APPENDIX

SELECT EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT-RELATED TERMS & DEFINITIONS

Course Title: Hazards, Disasters and U.S. Emergency Management: An
Introduction

By: B. Wayne Blanchard, Ph.D., CEM

**Date of Last Modification: July 28, 2006**

**Note:**

This "Select Emergency Management-Related Terms and Definitions"
document has been compiled for use in the FEMA Emergency Management
Higher Education Project working draft course *Hazards, Disasters and
U.S. Emergency Management: An Introduction.* This is not a comprehensive
or exhaustive treatment of emergency management terms and definitions.
Suggestions for additions are welcome and can be provided to Dr.
Blanchard for consideration via email at: <wayne.blanchard@dhs.gov>.

**ACAMS:** Automated Critical Asset Management System. (**DHS, NIPP**
2006, p. 101)

**Acceptable Risk:** That level of risk that is sufficiently low that
society is comfortable with it. Society does not generally consider
expenditure in further reducing such risks justifiable. (**Australian
National** 1994)

**Acceptable Risk:** Degree of humans and material loss that is
perceived as tolerable in actions to minimize disaster risk.
(**Nimpuno** 1998)

**Acceptable Risk:** Risk tolerance.

Given that the provision of absolute safety is impossible, there is
great sense in trying to determine the level of risk which is acceptable
for any activity or situation. Thus, when a hazard is being managed, the
financial and other resources allocated to the task should theoretically
match the degree of threat posed by the hazard, as indicated by the rank
of the risk....

One must always specify acceptable *to whom* and that implies a
conscious decision based on all the available information....

The 1993 floods in the upper Mississippi river basin had an estimated
return period of more than one in 200 years, yet some people who were
flooded asserted that this event should now be regarded as an
unacceptable risk. Such arguments ignore both the economic and social
benefits derived by those communities from their floodplain location
over the previous 100 years or so, when few flood losses occurred, and
the cost to the taxpayer implied in protecting floodplain basins against
a flood of the 1993 magnitude. (**Smith** 1996, 57)

**Acceptable Risk:** Degree of human and material loss that is perceived
by the community or relevant authorities as tolerable in actions to
minimize disaster risk. (**U.N.** 1992, 3)

**Accident: "**The word 'accidental' carries with it the connotations of
both something that occurs by chance and something non-essential or
incidental" (Allinson 1993, 15). "The thesis that 'accidents will
happen' and that therefore nothing can be done to prevent their
occurrence reaches its logical fulfillment in the thesis of Charles
Perrow that accidents are so inevitable and therefore non-preventable
that we are even justified in calling them 'normal'" (**Allinson**,
p.16).

**Accident:** "Unintended damaging event, industrial mishap" (**Disaster
and Emergency Reference Center** 1998).

**Accident:** "An unexpected or undesirable event, especially one
causing injury to a small number of individuals and/or modest damage to
physical structures. Examples would be automotive accidents or damage
from lightning striking a house." (**Drabek** 1996, Session 2, p. 3)

**Accident:** "...situations in which an occasion can be handled
by...emergency organizations. The demands that are made on the community
are within the scope of domain responsibility of the usual emergency
organizations such as police, fire, medical and health personnel. Such
accidents create needs (and damage) which are limited to the accident
scene and so few other community facilities are damaged. Thus, the
emergency response is delimited in both location and to the range of
emergency activities. The primary burden of emergency response falls on
those organizations that incorporate clearly deferred emergency
responsibility into their domains. When the emergency tasks are
completed, there are few vestiges of the accident or lasting effects on
the community structure" (**Dynes** 1998, 117).

**Accident:** "The very language used to describe the \[TMI\] accident
revealed the very diverse perceptions that enter such interpretations.
Was it an accident or an incident? A catastrophe or a mishap? A disaster
or an event? A technical failure or a simple mechanical breakdown?"
(**Nelkin** 1981, 135).

**Accident:** An event which only requires the response of established
organizations -- expansion or actions such as going to extra shifts is
not called for. (**Quarantelli** 1987, 25)

**Accident:** "The evidence...suggests that accidents are not the
product of divine caprice, nor of a set of random chance events which
are not likely to recur, but that they are incidents, created by people,
which can be analyzed, and that the lessons learned from that analysis,
if implemented, will help to prevent similar events from taking place
again." (**Toft** 1992, 58)

**Accident, Technological:** "Technological accidents...are almost never
understood as the way the world of chance sorts itself out. They provoke
outrage rather than acceptance or resignation. They generate a feeling
that the thing ought not have happened, that someone is at fault, that
victims deserve not only compassion and compensation but something akin
to what lawyers call punitive damages." (**Erikson**, 1989, 143)

**Acts of God:** Natural disasters or freak accidents. (**Birkland**
1997, 2.)

"When society seems to have formed a consensus that the event was an
'act of God,' such as a natural disaster or freak accident, our
attention turns to what we can do to help the victims. But when the
disaster is the result of human failings -- poor design, operator error,
'corporate greed,' or 'government neglect' -- our attention turns to the
voluntary acceptance of responsibility for an event or to the more
coercive process of fixing blame. Boards of inquiry are formed,
legislatures hold hearings, and reports are issued, all in hopes of
'learning something from this incident' to ensure that something similar
does not happen again or in the case of 'unavoidable' disasters, in
hopes of improving our preparation for and response to disasters"
(**Birkland** 1997, 2).

**Acts of God:** A fatalistic "syndrome whereby individuals feel no
personal responsibility for hazard response and wish to avoid
expenditure on risk reduction" (**Smith** 1996, 70).

**Alert:** Advisory that hazard is approaching but is less imminent than
implied by warning message. See also "warning". (**U.N.** 1992, 3)

**All-Hazards:** "An approach for prevention, protection, preparedness,
response, and recovery that addresses a full range of threats and
hazards, including domestic terrorist attacks, natural and manmade
disasters, accidental disruptions, and other emergencies." (**DHS,
NIPP** 2006, p. 103)

**All-Hazards Approach:** "An integrated hazard management strategy that
incorporates planning for and consideration of all potential natural and
technological hazards." (**National Science and Technology Council**
2005, 17)

**All-Hazards Preparedness:** "The term 'all-hazards preparedness'
refers to preparedness for domestic attacks, major disasters, and other
emergencies." (HSPD-8, p.1, December, 2003)

**Antiterrorism:** "...generally used to describe passive or defensive
measures against terrorism..." (**Sauter & Carafano** 2005, 261) See,
also, Counterterrorism.

**Assessment:** Survey of a real or potential disaster to estimate the
actual or expected damages and to make recommendations for prevention,
preparedness and response. (**U.N.** 1992, 15)

**Assessment:** Survey of a real or potential disaster to estimate the
actual or expected damages and to make recommendations for preparedness,
mitigation and relief action. (**Reference Center** 1998)

**Avalanche:** Mass of snow and ice falling suddenly down a mountain
slope and often taking with it earth, rocks and rubble of every
description. (**WMO** 1992, 66)

**Base Flood:** A term used in the National Flood Insurance Program to
indicate the minimum size flood to be used by a community as a basis for
its floodplain management regulations; presently required by regulation
to be "that flood which has a one-percent chance of being equaled or
exceeded in any given year." Also known as a 100-year flood or
one-percent chance flood.

**Beaufort Scale:** Numerical scale from 0 to 12, indicating wind force.

0-calm

1-light air

2-light breeze

3-gentle breeze

4-moderate breeze

5-fresh breeze

6-strong breeze

7-strong wind

8-gale

9-strong gale

10-storm

11-violent storm

12-hurricane (**Gunn** 1990, 376; **Reference Center** 1998)

**Blizzard:** Violent winter storm, lasting at least 3 hours, which
combines below freezing temperatures and very strong wind laden with
blowing snow that reduces visibility to less than 1 km. (**WMO** 1992,
86)

**Business Continuity:** "The ability of an organization to continue to
function before, during, and after a disaster." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p.
103)

**Business Continuity:** "...the term business continuity encompasses
the gamut of mechanisms that maintain continuity in business, including
all forms of problem resolution and preventive mechanisms like quality
assurance and security." (**Wainschel** 2006, 54)

**BZPP:** Buffer Zone Protection Program. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 101)

**CAEIAE:** Centers of Academic Excellence in Information Assurance
Education. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 101)

**Calamity:** "A massive or extreme catastrophic disaster that extends
over time and space." Notes the Black Death of the 14^th^ century as an
example. (**Drabek** 1996, Session 2, p.4)

**Capacity Building:** "Building capacities for prevention, preparation
and recovery means learning to assess vulnerabilities, reinforcing
expertise in relevant technical, social and scientific institutions, and
establishing partnerships of mutual learning that extend from
communities and districts to central authorities..." (**Fagen and
Martin** 2005, 12)

**Catastrophe: "**An event in which a society incurs, or is threatened
to incur, such losses to persons and/or property that the entire society
is affected and extraordinary resources and skills are required, some of
which must come from other nations.

**Catastrophe:** "In catastrophic disasters, tens-or-hundreds of
thousands of lives are immediately at risk, State and local resources
may well be exhausted from the onset, and government leaders unable to
determine or communicate their priority needs." (**Carafano** 2005, 2)

An example would be the 1985 Earthquakes in Mexico City and other
Mexican cities. Thousands of people---estimates vary markedly---died and
tens of thousands were injured. At least 100,000 building units were
damaged; reconstruction costs exceeded five billion dollars (with some
estimates running as high as \$10 billion). Over sixty donor nations
contributed to the recovery through programs coordinated by the League
of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies." (**Drabek**1996, Session 2, p.
4; citing Russell R. Dynes, E.L. Quarantelli, and Dennis Wenger. 1990.
*Individual and Organizational Response to the 1985 Earthquake in Mexico
City, Mexico. Newark, Delaware: Disaster Research Center, University of
Delaware*)

**Catastrophe:** "...any disaster that overwhelms the ability of state,
local, and volunteer agencies to adequately provide victims with such
life-sustaining mass care services as food, shelter, and medical
assistance within the first 12 to 24 hours." (**GAO** 1993, 1)

**Catastrophe:** "Catastrophic events are different in the severity of
the damage, number of persons affected, and the scale of preparation and
response required. They quickly overwhelm or incapacitate local and/or
state response capabilities, thus requiring coordinated assistance from
outside the affected area. Thus, the response and recovery capabilities
needed during a catastrophic event differ significantly from those
required to respond to and recover from a 'normal disaster'." (**GAO**
2006, 15)

**Catastrophe:** "...an event that causes \$25 million or more in
insured property losses and affects a significant number of
property-casualty policyholders and insurers." (**Insurance Services
Office** 2000, 2)

**Catastrophe:** An event of such impact upon a community that new
organizations must be created in order to deal with the situation.
(**Quarantelli** 1987, 25)

**Catastrophe:** "...for a given society might be defined as an event
leading to 500 deaths or \$10 million in damages. These figures,
however, are arbitrary since levels of impact mean different things to
different people in different situations. Furthermore, we cannot ignore
the element of scale. It would be a catastrophe for a small community if
every building were totally destroyed by flooding (as occurred in 1993
in Valmeyer, Illinois), but at the global scale, it would be an
insignificant event if only 350 houses were involved...Similarly, \$10
million in damage to some communities would be devastating...,
especially in less wealthy societies, but others would be able to cope
relatively easily" (**Tobin and Montz** 1997, 7).

"...a catastrophe not only disrupts society, but may cause a total
breakdown in day-to-day functioning. One aspect of catastrophes, is that
most community functions disappear; there is no immediate leadership,
hospitals may be damaged or destroyed, and the damage may be so great
and so extensive that survivors have nowhere to turn for help
(Quarantelli, 1994).[^1] In disaster situations, it is not unusual for
survivors to seek help from friends and neighbors, but this cannot
happen in catastrophes. In a disaster, society continues to operate and
it is common to see scheduled events continue..." **Tobin and Montz**
1997, 31).

