         | , |      |         |      | 2005           |
| Pers.          |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Peronospora   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Farr *et al*., |
| trifoliorum*   |         | , |      |         |      | 2005           |
| de Bary        |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | I |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *P             | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| haeoisariopsis |         | , |      |         |      | Farr *et al,*  |
| griseola*      |         | S |      |         |      | 2005           |
| (Sacc.)        |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| Ferraris       |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Phakopsora    | HI, US  | L |      | Y       | N[   | APHIS, 2004;   |
| pachyrhizi*    |         | , |      |         | ^16] | CABI, 2003;    |
| Syd. & P. Syd. |         | S |      |         |      | USDA APHIS     |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | PPQ, 2005;     |
|                |         | P |      |         |      | Farr *et al*., |
|                |         | / |      |         |      | 2005           |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Phoma exigua  | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| var. exigua*   |         | , |      |         |      | 2005           |
| Desm           |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Phyllosticta  | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Farr, *et al,* |
| phaseolina*    |         |   |      |         |      | 1995; Farr *et |
| Sacc.          |         |   |      |         |      | al,* 2005      |
| (De            |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| uteromycotina: |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Coelomycetes)  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Phytophthora  | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| cactorum*      |         | / |      |         |      | 2005           |
| (Lebert &      |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| Cohn) J.       |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| Schröt.        |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | L |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Phytophthora  | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| cryptogea*     |         | / |      |         |      | 2005           |
| Pethybr. &     |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| Laff.          |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | L |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | I |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Phytophthora  | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| drechsleri*    |         | / |      |         |      | 2005           |
| Tucker         |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Phytophthora  | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| nicotianae*    |         | / |      |         |      | 2005           |
| Breda de Haan  |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| (syn.          |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| *Phytophthora  |         | L |      |         |      |                |
| parasitica     |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| var.           |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| nicotianae*    |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| (Breda de      |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| Haan;          |         | d |      |         |      |                |
| *Phytophthora  |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| parasitica*    |         | R |      |         |      |                |
| Tucker)        |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Pythium       | HI, US  | R |      | N       | N    | Allen, *et     |
| aphani-        |         | , |      |         |      | al.*, 1998;    |
| dermatum*      |         | S |      |         |      | CABI, 2003;    |
| (Edson) Fitzp. |         |   |      |         |      | CMI, 1964b;    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | CMI, 1978b;    |
| (Oomycetes:    |         |   |      |         |      | Thurston, 1998 |
| P              |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| eronosporales) |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Pythium       | HI, US  | R |      | N       | N    | Farr, *et al,* |
| debaryanum*    |         | , |      |         |      | 1995; Farr *et |
| Auct. Non R.   |         | S |      |         |      | al,* 2005      |
| Hesse          |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Oomycetes)    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Pythium       | HI, US  | R |      | N       | N    | Farr, *et al,* |
| hydnosporum*   |         | , |      |         |      | 1995           |
| (Mont.) J.     |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| Schrot         |         |   |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Oomycetes)    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Pythium       | HI, US  | R |      | N       | N    | Farr, *et al,* |
| splendens* H.  |         | , |      |         |      | 1995; Farr *et |
| Braun          |         | S |      |         |      | al,* 2005      |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Oomycetes)    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Pythium       | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al.*, |
| ultimum* Trow  |         | / |      |         |      | 2005           |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | L |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Pythium       | HI, US  | R |      | N       | N    | Farr *et al.*, |
| vexans* de     |         |   |      |         |      | 2005           |
| Bary           |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Rhizoctonia   | HI, US  | R |      | N       | N    | Farr, *et al,* |
| solani*        |         | , |      |         |      | 1995; Farr *et |
| Kuhn*.*        |         | S |      |         |      | al,* 2005      |
| (De            |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| uteromycotina: |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Coelomycetes)  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Rhizopus      | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| stolonifer*    |         | / |      |         |      | 2005           |
| (Ehrenb.:Fr.)  |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| Vuill.(syn.    |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| *Rhizopus      |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| nigricans*     |         | d |      |         |      |                |
| Ehrenb.)       |         | , |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Sclerotium    | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Farr *et al*., |
| rolfsi*^4^     |         |   |      |         |      | 2005           |
| (anamorph)     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *Athelia       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| rolfsii*       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Curzi) Tu &   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Kimbr. (syn.   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *Corticium     |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| rolfsii* Curzi |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| ) (teleomorph) |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Stemphylium   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Farr *et al*., |
| solani* Weber  |         |   |      |         |      | 2005           |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Trichothecium | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | Farr *et al*., |
| roseum* Link   |         | / |      |         |      | 2005           |
| (syn.          |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| *              |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Cephalothecium |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| roseum*)       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Thanatephorus | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | Allen, *et     |
| cucumeris* (A. |         | , |      |         |      | al.*, 1998;    |
| B. Frank) Donk |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      | CABI, 2003;    |
| \[             |         | R |      |         |      | Thurston,      |
| =*Pellicularia |         | , |      |         |      | 1998;          |
| filamentosa*   |         | I |      |         |      |                |
| (Pat.) D. P.   |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| Rogers;        |         | P |      |         |      |                |
| anamorph       |         | / |      |         |      |                |
| *Rhizoctonia   |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| solani* Kuhn\] |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| (B             |         | d |      |         |      |                |
| asidiomycetes: |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| Tulasnellales) |         | G |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Uromyces      | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | Allen, *et     |
| a              |         | , |      |         |      | al.*, 1998;    |
| ppendiculatus* |         | S |      |         |      | ARS, 1960;     |
| (Pers.:Pers)   |         | , |      |         |      | CABI, 2003;    |
| Unger          |         | P |      |         |      | CMI, 1965;     |
| (B             |         | / |      |         |      | Farr, *et al,* |
| asidiomycetes: |         | F |      |         |      | 1995;          |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Thurston,      |
| Uredinales)    |         |   |      |         |      | 1998;          |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Uromyces      | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | Farr, *et al,* |
| vignae*        |         | , |      |         |      | 1995           |
| Barclay        |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| (Ba            |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| sidiomycotina: |         | P |      |         |      |                |
| Uredinales)    |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Uromyces      | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | Farr *et al.*, |
| phaseoli*      |         | , |      |         |      | 2005; On Vigna |
| (Pers.) G.     |         | P |      |         |      | catjang        |
| Winter         |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Verticillium  | HI, US  | P |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2005;    |
| albo-atrum*    |         | / |      |         |      | Farr *et al.*, |
| Reinke &       |         | F |      |         |      | 2005           |
| Berthier       |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | L |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | d |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **BACTERIA**   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Pseudomonas   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | ARS, 1960;     |
| savastanoi*    |         | , |      |         |      | CABI, 2003;    |
| pv.            |         | S |      |         |      | CMI, 1973;     |
| *phaseolicola* |         | , |      |         |      | Hall 1991;     |
|                |         | G |      |         |      | Wellmann,      |
| (Burkholder)   |         | , |      |         |      | 1977;          |
| Gardan, *et    |         | P |      |         |      |                |
| al.*           |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
| *              |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| \[=Pseudomonas |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| phaseolicola*  |         | d |      |         |      |                |
| (Burkholder)   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Dowson*,       |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Pseudomonas    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| syringae* pv.  |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *phaseolicola* |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Burkholder)   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Young *et      |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| al.*\]         |         |   |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Ps            |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| eudomonadales: |         |   |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Ps             |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| eudomondaceae) |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Xanthomonas   | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| axonopodis*    |         | , |      |         |      | CMI, 1971c;    |
| pv. *phaseoli* |         | P |      |         |      | Hall, 1991     |
| (Smith)        |         | / |      |         |      |                |
| Vauterin       |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| \[*=X.         |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| campestris*    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| pv. *phaseoli* |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Smith) Dye,   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *X.*           |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| *phaseoli* (ex |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Smith)         |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Gabriel\]      |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| (Xa            |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| nthomonadales: |         |   |      |         |      |                |
|                |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| Xan            |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| thomonadaceae) |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| **VIRUSES**    |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Abutilon      | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | CABI, 2003;    |
| mosaic virus*  |         |   |      |         |      | Lundsgaard,    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | 2005           |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Beet curly    | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003     |
| top virus*     |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
| (              |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| Geminiviridae: |         | R |      |         |      |                |
| Curtovirus)    |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | G |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | I |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Cucumber      | HI, US, | L |      | N       | Y    | Allen, *et     |
| mosaic virus*  |         | , |      |         |      | al.*, 1998;    |
|                |         | P |      |         |      | Brunt, *et     |
| (Bromoviridae: |         | / |      |         |      | al.*, 1997;    |
| Cucmovirus)    |         | F |      |         |      | CABI, 2003;    |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Gillaspie,     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Jr., 1998;     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | PVO, 2004;     |
|                |         |   |      |         |      | Wellmann, 1977 |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Peanut mottle | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | Brunt, *et     |
| virus*         |         | , |      |         |      | al.*,1997;     |
| (Potyviridae:  |         | S |      |         |      | CABI, 2003;    |
| Potyvirus )    |         | , |      |         |      | Hall, 1991     |
|                |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Tomato        | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | CABI, 2003;    |
| spotted wilt   |         | , |      |         |      | Wellmann,      |
| virus*         |         | P |      |         |      | 1977;          |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | S |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | R |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Alfalfa       | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | PVO, 2004      |
| mosaic virus*  |         | , |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | P |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | / |      |         |      |                |
|                |         | F |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Melon         | HI, US  | L |      | N       | Y    | PVO, 2004      |
| necrotic spot  |         | , |      |         |      |                |
| carmovirus*    |         | S |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+
| *Ribgrass      | HI, US  | L |      | N       | N    | PVO 2004       |
| mosaic         |         |   |      |         |      |                |
| tobamovirus*   |         |   |      |         |      |                |
+----------------+---------+---+------+---------+------+----------------+

[Quarantine Pests Not Selected for Further Analysis]{.underline}

Quarantine pests that would reasonably be expected to follow the
pathway, *i.e.*, be included in commercial shipments of cowpeas (*Vigna
unguiculata*), were analyzed in detail (Step 5-7) (USDA APHIS, 2000).
Other actionable plant pests not chosen for further scrutiny may be
potentially detrimental to the U.S. agricultural production systems;
however, there were a variety of reasons for not subjecting them to
further analysis. For example, they may have been associated mainly with
plant parts other than the commodity; they may have been associated with
the commodity, but it was not considered reasonable to expect these
pests to remain with the commodity during processing; or they have been
intercepted as biological contaminants of these commodities during
inspection by Plant Protection and Quarantine Officers, but would not be
expected to be present with every shipment.

**[Quarantine Pests Selected for Further Analysis]{.underline}**

The following quarantine pests from Hawaii listed below were selected
for further analysis:

*Aleurodicus dispersus* (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

*Bactrocera cucurbitae* (Diptera: Tephritidae)

*Cryptophlebia ombrodelta* (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

*Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* (Homoptera: Psudococcidae)

*Frankliniella schultzei* (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

*Lampides boeticus* (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

*Maruca vitrata* (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

*Maconellicoccus hirsutus* (Homoptera: Psudococcidae)

*Oligonychus biharensis* (Acari: Tetranychidae)

*Spodoptera litura* (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

*Thrips palmi* (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

## 2.5 Consequences of Introduction: Economic/Environmental Importance

Potential Consequences of Introduction are rated using five Risk
Elements: Climate-Host Interaction, Host Range, Dispersal Potential,
Economic Impact, and Environmental Impact. These elements reflect the
biology, host ranges, and climatic/geographic distributions of the
pests. For each Risk Element, pests are assigned a rating of Low (1
point), Medium (2 points) or High (3 points) (USDA, 2000). (The criteria
used to determine each rating is included in Appendix A.) A Cumulative
Risk Rating is then calculated by summing all Risk Element values.

The values determined for the Consequences of Introduction for each
quarantine pest related to Hawaiian cowpeas are summarized in Table 5.

