+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| # Winter Storms                                                       |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| A winter storm can range from a moderate snow over a few hours to     |
| blizzard conditions with blinding wind-driven snow that lasts for     |
| several days. Many winter storms are accompanied by low temperatures  |
| and heavy or blowing snow, which can severely reduce visibility.      |
|                                                                       |
| Some winter storms may be large enough to affect several States,      |
| while others may affect only a single community.                      |
|                                                                       |
| Winter storms are defined differently in various parts of the         |
| country. Check with your local emergency management office, the       |
| National Weather Service (NWS) office, or local chapter of The        |
| American Red Cross for terms and definitions specific to your area.   |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Winter storms are considered deceptive killers because most deaths    |
| are indirectly related to the storm.                                  |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Automobile or other transportation accidents]{.underline}: This  |
|     is the leading cause of death during winter storms.               |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Exhaustion and heart attacks]{.underline}: Caused by             |
|     overexertion, these are the two most likely causes of winter      |
|     storm-related deaths.                                             |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Hypothermia and asphyxiation]{.underline}: Elderly people        |
|     account for the largest percentage of hypothermia victims. Many   |
|     older Americans literally freeze to death in their own homes      |
|     after being exposed to dangerously cold indoor temperatures, or   |
|     they are asphyxiated because of improper use of fuels such as     |
|     charcoal briquettes, which produce carbon monoxide.               |
|                                                                       |
| -   [House fires]{.underline}: These occur more frequently in the     |
|     winter because of the lack of proper safety precautions when      |
|     using alternate heating sources (unattended fires, disposal of    |
|     ashes too soon, improperly placed space heaters, etc.) Fire       |
|     during winter storms presents a great danger because water        |
|     supplies may freeze, and it may be difficult for firefighting     |
|     equipment to get to the fire.                                     |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| # Winter Storms (Continued)                                           |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| The elements of winter storms include:                                |
|                                                                       |
| -   Heavy snow.                                                       |
|                                                                       |
| -   Ice.                                                              |
|                                                                       |
| -   Winter flooding.                                                  |
|                                                                       |
| -   Cold.                                                             |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ## Heavy Snow                                                         |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Heavy snow can:                                                       |
|                                                                       |
| -   Immobilize regions and paralyze cities.                           |
|                                                                       |
| -   Strand commuters.                                                 |
|                                                                       |
| -   Close airports.                                                   |
|                                                                       |
| -   Disrupt emergency and medical services.                           |
|                                                                       |
| Accumulations of snow can cause roofs to collapse and knock down      |
| trees and power lines. Homes and farms may be isolated for days, and  |
| unprotected livestock may be lost. The cost of removing snow and      |
| repairing damage, and the resulting loss of business can have severe  |
| economic impacts on cities and towns.                                 |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| In the mountains, heavy snow can lead to masses of tumbling snow      |
| called avalanches. More than 80 percent of midwinter avalanches are   |
| triggered by a rapid accumulation of snow, and 90 percent of those    |
| occur within 24 hours of snowfall.                                    |
|                                                                       |
| An avalanche may reach a mass of a million tons and travel at speeds  |
| of up to 200 miles per hour (mph).                                    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| # Winter Storms (Continued)                                           |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| The different kinds of snow fall include:                             |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Blizzards]{.underline} are accompanied by winds of 35 mph of     |
|     more with snow and blowing snow, reducing visibility to less than |
|     one-quarter mile for at least 3 hours.                            |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Blowing snow]{.underline} is wind-driven snow that reduces       |
|     visibility. Blowing snow may be falling snow and/or snow on the   |
|     ground that is picked up by the wind.                             |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Snow squalls]{.underline} are brief, intense snow showers        |
|     accompanied by strong, gusty winds. Accumulation may be           |
|     significant.                                                      |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Snow showers]{.underline} are snow falling at varying            |