**Catastrophic Disaster:** An event that results in large numbers of
deaths and injuries; causes extensive damage or destruction of
facilities that provide and sustain human needs; produces an
overwhelming demand on State and local response resources and
mechanisms; causes a severe long-term effect on general economic
activity; and severely affects State, local, and private-sector
capabilities to begin and sustain response activities. Note: the
Stafford Act provides no definition for this term. (**FEMA** 1992, FRP
Appendix B)

**Catastrophic Incident:** "Any natural or manmade incident, including
terrorism, which results in extraordinary levels of mass casualties,
damage,, or disruption severely affecting the population,
infrastructure, environment, economy, and national morale and/or
government functions. A catastrophic event could result in sustained
national impacts over a prolonged period of time; almost immediately
exceeds resources normally available to State, local, tribal, and
private sector authorities; and significantly interrupts governmental
operations and emergency services to such an extent that national
security could be threatened. All catastrophic incidents are considered
Incidents of National Significance." (**DHS** 2004, x)

According to DHS National Response Plan:

"A catastrophic incident results in large numbers of casualties and/or
displaced persons;

The incident may cause significant disruption of the area's critical
infrastructure, including transportation, telecommunications, and public
health and medical systems;

Response activities may have to begin without the benefit of a detailed
or complete situation and needs assessment because a detailed, credible
operating picture may not be possible for 24 to 48 hours of longer after
the incident;

The federal government may have to mobilize and deploy assets before
local and state governments request them via normal protocols because
timely federal support may be necessary to save lives, prevent
suffering, and mitigate severe damage; and,

Large numbers of people may be left temporarily or permanently homeless
and require temporary or longer-term interim housing." (**DHS NRP**
2004, at CAT-3)

**Category 1 hurricane:** The lowest of five levels of relative
hurricane intensity on the Saffir/Simpson hurricane scale. A Category 1
hurricane is defined by winds of 74 to 95 MPH, or a storm surge of 4 to
5 feet above normal. This category normally does not cause real damage
to permanent structures, although damage to unanchored mobile homes,
shrubbery, and trees can be expected. Also some coastal road flooding
and minor pier damage. (**Notification Manual**)

**Category 2 hurricane:** The second of five levels of relative
hurricane intensity on the Saffir/Simpson hurricane scale. A Category 2
hurricane is defined by winds of 96 to 110 MPH, or a storm surge of 6 to
8 feet above normal. This category normally causes some roofing
material, door, and window damage to buildings. Considerable damage to
vegetation, mobile homes, and piers can be expected. Coastal and low
lying escape routes can be expected to flood 2 to 4 hours before arrival
of storm center. Small craft in unprotected anchorages will bread
mooring. (**Notification Manual**)

**Category 3 hurricane:** The third of five levels of relative hurricane
intensity on the Saffir/Simpson hurricane scale. A Category 3 hurricane
is defined by winds of 111 to 130 MPH, or a storm surge of 9 to 12 feet
above normal. This category normally does some structural damage to
small residences and utility buildings, with a minor amount of curtain
wall failures. Mobile homes are destroyed. Flooding near the coast can
be expected to destroy smaller structures, with larger structures
damaged by floating debris. Terrain continuously lower than 5 feet above
sea level may be flooded inland as far as 6 miles. (**Notification
Manual)**

**Category 4 hurricane:** The fourth of five levels of relative
hurricane intensity on the Saffir/Simpson hurricane scale. A Category 4
hurricane is defined by winds of 131 to 155 MPH, or a storm surge of 13
to 18 feet above normal. This category normally causes more extensive
curtain wall failures, with some complete roof structure failure on
small residences. Major erosion will occur at beach areas. Major damage
to lower floors of structures near the shore can be expected. Terrain
continuously lower than 10 feet above sea level may be flooded,
requiring massive evacuation of residential areas inland as far as 6
miles. (**Notification Manual**)

**Category 5 hurricane:** The severest of five levels of relative
hurricane intensity on the Saffir/Simpson hurricane scale. A Category 5
hurricane is defined by winds greater than 155 MPH, or a storm surge
greater than 18 feet above normal. This category normally causes
complete roof failure on many residential and industrial buildings; some
are blown over or away. Major damage to lower floors of all structures
located less than 15 feet above sea level and within 500 yards of the
shoreline can be expected. Massive evacuation of residential areas on
low ground within 5 to 10 miles of the shoreline may be required.
(**Notification Manual**)

**CHEMTREC:** The Chemical Transportation Emergency Center, 24-hour
contact number 1-800-424-9300 in CONUS, 202-483-7616 outside the
continental United States. A service, sponsored by the chemical
industry, which provides two stages of assistance to responders dealing
with potentially hazardous materials. First, on receipt of a call
providing the name of a chemical judged by the responder to be a
potentially hazardous material, CHEMTREC provides immediate advice on
the nature of the chemical product and the steps to be taken in handling
it. Second, CHEMTREC promptly contacts the shipper of the material
involved for more detailed information and on-scene assistance when
feasible. (**DOT** 1993)

**CII:** Critical Infrastructure Information. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p.
101)

**CI/KR:** Critical Infrastructure/Key Resources. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006,
Preface)

**CIPAC:** Critical Infrastructure Partnership Advisory Council. (**DHS,
NIPP** 2006, p. 101)

**Civil Defense (CD):** All activities and measures designed or
undertaken for the following reasons: (a) to minimize the effects upon
the civilian population caused by, or which would be caused by, an
attach upon the United States or by a natural disaster; (b) to deal with
the immediate emergency conditions which would be created by any such
attack or natural disaster; and (c) to effectuate emergency repairs to,
or the emergency restoration of, vital utilities and facilities
destroyed or damaged by any such attack or natural disaster. (FEMA 1990)

**Civil Defense:** The system of measures, usually run by a governmental
agency, to protect the civilian population in wartime, to respond to
disasters, and to prevent and mitigate the consequences of major
emergencies in peacetime. The term "civil defense" is now used
increasingly. (**UN** 1992, 17)

**Civil Disturbances:** Group acts of violence and disorders prejudicial
to public law and order within the 50 States, District of Columbia,
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, U.S. possessions and territories, or any
political subdivision thereof. As more specifically defined in DoD
Directive 3025.12 (Military Support to Civil Authorities), "civil
disturbance" includes all domestic conditions requiring the use of
Federal Armed Forces. (**Title 32 CFR 185**)

**Civil Emergency:** Any natural or manmade disaster or emergency that
causes or could cause substantial harm to the population or
infrastructure. This term can include a "major disaster" or "emergency"
as those terms are defined in the Stafford Act, as amended, as well as
consequences of an attack or a national security emergency. Under 42
U.S.C. 5121, the terms "major disaster" and "emergency" are defined
substantially by action of the President in declaring that extant
circumstances and risks justify his implementation of the legal powers
provided by those statutes. (**Title 32 CFR 185**)

**Civil Protection:** "The phrase 'civil protection' has gradually come
into use around the world as a term that describes activities which
protect civil populations against incidents and disasters (Mauro,
1996)....Civil protection has gradually and rather haltingly emerged
from the preceding philosophy of civil defense." (**Alexander**, 2002,
4)

**Community Awareness and Emergency Response (CAER):** A program
developed by the Chemical Manufacturers Association providing guidance
for chemical plant managers to assist them in taking the initiative in
cooperating with local communities to develop integrated
(community/industry) hazardous materials emergency plans. (**FEMA**
1990)

**Comprehensive Emergency Management:** \"Comprehensive Emergency
Management means integrating all actors, in all phases of emergency
activity, for all types of disasters.\" (**NGA** 1978, 111)

**Comprehensive Emergency Management:** \"CEM refers to a state\'s
responsibility and unique capability to manage all types of disasters by
coordinating wide-ranging actions of numerous agencies. The
\'comprehensive\' aspect of CEM includes all four phases of disaster
activity: mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery for all risks
\-- attack, man-made, and natural \-- in a federal-state-local operating
partnership.\" (**NGA** 1978, 203)

**Comprehensive Emergency Management:** An integrated approach to the
management of emergency programs and activities for all four emergency
phases (mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery), for all types
of emergencies and disasters and for all levels of government and the
private sector.

**Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act
(CERCLA):** Public Law 96-510, as amended. More popularly known as
"Superfund," CERCLA provides authority for Federal and State governments
to respond directly to hazardous substances incidents. (**FEMA** 1992,
Appendix C)

**Conflict Hazards:** War, acts of terrorism, civil unrest, riots, and
revolutions.

**Consequence:** "The result of a terrorist attack or other hazard that
reflects the level, duration, and nature of the loss resulting from the
incident. For the purposes of the NIPP, consequences are divided into
four main categories: public health and safety, economic, psychological,
and governance." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 103)

**Consequence:** The outcome of an event or situation expressed
qualitatively or quantitatively, being a loss, injury, disadvantage or
gain. (S**tandards** 1995)

**Consequence Analysis:** The estimation of the effect of potential
hazardous events. (**New South Wales** 1989).

**Consequence Management (C^O^M):** Involves measures to alleviate the
damage, loss, hardship, or suffering caused by emergencies. It includes
measures to restore essential government services, protect public health
and safety, and provide emergency relief to affected governments,
businesses, and individuals. (**FEMA**, *Weapons of Mass
Destruction-Nuclear Scenario)*

**Consequence Management:** "Relative to terrorism incident operations,
measures to protect public health and safety, restore essential
government services, and provide emergency relief to governments,
businesses and individuals affected by the consequences of terrorism."
(**FEMA** *Disaster Dictionary* 2001, 22; cites Federal Response Plan,
"Terrorism Incident Annex.")

**Contingency Planning:** "Asking about all the 'what if's that might
occur in the activities of an organization and the dangers faced in the
external environment." (**Lerbinger** 1997, 267)

**Continuity of Government:** All measures that may be taken to ensure
the continuity of essential functions of governments in the event of
emergency conditions, including line-of-succession for key
decision-makers.

**Continuity of Government (COG):** "The preservation, maintenance, or
reconstitution of civil government's ability to carryout the executive,
legislative and judicial processes under the threat or occurrence of any
emergency condition that could disrupt such process and services."
(**Homeland Defense Journal** 2004, 26)

**Continuity of Operations (COOP):** "The ability to recover and provide
services sufficient to meet the minimal needs of users of the
system/agency. This ability to continue essential agency functions
across a wide spectrum of emergencies will not necessarily limit COG
functions." (**Homeland Defense Journal** 2004, 26)

**Counterterrorism:** "...usually describes proactive measures,
including targeting terrorist personnel and supporters" (as opposed to
Antiterrorism). (**Sauter & Carafano** 2005, 261)

**Crisis:** "...a decisive or critical moment or turning point when
things can take a dramatic turn, normally for the worse..."
(**Allinson** 1993, 93; based upon *Webster's New International
Dictionary, Unabridged*, 2^nd^ ed.)

**Crisis:** Short period of extreme danger, acute emergency. (**D&E**
Reference Center 1998)

**Crisis:** "Crises involve events and processes that carry severe
threat, uncertainty, an unknown outcome, and urgency...Most crises have
trigger points so critical as to leave historical marks on nations,
groups, and individual lives. Crises are historical points of reference,
distinguishing between the past and the present....Crises come in a
variety of forms, such as terrorism (New York World Trade Center and
Oklahoma bombings), natural disasters (Hurricanes Hugo and Andrew in
Florida, the Holland and Bangladesh flood disasters), nuclear plant
accidents (Three-Mile Island and Chernobyl), riots (Los Angeles riot and
the Paris riot of 1968, or periodic prison riots), business crises, and
organizational crises facing life-or-death situations in a time of rapid
environmental change....Crises consist of a 'short chain of events that
destroy or drastically weaken' a condition of equilibrium and the
effectiveness of a system or regime within a period of days, weeks, or
hours rather than years....Surprises characterize the dynamics of crisis
situations...Some crises are processes of events leading to a level of
criticality or degree of intensity generally out of control. Crises
often have past origins, and diagnosing their original sources can help
to understand and manage a particular crisis or lead it to alternative
state of condition" (**Farazmand** 2001, 3-4)

**Crisis:** "...an event and/or a situation which endangers the
established system, the health, life, and property of its members....the
term 'crisis' is treated as being separated from...other concepts based
on the intensity and scope of influence. The terms *disaster, hazard,
accident*, etc., refer to only one event and/or situation, while
*crisis* includes the concepts of natural disasters,
man-made/technological disasters, and social disasters." (**Kim and
Lee** 2001, 502)

**Crisis:** "Crises act as *focusing events*, demanding public attention
to a policy failure or problem...A great war, a major depression, or an
epidemic may set into motion a number of important changes in public
policies." (**Nice and Grosse** 2001, 55)

**Crisis:** "...a hard and complicated situation...or a turning
point---a decisive crucial time/event, or a time of great danger or
trouble with the possibilities of both good and bad outcomes"
(**Porfiriev** 1995, 291-292).

**Crisis:** "A collective crisis can be conceptualized as having three
interrelated features: (1) a threat of some kind, involving something
that the group values; (2) when the occasion occurs it is relatively
unexpected, being abrupt, at least in social time; and (3) the need to
collectively react for otherwise the effects are seen as likely to be
even more negative if nothing is done sooner or later\..."
(**Quarantelli** 1998, 257).