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Aleurodicus dispersus*  | *     |
| Russell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)**                           | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > *Aleurodicus dispersus* is native to tropical and          |       |
| > subtropical Central and South America, Caribbean, Africa,  | \(2\) |
| > Asia, and Oceania (Akinlosotu *et al*., 1993). Its         |       |
| > distribution corresponds to U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones     |       |
| > 8-11 (USDA ARS, 1990). One or more of its potential hosts  |       |
| > occurs in these Zones (USDA NRCS 2002).                    |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > Spiralling whitefly, *A. dispersus*, is a highly           | \(3\) |
| > polyphagous species. Primary host species include          |       |
| > **Arecaceae** (*Cocos nucifera*), **Rutaceae** (*Citrus*   |       |
| > spp.), **Papilionoideae** (*Glycine max*),                 |       |
| > **Euphorbiaceae** (*Manihot esculenta*), **Musaceae**      |       |
| > (*Musa x paradisiacal*), **Lauraceae** (*Persea            |       |
| > Americana*), **Rosaceae** (*Prunus* spp.), and             |       |
| > **Myrtaceae** (*Psidium guajava*) (CABI, 2003). Other host |       |
| > species include **Moraceae** (*Artocarpus* spp., *Ficus*   |       |
| > spp., *Morus* spp.), **Fabaceae** (*Acacia* spp., *Arachis |       |
| > hypogaea*, *Pongamia pinnata*, *Bauhinia* spp., *Cassia*   |       |
| > spp., *Phaseolus* spp., *Vigna* spp.), **Nyctaginaceae**   |       |
| > (*Bougainvillea* spp.), **Asteraceae** (*Chrysanthemum*    |       |
| > spp., *Dahlia pinnata*, *Lactuca sativa*), **Lauraceae**   |       |
| > (*Cinnamomum camphora*), **Cucurbitaceae** (*Cucumis       |       |
| > melo*, *Luffa aegyptiaca*, *Cucumis* spp.), **Lamiaceae**  |       |
| > (*Coleus* spp., *Salvia* spp.), **Euphorbiaceae**          |       |
| > (*Euphorbia pulcherrima*, *Acalypha* spp., *Euphorbia*     |       |
| > spp., *Ricinus communis*), **Myrtaceae** (*Eugenia* spp.), |       |
| > **Araliaceae** (*Hedera* spp.), **Oleaceae** (*Jasminum*   |       |
| > spp., *Osmanthus fragrans*), **Convolvulaceae** (*Ipomoea  |       |
| > batatas*, *Ipomoea* spp.), **Araceae** (*Monstera          |       |
| > deliciosa*, *Colocasia esculenta*), **Ericaceae**          |       |
| > (*Rhododendron* spp.), **Brassicaceae** (*Rorippa          |       |
| > indica*), **Anacardiaceae** (*Schinus terebinthifolius*,   |       |
| > *Mangifera indica*), **Solanaceae** (*Solanum melongena*,  |       |
| > *Cestrum* spp., *Capsicum* spp., *Lycopersicon             |       |
| > esculentum*, *Physalis* spp., *Solanum* spp.), **Poaceae** |       |
| > (*Sorghum bicolor*), **Strelitziaceae** (*Strelitzia*      |       |
| > spp.), Zingiberaceae (*Zingiber zerumbet*), **Agavaceae**  |       |
| > (*Agave americana*), **Amaranthaceae** (*Amaranthus*       |       |
| > spp.), **Annonaceae** (*Annona squamosa*), **Arecaceae**   |       |
| > (*Areca catechu*, *Chrysalidocarpus lutescens*),           |       |
| > **Begoniaceae** (*Begonia* spp.), **Ulmaceae** (*Celtis*   |       |
| > spp.), **Caricaceae** (*Carica papaya*), **Cannaceae**     |       |
| > (*Cannas* pp.), **Rubiaceae** (*Coffea* spp.),             |       |
| > **Malvaceae** (*Hibiscus* spp.), **Proteaceae**            |       |
| > (*Macadamia* spp.), **Sapotaceae** (*Manilkara zapota*),   |       |
| > **Musaceae** (*Musa* spp.), **Apocynaceae** (*Plumeria*    |       |
| > spp.), **Rosaceae** (*Rosa* spp., *Rubus* spp.), and       |       |
| > **Combretaceae** (*Terminalia catappa*) (CABI, 2003;       |       |
| > Martin Kessing & Mau, 1993; EPPO, 2004).                   |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > Females begin to lay eggs within a day of emergence; she   |       |
| > will continue to lay eggs throughout her lifetime (Martin  | \(2\) |
| > Kessing & Mau, 1993a). Each female lays about 14-26 eggs   |       |
| > in a loose spiral on the underside of leaves (CABI, 2003). |       |
| > Eggs hatch in 7-11 days (Martin Kessing & Mau, 1993a;      |       |
| > CABI, 2003). There are four larval stages (Martin Kessing  |       |
| > & Mau, 1993a): the first instar lasts for 6-7 days; the    |       |
| > second instar, 4 days; the third instar, 5-13 days; and    |       |
| > the fourth (pupae), 5-16 days (CABI, 2003; Martin Kessing  |       |
| > & Mau, 1993a). Adults live for about two weeks (CABI,      |       |
| > 2003).                                                     |       |
| >                                                            |       |
| > During the immature stages, the first instar is capable of |       |
| > active movement (Martin Kessing & Mau, 1993a). Adults      |       |
| > disperse beyond the leaf by flying; it is most active      |       |
| > during the morning hours (Martin Kessing & Mau, 1993a).    |       |
| > Long distance accomplished via the dissemination of        |       |
| > infested plants and fruits (EPPO, 2004).                   |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Aleurodicus dispersus* is a serious pest of tropical and  | \(3\) |
| > subtropical crops (EPPO, 2004). The whitefly has high      |       |
| > potential to have major economic impact due to polyphagous |       |
| > species. Economic damages that *A. dispersus* causes: (1)  |       |
| > direct feeding damages on leaves, (2) indirect damages to  |       |
| > excreted honeydew that encourages the development of sooty |       |
| > moulds and (3) a vector of plant diseases (CABI, 2003;     |       |
| > Martin Kessing & Mau, 1993). Whiteflies cause over 40      |       |
| > plant diseases of vegetable and crops worldwide (Martin    |       |
| > Kessing & Mau, 1993). *Aleurodicus dispersus* is a vector  |       |
| > of the lethal yellowing virus of coconut palms in Florida  |       |
| > (Akinolosotu *et al.*, 1993). *Aleurodicus dispersus* can  |       |
| > damage 20 to 100% of crops depending on the crop, season,  |       |
| > and prevalence (Martin Kessing & Mau, 1993). In Florida,   |       |
| > *A. dispersus* has been reported on avocados, citrus,      |       |
| > guavas and palms (CABI, 2003). Should *S. disperses*       |       |
| > become established in the continental United states, it    |       |
| > would likely result in the loss of foreign or domestic     |       |
| > quarantine markets, due to the presence of a new           |       |
| > quarantine pest.                                           |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Aleurodicus dispersus* has a potential to damage          | \(3\) |
| > Threatened and Endangered species, such as *Manihot        |       |
| > walkerae* (Endangered species in TX), *Prunus geniculata*  |       |
| > (Endangered species in FL), *Euphorbia telephioides*       |       |
| > (Threatened species in FL), *Eugenia haematocarpa*         |       |
| > (Endangered species in PR), *Eugenia woodburyana*          |       |
| > (Endangered species in PR), *Rhododendron chapmanii*       |       |
| > (Endangered species in FL), *Rorippa gambellii*            |       |
| > (Endangered species in CA), *Solanum drymophilum*          |       |
| > (Endangered species in PR), *Agave arizonica* (Endangered  |       |
| > species in AZ), and *Amaranthus pumilus* (Threatened       |       |
| > species in DE, MA, MD, NC, NJ, NY, RI, SC, VA) (USFWS,     |       |
| > 2002).                                                     |       |
| >                                                            |       |
| > The establishment and introduction of *A. dispersus* in    |       |
| > the continental United States would stimulate chemical or  |       |
| > biological control programs. Successful biological         |       |
| > controls have been established in Hawaii (CABI, 2003;      |       |
| > Martin Kessing & Mau, 1993).                               |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction Risk Rating**                 | *     |
|                                                              | *High |
|                                                              | (     |
|                                                              | 13)** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Bactrocera cucurbitae*   | *     |
| Coquillett (Diptera: Tephritidae)**                           | *Risk |
|                                                               | Va    |
|                                                               | lue** |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**              | M     |
|                                                               | edium |
| > *Bactrocera cucurbitae* is native to Asia and distributed   |       |
| > throughout much of subtropical and tropical Asia. It is     | \(2\) |
| > also reported as present in eastern and western Africa, and |       |
| > the Pacific Islands. (CABI 2002). Its distribution          |       |
| > corresponds to U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11 (USDA ARS,   |       |
| > 1990). One or more of its potential hosts occurs in these   |       |
| > Zones (USDA NRCS 2002).                                     |       |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                               | High  |
|                                                               |       |
| > *Bactrocera cucurbitae* is a serious pest of cucurbit crops | \(3\) |
| > (CABI, 2003). The primary host is **Cucurbitaceae**         |       |
| > (*Cucumis melo*, *Cucurbita maxima*, *Cucurbita pepo*,      |       |
| > *Trichosanthes cucumerina var. anguinea*) (CABI, 2003).     |       |
| > Other host species include **Cucurbitaceae** (*Cucumis      |       |
| > sativus*, *Benincasa hispida*, *Citrullus colocynthis*,     |       |
| > *Citrullus lanatus*, *Cucumis auguria*, *Cucurbita          |       |
| > moschata*, *Lagenaria siceraria*, *Luffa acutangula*,       |       |
| > *Luffa aegyptiaca*, *Momordica balsamina*, *Momordica       |       |
| > charantia*, *Sechium edule*, *Trichosanthes cucumerina*),   |       |
| > **Moraceae** (*Artocarpus heterophyllus*, *Ficus carica*),  |       |
| > **Malvaceae** (*Abelmoschus moschatus*), **Caricaceae**     |       |
| > (*Carica papaya*), **Rutaceae** (*Citrus maxima*, *Citrus   |       |
| > sinensis*), **Rosaceae** (*Cydonia oblonga*, *Prunus        |       |
| > persica*), Solanaceae (*Cyphomandra betacea*, *Lycopersicon |       |
| > esculentum*), **Anacardiaceae** (*Mangifera indica*),       |       |
| > **Sapotaceae** (*Manilkara zapota*), **Passifloraceae**     |       |
| > (*Passiflora* spp., *Passiflora edulis*), **Lauraceae**     |       |
| > (*Persea americana*), **Fabaceae** (*Phaseolus vulgaris*,   |       |
| > *Sesbania grandiflora*, *Vigna unguiculata*), **Myrtaceae** |       |
| > (*Psidium guajava*, *Syzygium samarangense*), and           |       |
| > **Rhamnaceae** (*Ziziphus jujube*) (CABI, 2003).            |       |
| >                                                             |       |
| > Wild hosts of *B. cucurbitae* include the wild species of   |       |
| > Cucurbitaceae, and rarely, fruits of other families:        |       |
| > **Cucurbitaceae**: *Cucumis trigonus* (White and            |       |
| > Elson-Harris, 1994), *Diplocyclos palmatus*, *Gymnopetalum  |       |
| > integrifolium*, *Melothria wallichii,* *Mukia               |       |
| > maderaspatana* (CABI, 2004), *Trichosanthes ovigera, T.     |       |
| > tricuspidata, T. wallichiana* and *T. wawraei* (Allwood *et |       |
| > al.*, 1998; CABI, 2004); **Agavaceae**: *Dracaena curtissi* |       |
| > (Allwood *et al.*, 2000); *Capparidaceae: Capparis          |       |
| > sepiaria, C. thorellii* and *Maerua siamensis* (Allwood *et |       |
| > al.*, 2000); **Moraceae**: *Ficus chartacea* (Allwood *et   |       |
| > al.*, 2000); **Rutaceae***: Citrus hystrix* (Allwood *et    |       |
| > al.*, 2000); **Solanaceae**: *Solanum trilobatum* (Allwood  |       |
| > *et al.*, 2000); and **Vitaceae**: *Tetrastigma             |       |
| > lanceolarium* (Allwood *et al.*, 2000).                     |       |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                      | High  |
|                                                               |       |
| > Females lay up to 40 eggs below the fruit skin or in the    | \(3\) |
| > vegetative parts of plants. Females may produce 800-1000    |       |
| > eggs over their life span (Capinera, 2001; CABI, 2003;      |       |
| > Weems, 1964). Reproduction is continuous as adults occur    |       |
| > throughout the year. Under warm conditions, the development |       |
| > from egg to adult requires 12-28 days (Weems, 1964). Eggs   |       |
| > hatch within 1-2 days, and larval stages last for 4-17      |       |
| > days, depending on the thickness of fruit skin (CABI,       |       |
| > 2003). Pupation takes place in the soil under the host      |       |
| > plants for 7-13 days (CABI, 2003). Adults start to mate     |       |
| > after 10-12 days; they may live 5-15 months (CABI, 2003).   |       |
| > This fruit fly may naturally disperse by flight (Fletcher,  |       |
| > 1989); many Bactrocera species can fly 50-100 km.           |       |
| > Additionally, *B. cucurbitae* can be dispersed by infected  |       |
| > plant materials, such as fruits and flowers (CABI, 2003).   |       |
| > In commodities originating from Hawaii, it has been         |       |
| > intercepted at ports-of-entry over 150 times (USDA APHIS    |       |
| > PPQ, 2005).                                                 |       |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                          | High  |
|                                                               |       |
| > *Bactrocera cucurbitae* has been considered the most        | \(3\) |
| > destructive pest of cucurbits in the Indo-Malayan region    |       |
| > (USDA 1983; Weems 1964); it has greatly reduced the         |       |
| > production of melons, cucumbers, tomatoes, and similar      |       |
| > vegetables in Hawaii (Capinera, 2001; Weems 1964). Around   |       |
| > 1915, *B. cucurbitae* caused a loss of nearly \$1 million   |       |
| > in Hawaii, during which more than 95% of the pumpkin crop   |       |
| > was destroyed. Damage levels have been reported to be       |       |
| > anything up to 100% of unprotected fruit (CABI 2003).       |       |
| >                                                             |       |
| > The establishment and introduction of *B. cucurbitae* in    |       |
| > the continental United States would stimulate chemical or   |       |
| > biological control programs. Additionally, EPPO (2004)      |       |
| > records this as an A1 pest; thus, its establishment in the  |       |
| > United States may lead to loss of export markets.           |       |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                     | High  |
|                                                               |       |
| > *Bactrocera cucurbitae* has a high potential to damage      | \(3\) |
| > Threatened and Endangered species listed in Title 50, Part  |       |
| > 17, Section 12 of the United States Code of Federal         |       |
| > Regulations (50 CFR §17.12). Threatened and Endangered      |       |
| > species, such as *Cucurbita okeechobeensis* spp.            |       |
| > *okeechobeensis* (Endangered species in FL), *Prunus        |       |
| > geniculata* (Endangered species in FL), and *Ziziphus       |       |
| > celaata* (Endangered species in FL), are likely to be       |       |
| > damaged by *B. cucurbitae* (USFWS, 2002). Since this fruit  |       |
| > fly represents an important economic threat, the            |       |
| > establishment and introduction of *B. cucurbitae* would     |       |
| > probably trigger the initiation of biological and chemical  |       |
| > controls to eradicate the fruit fly, similar to what has    |       |
| > been done for other tephritid fruit fly introductions in    |       |
| > the continental United States.                              |       |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction Risk Rating**                  | *     |
|                                                               | *High |
|                                                               | (     |
|                                                               | 14)** |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Cryptophlebia ombrodelta*   | *     |
| (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)**                                 | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Cryptophlebia ombrodelta* has been reported in Bangladesh,  |       |
| Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, Indai, Indonesia, Japan, Laos,   | \(2\) |
| Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam,           |       |
| Australia, Mariana Islands, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea,       |       |
| Solomon Islands, and Hawaii (Zhang, 1994). Its current       |       |
| distribution corresponds to U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11  |       |
| (USDA ARS, 1990). One or more of its potential hosts occurs  |       |
| in these Zones (USDA NRCS 2002).                             |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| Primary hosts include **Bombacacea** (*Durio zibethinus*);   | \(3\) |
| **Fabaceae** (*Acacia* spp.*, Adenanthera pavonina,          |       |
| Archidentron pauciflorum, Bauhinia purpuea, B. variegate,    |       |
| Caeslpinia decapetala, C. pulcherrima, Cassia* spp., *C.     |       |
| fistula, C. occidntalis, Parkia* spp., *Parkinsonia          |       |
| aculeate, Phaseolus* spp., *Senna occidentalis, Sesbania*    |       |
| spp., *Tamarindus indica*; *Vigna* spp.); **Palmae** (*Cocos |       |
| nucifera*); **Polygonaceae** (*Coccoloba uvifera*);          |       |
| **Proteaceae** (*Macadamia* spp.); **Rhizophoraceae**        |       |
| (*Bruguiera gymnorhiza*); **Rutaceae** (*Aegle marmelos*,    |       |
| *Citrus* spp., *Limonia elephantum*); **Sapindaceae**        |       |
| (*Filicium decipiens, Litchi chinensis*); and **Sapotacea**  |       |
| (*Manikara zapota*) (Zhang, 1994; Robinson *et al,* 2001;    |       |
| CABI, 2004; Ironside, 1974; Chang, 1989)                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| Ironside (1974) reported that in Australia, the life-cycle   | \(3\) |
| (egg to adult) of *Cryptophlebia ombrodelta* (Lower) was     |       |
| completed in five weeks in the summer on macademia nuts. In  |       |
| India, on tamarind pods, the insect completes its            |       |
| development from egg to adult in approximatedly 33.65 days.  |       |
| Females lay an average of 70 eggs with approximately 95.6%   |       |
| of the eggs hatching. In India, there are 3-4 generations    |       |
| per year (Lingappa & Siddappaji, 1981).                      |       |
|                                                              |       |
| Adults are fairly good fliers. Larvae are able to move from  |       |
| fruit to fruit (Lingappa & Siddappaji, 1981). They may also  |       |
| be dispersed by infected plant materials, such as fruits and |       |
| pods.                                                        |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *Cryptophlebia ombrodelta* is one of the most important      | \(3\) |
| pests of macadamia nuts. In Australia, an infestation may    |       |
| cause crop losses of 60% or more due to larvae tunneling     |       |
| into the nuts (Ironside, 1982). In China, the combined       |       |
| damage caused by *C. ombrodelta* and *Eucoenogensus* spp.,   |       |
| another pod borer, reached 89% (Ho, 1985).                   |       |
|                                                              |       |
| The larvae feed on the pulp of the fruit as they pass        |       |
| through it to reach the seed; they feed mainly on the seed,  |       |
| entering through the micropyle and leaving the seed-coat     |       |
| intact. Damaged fruits shrink and become brittle, as they    |       |
| remain on the tree until the following season. Around 37.6%  |       |
| of fruits were affected by the pest in the Bangalore area    |       |
| (Lingappa & Siddappaji, 1981).                               |       |
|                                                              |       |
| Because it is a citrus pest, and can thrive in citrus        |       |
| producing areas, the introduction of this pest into the      |       |
| United States would likely stimulate chemical or biological  |       |
| control programs and/or eradication programs; its            |       |
| establishment could lead to the loss of export markets.      |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| Introductions of *L. boeticus* would likely result in the    |       |
| initiation of chemical or biological control programs. Based | \(2\) |
| on its known host distribution, it is not likely to infest   |       |
| plants listed as Threatened or Endangered, except *Vigna     |       |
| o-wahuensis*, which is only reported in Hawaii (USDA NRCS    |       |
| 2002), where it is already present.                          |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction Risk Rating**                 | *     |
|                                                              | *High |
|                                                              | (     |
|                                                              | 13)** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes*    | *     |
| Beardsley (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)**                      | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* occurs throughout Central America, |       |
| northern South America, the Caribbean, Indo-China, the       | \(2\) |
| Philippines, and Oceania (Miller & Miller, 2002; Scale Net,  |       |
| 2004; CABI, 2004). Outside of the greenhouse (or other       |       |
| artificial situations), this species is able to survive in   |       |
| the warmer, southern parts of the United States (Plant       |       |
| Hardiness Zones 9-11) (USDA ARS, 1990). One or more of its   |       |
| potential hosts occurs in these Zones (USDA NRCS 2002).      |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* is highly polyphagous. Hosts       | \(3\) |
| include **Bromeliaceae** (*Ananas comosus*), **Rosaceae**    |       |
| (*Malus domestica*) (CABI, 2003), **Araceae** (*Colocasia    |       |
| esculenta,* *Pritchardia* sp.), **Moraceae** (*Ficus* sp.),  |       |
| **Musaceae** (*Musa* *paradisiaca*), **Cactaceae** (*Opuntia |       |
| ficus-indica*), **Fabaceae** (*Acacia* *koa* , *Samanea      |       |
| saman* ), **Asteraceae** (*Helianthus annuus*) (Nakahara,    |       |
| 1982); **Agavaceae** (*Agave sisalana*), **Cucurbitaceae**   |       |
| (*Cucurbita maxima*), **Poaceae** (*Zea* *mays*),            |       |
| **Heliconiaceae** (*Heliconia latispatha*), **Rutaceae**     |       |
| (*Citrus* spp.), and **Solanaceae** (*Lycopersicon           |       |
| esculentum*) (USDA APHIS PPQ, 2005).                         |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| Ito (1938) reported females of the "gray form" of *D*.       | \(3\) |
| *brevipes* (considered by Beardsley \[1959\] to be *D*.      |       |
| *neobrevipes*) to produce an average of 347 progeny. The     |       |
| female life span averages about 95 days, with several        |       |
| generations per year indicated. As in all Coccoidea (Gullan  |       |
| & Kosztarab, 1997), the main dispersal stage of mealybugs is |       |
| the first-instar crawler, which may be transported locally   |       |
| by wind or other animals. Dispersal over longer distances is |       |
| accomplished through the movement of infested plant          |       |
| materials in commerce (CABI, 2004).                          |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* attacks a number of valuable       |       |
| commercial crops, and is a particularly serious pest of      | \(2\) |
| pineapple, *Ananas comosus* (Rohrbach *et al*., 1988). Like  |       |
| *D*. *brevipes*, it is a vector of the virus causing         |       |
| pineapple wilt disease. Feeding by large mealybug            |       |
| populations may cause a loss of host plant vigor. Honeydew   |       |
| deposited on leaves and fruit (by mealybugs) serve as a      |       |
| medium for the growth of black sooty molds, which interfere  |       |
| with photosynthesis and reduce the market value of the crop. |       |
| Insecticides are often applied to control mealybugs (or the  |       |
| attending ants) that aid in their spread of their biological |       |
| control (Jahn *et al*., 2003). *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* is  |       |
| a quarantine pest for Korea and New Zealand.                 |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| Further introductions of *D*. *neobrevipes* would likely     | \(3\) |
| result in the initiation of chemical or biological control   |       |
| programs, as has occurred in Hawaii and Puerto Rico          |       |
| (Bartlett, 1978). The species is polyphagous, and has the    |       |
| potential to infest plants listed as Threatened or           |       |
| Endangered (*e.g.*, *Opuntia treleasei* (CA), *Helianthus    |       |
| paradoxus* (NM, TX) (USFWS, 2002).                           |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction Risk Rating**                 | *     |
|                                                              | *High |
|                                                              | (     |
|                                                              | 13)** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Frankliniella schultzei*    | *     |
| (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)**                                  | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *Frankliniella schultzei* has a wide geographical            | \(3\) |
| distribution. It is found in both tropical and temperate     |       |
| climate zones, including Europe (Great Britain, Italy, and   |       |
| The Netherlands), Asia, Africa, Central America, the         |       |
| Caribbean, South America, Oceania, and Hawaii (CABI, 2004;   |       |
| Lewis, 1997; Kormelink, 2004). In North America, it is only  |       |
| found in Florida, where it is considered an actionable pest  |       |
| (Courneya, 2003; USDA APHIS PPQ, 2005). *Frankliniella       |       |
| schultzei* cannot over-winter in extremely cold climates;    |       |
| however, regions with cold winters can become reinfested     |       |
| with *F. schultzei* from greenhouse populations. Its         |       |