|     intensities for short duration with little or no accumulation.    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ## Ice                                                                |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Heavy accumulations of ice can disrupt communications and power for   |
| days while utility companies repair extensive damage. Even small      |
| accumulations of ice can be extremely dangerous to motorists and      |
| pedestrians. Bridges and overpasses are particularly dangerous        |
| because they freeze before other surfaces.                            |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| The different kinds of ice include:                                   |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Sleet]{.underline}: Raindrops that freeze into ice pellets       |
|     before reaching the ground are called sleet. Sleet usually        |
|     bounces when hitting a surface and does not stick to objects.     |
|     Sleet, however, can accumulate like snow and cause a hazard to    |
|     motorists.                                                        |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Freezing rain]{.underline}: Rain that falls onto surfaces with   |
|     temperatures below freezing---causing it to freeze to those       |
|     surfaces is called freezing rain. Even small accumulations of ice |
|     can cause a significant hazard.                                   |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Ice storm]{.underline}: Ice storms occur when freezing rain      |
|     falls and freezes immediately on impact. Communications and power |
|     can be disrupted for days.                                        |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| # Winter Storms (Continued)                                           |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ## Winter Flooding                                                    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Winter storms can generate flooding, resulting in significant damage  |
| and loss of life.                                                     |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Winter flooding includes:                                             |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Coastal floods]{.underline}: Winds generated from intense winter |
|     storms can cause widespread tidal flooding and severe beach       |
|     erosion along coastal areas.                                      |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Ice jams]{.underline}: Long cold spells can cause rivers and     |
|     lakes to freeze. A rise in the water level or a thaw breaks the   |
|     ice into large chunks that become jammed at manmade and natural   |
|     obstructions. An ice jam can act as a dam, resulting in severe    |
|     flooding.                                                         |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Snowmelt]{.underline}: A sudden thaw of a heavy snow pack that   |
|     often leads to flooding.                                          |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ## Cold                                                               |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Exposure to cold can cause frostbite or hypothermia and become life   |
| threatening. Infants and the elderly are the most susceptible.        |
|                                                                       |
| What constitutes extreme cold varies in different parts of the        |
| country:                                                              |
|                                                                       |
| -   [In the south]{.underline}, near-freezing temperatures are        |
|     considered extreme cold. Vegetation may be damaged and pipes may  |
|     freeze and burst.                                                 |
|                                                                       |
| -   [In the north]{.underline}, extreme temperatures are well below   |
|     zero.                                                             |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| When talking about cold, you should consider:                         |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Wind chill]{.underline}: Wind chill is not the actual            |
|     temperature, but rather how wind and cold feel on exposed skin.   |
|     As the wind increases, heat is carried away from the body at a    |
|     faster rate, driving down the body's temperature.                 |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Frostbite]{.underline}: Frostbite is damage to body tissue       |
|     caused by extreme cold and resulting in a loss of feeling and a   |
|     white or pale appearance in extremities, such as fingers, toes,   |
|     ear lobes, or the tip of the nose. Frostbite victims require      |
|     immediate medical treatment. If you must wait for help, slowly    |
|     rewarm the affected areas. If signs of hypothermia appear,        |
|     however, warm the body core before the extremities.               |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| # Winter Storms (Continued)                                           |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| -   [Hypothermia]{.underline}: Hypothermia occurs when the body       |
|     temperature drops below 95 degrees Fahrenheit. Hypothermia can    |
|     kill. For those who survive, there are likely to be lasting       |
|     kidney, liver, and pancreas problems. If you suspect hypothermia, |
|     take the victim's temperature. If it is below 95 degrees          |
|     Fahrenheit, seek medical care immediately! If medical care is not |
|     available, warm the person slowly, starting with the body core.   |
|     Warming the arms and legs first drives cold blood toward the      |
|     heart and can lead to heart failure. Dress the person in dry      |
|     clothing and wrap him or her in a warm blanket, covering the head |
|     and neck. Do not provide alcohol, drugs, coffee, or any hot       |
|     beverage or food. Warm broth is the first food to offer.          |
|                                                                       |
| > Warning signs of hypothermia include:                               |
|                                                                       |
| -   Uncontrollable shivering.                                         |
|                                                                       |