**Crisis:** "...a situation that, left unaddressed, will jeopardize the
organization's ability to do business." (**Ziaukas** 2001, 246; citing
other sources)

**Crisis Management:** In the literature that exists so far, the term
"crisis management" has been widely employed. But this terminology is
ambiguous. "Crisis management" can be taken to refer either to managing
a crisis after it has arisen---that is, intervening in a crisis
situation---or managing in such a way that a crisis does not arise in
the first place. The blanket term "crisis management" is thus a
conceptual blanket that covers a multitude of sins. It is best to avoid
the usage of such a label, since the inclusion of the word "management"
in such a label implies that the process so labeled is envisioned as a
*solution* to the problem of crises in general. This, however, is not
really the case. At best, so-called crisis management addresses only
crises that have already arisen and usually only when such crises have
become either imminent or already actualized disasters. (**Allinson**
1993,

92\)

Since "crisis management" is used in the literature to refer for the
most part to either how one responds to an existent crisis or how one
might anticipate crises and therefore be able to respond to them, crisis
management most often connotes crisis intervention management whether
after the onset of the disaster or in anticipation of a disaster. In
either of these two modes, it is nevertheless a "band-aid" approach
since it either comes into effect after the wound or primarily addresses
itself to having a band-aid ready to cover the wound immediately so that
the wound does not bleed overly much. (**Allinson** 1993, 93)

**Crisis Management:** Coordination of actions during acute emergency.
(**D&E Reference Center** 1998)

**Crisis Management:** "Key to crisis management is an accurate and
timely diagnosis of the criticality of the problems and the dynamics of
events that ensue. This requires knowledge, skills, courageous
leadership full of risk-taking ability; and vigilance. Successful crisis
management also requires motivation, a sense of urgency, commitment, and
creative thinking with a long-term strategic vision. In managing crises,
established organizational norms, culture, rules and procedures become
major obstacles: administrators and bureaucrats tend to protect
themselves by playing a bureaucratic game and hiding behind
organizational and legal shelters. A sense of urgency gives way to
inertia and organizational sheltering and self-protection by managers
and staff alike....Successful crisis management requires: (1) sensing
the urgency of the matter; (2) thinking creatively and strategically to
solving the crisis; (3) taking bold actions and acting courageously and
sincerely; (4) breaking away from the self-protective organizational
culture by taking risks and actions that may produce optimum solutions
in which there would be no significant losers; and (5) maintaining a
continuous presence in the rapidly changing situation with unfolding
dramatic events. (**Farazmand** 2001, 4)

**Crisis Management(C^R^M):** Involves measures to resolve the hostile
situation, investigate, and prepare a criminal case for prosecution
under federal law. (**FEMA** 1998)

**Crisis Management:** "Measures to identify, acquire, and plan the use
of resources needed to anticipate, prevent, and/or resolve a threat or
act of terrorism." (**FEMA** *Disaster Dictionary*, 2001, 26; citing
FEMA FRP, "Terrorism Incident Annex")

**Critical Infrastructure:** "Assets, systems, and networks, whether
physical or virtual, so vital to the United States that the incapacity
or destruction of such assets, systems, or networks would have a
debilitating impact on security, national economic security, public
health or safety, or any combination of those matters." (**DHS, NIPP**
2006, p. 103)

**Critical Infrastructure:** "Systems and assets, whether physical of
virtual, so vital to the United States that the incapacity or
destruction of such systems and assets would be a debilitating impact on
security, national economic security, national public health or safety,
or any combination of athose matters." (**Patriot Act**, Sec. 1016(e))

**Critical Infrastructure:**

Information Technology

Telecommunications

Chemicals

Transportation Systems

Emergency Services

Postal and Shipping

Agriculture and Food

Public Health

Water and Waste Water

Energy

Banking and Finance

National Monuments and Icons

Defense Industrial Base (**HSPD 7, 2003**)

**Critical Infrastructure Partnership Advisory Council:** "CIPAC is a
partnership between government and private sector CI/KF \[critical
infrastructure and key resources\] owners and operators that facilitates
effective coordination of Federal CI/KR protection programs...DHS
published a Federal Register Notice on March 24, 2006, announcing the
establishment of CIPAC as a Federal Advisory Committee Act (FACA) exempt
body pursuant to section 871 of the Homeland Security Act..." **(DHS,
NIPP, 2006, p. 27)**

**CSIA IWG:** Cyber Security and Information Assurance Interagency
Working Group. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 101)

**CSIRT:** Computer Security Incident Response Teams. (**DHS, NIPP**
2006, p. 101)

**Cyber Security:** "The prevention of damage to, unauthorized use of,
or exploitation of, and, if needed, the restoration of electronic
information and communications systems and the information contained
therein to ensure confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Includes
protection and restoration, when needed, of information networks and
wireline, wireless, satellite, public safety answering points, and 911
communications systems and control systems." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p.
103)

**Damage Assessment:** The process utilized to determine the magnitude
of damage and the unmet needs of individuals, businesses, the public
sector, and the community caused by a disaster or emergency event.

**Damage Classification:** Evaluation and recording of damage to
structures, facilities, or objects according to three (or more)
categories:

1.  "Severe Damage" - which precludes further use of the structure,
    facility, or abject for its intended purpose.

2.  "Moderate Damage" - or the degree of damage to principal members,
    which precludes effective use of the structure, facility, or object
    for its intended purpose, unless major repairs are made short of
    complete reconstruction.

3.  "Light Damage" - such as broken windows, slight damage to roofing
    and siding, interior partitions blown down, and cracked walls; the
    damage is not severe enough to preclude use of the installation for
    the purpose for which it was intended. (**U.N**. 1992, 19)

**Declaration:** The formal action by the President to make a State
eligible for major disaster or emergency assistance under the Robert T.
Stafford Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, Public Law 93-288, as
amended.

**Defense Emergency Response Fund:** Established by Public Law 101-165
(1989). That law provides that, "The Fund shall be available for
providing reimbursement to currently applicable appropriations of the
Department of Defense for supplies and services provided in anticipation
of requests from other Federal departments and agencies and from State
and local governments for assistance on a reimbursable basis to respond
to natural or manmade disasters. The Fund may be used upon a
determination by the Secretary of Defense that immediate action is
necessary before a formal request for assistance on a reimbursable basis
is received." The Fund is applicable to military support to civil
authorities (MSCA) under DoD Directive 3025.1 and to foreign disaster
assistance under DoD Directive 5100.46. (32 CFR 185)

**DHS:** U.S. Department of Homeland Security.

**Disaster:** An event that requires resources beyond the capability of
a community and requires a multiple agency response. (Unknown source)

**Disaster:** The result of a hazard impacting a community. (Unknown
source)

**Disaster:** "For insurance purposes a disaster is defined
internationally as an event that causes at least US\$5 million in
reimbursable losses." (**Alexander**, no date, 4)

**Disaster:** "The distinction between natural hazards or disasters and
their manmade (or technological) counterparts is often difficult to
sustain...we are dealing with a physical event which makes an impact on
human beings and their environment...a **natural disaster** can be
defined as some rapid, instantaneous or profound impact of the natural
environment upon the socio-economic system" (**Alexander** 1993, 4).

**Disaster:** "The label 'disaster' rather than 'accident' carries with
it not only the implication that...an event...was of extraordinary
misfortune...but also the implication that it could (unlike most
accidents) have been prevented...disasters are events which fall within
our scope of concern to prevent and in principle are events which may be
prevented, and that we have a consequent obligation to attempt to
prevent them" (**Allinson** 1993, 168-169).

**Disaster:** "...**Allen Barton** characterized disaster as a type of
collective stress situation in which 'many members of a social system
fail to receive expected conditions of life from the system' (1969: 38).
For Barton, what distinguishes disasters from other types of collective
stress, such as war, is that the sources of disasters are external
rather than internal." (Tierney, Lindell and Perry 2001, 9)

**Disaster:** "Disasters are fundamentally social phenomena; they
involve the intersection of the physical processes of a hazard agent
with the local characteristics of everyday life in a place and larger
social and economic forces that structure that realm" (**Bolin with
Stanford** 1998, 27).

> "Disasters are easily characterized as unfortunate things that happen
> from time to time to people and their cities. What is missing in this
> view is any understanding of the ways that political and economic
> forces create conditions that result in an earthquake having
> disastrous impacts for *some* people and communities...
>
> "The disruptions of a disaster can unmask social inequalities and the
> injustices that accompany them...Too often...disasters become the
> basis for rebuilding social inequalities and perhaps deepening them,
> thus setting the stage for the next disaster" (**Bolin with Stanford**
> 1998, 2).
>
> "Disasters, from a vulnerability perspective, are understood as bound
> up in the specific histories and socio-cultural practices of the
> affected people taken in the context of their political and economic
> systems" (**Bolin with Stanford** 1998, 8).
>
> "The value of a vulnerability approach \[to the study of hazards and
> disasters\] lies in its openness to cultural specificity, social
> variability, diversity, contingency, and local agency" (**Bolin with
> Stanford** 1998, 20).
>
> "A vulnerability approach \[to hazards and disasters\] directs
> attention back to people and the common everyday aspects of their
> lives that make them more or less likely to be caught up in a
> disaster" (**Bolin with Stanford** 1998, 20).
>
> "It is the local struggles and strategies that can provide lessons for
> dealing with disaster across a range of societal contexts....Too often
> disaster research proceeds with the 'view from above'" (**Bolin with
> Stanford** 1998, 20).

"Disasters and other environmental problems are too often treated, not
as symptoms of more basic political and economic processes, but rather
as accidents whose effects can be remedied by sufficient application of
technical skill and knowledge" (**Bolin with Stanford** 1998, 231).

**Disaster:** "A disaster is...an event associated with the impact of a
natural hazard, which leads to increased mortality, illness and/or
injury, and destroys or disrupts livelihoods, affecting the people or an
area such that they (and/or outsiders) perceive it as being exceptional
and requiring external assistance for recovery" (**Cannon** 1994, 29,
fn.2).

"Many people now accept that human activity itself has created the
conditions for disaster events. This is partly because of growing
awareness that through negligence or inappropriate response, the
workings of social systems have made a disaster out of a situation which
otherwise might not have been so serious. There has also been a growth
in understanding that it is *hazards* that are natural, but that for a
hazard to become a disaster it has to affect vulnerable people"
(**Cannon** 1994, 16).

**Disaster:** "Not every windstorm, earth-tremor, or rush of water is a
catastrophe. A catastrophe is known by its works; that is to say, by the
occurrence of disaster. So long as the ship rides out the storm, so long
as the city resists the earth-shocks, so long as the levees hold, there
is no disaster. It is the collapse of the cultural protections that
constitutes the disaster proper" (**Carr** 1932, 211).

"Carr's conclusion signifies that disasters are the result of human
activities, not of natural or supranatural forces. Disasters are simply
the collapse of cultural protections; thus, they are principally
man-made. Deductively, mankind is responsible for the consequences of
his actions as well as of his omissions" (**Dombrowsky** 1998, 24-25).

**Disaster:** "A disaster is an emergency considered severe enough by
local government to warrant the response and dedication of resources
beyond the normal scope of a single jurisdiction or branch of local
government." (**Carroll** 2001, 467)

**Disaster:** "An event, natural or man-made, sudden or progressive,
which impacts with such severity that the affected community has to
respond by taking exceptional measures." (**Carter** 1991)

**Disaster:** "...a *disaster* is a singular event that results in
widespread losses to people, infrastructure, or the environment.
Disasters originate from many sources, just as hazards do (natural
systems, social systems, technology failures). (**Cutter** 2001, 3)

**Disaster:** Calamity beyond the coping capacity of the effected
population, triggered by natural or technological hazards or by human
action. (**D&E Reference Center** 1998)

**Disaster:** "Disasters do not cause effects. The effects are what we
call a disaster" (**Dombrowsky** 1998, 21).

**Disaster: "**An event in which a community undergoes severe danger and
incurs, or is threatened to incur, such losses to persons and/or
property that the resources available within the community are exceeded.
In disasters, resources from beyond the local jurisdiction, that is
State or Federal level, are required to meet the disaster demands."
(**Drabek** 1996, 2-4)

**Disaster:** "I argue that disaster is a social, rather than a
'natural,' happening. Thus, any effort at disaster reduction involves
planning and action by various social units." (**Dynes** 1993, 175) And,
"...disasters are qualitatively as well as quantitatively different from
accidents and everyday emergencies." (pp. 178-179)

**Disaster:** "A disaster is a normatively defined occasion in a
community when extraordinary efforts are taken to protect and benefit
some social resource whose existence is perceived as threatened"
(**Dynes** 1998, 113).