| distribution corresponds to U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 5b-11 |       |
| (USDA ARS, 1990). One or more of its potential hosts occurs  |       |
| in these Zones (USDA NRCS 2002).                             |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| Major hosts of this species: **Bromeliaceae** (*Ananas       | \(3\) |
| comosus*), **Fabaceae** (*Arachis hypogaea, Cajanus cajan,   |       |
| Glycine max, Lens culinaris* ssp*. Culinaris, Vigna mungo ,  |       |
| Vigna unguiculata*) **Malvaceae** (*Gossypium* sp),          |       |
| **Liliaceae** (*Hyacinthus* sp.)*,* **Asteraceae** (*Lactuca |       |
| sativa*), and **Solanaceae** (*Lycopersicon esculentum,      |       |
| Nicotiana tabacum*). Minor hosts include **Cactaceae** and   |       |
| **Gesneriaceae** (*Saintpaulia ionantha*) (CABI, 2004).      |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *Frankliniella schultzei* inserts eggs into the tissue of    | \(3\) |
| green plants that hatch in 6-8 days. On cotton, females      |       |
| oviposit approximately 25 eggs during their adult life.      |       |
| Typical developmental times on cotton (28°C day/21°C night)  |       |
| for first-instar larvae, second-instar larvae, pre-pupa and  |       |
| pupa are 6-8, 6-8, 2-4 and 2-4 days, respectively (CABI,     |       |
| 2004). Like most thrips, *F. schultzei* is a weak flyer;     |       |
| however, its fringed wings enable it to remain airborne long |       |
| enough to travel between neighboring fields, and frequently, |       |
| large distances.                                             |       |
|                                                              |       |
| This species can be transported in commercial commodities,   |       |
| including fresh fruits and vegetables, cut flowers and       |       |
| plants for planting (Lewis, 1997).                           |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Frankliniella schultzei* can cause both direct and indirect |       |
| damage to host plants. Direct damage is caused by suction    | \(2\) |
| injury and by eggs being laid in leaves. Pale spots and      |       |
| stripes on flowers of many different plants can be the       |       |
| result of suction activity of the thrips. On fruits and      |       |
| pods, *F. schultzei* may cause lesions, abnormal shape, and  |       |
| premature drop (CABI, 2004).                                 |       |
|                                                              |       |
| *Frankliniella schultzei* is a major pest of cotton in       |       |
| Argentina and Paraguay; large numbers of emerging plants can |       |
| be destroyed by this species. Feeding on young cotton plants |       |
| causes symptoms of deformation (CABI, 2004). In cotton, *F.  |       |
| schultzei* causes deformation and destruction of young       |       |
| plants and seedlings. In southern Iran, it has been reported |       |
| to injure cotton flowers and cause withered spots or wounds  |       |
| in the boll pericarp. In the Netherlands, *F. schultzei* is  |       |
| a noxious pest of hyacinth bulbs during propagation (CABI,   |       |
| 2004). Studies carried out in the fields of *Phaseolus       |       |
| vulgaris* in Argentina showed that *F. shultzei* was one of  |       |
| the most damaging thrips species, causing significant losses |       |
| from the emergence to pod formation (Agostini de Manero *et  |       |
| al*, 1990).                                                  |       |
|                                                              |       |
| *Frankliniella schultzei* causes severe indirect damage to   |       |
| plants as a vector of several important plant tospoviruses.  |       |
| These viruses are considered limiting factors in the         |       |
| production of a large number of horticultural crops.         |       |
| *Frankliniella schultzei* is a vector of tomato spotted wilt |       |
| tospovirus (TSWV), tomato chlorotic spot tospovirus (TCSV),  |       |
| groundnut ringspot tospovirus (GRSV), and tobacco streak     |       |
| ilarvirus (TSV) (CABI, 2004; Lewis, 1997; Kormelink, 2004).  |       |
| Expansion and spread into additional areas of the            |       |
| continental United States would stimulate chemical or        |       |
| biological control programs, increasing production costs. As |       |
| it is established in parts of Florida, and under no apparent |       |
| official control, further introductions of the thrips are    |       |
| considered unlikely to result in the loss of foreign         |       |
| markets.                                                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| Further introductions of *F. schulzei* would likely result   |       |
| in the initiation of chemical or biological control          | \(2\) |
| programs. This species is polyphagous. Based on its known    |       |
| host distribution, it is not likely to infest plants listed  |       |
| as Threatened or Endangered , except *Vigna o-wahuensis*,    |       |
| which is only reported to be in Hawaii (USDA NRCS 2002), as  |       |
| it is already present there.                                 |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction Risk Rating**                 | *     |
|                                                              | *High |
|                                                              | (     |
|                                                              | 13)** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Lampides boeticus*          | *     |
| (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)**                                  | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| This pest is widespread throughout western Europe (from UK,  | \(3\) |
| Danmark, France to more southern Portugal, Italy, Greece),   |       |
| Africa, Oceania (including Hawaii) and southern Asia. It is  |       |
| not established in cooler temperate regions, such as central |       |
| and northern Europe. Its distribution corresponds to U.S.    |       |
| Plant Hardiness Zones 7-11 (USDA ARS, 1990). One or more of  |       |
| its potential hosts occurs in these Zones (USDA NRCS 2002).  |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Lampides boeticus* is primarily a pest of beans (Family:    |       |
| **Fabaceae**.) Hosts include *Cajanus cajan*, *Canavalia*    | \(2\) |
| sp*., Cicer arietinum, Crotalaria juncea*, *Glycine max,     |       |
| Lablab purpureus*, *Medicago sativa, Phaseolus* *lunatus*,   |       |
| *Phaseolus* *vulgaris*, *Pisum sativum*, *Pisum sativum*     |       |
| var. *arvense*, *Psophocarpus* spp.*,* *Pueraria             |       |
| phaseoloides*, *Sesbania sesban*, *Vicia faba*, *Vigna       |       |
| mungo*, *Vigna radiata*, and *Vigna unguiculata*.            |       |
|                                                              |       |
| Wild hosts include *Cytisus* spp., *Cytisus scoparius*,      |       |
| *Sesbania tomentosa* , *Sophora chrysophylla*, *Ulex         |       |
| europaeus* (gorse), *Vicia sativa* (common vetch), *Vigna    |       |
| vexillata*, and *Viminaria juncea,* all of which are in the  |       |
| family **Fabaceae** (CABI, 2004).                            |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *Lampides boeticus* is a migrant, capable of long distance   | \(3\) |
| movement, often involving vast numbers of individuals (CABI, |       |
| 2004). It is a multivoltine species with a high reproductive |       |
| potential and more than three generations per year           |       |
| (Takenari, 2003; Kitahara, 2004). This species can be        |       |
| transported in commercial commodities, including fresh       |       |
| fruits and vegetables, cut flowers, and plants for planting; |       |
| it has been intercepted several times at U.S. ports-of-entry |       |
| (USDA, 2005).                                                |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Lampides boeticus* is usually a minor pest that has the     |       |
| potential to be serious. For example, it is one of the most  | \(2\) |
| damaging pests of pigeon pea, *Cajanus cajan,* a legume      |       |
| often grown in tropical areas (CABI, 2004). In Hawaii, it is |       |
| a major pest of garden beans, and can cause considerable     |       |
| damage to local crops if not controlled (Zimmerman, 1958;    |       |
| CABI, 2004).                                                 |       |
|                                                              |       |
| The incidence of *L. boeticus* on peas was studied in        |       |
| Haryana, India in 1981. Damage to pods and locules averaged  |       |
| 8%, which was high enough for the pest to be regarded as     |       |
| serious (CABI, 2004).                                        |       |
|                                                              |       |
| The introduction and establishment of *L. boeticus* in the   |       |
| continental United States would likely stimulate chemical or |       |
| biological control programs, which, in turn, could increase  |       |
| the cost of production.                                      |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| The introduction of *L. boeticus* would result in the        |       |
| initiation of chemical or biological control programs. Based | \(2\) |
| on its known host distribution, it is not likely to infest   |       |
| plants listed as Threatened or Endangered, except *Vigna     |       |
| o-wahuensis*, which is only reported in Hawaii (USDA NRCS    |       |
| 2002), where *L. boeticus* is already present.               |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction Risk Rating**                 | **M   |
|                                                              | edium |
|                                                              | (     |
|                                                              | 12)** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Maconellicoccus hirsutus*   | *     |
| (Green) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)**                        | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Maconellicoccus hirsutus* is native to southern Asia (CABI, |       |
| 2003). It is reported in northern and part of sub-Saharan    | \(2\) |
| Africa, the Middle East, south and southeast Asia, the Far   |       |
| East, Central America, Australia and Oceania (CABI 2003).    |       |
| Currently, this pest has a limited distribution in the       |       |
| United States (Hawaii, California, and Florida) (Hoy *et al* |       |
| 2003, Capinera, 2001). It is estimated that it could         |       |
| potentially establish in the United States in the Plant      |       |
| Hardiness Zones 9-11 (USDA ARS, 1990). One or more of its    |       |
| potential hosts occurs in these zones (USDA NRCS 2002).      |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| This species is extremely polyphagous. It has been recorded  | \(3\) |
| on plants in over 200 genera from 73 families, showing some  |       |
| preference for hosts in the Malvaceae, Fabaceae, and         |       |
| Moraceae (CABI, 2003). Hosts include **Acanthaceae**         |       |
| (*Acanthus ilicifolius*, *Eranthemum pulchellum,             |       |
| Pachystachys lutea, Thumbergia erecta*), **Amaranthaceae**   |       |
| (*Achyranthes indica, Amaranthus* spp., *Celosia cristata*), |       |
| **Amaryllidaceae** (*Calostemma* spp.) **Anacardiaceae**     |       |
| (*Mangifera indica, Schinus* spp., *Spondias* spp.),         |       |
| **Annonaceae** (*Annona* spp., *Canaga odorata*),            |       |
| **Apiaceae** (*Daucus carota*), **Apocynaceae** (*Allamanda* |       |
| spp., *Carissa* spp., *Catharanthus roseus, Ervatamia        |       |
| coronaria, Nerium* spp., *Tabernamontana divaricata, Vinca   |       |
| minor*), **Araceae** (*Aglaonema* spp., *Alocasia cucullata, |       |
| Anthurium andraeanum, Colocasia esculenta, Dieffenbachia*    |       |
| spp., *Philodendron* spp., *Scindapsus aureus, Syngonium     |       |
| podophyllum, Xanthosoma* spp.), **Araliaceae** (*Aralia*     |       |
| spp., *Brassaia actinophylla, Schefflera* spp.,              |       |
| *Sciadophyllum pulchrum*), **Basellaceae** (*Basella alba*), |       |
| **Begoniaceae** (*Begonia* spp.), **Bignoniaceae**           |       |
| (*Bignonia* spp., *Crescentia cujete, Jacaranda mimusifolia, |       |
| Kigelia* spp., *Tabebuia* spp., *Tecoma* spp.),              |       |
| **Bombacaceae** (*Ceiba pentandra*), **Boraginaceae**        |       |
| (*Cordia curssavica*), **Cactaceae** (*Opuntia* spp.,        |       |
| *Pereskia bleo*), **Caricaceae** (*Carica papaya*),          |       |
| **Casuarinaceae** (*Casuarina* spp.), **Chenopodiaceae**     |       |
| (*Beta vulgaris, Chenopodium, album*), **Combretaceae**      |       |
| (*Quisqualis* sp., *Rhoeo* sp., *Terminalia* spp.),          |       |
| **Compositae** (*Bidens pilesa, Chrysanthemum coronarium,    |       |
| Cosmos* spp., *Dahlia* spp., *Emilia* sp., *Gerbera* spp.,   |       |
| *Helicanthus annuus, Lactuca sativa, Mikania cordata,        |       |
| Parthenium hysterophorus, Symedrella nodifloa, Tithonia      |       |
| urticifolia*), **Convolvulaceae** (*Ipomoea* spp.),          |       |
| **Crassulaceae** (*Kalanchoe* sp.), **Cucurbitaceae**        |       |
| (*Cucumis* spp., *Cucurbita* spp.), **Cyperaceae**           |       |
| (*Cyperus* spp.), **Dilleniaceae** (*Tetracera* spp.),       |       |
| **Dioscoraceae** (*Dioscorea* spp.), **Ebenaceae**           |       |
| (*Diospyros kaki*), **Euphorbiaceae** (*Acalypha* spp.,      |       |
| *Codiaeum* sp., *Croton* spp., *Euphorbia* spp., *Hevea*     |       |
| spp., *Macarangua* sp., *Manihot esculenta*., *Ohyllanthus   |       |
| amarus, Phyllanthus* spp., *Ricinus communis*), **Fabaceae** |       |
| (*Acacia arabica, Albizia* spp., *Arachis hypogaea,          |       |
| Bauhinia* spp., *Caesalpinia* spp., *Cajanus* spp.,          |       |
| *Calliandra* spp., *Cassia* spp., *Ceratonia siliqua,        |       |
| Clitoria ternatea, Crotalaria* sp., *Erythrina* spp.,        |       |
| *Gliricidium sepium, Glycine max, Grewia* sp., *Inga* sp.,   |       |
| *Leucaena glauca, Medicago sativa, mimosa pudica,            |       |
| Parkinsonia aculeate, Phaseolus mungo, Phaseolus vulgaris,   |       |
| Poinciana regia, Robinia pseudacacia, Samanea saman, Sena*   |       |
| spp., *Sesbania aegyptiaca, Tamarindus indica, Templetonia*  |       |
| sp., *Tephrosia* sp., *Vigna unguiculata*), **Fagaceae**     |       |
| (*Pasania* spp., *Quercus* spp.) **Flacourtiaceae**          |       |
| (*Flacourtis indica*), **Gesneriacae** (*Chrysothemis        |       |
| pulchella*), **Gramineae** (*Saccharum officinarum, Zea      |       |
| mays*), **Lamiaceae** (*Clerodendrum aculeatum, Leonotis     |       |
| nepetifolia*), **Lauraceae** (*Persea americana*),           |       |
| **Lecythidaceae** (*Courouptia guianensis*), **Liliaceae**   |       |
| (*Asparagus* spp., *Cordyline terminalis, Dracaena* spp.),   |       |
| **Lythraceae** (*Lagerstroemia speciosa, Lawsonia* spp.),    |       |
| **Malvaceae** (*Abelmoschus esculentus, Abutilon indicum,    |       |
| Gossypium* spp., *Hibiscus* spp., Holmskia sanguinea,        |       |
| Malvaviscus arboreus, Paritium spp., *Pavonia* spp.,         |       |
| *Thespesia* spp.), **Melastomataceae** (*Miconia             |       |
| cornifolia*), **Meliaceae** (*Azadirachta indica, Ficus*     |       |
| spp., *Morus* spp.), **Moraceae** (*Heliconia* spp., *Musda  |       |
| sp*), **Myrtaceae** (*Callistemon* spp., *Eugenia* spp.,     |       |
| *Myrtus communis, Psidium guajava, Syzygium* spp.),          |       |
| **Nyctaginaceae** (*Bougainvillea* spp.), **Oleaceae**       |       |
| (*Jasminum* spp.), **Orchidaceae** (*Dendrobium* spp.),      |       |
| **Oxalidaceae** (*Averrhoa carambola*), **Palmae** (*Cocos   |       |
| nucifera, Phoenix* spp.), **Passifloraceae** (*Passiflora*   |       |
| spp.), **Phytolacaceae** (*Rivina humilis, Petiveria         |       |
| alliacea*), **Piperaceae** (*Peperomia pellucida, Piper      |       |
| tuberculatum*), **Plumbaginaceae** (*Plumbago auriculata*),  |       |
| **Polygonaceae** (*Cocoloba uvifera, Nephrolepis* spp.),     |       |
| **Portulacaceae** (*Portulaca* spp.), **Proteaceae**         |       |
| (*Grevillea robusta*), **Rhamnaceae** (*Colubrina            |       |
| arborescens, Ziziphus* spp.), **Rosaceae** (*Crataegus*      |       |
| spp., *Cydonia oblonga, Eriobotra japonica, Prunus* spp.,    |       |
| *Pyrus* spp., *Rosa* sp.), **Rubiaceae** (*Coffea* spp.,     |       |
| *Haldina cordifolia, Hamelia* spp., *Ixora* spp.),           |       |
| **Rutaceae** (*Aegle marmelos, Citrus* spp., *Murraya* spp., |       |
| *Mussaenda* sp.), **Salicaceae** (*Salix* spp.),             |       |
| **Sapindaceae** (*Blighia sapida, Dodonaea viscose,          |       |
| Melicocca* spp.), **Sapotaceae** (*Manilkara zapota*),       |       |
| **Scrophulariaceae** (*Russelia equisetifolia, Scoparia      |       |
| dulcis*), **Solnaceae** (*Capsicum* spp., *Cestrum           |       |
| nocturnum, Datura* spp., *Lycopersicon esculentum, Solanum*  |       |
| spp.), **Sterculiaceae** (*Theobroma cacao*), **Tiliaceae**  |       |
| (*Corchorus olitorius*), **Urticaceae** (*Boehmeria nivea,   |       |
| Laportea aestuans*), **Verbenaceae** (*Tectona grandis*),    |       |
| **Vitaceae** (*Cissus verticillata, Vitis vinifera*), and    |       |
| **Zigiberaceae** (*Alpinia* spp*.*) (Scale Net, 2004).       |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| Each adult female can lay from 80 to 600 eggs over a one     | \(3\) |
| week period (Meyerdirk *et al,* 1996; CABI, 2004). Hatching  |       |
| occurs in 6-9 days (CABI, 2004). In warm conditions, a       |       |
| generation is completed in five weeks; in colder climates,   |       |
| the species can survive cold conditions (especially as eggs) |       |
| on the host plant or in the soil. There may be as many as 15 |       |
| generations per year. Local dispersal is accomplished by the |       |
| first-instar crawler via air, water, or on animals (CABI,    |       |
| 2004). All stages may be dispersed over longer distances     |       |
| through the transport of infested plant materials (USDA      |       |
| APHIS PPQ, 2005).                                            |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *Maconellicoccus hirsutus* attacks a wide range of (usually  | \(3\) |
| woody) plants, including agricultural, horticultural, and    |       |
| forest species (CABI, 204). Feeding on young growth causes   |       |
| severe stunting and distortion of leaves, thickening of      |       |
| stems, and a bunchy-top appearance of shoots; in severe      |       |
| cases the leaves may prematurely fall. Honeydew and sooty    |       |
| mold contamination of fruit may reduce its value. In         |       |
| Grenada, estimated annual losses to crops and the            |       |
| environment from this mealybug were \$3.5 million before     |       |
| biological controls were implemented (CABI, 2004). Other     |       |
| crops seriously damaged by *M*. *hirsutus* include cotton in |       |
| Egypt, with growth sometimes virtually halted; tree cotton   |       |
| in India, with reduction in yield; the fiber crop *Hibiscus  |       |
| sabdariffa* var. *altissima* (roselle) in India and          |       |
| Bangladesh, with reduction in yields of between 21 and 40%;  |       |
| and grapes in India, with up to 90% of bunches destroyed. It |       |
| is a quarantine pest for Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa      |       |
| Rick, Korea, New Zealand, Panama, and Uruguay (PRF, 2004),   |       |
| suggesting that its widespread establishment in the United   |       |
| States could result in a loss of foreign markets for various |       |
| commodities. This species is an actual or potential pest of  |       |
| a wide range of economically important plants, and risk      |       |
| associated with its economic impact is estimated to be High. |       |
| EPPO (2004) records this as an A1 pest; thus, establishment  |       |
| in the United States may lead to loss of export markets.     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| Because of its extreme polyphagy, this pest poses a threat   | \(3\) |
| to plants in the continental United States listed as         |       |
| Threatened or Endangered, including *Cucurbita               |       |
| okeechobeensis* ssp. *Okeechobeensis* (FL), *Helianthus      |       |
| eggertii* (AL,KY, TN), *H. paradoxus (TX), H. schweinitzii   |       |
| (NC, SC), Manihot walkerae (TX),* *Opuntia treleasei (CA)*,  |       |
| *Rhododendron chapmanii (FL), Amaranthus pumilus (DE, MA,    |       |
| MD, NC, NJ, NY, RI, SC, VA), Euphorbia telephiodes (FL),     |       |
| Prunus geniculata (FL*), (USFWS, 2003). As it also is a      |       |
| potential threat to a number of crops of considerable        |       |
| economic value in the United States (*e.g.*, soybean,        |       |
| cotton, corn, citrus, grapes; CABI, 2003), its introduction  |       |
| into additional mainland states would likely lead to the     |       |
| initiation of chemical or biological control programs.       |       |
| Currently, this species is the target of an official program |       |
| of biological control throughout its present range in the    |       |
| United States (Meyerdick *et al,* 2003), and has been        |       |
| targeted for biological control in other countries, such as  |       |
| Egypt and India (Bartlett, 1978).                            |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction Risk Rating**                 | **H   |
|                                                              | igh** |
|                                                              |       |
|                                                              | **(   |
|                                                              | 14)** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Maruca vitrata*         | *     |
| Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)**                         | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > *Maruca vitrata* is distributed throughout tropical        |       |
| > regions (CABI, 2003). This species is found in Africa,     | \(2\) |
| > South America, south Asia, and the Pacific Islands; it     |       |
| > will not survive in temperate regions (CABI, 2003). Its    |       |
| > distribution corresponds to U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones     |       |
| > 9-11 (USDA ARS, 1990).                                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > *Maruca vitrata* is a serious pest of leguminous species.  |       |
| > Host species are limited to **Fabaceae** (*Caesalpinia*    | \(2\) |
| > spp., *Cajanus* spp., *Cajanus cajan*, *Canavalia* spp.,   |       |
| > *Canavalia ensiformis*, *Crotalaria* spp., *Derris* spp.,  |       |
| > *Glycine* spp., *Phaseolus* spp., *Phaseolus lunatus*,     |       |
| > *Phaseolus vulgaris*, *Tephrosia* spp., *Vigna* spp.,      |       |
| > *Vigna unguiculata*, *Lablab purpureus*, and *Pueraria     |       |
| > phaseoloides*) (CABI, 2004).                               |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > The biology of *M. vitrata* varies with diet conditions    | \(3\) |
| > and locations; however, there are seven generations per    |       |
| > year in China (CABI, 2004). Females lay their eggs         |       |
| > individually on flowers or flower buds; fecundity is about |       |
| > 200 eggs (CABI, 2004). The egg period lasts an average of  |       |
| > three days at 24-27°C (CABI, 2004).                        |       |
| >                                                            |       |
| > The first instar mainly feeds on flowers, damaging 4-6     |       |
| > flowers each; this instar will also feed on leaves (CABI,  |       |
| > 2004). The later instars feed on pods and fruits (CABI,    |       |
| > 2004). The larval stage lasts an average of 13-14 days at  |       |
| > 24-27°C (CABI, 2003). The pre-pupal stage lasts an average |       |
| > of 1-2 days, and the pupal stage lasts 6-7 days (CABI,     |       |
| > 2003). The adult stage lasts about 6-10 days (CABI, 2004). |       |
| >                                                            |       |
| > This species may be dispersed over longer distances        |       |
| > through the transport of infested plant materials and has  |       |
| > been intercepted at U.S. ports-of-entry several times      |       |
| > (USDA APHIS PPQ, 2005).                                    |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > As a serious pest of beans, *Maruca vitrata* has high      | \(3\) |
| > potential for great impact on U.S. agriculture. Damage     |       |
| > varies with location. In some places, more than 50% of     |       |
| > bean products were damaged by *M. vitrata* (CABI, 2003).   |       |
| > In Hawaii, *M. vitrata* is one of the most destructive     |       |
| > pests of beans (Anonymous, 2004); it causes yield loss,    |       |
| > and increases the cost of production via the usage of      |       |
| > pesticides. This species is predicted to have a great      |       |
| > impact on legume crops in southern United States           |       |
| > (Anonymous, 2004). The establishment of this pest in the   |       |
| > United States could lead to the loss of export markets,    |       |
| > particularly Europe.                                       |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Maruca vitrata* may impact *Crotalaria avonensis,* an     | \(3\) |
| > Endangered species from Florida listed in Title 50, Part   |       |
| > 17, Section 12 of the United States Code of Federal        |       |
| > Regulations (50 CFR §17.12). Other species, such as        |       |
| > *Caesalpinia kavaiense*, *Canavalia molokaiensis* and      |       |
| > *Vigna o-wahuensis,* are only reported in Hawaii (USDA     |       |
| > NRCS 2002), where *M. vitrata* is already present.         |       |
| > Chemical and biological control are likely to be           |       |
| > implemented upon introduction of *M. vitrata* similar to   |       |
| > programs that exist in Asia, Africa, and Hawaii (CABI,     |       |
| > 2003).                                                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction Risk Rating**                 | *     |
|                                                              | *High |
|                                                              | (     |
|                                                              | 13)** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