| -   Memory loss.                                                      |
|                                                                       |
| -   Disorientation.                                                   |
|                                                                       |
| -   Incoherence.                                                      |
|                                                                       |
| -   Slurred speech.                                                   |
|                                                                       |
| -   Drowsiness.                                                       |
|                                                                       |
| -   Apparent exhaustion.                                              |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| The National Weather Service (NWS) Storm Prediction Center issues     |
| watches and warnings of hazardous weather, including winter storms.   |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| The key steps in winter storm preparedness are:                       |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Understanding the risk]{.underline}. Take time to learn about    |
|     the winter storm risk in your area.                               |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Preparing your home]{.underline} with insulation, caulking, and  |
|     weatherstripping. Learn how to keep pipes from freezing and how   |
|     to thaw frozen pipes. Store sufficient fuel (or emergency heating |
|     equipment). Install and test smoke alarms on all levels of your   |
|     home.                                                             |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Servicing snow removal equipment]{.underline} before the winter  |
|     storm season. Maintain the equipment in good working order, and   |
|     ensure that you have an adequate supply of gas.                   |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Keeping your car's gas tank full]{.underline} for emergency use  |
|     and to keep the fuel line from freezing.                          |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Paying attention to warnings]{.underline}. Use a NOAA weather    |
|     radio with a tone-alert feature or listen to local radio or       |
|     television for EAS broadcasts.                                    |
|                                                                       |
| ```{=html}                                                            |
| <!-- -->                                                              |
| ```                                                                   |
| -   [Staying indoors and dress warmly]{.underline}. Wear layers of    |
|     loose-fitting, lightweight, warm clothing. When necessary, remove |
|     layers to avoid perspiration and subsequent chill.                |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| # Winter Storms (Continued)                                           |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| -   [Eating and drinking regularly]{.underline}. Food provides the    |
|     body with energy for producing its own heat. Drink liquids such   |
|     as warm broth or juices to prevent dehydration. [Avoid caffeine   |
|     and alcohol]{.underline}. Caffeine, a stimulant, accelerates the  |
|     symptoms of hypothermia. Alcohol is a depressant and hastens the  |
|     effects of cold on the body. Alcohol also slows circulation and   |
|     can make you less aware of the effects of cold. Both caffeine and |
|     alcohol can cause dehydration.                                    |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Conserving fuel]{.underline}. Great demand may be placed on      |
|     electric, gas, and other fuel distribution systems (fuel oil,     |
|     propane, etc.). Suppliers may not be able to replenish depleted   |
|     supplies during severe weather. Lower the thermostat to 65        |
|     degrees Fahrenheit during the day and 55 degrees at night. Close  |
|     off unused rooms, stuff towels or rags in cracks under doors, and |
|     cover windows at night.                                           |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| -   [If outside, protect yourself from hazards]{.underline}. Dress    |
|     warmly, keep dry, and watch for signs of hypothermia and          |
|     frostbite. Avoid overexertion. Walk carefully on snowy, icy       |
|     sidewalks, and use public transportation, if possible.            |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Take measures to protect yourself if you must drive during a winter   |
| storm:                                                                |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Winterize your car before the winter storm season]{.underline}.  |
|     Have a mechanic check your car's systems and install good winter  |
|     tires with adequate tread. Keep snow and ice removal equipment in |
|     the car.                                                          |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Keep a cellphone or two-way radio with you when traveling in     |
|     winter weather]{.underline}. Make sure that the batteries are     |
|     charged.                                                          |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Keep a disaster supplies kit]{.underline} in the trunk of each   |
|     car used by household members.                                    |
|                                                                       |
| -   [Plan long trips carefully and notify someone of your             |
|     destination, route, and expected time of arrival]{.underline}.    |
|                                                                       |
| -   [If you get stuck]{.underline}, stay with the vehicle, display a  |
|     trouble sign, and [occasionally]{.underline} run the engine to    |
|     keep warm, keeping the exhaust pipe clear of snow and a downwind  |
|     window open slightly for ventilation. Use available material,     |
|     such as newspapers, maps, and removable car mats for added        |
|     insulation. Avoid overexertion, drink fluids, and watch for signs |
|     of frostbite and hypothermia.                                     |
|                                                                       |
| Check the forecast when venturing outside. Major winter storms are    |
| often followed by even colder temperatures.                           |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+