**Disaster:** Differentiating a disaster from an accident "is the
extensiveness of the involvement of organizations and other segments
within the community...In a community disaster, the pattern of damage
may extend to several different places in the community rather than
being focalized as it is within a community accident. Also, a number of
community structures, perhaps including those that might house the
traditional emergency organizations, might be damaged or
destroyed....The increased involvement of other nonemergency
organizations then creates the need for coordination of activity and for
new patterns of communication among parts of the community that
previously had no reason to communicate" (**Dynes** 1998, 119).

**Disaster:** "What is a disaster anyway? In social science usage as
well as in everyday speech...it is a sharp and furious eruption of some
kind that splinters the silence for one terrible moment and then goes
away. A Disaster is an 'event' with a distinct beginning and a distinct
end, and it is by definition extraordinary -- a freak of nature, a
perversion of the natural processes of life...the two distinguishing
properties of a disaster are, first, that it does a good deal of harm,
and, second, that it is sudden, unexpected, acute." (**Erikson** 1976,
253)

> "...instead of classifying a condition as a *trauma* because it was
> induced by a disaster, we would classify an event as *disaster* if it
> had the property of bringing about traumatic reactions. According to
> the terms of this rule, any event or condition that could be shown to
> produce trauma on a large scale would have earned a place on the
> current roster of 'disasters'." (**Erikson** 1976, 254)

**Disaster:** An occurrence that has resulted in property damage,
deaths, and /or injuries to a community. (**FEMA** 1990, *Definitions
and* Terms, Instruction 5000.2)

**Disaster:** Any event "concentrated in time and space, in which a
society of a relatively self-sufficient subdivision of society,
undergoes severe danger and incurs such losses to its members and
physical appurtenances that the social structure is disrupted and the
fulfillment of all or some of the essential functions of the society is
prevented" (**Fritz** 1961, 655)

**Disaster:** "...a situation involving damage and/or loss of lives
beyond one million German marks and/or 1,000 person killed." (**German
insurance industry**. Dombrosky's words (1998, 20))

**Disaster:** "...such severe interference of the public order and
safety that in intervention of the centralized, coordinated disaster
protection units is necessary." (**German law**. Dombrowsky 1998, 20
citing Seeck 1980, 1)[^2]

**Disaster:** An "extraordinary situation in which the everyday lives of
people are suddenly interrupted and thus protection, nutrition,
clothing, housing, medical and social aid or other vital necessities are
requested." (**German Red Cross**. Dombrowsky 1998, 20, citing
Katastrophen-Vorschrift 1988, 2)[^3]

**Disaster:** The result of (1) the impact of external forces, (2)
social vulnerability, or (3) uncertainty. (**Gilbert**, 1991)[^4]

**Disaster:** "the loss of key standpoints in common sense, and
difficulty of understanding reality through ordinary mental frameworks"
(**Gilbert** 1995, 238).

**Disaster:** "The result of a vast ecological breakdown in the
relations between man and his environment, a serious and sudden event
(or slow, as in drought) on such a scale that the stricken community
needs extraordinary efforts to cope with it, often with outside help or
international aid." (**Gunn** 1990, 374)

**Disaster:** "Disasters are subjective phenomena. They arise from the
behavior of complex systems, are perceived and take place in a specific
socio-economic, historical, cultural and chronological context."
(**Horlick-Jones and Peters** 1991a, 147)

**Disaster:** "...disasters arise from the exposure of vulnerable
populations to hostile environments generated by the failure of complex
systems...such systems are made vulnerable to failure by the complex
interplay of factors including elements of the political economy
environment in which the system is embedded." (**Horlick-Jones and
Peters** 1991b, 41)

**Disaster:** Events that "...release repressed anxiety \[and constitute
a\] loss of control of social order" (**Horlick-Jones** 1995, 305).[^5]

**Disaster:** A disaster is an *event* concentrated in time and space,
in which a society or one of its subdivisions undergoes physical harm
and social disruption, such that all or some essential functions of the
society or subdivision are impaired (**Kreps** 1995, 256).

**Disaster:** "Disasters are non-routine events in societies or their
larger subdivisions (e.g. regions, communities) that involve social
disruption **and** physical harm. Among the key defining properties of
such events are (1) length of forewarning, (2) magnitude of impact, (3)
scope of impact, and (4) duration of impact" (**Kreps** 1998, 34).

**Disasters:** "...disasters are conjunctions of historical happenings
and social definitions of physical harm and social disruption"
(**Kreps** 1998, 34).

**Disaster:** "...consensus-type social crisis occasions wherein demands
are exceeding resources and emergent responses may generate social
change....the idea of social change is introduced to correct what is
identified as a predisposition to focus on disasters as necessarily
dysfunctional" \[when there are "winners" as well\]. (Summary of "the
generic perspective" by **Kroll-Smith and Couch** 1991, 357.)

**Disaster:** "When viewed from an ecological-symbolic perspective, the
real issue is not the quality of the disaster agent per se, but whether
or not it significantly alters the relationship between a community, its
built, modified or biophysical environments, and how people interpret
and experience the changes in those environments" (**Kroll-Smith and
Couch** 1991, 361).

**Disaster:** "...disaster must not be seen like the meteorite that
falls out of the sky on an innocent world; the disaster, most often, is
anticipated, and on multiple occasions." (**Lagadec** 1982, 495)

**Disaster:** "An occurrence or threat of widespread or severe damage,
injury, or loss of property resulting from a natural or human-made
cause, including, but not limited to, fire, flood, snowstorm, ice storm,
tornado, windstorm, wave action, oil spill, water contamination, utility
failure, hazardous peacetime radiological incident, major transportation
accident, hazardous materials incident, epidemic, air contamination,
blight, drought, infestation, explosion, or hostile military action, or
paramilitary action, or similar occurrences resulting from terrorist
activities, riots, or civil disorders." (**Michigan EMD** 1998, 5)

**Disaster:** "Disasters, in contrast to risks and hazards, are singular
or interactive hazard events...that have a profound impact on local
people or places either in terms of injuries, property damages, loss of
life, or environmental impacts" (**Mitchell and Cutte**r 1997, 10).

**Disaster:** "A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or
a society causing widespread human, material, economic or environmental
losses which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to
cope using its own resources." (**National Science and Technology
Council** 2005, 17)

**Disaster:** "Disasters are the interface between an extreme physical
event and a vulnerable population." (**Okeefe** et al 1976, 566)

**Disaster:** "In graphic ways, disasters signal the failure of a
society to adapt successfully to certain features of its natural and
socially constructed environments in a sustainable fashion"
(**Oliver-Smith** 1996, 303).

**Disaster:** "...a process involving the combination of a potentially
destructive agent(s) from the natural, modified and/or constructed
environment and a population in a socially and economically produced
condition of vulnerability, resulting in a perceived disruption of the
customary relative satisfactions of individual and social needs for
physical survival, social order and meaning" (**Oliver-Smith** 1998,
186)

"A disaster is made inevitable by the historically produced pattern of
vulnerability, evidenced in the location, infrastructure, sociopolitical
structure, production patterns, and ideology, that characterize a
society. The society's pattern of vulnerability is an essential element
of a disaster. (**Oliver-Smith** 1998, 187).

"...a disaster is at some basic level a social construction, its essence
to be found in the organization of communities, rather than in an
environmental phenomenon with destructive or disruptive effects for a
society" (**Oliver-Smith** 1998, 181).

**Disaster:** "A major natural disaster, in the sociological sense, can
be thought of as a failure of the social systems constituting a
community to adapt to an environmental event...It should also be viewed
as the failure to develop and distribute, among other things, technology
in the form of housing and community infrastructure capable of
withstanding such an event" (**Peacock/Ragsdale** 1997, 24).

**Disaster:** The result of negative social and environmental impacts,
state (condition) of collective stress in a community, or a
contradiction between the capacity to cope with destructive agents and
their negative impacts. (C**. Pelanda**, 1982[^6] according to Porfiriev
1995, 287-288.)

**Disaster:** "A disaster is a non-routine event that exceeds the
capacity of the affected area to respond to it in such a way as to save
lives; to preserve property; and to maintain the social, ecological,
economic, and political stability of the affected region." (**Pearce**
2000, Chapter 2, 5)

**Disaster:** "...a state/condition destabilizing the social system that
manifests itself in a malfunctioning or disruption of connections and
communications between its elements or social units (communities, social
groups and individuals); partial or total destruction/demolition;
physical and psychological overloads suffered by some of these elements;
thus making it necessary to take extraordinary or emergency
countermeasures to reestablish stability" (**Porfiriev** 1995, 291)

**Disaster:** "Disasters occur when the demands for action exceed the
capabilities for response in a crisis situation" (**Quarantelli** 1985,
50).

**Disaster:** An event in which emergency organizations need to expand
and extend themselves (such as going to extra shifts) in order to cope.
(**Quarantelli** 1987, 25)

**Disaster:** "Apparently the word etymologically entered the English
language from a work in French (desastre), which in turn was a
derivation from two Latin words (dis, astro), which combined meant,
roughly, formed on a star. So, in its early usage, the word disaster had
reference to unfavorable or negative effects, usually of a personal
nature, resulting from a star or a planet....In time, the word disaster
was applied more to major physical disturbances such as earthquakes and
floods, or what came to be traditionally known as Acts of God. With the
spread of more secular and non-religious ideologies, nature was
increasingly substituted for the supernatural and the tern natural
disaster came to the fore" (**Quarantelli** 1987, 8).

**Disaster:** "...earthquakes are quite harmless until you decide to put
millions of people and two trillion dollars in real estate atop scissile
fault zones" (**Riesner** 1993, 501).

**Disaster:** "A situation created by natural and or man-made events,
other than war or internal strife which demands total integration and
co-ordination, by those responsible for administration of the affected
region including: 1. all rescue, relief and life support systems
required to meet the needs of the victims, essential transportation and
communication systems. 2. repairs to the infrastructure. 3.
post-disaster rehabilitation and recovery." (**Ritchie**, et al. 2001,
2)

**Disaster:** "In the traditional view of disasters, two categories of
*conditions* appear to be dominant. Self-evidently, the scourge of God
together with social or political negligence have traditionally served
as the principle conditions of natural disasters. Gradually, negligence
has given way to more specific conditions such as deficiencies in
mitigatory policies and preparatory measures" (**Rosenthal** 1998, 148).

"...a great many official investigations as well as public opinion still
cling to technical failure or human error as the number one cause of
man-made disaster. In determining the conditions of disaster, technical
failures often take its place as an appropriate substitute for the act
of God, whereas human error reflects the inherent weaknesses of
mankind..." (**Rosenthal** 1998, 149).

"...mediazation...\[creates\] a new category of disasters and crises
which is characterized by extreme collective stress rather than fatal
casualties or significant physical damage" (**Rosenthal** 1998, 157).

**Disaster:** A Condition or situation of significant destruction,
disruption and/or distress to a community. (**Salter** 1997--98, 27)

**Disaster:** All events which cause at least 100 human deaths, 100
human injuries, or US \$1 million economic damages. (**Sheehan and
Hewitt** 1969, p. 20)

**Disaster:** The occurrence of a sudden or major misfortune which
disrupts the basic fabric and normal functioning of a society (or
community). An event or series of events which gives rise to casualties
and/or damage or loss of property, infrastructure, essential services or
means of livelihood on a scale which is beyond the normal capacity of
the affected communities to cope with unaided. Disaster is sometimes
also used to describe a catastrophic situation in which the normal
patterns of life (or eco-systems) have been disrupted and extraordinary,
emergency interventions are required to save and preserve human lives
and/or the environment. Disasters are frequently categorized according
to their perceived causes and speed of impact. A disaster occurs when a
disruption reaches such proportions that there are injuries, deaths, or
property damage, and when a disruption affects many or all of the
community's essential functions, such as water supply, electrical power,
roads, and hospitals. Also, people affected by a disaster may need
assistance to alleviate their suffering. (**Simeon Institute**)

**Disaster:** "...a disaster may be seen as 'the realization of hazard',
although there is no universally agreed definition of the scale on which
loss has to occur in order to qualify as a disaster" (**Smith** 1996,
5).

"Natural disasters...result from the conflict of geophysical processes
with people. This interpretation gives humans a central role. First,
through location, because it is only when people, their possessions and
what they value get in the way of natural processes that a risk of
disaster exists. Second, through perception, because humans place
subjective judgments on natural processes as part of a general
environmental appraisal whenever they settle and use land" (**Smith**
1996, 10).

"...a disaster generally results from the interaction, in time and
space, between the physical exposure to a hazardous process and a
vulnerable human population" (**Smith** 1996, 22).