## 

## 

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Oligonychus biharensis* | *     |
| Hirst (Acari: Tetranychidae)**                               | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| Apart from Hawaii, this species occurs in India, Thailand    |       |
| (Bolland *et al*., 1998), and Oceania (CABI, 2003). Based on | \(2\) |
| this distribution, it is estimated that it would be able to  |       |
| establish in the southern continental United States (Plant   |       |
| Hardiness Zones 9-11) (USDA ARS, 1990)                       |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *Oligonychus* *biharensis* has been recorded on              | \(3\) |
| **Malvaceae** (*Abelmoschus esculentus*)*,* **Fabaceae**     |       |
| (*Arachis hypogaea, Phaseolus vulgaris, Vigna unguiculata*), |       |
| **Arecaceae** (*Cocos nucifera*), Myrtaceae (*Eucalyptus*    |       |
| sp.), **Mimosaceae** (*Leucaena* sp.)*,* **Euphorbiaceae     |       |
| (***Manihot esculenta*)*,* **Musaceae** (*Musa* sp.), and    |       |
| **Rosaceae** (*Rosa* sp.) (CABI, 2004; Bolland *et al*,      |       |
| 1998).                                                       |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| As in all spider mites (Tetranychidae), long-distance        | \(3\) |
| dispersal would occur by wind-borne individuals and via the  |       |
| movement of infested plant materials (Jeppson *et al*.,      |       |
| 1975). Reproductive capacity is highly variable among        |       |
| species of *Oligonychus*, some exhibiting as many as 30      |       |
| generations per year (*e.g.*, *O*. *grypus)* (Jeppson *et    |       |
| al*., 1975). The reproductive potential of *O. biharehsis*   |       |
| depends on the temperature: doubling rate was 29.5 days at   |       |
| 15^o^C and 2.2 days at 35^o^C; the highest mean number of    |       |
| eggs per female was 71.6 and daily oviposition rate 4.1 eggs |       |
| per female was observed at 25 ^o^C. Higher temperatures are  |       |
| more favourable for this insect (Ji Jie *et al.*, 2005).     |       |
| Host plant qualities also affect the rate of development; on |       |
| different varieties of litchi, oviposition varied from 68.8  |       |
| to 34.0 eggs per female. The daily oviposition rate differed |       |
| from 5.3 to 1.7 eggs (Wanmei Chen *et al.*, 2005)            |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| Little information is available on the pest status of this   |       |
| mite. Reportedly, *O. biharensis* has the ability to         | \(2\) |
| devitalize the tender parts of plants, but estimates of      |       |
| yield losses could not be found*.* The mite sucks leaf sap,  |       |
| causing premature leaf fall; this results in fruit of poor   |       |
| quality with poor flavor and a lower yield of the crop       |       |
| (Ca[i-ZiJian](javascript:s('"Cai-ZiJian" in AU')) &          |       |
| [Wen-ShouXing](javascript:s('"Wen-ShouXing" in AU')), 2002). |       |
| It is a pest of many economically important horticultural    |       |
| and agricultural crops, such as *Phaseolus vulgaris* and     |       |
| *Rosa.* Should this species establish in the United States,  |       |
| chemical control programs would probably be initiated. It is |       |
| an important pest of loquat in China. Insecticides are used  |       |
| to control this pest, which, in turn, increases the cost of  |       |
| production. It is unlikely that its establishment in the     |       |
| continental United States would lead to the loss of export   |       |
| markets.                                                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| From the list of United States Threatened or Endangered      |       |
| species, it is likely that *O*. *biharensis* can attack      | \(2\) |
| *Manihot walkerae* (TX); however, the introduction of the    |       |
| mite into production areas could lead to the initiation of   |       |
| biological control programs similar to those targeting other |       |
| tetranychid mites (McMurtry, 1985).                          |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction Risk Rating**                 | **M   |
|                                                              | edium |
|                                                              | (     |
|                                                              | 12)** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

## 

+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Spodoptera litura            | *     |
| (Fabricius)*(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)**                        | *Risk |
|                                                               | Va    |
|                                                               | lue** |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**              | High  |
|                                                               |       |
| *Spodoptera litura* is widely distributed throughout tropical | \(3\) |
| and temperate Asia, Australia, and the Pacific Islands. This  |       |
| distribution corresponds to U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 7-11   |       |
| (USDA ARS, 1990). One or more of its potential hosts occurs   |       |
| in these Zones (USDA NRCS 2002).                              |       |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                               | High  |
|                                                               |       |
| *Spodoptera litura* has an extremely wide host range. Hosts   | \(3\) |
| include **Malvaceae** *(Abelmoschus esculentus, Gossypium*    |       |
| spp.*),* **Fabaceae** *(Acacia mangium, Arachis hypogaea,     |       |
| Cicer arietinum, Crotalaria juncea, Glycine max, Lathyrus     |       |
| odoratus, Medicago sativa, Phaseolus* spp., *Psophocarpus     |       |
| tetragonolobus, Ricinus communis, Trigonella foenum-graecum,  |       |
| Vigna mungo, Vigna unguiculata*)*,* **Liliaceae** (*Allium    |       |
| cepa, Gladiolus hybrids, Lilium* spp.)*,* **Amaranthaceae**   |       |
| *(Amaranthus),* **Chenopodiaceae** *(Beta vulgaris var.       |       |
| saccharifera),* **Urticaceae** (*Boehmeria nivea*)*,*         |       |
| **Brassicaceae** (*Brassica oleracea* var*. botrytis,         |       |
| Brassica oleracea* var*. capitata, Raphanus sativus*)*,*      |       |
| **Theaceae** (*Camellia sinensis*)*,* **Solanaceae**          |       |
| (*Capsicum frutescens, Lycopersicon esculentum, Nicotiana     |       |
| tabacum, Solanum tuberosum*)*,* **Rutaceae** (*Citrus* spp.)  |       |
| **Rubiaceae** (*Coffea* spp.), **Araceae** (*Colocasia        |       |
| esculenta*)*,* **Tiliaceae** (*Corchorus* spp.)*,*            |       |
| **Apiaceae** (*Coriandrum sativum, Foeniculum vulgare*)*,*    |       |
| **Asteraceae** (*Cynara scolymus, Helianthus annuus,* *Zinnia |       |
| elegans*)*,* **Rosaceae** (*Fragaria ananassa, Malus pumila,  |       |
| Rosa* spp.)*,* **Euphorbiaceae** (*Hevea brasiliensis,        |       |
| Jatropha curcas, Manihot esculenta*) **Convolvulaceae**       |       |
| (*Ipomoea batatas*)*,* Linacae (*Linum usitatissimum*)*,*     |       |
| **Moraceae** (*Morus alba*)*,* **Musaceae** (*Musa* spp.),    |       |
| **Poaceae** (*Oryza sativa*) **Papaveraceae** (*Papaver*      |       |
| spp.), **Scrophulariaceae** (*Paulownia tomentosa*)*,*        |       |
| **Piperaceae** (*Piper nigrum*)*, Sesbania grandiflora        |       |
| (agati), Solanum melongena (aubergine),* **Poaceae**          |       |
| (*Sorghum* *bicolor,* *Zea mays*), **Myrtaceae** (*Syzygium   |       |
| aromaticum*), **Verbenaceae** (*Tectona grandis*),            |       |
| **Sterculiaceae** (*Theobroma cacao*), and **Vitaceae**       |       |
| (*Vitis* *vinifera*) (Pouge, 2003, CABI, 2004).               |       |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                      | High  |
|                                                               |       |
| A mark-recapture experiment on *S. litura* to measure its     | \(3\) |
| migratory ability suggested an average male dispersion        |       |
| distance of 4-6 km a day, with a maximum of 18 km (Saito,     |       |
| 2000). Other studies have demonstrated that females have an   |       |
| ability to fly up to 8 km/day and males up to 10 km (Saito,   |       |
| 2000). Larvae may be spread while in fruits (EPPO/CABI,       |       |
| 1997). Fecundity may be as high as 2,600 eggs per female,     |       |
| with up to 12 generations per year (CPC, 2003).               |       |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                          | High  |
|                                                               |       |
| In India, crop yield loss was estimated at over 40% because   | \(3\) |
| of this pest. In Japanese greenhouses, there was a 10% yield  |       |
| loss in peppers (EPPO/CABI, 1997). Similar losses may be      |       |
| expected on crops in the PRA area. Costs of production are    |       |
| greatly increased as a result of the costs of controlling     |       |
| this pest. EPPO (2004) records this as an A2 pest; thus, its  |       |
| establishment in the United States may lead to the loss of    |       |
| export markets.                                               |       |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                     | High  |
|                                                               |       |
| *Spodoptera litura* may impact several Endangered species     | \(3\) |
| listed in Title 50, Part 17, Section 12 of the United States  |       |
| Code of Federal Regulations (50 CFR §17.12), including        |       |
| *Allium munzii, Amaranthus brownie, A. pumilus, Helianthus    |       |
| eggertii, Helianthus paradoxus, H. schweinitzi, Solanum       |       |
| drymophilumi* (PR) and *S. sandwicense* . Other species, such |       |
| as *Sesbania tomentosa*, *Solanum incompleturn* and *Vigna    |       |
| o-wahuensis,* are reported only in Hawaii (USDA NRCS 2002),   |       |
| where *S. litura* is already present. Chemical and biological |       |
| control are likely to be implemented upon the introduction of |       |
| *S. litura.*                                                  |       |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction Risk Rating**                  | *     |
|                                                               | *High |
|                                                               | (     |
|                                                               | 15)** |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

##  

+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Thrips palmi* Karny          | *     |
| (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)**                                   | *Risk |
|                                                               | Va    |
|                                                               | lue** |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**              | M     |
|                                                               | edium |
| *Thrips palmi* is subtropical to tropical in distribution;    | (2)   |
| populations in temperate climates are able to overwinter in   |       |
| greenhouses or other artificial situations since it cannot    |       |
| survive subzero temperatures for more than a few days (Lewis, |       |
| 1997; CABI, 2003). This thrips occurs in Asia, (Pakistan to   |       |
| Indonesia), parts of the tropical Pacific and Africa, and,    |       |
| recently, in the Caribbean and northern South America. United |       |
| States populations are restricted to American Samoa, southern |       |
| Florida, Guam, Hawaii and Puerto Rico (CABI 2003). Based on   |       |
| this distribution, it is estimated that *T. palmi* could      |       |
| establish permanent outside populations in the United States  |       |
| in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11 (Figure 1). One or more of |       |
| its potential hosts occur in these zones (USDA-NRCS 2003).    |       |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                               | High  |
|                                                               | (3)   |
| *Thrips palmi* is a polyphagous pest that attacks plants in   |       |
| the families Anacardiaceae, Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae,        |       |
| Fabaceae, Lauraceae, Liliaceae, Malvaceae, Orchidaceae,       |       |
| Pedaliaceae, Poaceae and Solanaceae (CABI 2003). Among        |       |
| primary hosts are species of Cucurbitaceae and Solanaceae,    |       |
| including *Cucurbita* *pepo* and *Solanum melongena.* The     |       |
| thrips also has been recorded on **Liliaceae** (*Allium       |       |
| cepa*), **Asteraceae** (*Helianthus annuus*), **Rutaceae**    |       |
| (*Citrus* spp.), **Fabaceae** (*Glycine max*, *Vigna* spp.)   |       |
| **Malvaceae,** (*Gossypium* sp.), **Anacardiaceae**           |       |
| (*Mangifera indica*), **Poaceae** (*Oryza sativa*),           |       |
| **Lauraceae** (*Persea* *americana*), and **Pedaliaceae**     |       |
| (*Sesamum indicum*) (CABI, 2004).                             |       |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                      | High  |
|                                                               | (3)   |
| Female *T*. *palmi* can mature and deposit up to 204 eggs     |       |
| during their life; generation times range from 11.5-20 days,  |       |
| depending on the temperature and host plant (Capinera 2000;   |       |
| CABI 2003). Several generations per year are possible.        |       |
| Originally restricted to south and southeast Asia, over the   |       |
| past 25 years, *T*. *palmi* has rapidly spread to Australia,  |       |
| Africa, and the Western Hemisphere (CABI, 2003). Bournier     |       |
| (1986) suggested that rapid, long-distance dispersal is       |       |
| facilitated by wind and aircraft transport of infested plant  |       |
| materials. Adults are capable of flight, and their small size |       |
| and fringed wings allow long distance dispersal via wind or   |       |
| as passengers in commercial commodities (Lewis 1997). The     |       |
| species has been intercepted over 8100 times at U.S. ports    |       |
| during the last 20 years (USDA, 2005); thus, this pest        |       |
| exhibits high reproductive and dispersal capacities.          |       |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                          | High  |
|                                                               | (3)   |
| *Thrips palmi* is a serious pest of cucurbits and eggplant.   |       |
| Losses of 50-90% in these crops have been reported (CABI,     |       |
| 2003). On cucumber, feeding stunts plants, causing premature  |       |
| bud and fruit drop, and deforming fruits that survive;        |       |
| infestations can be as low as one thrips per leaf, which      |       |
| results in fewer tendrils and leaves, and dead plants (Lewis, |       |
| 1997). The species is a vector of tomato spotted wilt         |       |
| tospovirus (CABI, 2003). It is difficult to control           |       |
| chemically, requiring repeated applications of insecticides   |       |
| to achieve acceptable levels of control (Sakimura *et al*.,   |       |
| 1986). As it is listed by EPPO as an A1 quarantine pest for   |       |
| Europe (CABI/EPPO, 1997), its establishment in the United     |       |
| States could result in the loss of foreign markets for        |       |
| various agricultural commodities.                             |       |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                     | High  |
|                                                               | (3)   |
| This pest has the potential to attack plants listed as        |       |
| Endangered or Threatened in the United States (*e.g.*,        |       |
| *Allium munzii* (CA), *Cucurbita okeechobeensis* ssp.         |       |
| *okeechobeensis* (FL), *Helianthus* spp. three species in AL, |       |
| KY, NC, NM, SC, TN, TX.). Its introduction would undoubtedly  |       |
| initiate control programs in areas of the United States to    |       |
| which it was newly introduced because it is a major pest of   |       |
| numerous economic crops (*e.g.,* beans, peppers and           |       |
| tomatoes). Similar programs have been considered in other     |       |
| countries (*e.g.*, Japan) (Hirose *et al*., 1993). At         |       |
| present, biological control of *T. palmi* cannot be achieved; |       |
| preliminary studies have been carried out concentrating on    |       |
| *Orius* sp. (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) and *Amblyseius* spp.   |       |
| (Acarina: Phytoseiidae) (EPPO, 2004).                         |       |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction Risk Rating**                  | *     |
|                                                               | *High |
|                                                               | (     |
|                                                               | 14)** |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

##  

## 

+-----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| **Table   |          |         |        |        |        |        |
| 5. Risk   |          |         |        |        |        |        |
| Rating    |          |         |        |        |        |        |
| for       |          |         |        |        |        |        |
| Con       |          |         |        |        |        |        |
| sequences |          |         |        |        |        |        |
| of        |          |         |        |        |        |        |
| Int       |          |         |        |        |        |        |
| roduction |          |         |        |        |        |        |
| of        |          |         |        |        |        |        |
| Cowpea,   |          |         |        |        |        |        |
| *Vigna    |          |         |        |        |        |        |
| ungui     |          |         |        |        |        |        |
| culata*** |          |         |        |        |        |        |
+===========+==========+=========+========+========+========+========+
| **Pest**  | **RE     | **RE    | **RE   | **RE   | **RE   | **Cumu |
|           | #1:**    | #2:**   | #3:**  | #4:**  | #5:**  | lative |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | Risk   |
|           | **Clim   | **Host  | **Dis  | **Ec   | **En   | Ra     |
|           | ate/Host | Range** | persal | onomic | viron. | ting** |
|           | Inter    |         | Poten  | Im     | Im     |        |
|           | action** |         | tial** | pact** | pact** |        |
+-----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| *Al       | Medium   | High    | Medium | High   | High   | **     |
| eurodicus |          |         |        |        |        | High** |
| d         | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(2\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\)  |        |
| ispersus* |          |         |        |        |        | **     |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | (13)** |
+-----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| *B        | Medium   | High    | High   | High   | High   | **     |
| actrocera |          |         |        |        |        | High** |
| cu        | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\)  |        |
| curbitae* |          |         |        |        |        | **     |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | (14)** |
+-----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| *Cryp     | Medium   | High    | High   | High   | Medium | **     |
| tophlebia |          |         |        |        |        | High** |
| om        | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(2\)  |        |
| brodelta* |          |         |        |        |        | **     |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | (13)** |
+-----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| *Dy       | Medium   | High    | High   | Medium | High   | **     |
| smicoccus |          |         |        |        |        | High** |
| neo       | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(2\)  | \(3\)  |        |
| brevipes* |          |         |        |        |        | **     |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | (13)** |
+-----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| *Fran     | High     | High    | High   | Medium | Medium | **     |
| kliniella |          |         |        |        |        | High** |
| s         | \(3\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(2\)  | \(2\)  |        |
| chultzii* |          |         |        |        |        | **     |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | (13)** |
+-----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| *Lampides | High     | Medium  | High   | Medium | Medium | **Me   |
| boeticus* |          |         |        |        |        | dium** |
|           | \(3\)    | \(2\)   | \(3\)  | \(2\)  | \(2\)  |        |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | **     |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | (12)** |
+-----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| *Macone   | Medium   | High    | High   | High   | High   | **     |
| llicoccus |          |         |        |        |        | High** |
| hirsutus* | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\)  |        |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | **     |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | (14)** |
+-----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| *Maruca   | Medium   | Medium  | High   | High   | High   | **     |
| vitrata*  |          |         |        |        |        | High** |
|           | \(2\)    | \(2\)   | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\)  |        |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | **     |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | (13)** |
+-----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| *Ol       | Medium   | High    | High   | Medium | Medium | **Me   |
| igonychus |          |         |        |        |        | dium** |
| bi        | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(2\)  | \(2\)  |        |
| harensis* |          |         |        |        |        | **     |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | (12)** |
+-----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| *S        | High     | High    | High   | High   | High   | **     |
| podoptera |          |         |        |        |        | High** |
| litura*   | \(3\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\)  |        |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | **     |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | (15)** |
+-----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| *Thrips   | Medium   | High    | High   | High   | High   | **     |
| palmi*    |          |         |        |        |        | High** |
|           | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\)  |        |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | **     |
|           |          |         |        |        |        | (14)** |
+-----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

##  

## 

## 2.6 Likelihood of Introduction 

Likelihood of Introduction is a function of both the quantity of the
commodity imported annually and pest opportunity, which consists of five
criteria that consider the potential for pest survival along the pathway
(USDA, 2000). The values determined for the Likelihood of Introduction
for each pest are summarized in Table 6.

**[Quantity imported annually]{.underline}**

The rating for the quantity imported annually is based on the amount
reported by the exporter, and is converted into standard units of
40-foot-long shipping containers. Based on current production levels in
Hawaii, the projected initial volume of cowpea pods to be shipped from
Hawaii to the continental United States is estimated to be fairly small.
Current production does not render enough to fill a single standard
40-foot-long shipping container; therefore, this element is ranked Low
for all pests.

**[Survive post-harvest treatment]{.underline}**

*Bactrocera cucurbitae, Lampides boeticus,* and *Maruca vitrata* are
internal feeders that are expected to survive minimal post-harvest
treatment, such as washing and culling, especially at the very early
stage of infestation when damage indexes are not obvious. *Spodoptera
litura* adults prefer to lay eggs on leaves, and the ensuing feed on
leaves and, occasionally, on young pods; however, larvae are large and
would low probability of surviving washing and culling.

*Cryptophlebia ombrodelta* larvae are large and gregarious, move
actively between fruit, and have noticeable feeding damage.

The remaining pests are all external, and have a Low probability of
surviving the post-harvest procedures of washing and culling. Cowpea
pods are smooth and do provide suitable shelter for external pests.

**[Survive shipment]{.underline}**

According to the USDA Tropical Products Transport Handbook, Chinese long
beans, asparagus beans, and cowpeas (*Vigna unguiculata*) are typically
shipped at 39-45ºF at a relative humidity of 90-95%. Chilling injury
typically occurs at 38ºF. Transit and storage life is typically 7-10
days. Under these conditions, it is likely that all of the pests could
survive shipment; thus, all pests are rated High (3).

Additionally, *Bactrocera cucurbitae*, *Aleurodicus dispersus*,
*Dysmicoccus neobrevipes*, *Maconellicoccus hirsutus*, *Lampides
boeticus, Spodoptera* spp., *Frankliniella schultzei, Thrips palmi,* and
*Maruca vitrata* have been intercepted at ports-of-entry by PPQ Officers
(USDA. 2005; USDA APHIS PPQ, 2005); this offers some evidence of their
ability to survive shipment.

**[Not detected at port-of-entry]{.underline}**

Estimating the risk that pests will not be detected at a port-of-entry
involves the consideration of pest size, mobility, and degree of
concealment. Depending on the age of infestation, internal feeders have
a High probability of escaping detection at a port-of-entry, unless pods
are cut open. Internal feeders ( *Maruca vitrata, Lampides boeticus,
Bactrocera cucurbitae, Spodoptera litura*) are ranked High (3) because
of the potential to escape detection at the port-of-entry. These insects
will generally not be detected unless fruits are destructively sampled.
White and Elson-Haris (1994) stated that fruit flies had a High
probability of escaping detection at a port-of-entry, and infested fruit
could go unrecognized.

*Crytophlebia ombrodelta* infestation in various Hawaiian commodities is
mitigated by culling and inspection. This is possible because of their
large size, and because of their habit to go in and out of the fruit.

Large, conspicuous infestations could lead to the detection of scale
insects. Sparser populations of these small insects, thrips, and mites
are more difficult to detect, particularly if concealed on the pod, or
in packing materials. The external feeders *Aleurodicus dispersus*,
*Dysmicoccus neobrevipes*, *Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Oligonychus
biharensis,* *Thrips palmi* and *Franklinella schultzii* are ranked
Medium (2).

**[Moved to suitable habitat]{.underline}**

*Aleurodicus disperses, Bactrocera cucurbitae, Crytophlebia ombrodelta,
Dysmicoccus neobrevipes,* *Maconellicoccus hirsutus* *Maruca vitrata,*
*Oligonychus biharensis,* and *Thrips palmi* are known to have warm
temperate to tropical distributions. It is estimated that climates
suitable for the pests to establish permanent populations is only a
narrow swath of territory in the south and along the west coast of the
continental United States. These regions would comprise an estimated
10-12% of the total land area of the country. These species were ranked
Medium (2).