**Disaster:** "...disasters are significant events...The disruption
associated with disaster is, by customary standards, non-trivial.
Disasters are neither confined to isolated subsystems (a single
household) nor are they of fleeting duration....Disasters involve the
disruption of important societal routines....If damage could be
prevented or reduced through human protective action, then
disaster---the physical consequence of the intersection of society and
natural forces---would not exist. Disaster is a function of
knowledge...When knowledge is adequate, no external force can produce
disaster; ships ride out storms, buildings shake but do not collapse in
earthquakes, flood levees hold, etc...When knowledge is inadequate,
disaster results" (**Stallings** 1998, 128-129).

"Disasters affect entire societies; they are neither trivial nor
confined to localized social units. Disasters involve the disruption of
everyday routines to the extent that stability is threatened without
remedial action. Increasingly significant is the loss of certainty and
the undermining of faith in orderliness. The state is a major
institution for supplying counter-measures when routines are disrupted"
(Stallings 1998, 131).

> "...in practice the definition \[of disaster\] will always have a
> physical component. The physical properties of events are triggers for
> disaster researchers..." (**Stallings** 1998, 132).

**Disaster:** "Disasters are the interface between an extreme physical
event and a vulnerable human population." (**Susman** et al, 1983)

**Disaster:** "catastrophic events that (a) interfere severely with
everyday life, disrupt communities, and often cause extensive loss of
life and property, (b) overtax local resources, and (c) create problems
that continue far longer than those that arise from the normal
vicissitudes of life" (**Taylor** 1989, 10).

**Disaster:** "Disasters originate in the fact that all societies
regularly face geophysical, climatological, and technological events
that reveal their physical and social vulnerabilities." (**Tierney,
Lindell and Perry** 2001, 4)

**Disaster:** "A *disaster* is usually defined as an event that has a
large impact on society" (**Tobin and Montz** 1997, 6).

**Disaster:** An event, concentrated in time and space which threatens a
society or a relatively self-sufficient subdivision of a society with
major unwanted consequences as a result of the collapse of precautions
which had hitherto been accepted as adequate. (**Turner**)

**Disaster:** "A serious disruption of the functioning of society,
causing widespread human, material, or environmental losses which exceed
the ability of affected society to cope using only its own resources."
(**U.N. Glossary** 1992, 21)

**Disaster:** "A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or
a society causing widespread human, material, economic or environmental
losses which exceed the ability of the affected community/society to
cope using its own resources." (**U.N. ISDR** 2002, 24)

**Disaster:** A "sudden and extraordinary misfortune" to signify the
actual onset of a calamity (Allinson 1993, 93; referring to ***Webster's
New International Dictionary**, Unabridged*, 2^nd^ edition).

**Disaster:** "...any happening that causes great harm or damage;
serious or sudden misfortune; calamity. Disaster implies great or sudden
misfortune that results in loss of life, property, etc. or that is
ruinous to an undertaking; calamity suggests a grave misfortune that
brings deep distress or sorrow to an individual or to the people at
large" (**Webster's *New World Dictionary of the American Language***).

**Disaster Agent:** "A class or category of phenomena that cause
disasters, such as hurricanes, tornadoes, or explosions. Hurricane
Andrew is a specific disaster event which reflected one of the classes
of disaster agents, that is, hurricanes. Andrew is the disaster,
hurricane is the disaster agent." **(Drabek** 1996, Session 2, p.6)

**Disaster, Ecological:** Events "that are caused principally by human
beings and that initially affect, in a major way, the earth, its
atmosphere, and its flora and fauna." (**Drabek and Hoetmer** 1991, xxi)

**Disaster Epidemiology:** The medical discipline that studies the
influence of such factors as the life style, biological constitution and
other personal or social determinants on the incidence and distribution
of disease as it concerns disasters. (**U.N.** 1992, 22)

**Disaster Management:** The entire process of planning and intervention
to reduce disasters as well as the response and recovery measures. It is
a neglected element of development planning. (**D&E Reference Center**
1998)

**Disaster Management:** "Disaster management is the process of forming
common objectives and common values in order to encourage participants
to plan for and deal with potential and actual disasters." (**Pearce**,
2000, Chapter 2, 11)

"A process that assists communities to respond, both pre- and
post-disaster, in such a way as to save lives, to preserve property; and
to maintain the ecological, economic, and political stability of the
impacted region." (**Pearce** 2000, Chapter 5, p. 6)

**Disaster Management:** The body of policy and administrative decisions
and operational activities which pertain to the various stages of a
disaster at all levels. (**UN** 1992, 22)

**Disaster, Natural:** "A natural disaster is a serious disruption to a
community or region caused by the impact of a naturally occurring rapid
onset event that threatens or causes death, injury or damage to property
or the environment and which requires significant and coordinated
multi-agency and community response. Such serious disruption can be
caused by any one, or a combination, of the following natural hazards:
bushfire; earthquake; flood; storm; cyclone; storm surge; landslide;
tsunami; meteorite strike; or tornado." (Australian Government 2002, 1)

**Disaster, Natural:** "'Natural' disasters have more to do with the
social, political, and economic aspects of society than they do with the
environmental hazards that trigger them. Disasters occur at the
interface of vulnerable people and hazardous environments" (**Bolin**
with Stanford 1998, Preface).

**Disaster, Natural:** "While human actions generally cannot cause an
earthquake in the sense of doing something to provoke fault movement,
they are often critically involved in the disaster that can follow a
seismic event. In that sense then, 'natural' is an inappropriate
adjective to describe such disasters (**Hewitt** 1997)[^7]" (Bolin with
Stanford 1998, 4).

**Disaster, Natural:** Any hurricane, tornado, storm, flood, high water,
wind-driven water, tidal wave, tsunami, earthquake, volcanic eruption,
landslide, mudslide, snowstorm, drought, fire, or other catastrophe in
any part of the United States which causes, or which may cause,
substantial damage or injury to civilian property or persons. (**Robert
T. Stafford** **Act**, 602)

**Disaster, Natural:** "In a seeming inversion of what was 'obvious'
about natural disasters, a view has been developed by such geographers
as Hewitt that seeks explanations of disaster primarily in the
sociocultural and economic features of the societies that are variously
affected by natural forces. Their focus has been to develop an
understanding of the social structures and material practices that made
people more or less vulnerable to environmental hazards. In this
approach, the underlying causes of disaster are to be found not in
nature, but in the organization of human societies (**Varley**
1994[^8])" (Bolin with Stanford 1998, 5).

**Disaster Preparedness Improvement Grant Program (DPIG):** Authorized
under Section 201 of the Stafford Act. Annual matching awards are
provided to States to improve or update their disaster assistance plans
and capabilities.

**Disaster Reduction:** "*Disaster reduction* is the sum of all the
actions, which can be undertaken to reduce the vulnerability of a
society to natural hazards. The solutions include proper land-use
planning, aided by vulnerability mapping, to locate people in safe
areas, the adoption of proper building codes in support of disaster
resilient engineering, based on local hazard risk assessments, as well
as ensuring the control and enforcement of such plans and codes based on
economic or other incentives. Sound information and political commitment
are the basis of successful disaster reduction measures. This is an
ongoing process which is not limited to a singular disaster event. It
motivates societies at risk to become engaged in conscious disaster
management, beyond traditional response to the impact of natural
phenomena. Disaster reduction is multi-sectoral and interdisciplinary in
nature and involves a wide variety of interrelated activities at the
local, national, regional and international level." (**UNISDR** 2001, 3)

**Disaster Relief Act of 1974:** A Federal statute designed to
supplement the efforts of the affected States and local governments in
expediting the rendering of assistance, emergency services, and the
reconstruction and rehabilitation of devastated areas (PL 93-288), as
amended. (**FEMA** Instruction 5000.2)

**Disaster Response:** A sum of decisions and actions taken during and
after disaster, including immediate relief, rehabilitation, and
reconstruction. (**U.N**. 1992, 3)

**Disaster Risk:** "The chance of a hazard event occurring and resulting
in a disaster." (**National Science and Technology Council** 2005, 17)

**Disaster Risk Management:** "Disaster risk management and reduction
are about looking beyond hazards alone to considering prevailing
conditions of vulnerability. It is the social, cultural, economic, and
political setting in a country that makes people vulnerable to
unfortunate events. The basis of this understanding is simple: the
national character and chosen form of governance can be as much of a
determinant in understanding the risks in a given country, as are the
various social, economic and environmental determinants." (**U.N.** ISDR
2002, 27)

**Disaster Risk Reduction:** "The systematic development and application
of policies, strategies and practices to minimize vulnerabilities and
disaster risks throughout a society, to avoid (prevention) or to limit
(mitigation and preparedness) adverse impact of hazards, within the
broad context of sustainable development." (U.N. ISDR 2002, 25)

**Disaster, Technological:** "...technological disasters -- meaning
everything that can go wrong when systems fail, humans err, designs
prove faulty, engines misfire, and so on." (**Erikson**, 1989, 141)

**Disaster, Technological:** "Man-made disaster due to a sudden or slow
breakdown, technical fault, error, or involuntary or voluntary human act
that causes destruction, death, pollution, and environmental damage."
(**Gunn** 1990, 375)

**Disaster, Technological:** "**Miller and Fowlkes** (1984)[^9] have
argued that the term 'technological disaster' renders such events too
impersonal in origin. They believe that such 'accidents' are due mainly
to the excessive priority given to industrial profits and advocate the
term 'man-made disaster' to indicate corporate responsibility" (Smith
1997, 14).

**Domain Awareness:** "...obtaining effective knowledge of activities,
events, and persons in the dimensions of air, land, sea, and
cyber-space." (**Sauter & Carafano** 2005, 243)

**Domestic Emergency:** "Any natural disaster or other emergency that
does not seriously endanger national security, but which is of such a
catastrophic nature that it cannot be managed effectively without
substantial Federal presence, or which arises within spheres of activity
in which there is an established Federal role." (**FEMA** *Disaster
Dictionary* 2001, 36; cites *Domestic Emergencies Handbook*, US Army
Forces Command, March 15, 1999).

**Domestic Emergency Support Team (DEST):** "Relative to terrorism
incident operations, an organization formed by the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) to provide expert advice and assistance to the FBI
On-Scene Commander (OSC) related to the capabilities of the DEST
agencies and to coordinate follow-on response assets. When deployed, the
DEST merges into the existing Joint Operations Center (JOC) structure."
(**FEMA** *Disaster Dictionary* 2001, 36; cites FEMA FRP, "Terrorism
Incident Annex")

**Drought:** (1) Prolonged absence or marked deficiency of
precipitation. (2) period of abnormally dry weather sufficiently
prolonged for the lack of precipitation to cause a serious hydrological
imbalance. (**WMO** 1992, 198)

**Ecological Disaster:** See, "Disaster, Ecological"

**El Niño:** An anomalous warming of ocean water resulting from the
oscillation of a current in the South Pacific, usually accompanied by
heavy rain fall in the coastal region of Peru and Chile, and reduction
of rainfall in equatorial Africa and Australia. (**U.N.** 1992, 26)

**Emergency:** "An unexpected event which places life and/or property in
danger and requires an immediate response through the use of routine
community resources and procedures. Examples would be a multi-automobile
wreck, especially involving injury or death, and a fire caused by
lightning strike which spreads to other buildings." Emergencies can be
handled with local resources. (**Drabek** 1996, Session 2, p. 3)

**Emergency:** Any hurricane, tornado, storm, flood, highwater,
wind-driven water, tidal wave, tsunami, earthquake, volcanic eruption,
landslide, mudslide, snowstorm, drought, fire, explosion, nuclear
accident, or other natural or manmade catastrophe in any part of the
United States. Any occasion or instance for which, in the determination
of the President, Federal assistance is needed to supplement State and
local efforts and capabilities to save lives and to protect property and
public health and safety or to lessen the threat of a catastrophe in any
part of the United States. (**FEMA** 1990)

**Emergency:** "Any occasion or instance for which, in the determination
of the President, Federal assistance is needed to supplement State and
local efforts to save lives and to protect property and public health
and safety, or to lessen or avert the threat of a catastrophe in any
part of the United States. The Governor of a State, or the Acting
Governor in his/her absence, may request that the President declare an
emergency when an incident occurs or threatens to occur in a State which
would not qualify under the definition of a major disaster. Assistance
authorized by an emergency declaration is limited to immediate and
short-term assistance, and may not exceed \$5 million, except when
authorized by the FEMA Associate Director for Response and Recovery
under certain conditions." (**FEMA** *Disaster Dictionary* 2001, 39;
cites Robert T Stafford Act 102; 44 CFR 206.2, 206.35; 206.63, 206.66,
and 503)

**Emergency:** "Any event requiring increased coordination or response
beyond the routine in order to save lives, protect property, protect the
public health and safety, or lessen or avert the threat of a disaster."
(**Michigan EMD** 1998, 6)

**Emergency:** A more serious situation than an incident, but less
serious than a disaster. (***Oxford Canadian Dictionary***, 1998; noted
by Pearce 2000, Chapter 2, 2)

**Emergency:** "...an unexpected occurrence or sudden situation that
requires immediate action...It may involve communities (as a disaster
does) or individuals (which a disaster does not)..." (**Porfiriev**
1995, 291).

**Emergency:** An event in which established emergency organizations
(such as the American Red Cross or utilities) need to expand their
activities. (**Quarantelli** 1987, 25.)

**Emergency:** An extraordinary situation in which people are unable to
meet their basic survival needs, or there are serious and immediate
threats to human life and well being. An emergency situation may arise
as a result of a disaster, a cumulative process of neglect or
environmental degradation, or when a disaster threatens and emergency
measures have to be taken to prevent or at least limit the effects of
the eventual impact. (**Simeon Institute** 1998)

**Emergency:** "...a sudden critical juncture demanding immediate
remedial action." (**Terry** 2001, 327)

**Emergency:** A sudden and usually unforeseen event that calls for
immediate measures to minimize its adverse consequences. (**U.N**. 1992,
26)

**Emergency Assistance:** Assistance which may be made available under
an emergency declaration. In general, Federal support to State and local
efforts to save lives, protect property and public health and safety,
and lessen or avert the threat of a catastrophe. Federal emergency
assistance may take the form of coordinating all disaster relief
assistance (including voluntary assistance) provided by Federal
agencies, private organizations, and State and local governments. Or ,
the Federal government may provide technical and advisory assistance to
affected State and local governments for: the performance of essential
community services; issuance of warnings of risks or hazards; public
health and safety information, including dissemination of such
information; provision of health and safety measures; management,
control, and reduction of immediate threats to public health and safety;
debris removal; temporary housing; and distribution of medicine, food,
and other consumable supplies. (**Stafford Act** )

**Emergency Management:** The entire process of planning and
intervention for rescue and relief to reduce impact of emergencies as
well as the response and recovery measures, to mitigate the significant
social, economic and environmental consequences to communities and
ultimately to the country, usually through an emergency operation
center, EOC. (**Disaster and Emergency Reference Center** 1998)

**Emergency Management:** The process by which the uncertainties that
exist in potentially hazardous situations can be minimized and public
safety maximized. The goal is to limit the costs of emergencies or
disasters through the implementation of a series of strategies and
tactics reflecting the full life cycle of disaster, i.e., preparedness,
response, recovery, and mitigation. (**Drabek**1997)

**Emergency Management**: "Emergency management is the discipline and
profession of applying science, technology, planning, and management to
deal with extreme events that can injure or kill large numbers of
people, do extensive damage to property, and disrupt community life."
(**Drabek and Hoetmer** 1991, xvii).

**Emergency Management:** "Activities that include prevention,
preparedness, response, recovery, rehabilitation, advocacy, and
legislation, of emergencies irrespective of their type, size, and
location, and whose purpose is reduction in death, disability, damage,
and destruction." (**Dykstra** 2003, 3)

"...improving the livelihoods of individuals, communities and nations by
measures required to put a stop to unwarranted deaths, disability,
damage, and destruction." (**Dykstra** 2003, 4)

**Emergency Management:** Organized analysis, planning, decision-making,
and assignment of available resources to mitigate (lessen the effect of
or prevent) prepare for, respond to, and recover from the effects of all
hazards. The goal of emergency management is to save lives, prevent
injuries, and protect property and the environment if an emergency
occurs. (**FEMA** 1995, I-6).

**Emergency Management:** "The process through which America prepares
for emergencies and disasters, responds to them, recovers from them,
rebuilds, and mitigates their future effects." (**FEMA** *Disaster
Dictionary* 2001, 40, citing FEMA Strategic Plan)

**Emergency Management:** "A simple definition is that emergency
management is the discipline dealing with risk and risk avoidance."
(**Haddow and Bullock** 2003, 1)

**Emergency Management: "...**'emergency management' means the
preparation for and the coordination of all emergency functions, other
than functions for which military forces or other federal agencies are
primarily responsible, to prevent, minimize, and repair injury and
damage resulting from disasters. The functions include the following:\
        (1) Firefighting services.\
        (2) Police services.\
        (3) Medical and health services.\
        (4) Rescue.\
        (5) Engineering.\
        (6) Warning services.\
        (7) Communications.\
        (8) Radiological, chemical, and other special weapons defense.\
        (9) Evacuation of persons from stricken areas.\
        (10) Emergency welfare services.\
        (11) Emergency transportation.\
        (12) Plant protection.\
        (13) Temporary restoration of public utility services.\
        (14) Other functions related to civilian protection.\
        (15) All other activities necessary or incidental to the
preparation for and coordination of the functions described in
subdivisions (1) through (14). (**Indiana Code,** 2005)

**Emergency Management:** "A Comprehensive system of policies,
practices, and procedures designed to protect people and property from
the effects of emergencies or disasters. It includes programs,
resources, and capabilities to mitigate against, prepare for, respond
to, and recover from effects of all hazards." (**Michigan DEM** 1998, 6)

**Emergency Management:** Emergency management refers to "the expert
systems that manage people and resources to deal with disasters."
(**Rubin** 2000, 1)

**Emergency Management:** A range of measures to manage risks to
communities and the environment. It involves the development and
maintenance of arrangements to prevent the effect of, prepare for,
respond to or recover from events causing significant community
disruption or environmental damage. (**Salter** 1997--98, 28)

**Emergency Management:** The organization and management of resources
for dealing with all aspects of emergencies. Emergency management
involves the plans, structures and arrangements which are established to
bring together the normal endeavors of government, voluntary and private
agencies in a comprehensive and coordinated way to deal with the whole
spectrum of emergency needs including prevention, response and recovery.
(**Victorian Department of Justice** 1997)

**Emergency Management:** "In simplest terms, emergency management is
the management of risk so that societies can live with environmental and
technical hazards and deal with the disasters that they cause."
(**Waugh** 2000, 3)

**Emergency Manager:** The person who has the day-to-day responsibility
for emergency management programs and activities. The role is one of
coordinating all aspects of a jurisdiction's mitigation, preparedness,
response, and recovery capabilities.

(The local emergency management position is referred to with different
titles across the country, such as civil defense coordinator or
director, civil preparedness coordinator or director, disaster services
director, and emergency services director.)

**Emergency Manager:** "Emergency managers are professionals who
practice the discipline of emergency management by applying science,
technology, planning and management techniques to coordinate the
activities of a wide array of agencies and organizations dedicated to
preventing and responding to extreme events that threaten, disrupt, or
destroy lives or property." (**Drabek** 2002, Student Handout 1-2)

**Emergency Operations Plan (EOP):** An all-hazards document that
specifies actions to be taken in the event of an emergency or disaster
event; identifies authorities, relationships, and the actions to be
taken by whom, what, when, and where, based on predetermined
assumptions, objectives, and existing capabilities.

**Emergency Preparedness:** Activities and measures designed or
undertaken to prepare for or minimize the effects of a hazard upon the
civilian population, to deal with the immediate emergency conditions
which would be created by the hazard, and to effectuate emergency
repairs to, or the emergency restoration of, vital utilities and
facilities destroyed or damaged by the hazard. (**Stafford Act**)

**Emergency Public Information:** Information which is disseminated
primarily in anticipation of an emergency or at the actual time of an
emergency and in addition to providing information as such, frequently
directs actions, instructs, and transmits direct orders. (**Simeon
Institute** 1998)

**Emergency Risk Management:** "Emergency risk management is a
'systematic process that produces a range of measures that contribute to
the well-being of communities and the environment'. It includes: context
definition; risk identification; risk analysis; risk evaluation; risk
treatment; monitoring and reviewing; and, communicating and consulting."
(**Emergency Management Australia** 2000, 1)

**Emergency Support Services:** The departments of local government that
have the capability to respond to emergencies 24 hours a day. They
typically include law enforcement, fire, rescue, and public works. They
may also be referred to as emergency response personnel or emergency
operating forces.

**Exposure and Vulnerability:** "In Order to contract infectious
disease, you need to be exposed to the microbe that causes the disease.
However, some people are exposed and never become ill, while others may
die from the same exposure. If we call the person who is exposed a
'host', the host may have certain vulnerabilities or strengths that
alter the outcome of the exposure. The host may have inherited genetic
traits that limit his or her vulnerability to a certain class of
microbes, or may have previous experience with the specific microbe, and
thus have an immune-response system that is poised and ready to fight
off the microbial invader." (**Bissell** 2005)

**Exposure:** An example of lessening one's exposure is acquiring
insurance to cover some or all of one's losses. One's exposure is
lowered but nothing has been done to address hazard or vulnerability.
One is just as vulnerable to, say, flooding, but less "exposed" to
personal financial loss. One still is vulnerable to material loss.
(**Blanchard**)

**Exposure:** "Exposure describes the number of people, and the value of
structures and activities that will experience...hazards and may be
adversely impacted by them." (**Darlington and Lambert** 2001, 135)

**Exposure:** "People, property, systems, or functions at risk of loss
exposed to hazards." (**Multihazard Mitigation Council**, 2002, 30)

**Extreme Events:** Extreme events are not only \[rare and\] severe, but
also outside the normal range of experience of the system in question."
(**Bier**, et al, 1999, 84)

**Extreme Events:** An extreme event in the context of the natural world
is an act of nature, "such as a lightning stroke or a flood \[that\] may
be a productive resource and a hazard at the same time. Lightning may
kill an animal but also start a fire essential to the preservation of a
forest ecosystem. A flood may destroy a farmstead while fertilizing the
fields" (**Burton** et al. 1993, 34).

**FEMA:** Federal Emergency Management Agency.

**Federal Radiological Emergency Response Plan (FRERP):** The plan used
by Federal agencies to respond to a radiological emergency, with or
without a Stafford Act declaration. Without a Stafford Act declaration,
Federal agencies respond to radiological emergencies using the FRERP,
each agency in accordance with existing statutory authorities and
funding resources. The Lead Federal Agency has responsibility for
coordination of the overall Federal response to the emergency. FEMA is
responsible for coordinating non-radiological support using the
structure of the Federal Response Plan. When a major disaster or
emergency is declared under the Stafford Act and an associated
radiological emergency exists, the functions and responsibilities of the
FRERP remain the same. The Lead Federal Agency coordinates the
management of the radiological response with the Federal Coordinating
Officer. Although the direction of the radiological response remains the
same with the Lead Federal Agency, the FCO has the overall
responsibility for coordination of Federal assistance in support of
State and local governments using the Federal Response Plan. (FRERP)

**Federal Response Plan (FRP):** 1) The plan designed to address the
consequences of any disaster or emergency situation in which there is a
need for Federal assistance under the authorities of the Robert T.
Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, 42 U.S.C. 5121 et
seq. 2) The FRP is the Federal government's plan of action for assisting
affected States and local jurisdictions in the event of a major disaster
or emergency. As the implementing document for the Stafford Act, the FRP
organizes the Federal response by grouping potential response
requirements into 12 functional categories, called Emergency Support
Functions. The FRP was completed in April 1992, and 29 Federal
departments and agencies are signatories to the plan. (FRERP)

**FIRM:** Flood Insurance Rate Map.

**First Responders: "**Federal, State, and local emergency public
safety, law enforcement, emergency response, emergency medical
(including hospital emergency facilities), and related personnel,
agencies, and authorities." (**Homeland Security Act of 2002**, Public
Law No. 107-296, section 2, 116.)

**First responders:** " "...individuals who in the early stages of an
incident are responsible for the protection and preservation of life,
property, evidence, and the environment, including emergency response
providers as defined in section 2 of the Homeland Security Act of 2002
(6 U.S.C. 101), as well as emergency management, public health, clinical
care, public works, and other skilled support personnel (such as
equipment operators) that provide immediate support services during
prevention, response, and recovery operations." (**HSPD 8**, 2003**)**

**First Responders:** "...our first responder community...law
enforcement; the fire service; the emergency medical service; public
officials responsible for emergency planning and response; the public
health sector; transit authorities including rail and ports; and
non-governmental organizations." (**Mayer** 2005, 8)

**Five-Hundred Year Floodplain (or 0.2 percent chance floodplain):**
That area which includes the base floodplain which is subject to
inundation from a flood having a 0.2 percent chance of being equaled or
exceeded in any given year.