*Franklinella schultzii* and *Spodoptera litura* have High (3)
potentials to move to environmentally suitable locations; these species
survive in a wide range of climate zones, and are polyphagous.

*Lampides boeticus* only feed on beans; however, because of the
abundance of leguminous plants throughout the continental United States
(including wild hosts), the ability of this species to fly long
distances, and to survive a wide range of climate zones, contribute to
the high likelihood that this pest will move to an environmentally
suitable location. *Lampides boeticus* was ranked High (3).

**[Contact with host material]{.underline}**

The fruit fly *Bactrocera cucurbitae* is rated as High (3). Fruit flies
have a wide range of host species, found not only in the subtropical and
tropical zones, but also in the temperate zones of the United States.

The whitefly, *Aleurodicus dispersus,* is rated High (3). The whitefly
is highly polyphagous; natural dispersal can be ensured by flying adults
(EPPO, 2004); however, it is pest of tropical and subtropical crops
(EPPO, 2004), and tropical and subtropical areas are limited in
continental United States.

Mealybugs, *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* and *Maconellicoccus hirsutus,*
have limited powers of dispersal, and lack the ability to quickly locate
suitable hosts. They are rated Medium (2).

Thrips, *Franklinella schultzii* and *Thrips palmi,* are rated High (3).
These pests have a wide range of host plants, many of which occur in
temperate zones. Additionally, these species have already established
limited populations in the continental United States, evidence of their
ability to find acceptable host material.

The moth, *Spodoptera litura,* has a High (3) rating. This species has a
wide host range and climate zone. *Spodoptera litura* is a highly mobile
species (CABI, 2003). There are several records indicating that this
species has migrated substantial distances; therefore, the potential of
coming into contact with host species is High (Saito, 2000).

*Lampides boeticus* is rated High. Host materials are distributed
throughout the United States. This species can survive in a wide range
of climates. Similarly, the pod borers, *Crytophlebia ombrodelta* and
*Maruca vitrata,* are also rated High (3). Although these species only
survive in tropical and subtropical regions, the host materials are
distributed throughout the continental United States.

The mite *Oligonychus biharensis* is rated Low (1). Although
polyphagous, this species is not very mobile, and its probability of
coming into contact with host material is Low. Its host species is
limited to tropical and subtropical plants.

+-----------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
| **Table   |      |        |        |       |       |        |       |
| 6. Risk   |      |        |        |       |       |        |       |
| Rating    |      |        |        |       |       |        |       |
| for       |      |        |        |       |       |        |       |
| L         |      |        |        |       |       |        |       |
| ikelihood |      |        |        |       |       |        |       |
| of        |      |        |        |       |       |        |       |
| Int       |      |        |        |       |       |        |       |
| roduction |      |        |        |       |       |        |       |
| of        |      |        |        |       |       |        |       |
| Cowpea,   |      |        |        |       |       |        |       |
| *Vigna    |      |        |        |       |       |        |       |
| ungu      |      |        |        |       |       |        |       |
| iculata,* |      |        |        |       |       |        |       |
| from      |      |        |        |       |       |        |       |
| Hawaii.** |      |        |        |       |       |        |       |
+===========+======+========+========+=======+=======+========+=======+
| **Pest**  | **   | **S    | **S    | **Not | **Mo  | **C    | *     |
|           | Quan | urvive | urvive | det   | ved** | ontact | *Cum. |
| **        | tity | post-  | ship   | ected |       | with   | Risk  |
| Species** | impo | h      | ment** | at    | **to  | host   | Rat   |
|           | rted | arvest |        | port- | a     | mate   | ing** |
|           | an   | treat  |        | of-en | suita | rial** |       |
|           | nual | ment** |        | try** | ble** |        |       |
|           | ly** |        |        |       |       |        |       |
|           |      |        |        |       | *     |        |       |
|           |      |        |        |       | *habi |        |       |
|           |      |        |        |       | tat** |        |       |
+-----------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
| *Al       | Low  | Medium | High   | Me    | Me    | High   | **Me  |
| eurodicus |      |        |        | dium\ | dium\ |        | dium\ |
| d         | \    | \(2\)  | \(3\)  | (2)   | (2)   | \(3\)  | (     |
| ispersus* | (1\) |        |        |       |       |        | 13)** |
+-----------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
| *B        | Low  | High   | High   | High  | M     | High   | **    |
| actrocera |      |        |        |       | edium |        | High\ |
| cu        | \    | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\) |       | \(3\)  | (     |
| curbitae* | (1\) |        |        |       | \(2\) |        | 15)** |
+-----------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
| *Cry      | Low  | High   | High   | High  | M     | High   | **Med |
| tophlebia |      |        |        |       | edium |        | ium** |
| om        | \    | \(2\)  | \(3\)  | \(2\) |       | \(3\)  |       |
| brodelta* | (1\) |        |        |       | \(2\) |        | **(   |
|           |      |        |        |       |       |        | 13)** |
+-----------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
| *Dy       | Low  | Medium | High   | M     | M     | Medium | **Med |
| smicoccus |      |        |        | edium | edium |        | ium** |
| neo       | \    | \(2\)  | \(3\)  |       |       | \(2\)  |       |
| brevipes* | (1\) |        |        | \(2\) | \(2\) |        | **(   |
|           |      |        |        |       |       |        | 12)** |
+-----------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
| *Fra      | Low  | Medium | High   | M     | High  | High   | **Me  |
| nklinella |      |        |        | edium |       |        | dium\ |
| s         | \    | \(2\)  | \(3\)  |       | \(3\) | \(3\)  | (     |
| chultzii* | (1\) |        |        | \(2\) |       |        | 14)** |
+-----------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
| *Lampides | Low  | High   | High   | High  | High  | High   | **H   |
| boeticus* |      |        |        |       |       |        | igh** |
|           | \    | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\) | \(3\) | \(3\)  |       |
|           | (1\) |        |        |       |       |        | **(   |
|           |      |        |        |       |       |        | 16)** |
+-----------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
| *Macone   | Low  | Medium | High   | M     | M     | Medium | **Med |
| llicoccus |      |        |        | edium | edium |        | ium** |
| hirsutus* | \    | \(2\)  | \(3\)  |       |       | \(2\)  |       |
|           | (1\) |        |        | \(2\) | \(2\) |        | **(   |
|           |      |        |        |       |       |        | 12)** |
+-----------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
| *Maruca   | Low  | High   | High   | High  | M     | High   | **H   |
| vitrata*  |      |        |        |       | edium |        | igh** |
|           | \    | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\) |       | \(3\)  |       |
|           | (1\) |        |        |       | \(2\) |        | **(   |
|           |      |        |        |       |       |        | 15)** |
+-----------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
| *Ol       | Low  | Medium | High   | M     | M     | Low    | **Med |
| igonychus |      |        |        | edium | edium |        | ium** |
| bi        | \    | \(2\)  | \(3\)  |       |       | \(1\)  |       |
| harensis* | (1\) |        |        | \(2\) | \(2\) |        | **(   |
|           |      |        |        |       |       |        | 11)** |
+-----------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
| *S        | Low  | Medium | High   | High  | High  | High   | **H   |
| podoptera |      |        |        |       |       |        | igh** |
| litura*   | \    | \(2\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\) | \(3\) | \(3\)  |       |
|           | (1\) |        |        |       |       |        | **(   |
|           |      |        |        |       |       |        | 15)** |
+-----------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
| *Thrips   | Low  | Medium | High   | M     | Me    | High   | **Med |
| palmi*    |      |        |        | edium | dium\ |        | ium** |
|           | \    | \(2\)  | \(3\)  |       | (2)   | \(3\)  |       |
|           | (1\) |        |        | \(2\) |       |        | **(   |
|           |      |        |        |       |       |        | 13)** |
+-----------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+

## 2.7 Conclusions 

The summation of the values for the Consequences of Introduction and the
Likelihood of Introduction yields Pest Risk Potential values (USDA,
2000) (Table 7). This is an estimate of the unmitigated risks associated
with this importation.

+------------------+------------------+-----------------+--------------+
| **Table 7. Pest  |                  |                 |              |
| Risk Potential** |                  |                 |              |
+==================+==================+=================+==============+
| **Pest**         | **Consequences   | **Likelihood    | **Pest       |
|                  | of               | of\             | Risk**       |
| **Species**      | Introduction**   | Introduction**  |              |
|                  |                  |                 | *            |
|                  |                  |                 | *Potential** |
+------------------+------------------+-----------------+--------------+
| *Aleurodicus     | High             | Medium\         | **Medium**   |
| dispersus*       |                  | (13)            |              |
|                  | \(13\)           |                 | **(26)**     |
+------------------+------------------+-----------------+--------------+
| *Bactrocera      | High             | High\           | **High**     |
| cucurbitae*      |                  | (15)            |              |
|                  | \(14\)           |                 | **(29)**     |
+------------------+------------------+-----------------+--------------+
| *Cryptophlebia   | High             | Medium          | **Medium**   |
| ombrodelta*      |                  |                 |              |
|                  | \(13\)           | \(13\)          | **(26)**     |
+------------------+------------------+-----------------+--------------+
| *Dysmicoccus     | High             | Medium          | **Medium**   |
| neobrevipes*     |                  |                 |              |
|                  | \(13\)           | \(12\)          | **(25)**     |
+------------------+------------------+-----------------+--------------+
| *Franklinella    | High             | Medium\         | **High**     |
| schultzii*       |                  | (14)            |              |
|                  | \(13\)           |                 | **(27)**     |
+------------------+------------------+-----------------+--------------+
| *Lampides        | Medium           | High            | **High**     |
| boeticus*        |                  |                 |              |
|                  | \(12\)           | \(16\)          | **(28)**     |
+------------------+------------------+-----------------+--------------+
| *Maconellicoccus | High             | Medium          | **Medium**   |
| hirsutus*        |                  |                 |              |
|                  | \(14\)           | \(12\)          | **(26)**     |
+------------------+------------------+-----------------+--------------+
| *Maruca vitrata* | High             | High            | **High**     |
|                  |                  |                 |              |
|                  | \(13\)           | \(15\)          | **(28)**     |
+------------------+------------------+-----------------+--------------+
| *Oligonychus     | Medium           | Medium          | **Medium**   |
| biharensis*      |                  |                 |              |
|                  | \(12\)           | \(11\)          | **(23)**     |
+------------------+------------------+-----------------+--------------+
| *Spodoptera      | High             | High            | **High**     |
| litura*          |                  |                 |              |
|                  | \(15\)           | \(16\)          | **(31)**     |
+------------------+------------------+-----------------+--------------+
| *Thrips palmi*   | High             | Medium          | **High**     |
|                  |                  |                 |              |
|                  | \(14\)           | \(13\)          | **(27)**     |
+------------------+------------------+-----------------+--------------+

Pests with a Pest Risk Potential value of Low do not require specific
mitigation measures, whereas a value within the Medium range indicates
that specific phytosanitary measures may be necessary. The PPQ
Guidelines state that a High Pest Risk Potential means that specific
phytosanitary measures are strongly recommended, and that port-of-entry
inspection is not considered sufficient to provide phytosanitary
security.

An appropriate risk mitigation option is an irradiation treatment at a
dose of 400 Gy (7 CFR §305.31) for all quarantine-significant insect
pests; however, no data are available on the tolerance of fresh *Vigna
unguiculata* pods to irradiation treatment. Dried seeds of *Vigna
unguiculata* tolerate irradiation doses of 100 Gy, based on analyses of
nutritional content; at this dose, no unfavorable consequences were
observed in protein level, amino acid composition, and levels of
vitamins B1, B2, and B6 (Diop *et al*. 1997).

A warm, soapy, water wash, and brushing (T102-c, PPQ Treatment Manual),
followed by inspection, would provide the necessary mitigation for the
acarine *Oligonichus biharensis,* as well as for the externally feeding
thrips, pseudococcids, and aleyrodids.

Culling and inspection for larval infestations of *Cryptophlebia
ombrodelta* before irradiation treatment are among mitigation procedures
allowing movement of Hawaiian tropical fruit commodities into
continental United States (7 CFR §318.13).

Beans, including genus *Vigna*, appear to be tolerant of methyl bromide
fumigation. Treatment schedules using methyl bromide for internal
feeding insects in bean pods, including *Maruca vitrata,* are specified
in T101-k-2 and T101-k-2-1. Methyl bromide treatment schedule for
external arthropods on fresh beans, including spider mites, thrips,
scale insects and surface-feeding caterpillars, is specified in T104-a-1
(PPQ Treatment Manual).

# III. Authors & Reviewers

Prepared by: Alison Neeley, Entomologist, USDA, APHIS, PPQ, CPHST, PERAL

Reviewed by: Nicanor Liquido, Senior Risk Analyst, CPHST, PERAL (Project
Leader)

Marina Zlotina, Entomologist, CPHST, PERAL

Feridoon Mehdizadegan, Plant Pathologist, CPHST PERAL

# IV. Literature Cited

Agostini de Manero, E. and S. Muruaga de l'Argentier. 1990. Biological
studies and the damage produced by species of thrips species
(Thysanoptera: Thripidae) found on crops of common bean (*Phaseolus
vulgaris*) in the Jujuy Province (Argentina). *Revista de Investigacion
Centro de Investigaciones para la Regulacion de Poblaciones de
Organismos Nocivos* 8 (1-4): 57-75. \[abs\]

Akinlosotu, T.A., L.E.N. Jackai, N.N. Ntonifor, A.T. Hassan, C.W.
Agyakwa, J.A. Odebiyi, A.E. Akingbohungbe, H.W. Rossel. 1993. Spiralling
Whitefly, *Aleurodicus dispersus*, in Nigeria. Food and Agriculture
Organization of United Nations (FAO), Plant Protection Bulletin 41(2):
127-128.

Allen, D. J., Thottappilly, G., Emechebe, A. M., and Singh, B. B. 1998.
Diseases of Cowpea. *In*: The Pathology of Food and Pasture Legumes,
Allen, D. J. and Lenné, J. M. (eds.), Chapter 5. Commonwealth
Agricultural Bureau International, Wallingsford, United Kingdom, pp.
267-324.

Allwood, A.J. *et al.* 1998. Host Plant Records for Fruit Flies
(Diptera: Tephritidae) in Southeast Asia. The Raffles Bulletin of
Zoology. 1999 Supplement No 7: 1-92.

Anonymous. 2004. Crop Knowledge Master, College of Tropical Agriculture
and Human Resources, University of Hawaii and Hawaii Department of
Agriculture. \< http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/crop.htm \>

APHIS. 2000. Lists of intercepted pests attached to Purchase Order
Number 43-6395-0-2185, dated June 27, 2000. USDA, APHIS, Riverdale,
Maryland.

APHIS. 2004. Soybean Rust. Aphis News, May. 2004.
\<http://www.aphis.usda.gov/lpa/pubs/fsheet_faq_notice/faq_phsoybeanrust.html\>
Last accessed 23 Sep. 2005.

Arnett, R. H. 1985. American Insects. A Handbook of the Insects of
America North of Mexico. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, New York.
849 pp.

Arnett, R.H., M.C. Thomas, P.E. Skelley and H. Frank. 2002. American
Beetles, Vol. II: Polyphaga: Scarabaeoidea through Curculionoidea. CRC
Press: Boca Raton, FL. 880 pp.

ARS. 1960. Index of Plant Diseases in the United States. Agricultural
Handbook No. 165. Agricultural Research Service, USDA. 531 pp.

Baars, J.R. and F. Heystek. 2003. Geographical range and impact of five
biocontrol agents established on *Lantana camara* in South Africa.
BioControl, 48(6): 743-759.

Baker, E.W. and Tuttle, D.M. 1994. Guide to the spider mites
(Tetranychidae) of the United States. Indira Pub. House, 347 pp.

Bartlett, B.R., 1978. Pseudococcidae. *in:* Clausen CP, ed. Introduced
Parasites and Predators of Arthropod Pests and Weeds: a World Review.
Agriculture Handbook No. 480, 137-170.

Beardsley, J.W. 1959. On the taxonomy of pineapple mealybugs in Hawaii,
with a description of a previously unnamed species. Proc. Hawaii.
Entomol. Soc. 17(1): 29-37.

Ben-Dov, Y. E. 1994. A Systematic Catalogue of the Mealy Bugs of the
World (Insecta: Homoptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae and Putoidae).
Intercept Limited, Andover, United Kingdom, pp. 343-344.

Bishop Museum. 2002. Hawaiian Terrestrial Arthropod Checklist. The
Hawaii State Museum of Natural and Cultural History, Honolulu, HI.
\<http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/arthrosearch.html\> *last accessed*
December 15, 2004.

Blackman, R. L. and Eastop, V. F. 2000. Aphids on the World's Crops,
2^nd^ ed. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, West Sussex, England. 466 pp.

Bolland, H.R., J. Gutierrez, C.H.W. Fechtmann. 1998. World Catalogue of
the Spider Mite Family (Acari: Tetranychidae). Koninklijike Brill NV,
Leiden, The Netherlands, pp. 392.