**Flash Flood:** A flood that crests in a short period of time and is
often characterized by high velocity flow---often the result of heavy
rainfall in a localized area.

**Flood Fringe:** Areas outside the regulatory floodway but still
inundated by the designated one percent annual chance flood (often
referred to as the floodway fringe).

**Flood of Record:** The highest flood historically recorded in a given
location. \[The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers typically uses the flood of
record to determine risk when constructing dams, dikes and levees,
etc.\]

**Floodplain:** Low lands adjoining the channel of a river, stream, or
watercourse, or ocean, lake or other body of water, which have been or
may be inundated by floodwater, and those other areas subject to
flooding.

**Floodplain Management:** Floodplain management means the operation of
an overall program of corrective and preventive measures for reducing
flood damage, including but not limited to emergency preparedness plans,
flood control works and floodplain management regulations. (**CFR**
2004)

**Floodway:** The channel of a river or other watercourse and the
adjacent land areas that must be reserved in order to discharge the base
flood without causing any cumulative increase in the water surface
elevation. The floodway is intended to carry the dangerous and
fast-moving water.

**Forecast:** Statement or statistical estimate of the occurrence of a
future event. This term is used with different meanings in different
disciplines, as well as "prediction". (U.N. 1992, 4)

**The Four Phases:** Mitigation, Preparedness, Response and Recovery.

**Fujita-Pearson Scale (FPP Scale):** A 3-digit scale for tornadoes
devised by Fujita (F scale) and Pearson (PP scale) to indicate the
tornado intensity (0-5), path length (0-5), and path width (0-7)
(**WMO** 1992).

**Fujita Tornado Scale:** A scale for expressing the relative intensity
of tornadoes, consisting of six levels corresponding to increasing
levels of damage - light, moderate, considerable, severe, devastating,
incredible. (**Notification Manual**)

**Gale:** Wind with a speed between 34 and 40 knots. (**U.N.** 1992)

**GCCs:** Government Coordinating Council. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 4)

**GCSC:** Government Cross-Sector Council. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 5)

**Geographic Information System (GIS):** A computerized database for the
capture, storage, analysis and display of locationally defined
information. Commonly, a GIS portrays a portion of the earth's surface
in the form of a map on which this information is overlaid. (**EM
Australia** 1995)

**Government Coordinating Council:** "The government counterpart to the
SCC for each sector established to enable interagency coordination. The
GCC is comprised of representatives across various levels of government
(Federal, State, Territorial, local, and tribal) as appropriate to the
security and operational landscape of each individual sector." (**DHS,
NIPP** 2006, p. 103)

**Hazard:** "A Hazard is a natural, technological or social phenomenon
that poses a threat to people and their surroundings (in terms of both
the natural and the built environment)." (**Alexander**, No Date, 1)

**Hazard:** Some, including not just a few emergency managers, view
hazards such as earthquakes as "technical problems suitable for a
combination of engineering, planning, and specialized managerial
solutions, and people, if they are mentioned at all, are seen largely as
impediments to carrying out the technocratic solutions, because they
fail to see the risks they face (e.g. Mileti and Fitzpatrick
1993)....However, by concentrating on the physical risks, projected
extreme events, and worst case scenarios, much is ignored" (**Bolin with
Stanford** 1998, 20).

**Hazard:** "...natural and social systems interact to produce a
hazard..." (**Burton** et al. 1993, 24).

"Hazards always result from interaction of physical and human systems.
To treat them as though they were wholly climatic or geologic or
political or economic is to risk omission of components that must be
taken into account if sound solutions for them are to be found"
(**Burton** et al. 1993, 188).

> "...nature is neutral, and...the environment event becomes hazardous
> only when it intersects with man. The event leads to disaster when (1)
> it is extreme in magnitude, (2) the population is very great, or (3)
> the human-use system is particularly vulnerable" (**Burton** et al.
> 1993, 232).

**Hazard:** "is a source of risk and refers to a substance or action
that can cause harm."(**Cohrssen & Covello** 1989)

**Hazard:** A broad concept "that incorporates the probability of the
event happening, but also includes the impact or magnitude of the event
on society and the environment, as well as the sociopolitical contexts
within which these take place. Hazards are the threats to people and the
things they value, whereas risks are measures of the threat of the
hazards..." (**Cutter** 1993, 2).

**Hazard:** "A *hazard*, in the broadest term, is a threat to people and
the things they value. Hazards have a potentiality to them (they could
happen), but they also include the actual impact of an event on people
or places. Hazards arise from the interaction between social,
technological, and natural systems." (**Cutter** 2001, 2)

**Hazard:** "Hazard refers to an extreme natural event that poses risks
to human settlements"

(**Deyle, French, Olshansky, and Paterson** 1998, 121).

**Hazard:** Dangerous natural or man made phenomenon that expose a
vulnerable location to disastrous events. Vulnerability reduction aims
at neutralizing the dangers posed by the hazard. (**D&E Reference
Center** 1998)

**Hazard:** "Something that is potentially dangerous or harmful, often
the root cause of an unwanted outcome." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 103)

**Hazard:** A condition with the potential for harm to the community or
environment. Many use the terms "hazard" and "disaster agent"
interchangeably. Hence, they will refer to "the hurricane hazard" or
even more broadly to "natural hazards" which includes hurricanes,
tornadoes, earthquakes and other natural phenomena that have the
potential for harm. The hazard is the ***potential***, the disaster is
the actual event. (**Drabek** 1997)

**Hazard:** "Hazard means an event or physical condition that has the
potential to cause fatalities, injuries, property damage, infrastructure
damage, agricultural loss, damage to the environment, interruption of
business, or other types of harm or loss" (**FEMA** 1997, xxi).

**Hazard:** "Relevant to emergency preparedness, a hazard is an
emergency or disaster resulting from a natural disaster, or an
accidental or man-caused event." (**FEMA** *Disaster Dictionary* 2001,
58, citing Robert T. Stafford Act, 602)

**Hazard:** "The probability of the occurrence of a disaster caused by a
natural phenomenon (earthquake, cyclone), by failure of manmade sources
of energy (nuclear reactor, industrial explosion), or uncontrolled human
activity (overgrazing, heavy traffic, conflicts) -- UNDRO. Some authors
use the term in a broader sense, including vulnerability, elements at
risk, and the consequence of risk." (**Gunn** 1990, 374)

**Hazard:** Hazards "are threats to humans and what they value: life,
well-being, material goods, and environment." (**Harriss** et al, 1978)

**Hazard:** "...a potential source of harm." (**International Standards
Organization** 1990)

**Hazard:** Hazard is the probability that in a given period in a given
area, an extreme potentially damaging natural phenomena occurs that
induces air, earth or water movements, which affect a given zone. The
magnitude of the phenomenon, the probability of its occurrence and the
extent of its magnitude can vary and, in some cases, be determined.
(**Maskrey** 1989, 1)

**Hazard:** "A dangerous event or circumstance that has the potential to
lead to an emergency or disaster. Any physical phenomenon that has the
potential to produce harm or other undesirable consequences to some
person or thing." (**May,** p. 5)

**Hazard:** "Hazard...reflects a potential threat to humans as well as
the impact of an event on society and the environment....hazards
are...in part socially constructed by people's perceptions and their
experiences. Moreover, people contribute to, exacerbate, and modify
hazards. Thus, hazards can vary by culture, gender, race, socioeconomic
status, and political structure as well" (**Mitchell and Cutter** 1997,
9-10).

**Hazard:** "A natural or human-caused threat that may result in
disaster occurring in a populated, commercial, or industrial area."
**(National Science and Technology Council** 2005, 17)

**Hazard:** "A hazard can be defined as: 'some aspect of the physical
environment that threatens the well-being on individuals and their
society.'" (**Nigg** 1996, 4

**Hazard:** "...we describe *hazard* as the forces, conditions,
technologies that carry a potential for social, infrastructural, or
environmental damage. A hazard can be a hurricane, earthquake, or
avalanche; it can also be a nuclear facility or a socioeconomic
practice, such as using pesticides. The issue of hazard further
incorporates the way a society perceives the danger or dangers, either
environmental and/or technological, that it faces and the ways it allows
the danger to enter its calculation of risk." (**Oliver-Smith and
Hoffman** 2002, 4)

**Hazard:** "In disaster management, a hazard refers to the potential
for a disaster." (**Pearce** 2000, Chapter 2, 12)

**Hazard:** A rare or extreme event in the natural or man-made
environment that adversely affects human life, property or activity to
the extent of causing disaster. A hazard is a natural or man-made
phenomenon which may cause physical damage, economic losses, or threaten
human life and well-being if it occurs in an area of human settlement,
agricultural, or industrial activity. Note, however, that in
engineering, the term is used in a more specific, mathematical sense to
mean the probability of the occurrence, within a specified period of
time and a given area, of a particular, potentially damaging phenomenon
of a given severity/intensity. (**Simeon Institute** 1998)

**Hazard:** *Hazard* is best viewed as a naturally occurring or
human-induced process or event with the potential to create loss, i.e. a
general source of danger. *Risk* is the actual exposure of something of
human value to a hazard and is often regarded as the combination of
probability and loss. Thus, we may define hazard (or cause) as 'a
potential threat to humans and their welfare' and risk (or consequence)
as 'the probability of a specific hazard occurrence'. The distinction
was illustrated by Okrent (1980)[^10] who considered two people crossing
an ocean, one in a liner and the other in a rowing boat. The main hazard
(deep water and large waves) is the same in both cases but the risk
(probability of drowing) is very much greater for the person in the
rowing boat. Thus while an earthquake hazard can exist in an uninhabited
region, an earthquake risk can occur only in an area where people and
their possessions exist. People, and what they value, are the essential
point of reference for all risk assessment and for all disasters"
(**Smith** 1996, 5).

**Hazard:** A threatening event, or the probability of occurrence of a
potentially damaging phenomenon within a given time period and area.
(**U.N.** 1992, 4)

**Hazard:** "A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human
activity, which may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage,
social and economic disruption or environmental degradation." (**U.N.
ISDR** 2002, 24)

**Hazard (Environmental):** "...the threat potential posed to man or
nature by events originating in, or transmitted by, the natural or built
environment" (**Kates** 1978, 14).

Keith Smith's (1997, 14-15) commentary on this definition:

"This definition can include both long-term environmental deterioration
(acidification of soils, build-up of atmospheric carbon dioxide) and all
the social hazards, both involuntary and communal (crime, terrorism,
warfare), as well as voluntary and personal hazards (drug abuse,
mountain climbing). These hazards have such different origins and
impacts that a more focused definition is required."

**Hazard (Environmental):** "events which directly threaten human life
and property by means of acute physical or chemical trauma...Any
manageable definition of environmental hazards will be both arbitrary
and contentious. But, despite their diverse sources, most disasters have
a number of common features:

1.  The origin of the damaging process or event is clear and produces
    characteristic threats to human life or well-being, e.g. a flood
    causes death by drowning.

2.  The warning time is normally short, i.e. the hazards are often known
    as rapid-onset events. This means that they can be unexpected even
    though they occur within a known hazard zone, such as the floodplain
    of a small river basin.

3.  Most of the direct losses, whether to life or property, are suffered
    fairly shortly after the event, i.e., within days or weeks.

4.  The exposure to hazard, or assumed risk, is largely involuntary,
    normally due to the location of people in a hazardous area, e.g. the
    unplanned expansion of some Third World cities onto unstable
    hillslopes.

5.  The resulting disaster occurs with an intensity that justifies an
    emergency response, i.e. the provision of specialist aid to the
    victims. The scale of response can vary from local to international"
    (**Smith** 1996, 15-16).

**Hazard (Environmental):** "...extreme geophysical events, biological
processes and major technological accidents, characterized by
concentrated releases of energy or materials, which pose a largely
unexpected threat to human life and can cause significant damage to
goods and the environment" (**Smith** 1996, 16).

**Hazard (Global):** "...changes to regional ecosystems which in turn
effect global systems, are termed 'global hazards'. Climate change, soil
degradation, and deforestation are examples of global hazards that are
directly and indirectly related to the manipulation of technology.
Global hazards can be distinguished from the more traditional ones
because of their diffused or dispersed effects at the planetary
scale---they threaten the long-term survival of t he planet....They are
not rare, discrete events but develop over a long period of time. Global
hazards are cumulative in nature and are the end result of centuries or
decades of human manipulation of technology to control nature and
exploit its resources" (**Cutter** 1993, 5).