Brunt, A. A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M. J., Gibbs, A. J., Watson, L.,
and Zurcher, E. J. (*eds*.) 1997. Plant viruses online: Descriptions and
lists from the VIDE database.
\<http://biology.anu.edu.au/Groups/MES/vide/\> *last accessed:* November
26, 2001.

CABI. 2003. Crop Protection Compendium, Global Module, 2003 Edition. CAB
International, Wallingford, United Kingdom.

CABI. 2004. Crop Protection Compendium, Global Module, 2004 Edition. CAB
International, Wallingford, United Kingdom.

CABI/EPPO. 1997. *Thrips palmi*. Data Sheet on Quarantine Pests.
Prepared by CABI and EPPO for EU under contract 90-399003.

Cai ZiJian and Wen-ShouXing. 2002. The red mite of loquat and its
control. S. China Fruits. 31(6): 41-42 (in Chinese, English abstract)

Capinera, J. L. 2001. Handbook of Vegetable Pests. Academic Press. San
Diego, CA. 727 pp.

Chang, T.C. and Chen, C.C. 1989. Observation of three lepidopterous
pests attacking leguminous vegetables in Taiwan \[abst\]. Bulletin of
Taichung District Agricultureal Improvement Station. 1989, (24): 21-29.

Chia, C. L., R. A. Hamilton, and D. O. Evans. Lychee. CTAHR Fact Sheet.
Horticultural Commodity no. 1. Cooperative Extension Service. College of
Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources. University of Hawaii at Manoa.

Cilliers, C.J. and S. Neser. 1991. Biological control of *Lantana
camara* (Verbenaceae) in South Africa. [Agriculture, Ecosystems and
Environment.]{.underline} 37(1-3): 57-75.

CMI\. 1964a. Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria, No. 22,
*Gibberella fujikuroi*. Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew, United
Kingdom.

CMI\. 1964b. Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria, No. 36,
*Pythium aphanidermatum*. Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew,
United Kingdom.

CMI\. 1965. Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria, No. 57,
*Uromyces appendiculatu*s. Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew,
United Kingdom.

CMI\. 1971a. Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria, No. 301,
*Cochliobolus heterostrophus*. Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew,
United Kingdom.

CMI\. 1971b. Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria, No. 316,
*Colletotricum lindemuthianum*. Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew,
United Kingdom.

CMI\. 1971c. Distribution Maps of Plant Diseases, Map No. 401, Edition
2, *Xanthomonas phaseoli.* Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau
International, Wallingford, United Kingdom.

CMI\. 1973. Distribution Maps of Plant Diseases, Map No. 85, Edition 4,
*Pseudomonas phaseolicola.* Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau
International, Wallingford, United Kingdom.

CMI\. 1975. Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria, No. 474,
*Cochliobolus lunatus*. Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew, United
Kingdom.

CMI\. 1977. Distribution Maps of Plant Diseases, Map No. 102, Edition 5,
*Gibberella fujikuroi.* Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau International,
Wallingford, United Kingdom.

CMI\. 1978a. Distribution Maps of Plant Diseases, Map No. 177, Edition
4, *Colletotrichum lindemuthianum*. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau
International, Wallingford, United Kingdom.

CMI\. 1978b. Distribution Maps of Plant Diseases, Map No. 309, Edition
3, *Pythium aphanidermatum.* Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau
International, Wallingford, United Kingdom.

CMI\. 1979. Distribution Maps of Plant Diseases, Map No. 218, Edition 3,
*Thielaviopsis basicola.* Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau
International, Wallingford, United Kingdom.

CMI\. 1981. Distribution Maps of Plant Diseases, Map No. 346, Edition 4,
*Cochliobolus heterostrophus.* Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau
International, Wallingford, United Kingdom.

Courneya, P.A. 2003. *Personal Communication.* Entomologist, National
Identification Services, USDA, APHIS, PPQ, Riverdale, MD.

Davis, C. J. 1972. Recent introductions for biological control in
Hawaii. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society, 21(2):
187-190.

Dekle, G.W. 1965. Arthropods of Florida and Neighboring Land Areas. Vol.
3. Florida Armored Scale Insects. Gainesville: Fla. Dept. Agric. Div.
Plant Ind.

Diop, Y. M., E. Marchioni, D. B, and C. Hasselmann. 1997. Radiation
disinfestation of cowpea seeds contaminated by *Callosobruchus
maculatus*. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 21: 69-81.

EPPO/CABI. 1997. *Spodoptera littoralis* and *Spodoptera litura.* Data
sheets on quarantine pests. Prepared by CABI and EPPO for EU under
contract 90/399003.

EPPO. 2004. EPPO Standard PM1/2(13). A1 and A2 Lists of pests
recommended for regulation as quarantine pests (adopted in 2004-09).
\<http://www.eppo.org/QUARANTINE/lists.htm\> *Last accessed March 5,
2005.*

Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Camuris, G. P. and Rossman, A. Y. 1995. Fungi
on plants and plant products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul,
MN.

Farr, D.F., Rossman, A.Y., Palm, M.E., & McCray, E.B. 2005 Fungal
Databases, Systematic Botany & Mycology Laboratory, ARS, USDA from
\<http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/\> *last accessed September 23,
2005.*

Federal Register. 1996. Importation of fruits and vegetables. Vol 61
(128): 34379-34385.

Fletcher, B.S. 1989. Movements of tephritid fruit flies, pp. 209-219.
*In* A.S. Robinson and G. Hooper (eds.). Fruit Flies: Their Biology,
Natural Enemies and Control. (World Crop Pests, Vol. 3B). Amsterdam:
Elsevier.

Gillaspie, A. G., Jr. 1998. Characterization of a severe strain of
cucumber mosaic cucumovirus seedborne in cowpea. Plant Disease
82(4):419-422.

Gunn, C. R. and Ritchie, C. 1982. 1982 Report of the Technical Committee
to Evaluate Noxious Weeds; Exotic Weeds for Federal Noxious Weed Act.
335 pp. (Unpublished).

Gullan, P.J. and M. Kosztarab. 1997. Adaptations in scale insects. Annu.
Rev. Entomol. 42: 23-50.

HDOA, 2004. Plant Pest Control: Persisting Biological Control Problems.
Hawaii Department of Agriculture.

\<http://www.hawaiiag.org/hdoa/pi_ppc_bioprob.htm.\> *Last accessed
January 26, 2005.*

Hall, R. 1991. Compendium of Bean Diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 73
pp.

Hardy, D. E. and M.D. Delfinado. 1980. Insects of Hawaii. Volume 13,
Diptera: Cyclorrhapha III. University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu. 451 pp.

Henry, T. J. and R. C. Froeshchner (eds.). 1998. Catalog of the
Heteroptera or True Bugs of Canada and the Continental United States.
St. Lucie Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 958 pp.

Hill, D. S. 1994. Agricultural Entomology. Timber Press, Inc., Portland,
Oregon. 635 pp.

Hirose, Y, H. Kajita, M. Takagi, S. Okajima, B. Napompeth , and S.
Buranapanichpan, . 1993. Natural enemies of Thrips palmi and their
effectiveness in the native habitat. Thailand. Biological Control,
3(1):1-5; 13 \[abs\].

Ho, K.Y. 1985. Preliminary report on the carambola fruit borers and
their control. Plant Protection Bulletin. 27(1): 53-62.

Holm, L. G., Doll, J., Holm, E., Pancho, J. V., and Herberger, J. P.
1997. World Weeds: Natural Histories and Distribution. J. Wiley & Sons,
New York, New York. 1129 pp.

Holm, L. G., Pancho, J. V., Herberger, J. P., and Pluckiest, D. L. 1979.
A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds. (Second printing, 1991) Krieger
Publishing Co., Malabar, Florida. 391 pp.

Holm, L. G., Pluckiest, D. L., Pancho, J. V., and Herberger, J. P. 1977.
The World\'s Worst Weeds. University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.
609 pp.

Hoy, M.A., A. Hammon, and R. Nguyen. 2003. Feature Creatures: Pink
Hibiscus Mealybug (*Maconellicoccus hirsutus*). University of Florida
Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Department of Entomology
and Nematology.
\<http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/orn/mealybug/mealybug.htm\> (*Last
accessed February 11, 2005.)*

IDIDAS, 2004. Fact Sheet: *Oligonychus biharensis.* International
Database on Insect Disinfestation and Sterilization. FAO.

IIE. 1966. International Institute of Entomology Series, Map No. 219,
*Ferrisia virgata* (Ckll.). Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau
International, Wallingford, United Kingdom.

IIE. 1983. International Institute of Entomology Series, Map No. 99,
*Aphis craccivora* Koch. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau International,
Wallingford, United Kingdom.

IIE. 1996. International Institute of Entomology Series, Map No. 351
(1^st^ revision), *Maruca vitrata* (Fabricius). Commonwealth
Agricultural Bureau International, Wallingford, United Kingdom.

IPPC. 1996. International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures. Part
1---Import Regulations: Guidelines for Pest Risk Analysis. Secretariate
of the International Plant Protection Convention, Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. Rome, Italy. 21 pp.

Ironside, D.A. 1974. Biology of macadamia nut borer (*Cryptophlebia
ombrodelta*). Queensland Journal of Agriculture and Animal Sciences.
31(3): 201-202.

Ironside, D.A. 1982. Macadamia nutborer and the new macadamia orchard.
Queensland Agricultural Journal. 108(5): 263-265.

Jahn, G.C. 1993. Gray Pineapple Mealybug, *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes*
Beardsley (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae), Inside Closed Pineapple Blossom
Cups. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society 32: 147-148.

Jackai, L.E.N and R. A. Daoust. 1986. Insect Pests of Cowpeas. Annual
Review of Entomology. 31:95-119.

Julius, I., Choong, C. T., Yap, T. H., Bayer, K. Y. N., Ooi, P. A. C.
(ed.), Lim, G. S. (ed.), and Teng, P. S. 1992. Beta-cyfluthrin, a
synthetic pyrethroid insecticide for the control of lepidopterous pests.
Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Pl. Prot. of the Tropics No. 2, 71.

Jeppson, L.R., H. H. Keifer, E. W. Baker. Mites Injurious to Economic
Plants. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India: 614 pp.

Ji Jie, Zhang YanXuan, Chen Xia, Lin JianZhen. 2005. Life table of a
laboratory population of *Oligonychus biharensis* (Hirst) (Acari:
Tetranychidae) at different temperatures. Acta Arachn. Sinica. 14(1):
37-41 (in Chinese, English abstract)

Ke, L. D., Fang, J. L., and Li, Z. J. 1985. Bionomics and control of the
legume pod-borer *Maruca testulalis* Geyer. Acta-Entomologica-Sinica
28(1):51-59.

Kessing, J. L. M., and R. F. L. Mau. 1993. *Empoasca solana* DeLong.
Crop Knowledge Master. \<
http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/Type/e_solana.htm\> Last
accessed 20 Sep. 2005.

Kitahara, M. 2004. Butterfly community composition and conservation in
and around a primary woodland of Mount Fuji, central Japan. Biodiversity
and Conservation. 13: 917--942, 2004.

Koehler, P.G. 1999. Rice Weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (Coleoptera:
Curculionidae). University of Florida, Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences, Department of Entomology and Nematology.
Extension Publication ENY-261.

Kormelink, R., D. Peters, and R. Goldbach. 2004. Tospovirus Genus.
Descriptions of Plant Viruses. Association of Applied Biologists.
\<http://www.dpvweb.net/dpv/showadpv.php?dpvno=363\> *Last accessed
March 5, 2005.*

Khatua, A. K. 1997. Occurrence and seasonal fluctuation of some
lepidopterous defoliators of sal (Shorea robusta) in Godapiasal,
Midnapore, West Bengal, India. Indian-Forester. 123(1): 37-44.

Lewis, T. 1997. [Thrips as Crop Pests]{.underline}. Wallingford, United
Kingdom, CAB International.

Liquido, N. J. 2005. Senior Risk Analyst, Center for Plant Health
Science and Technology, USDA APHIS. Honolulu, HI. *Personal
Communication,* February, 2005.

Lingappa, S. and C. Siddappaji. 1981. Note on the biology of tamarind
fruit-borer, *Cryptophlebia ombrodelta* (Lower). Indian Journal of
Agricultural Sciences. 51(6): 467-470.

Lundsgaard, T. 2005. Symptoms of Virus Diseases in Plants. Dept. of
Plant Biology, KVL, Denmark.
\<http://www.plbio.kvl.dk/\~thluj3/symptoms/symplist.html\> *Last
accessed February 28, 2005.*

Maes, J-M. and Robleto, T. J. 1988. Catalogo de los Insectos y
Artropodos Terrestres Asociados a las Principales Plantas de Importancia
Economica en Nicaragua. Rev. Nica. Ent. No. 5:1-95.

Martin Kessing, J.L. and R.F.L. Mau. 1993. *Aleurodicus dispersus*
(Russell). Crop Knowledge Master, College of Tropical Agriculture and
Human Resources, University of Hawaii and Hawaii Department of
Agriculture.
\<http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/type/a_disper.htm\> last
accessed: November, 2004.

Mathew, M.P., Rekha, C.R., and Gopalakrishnan, T.R. 1999. New host of
the melon fly, *Bactrocera cucurbitae* (Coq.). Insect Environment. 5: 3,
120.

McMurtry, J. A. 1985. Avocado. Spider Mites, Their Biology, Natural
Enemies and Control, Vol. 1B, World Crop Pests. W. Helle and M. W.
Sabelis. Elsevier, Amsterdam: 458.

Metcalf, R. L. and Metcalf, R. A. 1993. Destructive and Useful Insects.
Their Habits and Control. 5^th^ Edition. McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York, New
York. Unnumbered pages.

Meyerdirk, D.E. 1996. Factsheet: The Hibiscus or Pink Mealybug. USDA.
APHIS, IS & PPQ. \<
http://www.ceris.purdue.edu/napis/pests/pmb/freg/phmb1.html\> *Last
accessed March 9, 2005.*

Miller, G.L. and D.R. Miller. 2002. *Dymicoccus* Ferris and similar
genera (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Psudococcidae) of the Gulf Sate Region
including a description of a new species and new United States records.
Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 104(4): 968-979.

Minton, N. A. and Baujard, P. 1990. Nematode Parasites of Peanut. *In:*
Plant parasitic Nematodes in Subtropical and Tropical Agriculture, Luc,
M., Sikora, R. A., and Bridge, J (eds.). Common-wealth Agricultural
Bureau International Institute of Parasitology, Wallingford, United
Kingdom, pp. 285-303.

Nafus, D . 1991, Biological control of *Penicillaria jocosatrix*
(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on mango on Guam with notes on the biology of
its parasitoids. Envir. Entomol. 20(6): 1725-1731 (Abstract).

Nakahara S, 1997. Annotated list of the Frankliniella species of the
world (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Contributions on Entomology,
International, 2:353-389.

Nakahara, S. 1982. Checklist of the Armored Scales (Homoptera:
Diaspididae) of the Conterminous United States, USDA, APHIS, PPQ**:**
110.

Nakahara, S. 1994. The Genus *Thrips* Linnaeus (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)
of the New World. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural
Research Service, Technical Bulletin No. 1822.

Oakley, R. G. 1953. Manual of Foreign Plant Pests for Leguminosae. USDA,
ARS, Bur. Ent. and Plant Quar., Div. of Plant Quarantine, Beltsville,
Maryland, pp. 249-347.

Persad, C., 1995. Preliminary List of Host Plants of *Maconellicoccus
hirsutus* - Hibiscus or Pink mealybug in Grenada. CARDI, Grenada, 6pp.

Pogue, M.G. 2003. World Spodoptera Database (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).
USDA Systematic Entomology Laboratory.
\<http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/lep/spodoptera/spodoptera.html\> *(Last
accessed: February 10, 2005).*

Poole, R. W. 1989. Lepidoptera Catalogus: Fascicle 118: Noctuidae
Part 1. E.J. Brill/ Flora & Fauna Publications.

PRF. 2004. Export Certification Project (EXCERPT) Database. Purdue
Research Foundation. \< http://ceris.purdue.edu/excerpt/\> last
accessed: April, 2005.

PVO. 2004. Plant Viruses Online.

Raabe, R.D. 1981. Checklist of plant diseases in Hawaii: including
records of microorganisma, principally fungi, found in the state.
Honolulu: Hawaii Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources,
College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of
Hawaii at Manoa. 313 pp.

Reed, C. F. 1977. Economically Important Foreign Weeds. Agriculture
Handbook No. 498. United States Dept. Agriculture, Agricultural Research
Service/Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Washington, DC. 746
pp.

Robinson, G.S., P.R. Ackery, I.J. Kitching, G.W. Beccaloni, and L.M.
Hernandez. 2001. Hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of
the Oriental Region. Natrual History Museum: London. 744 pp.

Robinson, G.S., P.R. Ackery, I.J. Kitching, G.W. Beccaloni, and L.M.
Hernandez. 2003. HOSTS: a database of host plants of the world's
Lepidoptera. London: The Natural History Museum.
\<http://www.nhm.ac.uk/entomology/hostplants/\> *(Last accessed:*
December 15, 2004).

Rohrbach, K.G., J.W. Beardsley, T.L. German, N.J. Reimer, and W.G.
Sanford. 1988. Mealybug wilt, mealybugs, and ants on pineapple. Plant
Dis. 72(7): 558-565.

Saito, O. 2000. Flight Activity of three *Spodoptera* spp., *Spodotera
litura, S. exigua,* and *S. depravata,* measured by flight actograph.
*Physiological Entomology* (2000) 25, 112-119.

Sakimura K, Nakahara LM, Denmark HA, 1986. A thrips, Thrips palmi Karny
(Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Entomology Circular, Division of Plant
Industry, Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, No.
280.

Scalenet. 2004. Hosts, Natural Enemies and Associates of a Scale Query
Results.
\<*www.sel.barc.usda.gov/scale&genus=Vigna&scalegenus=&species.htm*.\>
(*Last accessed:* December 15, 2004).

Schaefer, C.W. and A. R. Panizzi (*eds.*). 2000. Heteroptera of Economic
Importance. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida, 827 pp.

Schuster, M. F. and Cherry, E. T. 1975. Cross-resistance in Two-Spotted
Spider Mite Resistant Cotton to the Desert Mite. Journal of Eco. Ent.
68(1):131-132.

Sikora, R. A. and Greco, N. 1990. Nematode Parasites of Food Legumes.
*In:* Plant Parasitic Nematodes in Subtropical and Tropical Agriculture,
Luc, M., Sikora, R. A., and Bridge, J (eds.). Commonwealth Agricultural
Bureau International Institute of Parasitology, Wallingford, United
Kingdom, pp. 198-208.

SPC. 2002. Species Profiles: Melon Fly (*Bactrocera* cucurbitae).
Secretariat of the Pacific Community and Contributors.

\<http://www.sidsnet.org/pacific/spc/pacifly/Species_profiles/B_cucurbitae.htm.\>
*Last accessed January 25, 2005.*

Spencer, K.A. and G.C. Styskal. 1986. Manual of the Agromyzidae
(Diptera) of the United States. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service, Agricultural Handbook No. 638.

Stone, M., and J. Wilcox. 1979. The gulf wireworm in California
(Coleoptera: Elateridae). Pan-Pacif. Entomol. 55(3): 235-238 (Abstract).

Takenari, I. 2003. Butterfly fauna in and near the Ogawa Forest Region.
Bulletin of FFPRI. **2** (389): 237-246.

Thurston, H.D. 1998. Tropical Plant Diseases, *2^nd^ ed.* APS Press. St.
Paul, Minnesota. 200 pp.

TJAI. 2005. Cowpea: A versatile legume for hot, dry conditions.
(Alternate crop profiles). Thomas Jefferson Agricultural Institute.
Colombia, MO.
\<http://www.jeffersoninstitute.org/overviews/index.shtml\> *Last
accessed March 9, 2005.*

USDA. 2000. Guidelines for Pathway-initiated Pest Risk Assessments,
Version 5.0. USDA, APHIS, PPQ, Commodity Risk Assessment Unit,
Riverdale, Maryland.

USDA APHIS PPQ (United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and
Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine). 2005.
Port Information Network (PIN-309). USDA, APHIS, PPQ, Riverdale,
Maryland.

USDA ARS. 1990. USDA plant hardiness zone map. USDA, Agric. Research
Serv. Misc. Publ. No. 1475. Washington, DC.
\<http://www.usna.usda.gov/Hardzone/ushzmap.html?\> last accessed, 11
August 2005.

USDA NRCS (United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources
Conservation Service). 2002. Plants Database. USDA Natural Resources
Conservation Service. \<http://plants.usda.gov\> last accessed: October,
2004.

USFWS (United States Fish & Wildlife Service). 2002. Threatened and
Endangered Species System (TESS). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
http://ecos.fws.gov/webpage; last accessed: November, 2004.

Valenzuela, H. and J. Smith. 2002. Cowpea. Sustainable Agriculture Green
Manure Crops. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical
Agriculture and Human Resources. University of Hawaii, Manoa. SA-GM-6.

Wanmei Chen, Yueguan Fu, Famgping Zhang, and Zhengqiang Peng. 2005.
Effect of different varieties of litchi on the development and
reproduction of *Oligonychus biharensis* (Hirst). Syst. Appl. Acarol.
10: 11-16 (Abstract).

Weed Science Society of America. 1989. Composite List of Weeds.

Weems HV, 1964. Melon fly (Dacus cucurbitae Coquillett) (Diptera:
Tephritidae). Entomology Circular, Division of Plant Industry, Florida
Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, (29):1-2.

Wellman, F. L. 1977. Dictionary of Tropical American Crops and Their
Diseases. The Scarecrow Press, Inc, Metuchen, NJ, pp. 445-448.

Whitehead, A. G. 1998. Plant Nematode Control. Commonwealth Agricultural
Bureau International, Wallingford, United Kingdom, pp. 384.

White, I.M. and Elson-Harris, M. M. 1994. Fruit Flies of Economic
Significance: Their Identification and Bionomics. CAB International,
Wallingford, United Kingdom, pp. 601.

Wiersema, J.H. and B. Leon. 1999. World Economic Plants. CRC Press: Boca
Raton, FL. 749 pp.

Wilcox, J. A. 1975. Checklist of the Beetles of Canada, United States,
Mexico, Central America and the West Indies. Volume 1, Part 7, The Leaf
Beetles, (Red Version). Bio. Res. Inst. Amer. Inc., Latham, New York.
166 pp.

Zhang, Bin-Cheng. 1994. Index of Economically Important Lepidoptera.
Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau International, Wallingford, United
Kingdom, pp. 599.

Zimmerman E.C. 1958. Insects of Hawaii Vol. 7, Macrolepidoptera.
University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu. 880 pp.

Zimmerman, E.C. 1978. Insects of Hawaii, Volume 9, Microlepidoptera:
Part I. University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu. 880 pp.

**Appendix A: Criteria used to determine risk ratings**

**Consequences of Introduction**

[Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction]{.underline}

When introduced to new areas, pest can be expected to behave as they do
in their native areas if host plants and climates are similar.
Ecological zonation and the interactions of pests with their biotic and
abiotic environments are considered in this element. Estimates are based
on the availability of host material and suitable climate conditions. To
rate this Risk Element, the U.S. "Plant Hardiness Zones" created by U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA ARS, 1990), is used (Figure 1). Due to
the availability of both suitable host plants and suitable climate, the
pest has the potential to establish a breeding colony:

Low (1): In a single plant hardiness zone.

> Medium (2): In two or three plant hardiness zones.

High (3): In four or more plant hardiness zones.

[Risk Element #2: Host Range]{.underline}

The risk posed by a plant pest depends on its ability to establish a
viable, reproductive population, and its potential for causing plant
damage. For arthropods, risk is assumed to be positively correlated with
host range. For pathogens, risk is ore complex and is assumed to depend
on host range, aggressiveness, virulence and pathogenicity; for
simplicity, risk is rated as a function of host range.

Low (1): Pest attacks a single species or multiple species within a
single genus.

Medium (2): Pest attacks multiple species within a single plant family.

High (3): Pest attacks multiple species among multiple plant families.

[Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential]{.underline}

A pest may disperse after introduction to a new area. The following
items are considered: reproductive patterns of the pest (*e.g.*,
voltinism, biotic potential); inherent powers of movement; factors
facilitating dispersal, wind, water, presence of vectors, human, *etc.*

> Low (1): Pest has neither high reproductive potential nor rapid
> dispersal capability.
>
> Medium (2): Pest has either high reproductive potential OR the species
> is capable of rapid dispersal.
>
> High (3): Pest has high biotic potential, *e.g.*, many generations per
> year, many offspring per reproduction ("r-selected" species), AND
> evidence exists that the pest is capable of rapid dispersal, *e.g.*,
> over 10 km/year under its own power; via natural forces, wind, water,
> vectors, *etc.*, or human-assistance.

[Risk Element #4: Economic Impact]{.underline}

Introduced pests are capable of causing a variety of direct and indirect
economic impacts. These impacts are divided into three primary
categories (other types of impacts may occur): lower yield of the host
crop, *e.g.*, by causing plant mortality, or by acting as a disease
vector; lower value of the commodity, *e.g.*, by increasing costs of
production, lowering market price, or a combination; loss of foreign or
domestic markets due to the presence of a new quarantine pest.

Low (1): Pest causes any one or none of the above impacts.

Medium (2): Pest causes any two of the above impacts.

High (3): Pest causes all three of the above impacts.

[Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact]{.underline}

The potential of each pest to cause environmental damage (FAO, 1996)
proceeds by considering the introduction of the pest as it is expected
to cause significant, direct environmental impacts, *e.g.*, ecological
disruptions, reduced biodiversity. (1) When used within the context of
the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) (7CFR §372), significance
is qualitative and encompasses the likelihood and severity of an
environmental impact; (2) a pest that is expected to have a direct
impact on other existing species is listed by federal agencies as
endangered or threatened (50CFR §17.11 and §17.12), by
infesting/infecting a list plant. If the pest attacks other species
within the genus or other genera within the family, and preference/no
preference tests have not been conducted with the listed plant and the
pest, then the plant is assumed to be a host; (3) the pest is expected
to have an indirect impact on the species listed by federal agencies as
endangered or threatened by disrupting the sensitive, critical habitats;
(4) the introduction of such a pest would stimulate chemical or
biological control programs.

> Low (1): None of the above would occur. It is assumed that the
> introduction of a nonindigenous pest will have some environmental
> impact (by definition, introduction of a nonindigenous species affects
> biodiversity).
>
> Medium (2): One of the above would occur.
>
> High (3): Two or more of the above would occur.

**Likelihood of Introduction**

[Risk Element #6: Pest Opportunity (Survival and Access to Suitable
Habitat and Hosts)]{.underline}

For each pest, consider six sub-elements:

1.  **Quantity of commodity imported annually**: The likelihood that an
    exotic pest willbe introduced depends on the amount of the
    potentially-infested commodity that isimported. For qualitative pest
    risk assessments, the amount of commodity imported isestimated in
    units of standard 40 foot long shipping containers. In those cases
    wherethe quantity of a commodity imported is provided in terms of
    kilograms, pounds,number of items, *etc*., convert the units into
    terms of 40 foot shipping containers.Score as follows:

> Low (1 point): \< 10 containers/year
>
> Medium (2 points): 10 - 100 containers/year
>
> High (3points): \> 100 containers/year

2.  **Survive post-harvest treatment**: For this sub-element,
    post-harvest treatment refers to any manipulation, handling or
    specific phytosanitary treatment to which the commodity is
    subjected. Examples of post-harvest treatments include culling,
    washing, chemical treatment, cold storage, *etc.* If there is no
    post-harvest treatment, estimate the likelihood of this sub-element
    as High.

3.  **Survive shipment:** Estimate survival during shipment; assume
    standard shipping conditions.

4.  **Not be detected at the port-of-entry**: Unless specific protocols
    are in place for special inspection of the commodity in question,
    assume standard inspection protocols for like commodities. If no
    inspection is planned, estimate this sub-element as High.

5.  **Imported or moved subsequently to an area with an environment
    suitable for survival:** Consider the geographic location of likely
    markets and the proportion of the commodity that is likely to move
    to locations suitable for pest survival. Even if infested
    commodities enter the country, not all final destinations will have
    suitable climatic conditions for pest survival.

6.  **Come into contact with host material suitable for reproduction:**
    Even if the final destination of infested commodities are suitable
    for pest survival, suitable hosts must be available in order for the
    pest to survive. Consider the complete host range of the pest
    species.

Rate sub-elements 2-6 as follows:

Low (1 point): \< 0.1% (less than one in one thousand)

> Medium (2 points): Between 0.1% - 10% (between one in one thousand to
> one in ten)
>
> High (3 points): \> 10% (greater than one in ten)

The events described in sub-elements 2 - 6 should be considered as a
series of independent events that must all take place before a pest
outbreak can occur, *i.e.*, the estimates for one element should not
affect estimates for other elements.

For each pest, sum the six sub-elements to produce a Cumulative Risk
Rating for the Likelihood of Introduction. This Cumulative Risk Rating
is considered to be an indicator of the likelihood that a particular
pest would be introduced. Interpret the Cumulative Risk Rating for the
Likelihood of Introduction as follows:

> Low: 6 - 9 points
>
> Medium: 10 - 14 points
>
> High: 15 - 18 points

[]{.mark}

[]{.mark}

[^1]: Distribution (specific states are listed only if distribution is
    limited): AL = Alabama; CA = California; FL = Florida; GA = Georgia;
    HI = Hawaii; LA = Louisiana; MS = Mississippi; TX = Texas; US =
    continental United States (widespread)

[^2]: Plant Parts: I = Flowers, L = Leaves, P/F = Pods (fruit), S =
    Stems, Sd = Seeds, R = Roots, G = Growing Points, O = Vegetative
    organs

[^3]: Brackets indicate that the species, although not fitting the
    definition of a quarantine pest (IPPC, 2002), is actionable (APHIS,
    PPQ, National Identification Services).

[^4]: *Oligonychus biharensis* is ranked as the 4^th^ most important
    potentially invasive pest species of Tetranychoidea by the
    Acarological Society of America. Little information is known about
    the biology of this pest. Based on the behavior of other
    *Oligonychus,* it may follow the pathway. *Oligonychus* spider mites
    generally feed on leaves, when populations are large; however, some
    *Oligonychus* mites are found on fruit. Species of *Oligonychus*
    have been intercepted on citrus fruit at U.S. ports (USDA APHIS PPQ,
    2005) and members of the genus are associated with date fruit. The
    calyx provides excellent hiding places for mites. Until further
    information can be obtained about this species and its behavior on
    *Vigna,* we assume that it may follow the pathway.

[^5]: *Octotoma scabripennis* (Coleoptera: Chrosomelidae) was not
    selected for further analysis because it is primarily a leaf and and
    stem feeder, and is not expected to be associated with the fruit.
    *O. scabripennis* is a biological control agent of the weed *Lantana
    camara* (Cilliers and Neser, 1991)*.*

[^6]: *Ophiomyia phaseoli* (Diptera: Agromyzidae) is one of the most
    important pests of legumes worldwide. Should this species be
    introduced into the continental United States, there would likely be
    serious consequences for bean production in the southeastern United
    States; however, it is not likely that this species would follow the
    pathway. It prefers to tunnel and feed in leaves and stems of young
    plants,and is highly unlikely to be assocaited with marketable pods
    (CABI, 2004). *Ophiomyia phaseoli* eggs are deposited in leaves and
    larvae tunnel through the petiole to the stem. While there is an
    extremely low probability of tunneling to young pods, the damage
    would be apparent in mature pods (Liquido, *pers. comm.*).

[^7]: This pest has a limited distribution in the United States, but is
    considered an actionable pest by PPQ.

[^8]: *Aleurodicus dispersus* is a whitefly that mainly feeds on leaves;
    however, it may be associated with fruit and has been intercepted on
    the fruit of several different hosts at U.S. ports (USDA APHIS PPQ,
    2005).

[^9]: This pest has a limited distribution in the United States, but is
    considered an actionable pest by PPQ.

[^10]: This pest has a limited distribution in the United States, but is
    considered an actionable pest by PPQ.

[^11]: This pest is an external feeder. Only adults, which are highly
    mobile, are known to attack fruit. The pest is not likely to remain
    on the commodity through harvest and processing.

[^12]: This species mainly feeds on flowers and leaves and is not likely
    to be in the pathway. Larvae have been known to occasionally attack
    the fruit of mangos.

[^13]: *Stricotptera cucullioides* (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is a
    defoliator that feeds primarily on the leaves of plants in the
    Clusiaceae family (Zhang, 1994). Although there is some evidence
    that S. cucullioides can feed on Vigna spp., it would not be likely
    to follow the pathway.

[^14]: *Spodoptera mauritia* is a lawn army worm that primarily feeds on
    leaves. There is no evidence that this species is associated with
    fruits or pods, although other *Spodoptera* spp. may occasionally
    bore into the fruit or pod.

[^15]: Most nematodes are primarily root pests that live solely
    underground---this is the case of *Ditylenghus destructor* and
    *Helicotylenchus multicinctus*. These pests would not be expected to
    be associated with the pods/fruit of cowpea, and are not likely to
    follow the pathway.

[^16]: *Phakospora pachyrhizi* has recently been introduced in many
    areas in the continental United States, and is considered
    non-quarantine pest.