**Hazard (Intentional):** "Human actions with intent to cause harm to
other humans and what they value are termed intentional hazards. Today,
terrorism is the source of most of the intentional hazards." (**Dymon**,
Ute. "Session 1, Introduction to and Evolution of Hazard Mapping and
Modeling." *Hazard Mapping and Modeling* (Draft FEMA Emergency
Management Higher Education Project College Course). Emmitsburg, MD:
Emergency Management Institute, FEMA/DHS, 2004.)

**Hazard (Natural):** "...a naturally occurring or man-made geologic
condition of phenomenon that presents a risk or is a potential danger to
life or property" (**American Geological Institute** 1984). (Quoted in
Tobin and Montz 1997, 9).

**Hazard (Natural):** "The concept of natural hazards is somewhat
paradoxical; the elements of a natural geophysical event (e.g., wind and
storm surge of a hurricane) are hazardous only when they prove
detrimental to human activity systems" (**Baker** 1976, 1).

**Hazard (Natural):** "While some hazards, such as earthquakes and
volcanoes, are the product of natural processes unmodified by human
interventions, other ostensibly natural hazards are less and less
'natural'. The impacts of human activities on global climatic systems,
with attendant changes in rainfall patters, storm frequency, and storm
severity suggest that meteorological hazards themselves could be
influenced by (unintended) human factors (e.g. Southwick 1996[^11];
Flavin 1997[^12]). Flavin (1997) cites evidence that both the frequency
and severity of meteorological hazards may be increasing as a result of
human-induced climatic change. Similarly human modifications of riverine
systems, from deforesting and paving watersheds to elaborate levee
systems, have taken the 'natural' out of many flood hazards (e.g. Smith
1996)" (**Bolin with Stanford** 1998, 25 fn. 3).

**Hazard (Natural):** "In reality, the environment is neither benign nor
hostile. In is 'neutral' and it is only human location, actions and
perceptions which identify resources and hazards within the range of
natural events (**Burton** et al. 1993)" (Smith 1996, 12).

**Hazard (Natural):** "...those elements of the physical environment
harmful to man and caused by forces extraneous to him" (Smith 1996, 9:
quoting I. **Burton and R.W. Kates**. "The Perception of Natural Hazards
in Resource Management." *Natural Resources Journal*, Vol.3, 1964, pp.
412-441).

**Hazard (Natural):** "Natural hazards exist with or without the
presence of human populations and development" (**Schwab,** et al. 1998,
12).

**Hazard (Natural):** "A natural hazard represents the potential
interaction between humans and extreme natural events...It represents
the potential or likelihood of an event (it is not the event itself)"
(**Tobin & Montz** 1997, 5).

> "Natural hazards constitute a complex web of physical and
> environmental factors interacting with the social, economic, and
> political realities of society" (**Tobin and Montz** 1997, 11).

**Hazard (Natural):** Naturally caused events such as hurricanes,
tornadoes, earthquakes, floods, volcanoes and forest fires. (**Unknown
source**)

**Hazard (Natural):** "First, the misunderstanding of 'natural hazards'
as events unrelated to or separate from human activity and human choice
is no longer credible. The fundamental involvement of human
organizations, cultural and institutional context, and
political-economic structures cannot be overlooked or wished away. The
creation, distribution, and mitigation of vulnerability to hazards of
all kinds is a social interaction with either other social processes or
geophysical processes or both. There is no purely 'natural' hazard in
the full sense of a risk or danger for which affected persons have no
defence or remedy." (**Weiner** 2001, 1)

**Hazard (Technological):** Typically man-related hazards such as
nuclear power plant accidents, industrial plant explosions, aircraft
crashes, dam breaks, mine cave-ins, pipeline explosions and hazardous
material accidents. (Unknown source)

**Hazard (Technological):** "...the interaction between technology,
society, and the environment" (**Cutter** 1993, 2).

"Technological hazards arise from our individual and collective use of
technology" (**Cutter** 1993, 1).

> "The elements of complexity, surprise, and interdependence are
> governing characteristics of technological hazards" (**Cutter** 1993,
> 2).

**Hazard (Technological):** "A Technological hazard arises from the
potential of negative consequences resulting from the human use of
technology." (**Dymon**, Ute. "Session 1, Introduction to and Evolution
of Hazard Mapping and Modeling." *Hazard Mapping and Modeling* (Draft
FEMA Emergency Management Higher Education Project College Course).
Emmitsburg, MD: Emergency Management Institute, FEMA/DHS, 2004.

**Hazard (Technological):** A range of hazards emanating from the
manufacture, transportation, and use of such substances as radioactive
materials, chemicals, explosives, flammables, agricultural pesticides,
herbicides, and disease agents; oil spills on land, coastal waters, or
inland water systems; and debris from space. (**FEMA** 1992, FRP
Appendix B)

**Hazard (Technological):** Technological hazards are best seen as
accidental failures of design or management affecting large-scale
structures, transport systems or industrial activities which present
life-threatening risks to the local community....the failure "trigger"
which provokes a technological disaster is likely to arise for one of
the following reasons: (1) defective design; (2) inadequate management;
(3) sabotage or terrorism (**Smith** 1996, 316).

**Hazard Analysis:** Involves identifying all of the hazards that
potentially threaten a jurisdiction and analyzing them in the context of
the jurisdiction to determine the degree of threat that is posed by
each. (**FEMA** 1997)

**Hazard Analysis:** "A hazards analysis consists of two parts. The
first involves knowledge of the kinds of hazards that might threaten the
community. This knowledge includes the probability of the event
occurring at varying levels of intensity and at varying locations
throughout the community. Determinations of probability, intensity, and
location can be made on the basis of historical evidence, empirical
research, or community perception." (**McLoughlin** 1985, 168)

**Hazard Analysis:** "The identification and evaluation of all hazards
that potentially threaten a jurisdiction to determine the degree of
threat that is posed by each." (**Michigan DEM** 1998, 6)

**Hazard Analysis:** That part of the overall planning process which
identifies and describes hazards and their effects upon the community.
(**NDO** 1992)

**Hazard Assessment:** Identification of hazards in given location.
(**D&E Reference Center** 1998)

**Hazard Assessment:** (Sometimes Hazard Analysis/Evaluation) The
process of estimating, for defined areas, the probabilities of the
occurrence of potentially-damaging phenomenon of given magnitudes within
a specified period of time. Hazard assessment involves analysis of
formal and informal historical records, and skilled interpretation of
existing topographical graphical, geological geomorphological,
hydrological, and land-use maps. (**Simeon Institute** 1998)

**Hazard Identification:** A structured approach for identifying those
hazards judged by local officials to pose a significant threat to their
jurisdiction.

**Hazard Identification:** ...defines the magnitudes (intensities) and
associated probabilities (likelihoods) of natural hazard that may pose
threats to human interests in specific geographic areas. (**Deyle,
French, Olshansky and Patterson** 1998, 121).

**Hazard Identification:** "...the process of defining and describing a
hazard, including its physical characteristics, magnitude and severity,
probability and frequency, causative factors, and locations/areas
affected" (**FEMA** 1997, *Multi Hazard...Assessment*, xxi).

**Hazard Identification:** Hazard Identification locates hazardous
areas, often estimates the probability of hazardous events of various
magnitudes, and sometimes assesses the separate characteristics of the
hazards (e.g., for hurricanes: wind, high water, and wave action).
(**Godschalk, Kaiser, and Berke**, 1998, 98)

**Hazard Identification:** "...the identification of potential sources
of harm."

(**International Standards Organization** 1990)

**Hazard Identification:** The process of recognizing that a hazard
exists and defining its characteristics (**Standards** 1995).

**Hazard Management:** "...utilizes individual and collective strategies
to reduce and mitigate the impacts of hazards on people and places"
(Cutter 1993, 2).

**Hazard Mitigation:** Any measure that will reduce the potential for
damage from a disaster event.

**Hazard Mitigation:** Measures taken in advance of a disaster aimed at
decreasing or eliminating its impact on society and environment
(**U.N**. 1992, 41).

**Hazard Probability:** The estimated likelihood that a hazard will
occur in a particular area.

**Hazard Risk:** The probability of experiencing disaster damage.

**Hazard Vulnerability:** The susceptibility of life, property, or the
environment to damage if a hazard occurs.

**Hazardous Material (HAZMAT):** Any material which is explosive,
flammable, poisonous, corrosive, reactive, or radioactive (or any
combination), and requires special care in handling because of the
hazards posed to public health, safety, and/or the environment.
(**Firescope** 1994)

**Heat Wave:** Marked warming of the air, or the invasion of very warm
air, over a large area; it usually lasts from a few days to a few weeks.
(**WMO** 1992, 294)

**HITRAC:** Homeland Infrastructure Threat and Risk Analysis Center.
(**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 101)

**HMPG:** Hazard Mitigation Grant Program.

**Homeland Security: "**Homeland security or Homeland defense is a
neologism referring to domestic governmental actions justified, or
allegedly justified, by potential guerrilla attacks or terrorism. The
term became prominent in the United States following the September 11,
2001 Terrorist Attack, although it was used less frequently before that
incident."
[en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeland_security](http://www.google.com/url?sa=X&start=1&oi=define&q=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeland_security)

**Homeland Security: "**Homeland security encompasses five distinct
missions: domestic preparedness and civil support in case of attacks on
civilians, continuity of government, continuity of military operations,
border and coastal defense, and national missile defense. This report
extensively details four of those mission areas (national missile
defense having been covered in great detail elsewhere)." (**Larson &
Peters**, 2000)

**Homeland Security:** "Any area of inquiry whose improved understanding
could make U.S. peoples safer from extreme, unanticipated threats."
(**National Research Council**, 2005, p. 3)

**Homeland Security:** "...a concerted national effort to prevent
terrorist attacks *within* the United States, reduce America's
vulnerability to terrorism, and minimize the damage and recover from
attacks that do occur." (**Office of Homeland Security.** *National
Strategy for Homeland Security,* 2002, p.2)

**Homeland Security: "**Homeland security consists of all military
activities aimed at preparing for, protecting against or managing the
consequences of attacks on American soil, including the CONUS and US
territories and possessions. It includes all actions to safeguard the
populace and its property, critical infrastructure, the government and
the military, its installations and deploying forces." (**Peters/RAND
Corp.,** 2000, 1)

**Homeland Security:** "The U.S. government defines homeland security as
the domestic effort (as opposed to the overseas war on terrorism) to
defend America from terrorists. In practice, homeland security efforts
have also come to comprise general preparedness under the all-hazards
doctrine, which focuses on common efforts that help prepare for both
terrorist attacks and other natural or human-made catastrophes, such as
hurricanes and accidental chemical spills." (**Sauter and Carafano**
2005, xiv)

**Homeland Security:** "Homeland security should not be viewed as
exclusively or even primarily a military task. Securing the \"domestic
battlespace\"\-- a highly complex environment\--requires Federal
departments and agencies, state and local governments, the private
sector, and individual citizens to perform many strategic, operational,
and tactical level tasks in an integrated fashion. These actions must be
synchronized with others that are being taken on the international front
to prosecute the war against global terrorism." (**Tomisek** 2002, 1)

**Homeland Security Advisory Council:** "The HSAC provides advice and
recommendations to the Secretary of Homeland Security on relevant
issues. The Council members, appointed by the DHS Secretary, include
experts from State and local governments, public safety, security and
first-responder communities, academia, and the private sector." **(DHS,
NIPP,** 2006, p. 27)

**HSAC:** Homeland Security Advisory Council. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p.
101)

**HSAS:** Homeland Security Advisory System. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p.
101)

**HSEEP:** Homeland Security Exercise and Evaluation Program. (**DHS,
NIPP** 2006, p. 101)

**HSIN:** Homeland Security Information Network. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p.
101)

**HSIN-CS:** Homeland Security Information Network for Critical Sectors.
(**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 101)

**HSPD-7:** Homeland Security Presidential Directive 7, Critical
Infrastructure Identification, Prioritization, and Protection. (**DHS,
NIPP** 2006, preface)

**Human-Made Disasters:** are disasters or emergency situations where
the principal, direct cause(s) are identifiable human actions,
deliberate or otherwise. Apart from "technological" and "ecological"
disasters, this mainly involves situations in which civilian populations
suffer casualties, losses of property, basic services and means of
livelihood as a result of war or civil strife, for example: Human-made
disasters/emergencies can be of the rapid or slow onset types, and in
the case of internal conflict, can lead to "complex emergencies" as
well. Human-made disaster acknowledges that all disasters are caused by
humans because they have chosen, for whatever reason, to be where
natural phenomena occurs that result in adverse impacts of people. This
mainly involves situations in which civilian populations suffer
casualties, losses of property, basic services and means of livelihood
as a result of war, civil strife, or other conflict. (**Simeon
Institute**)

**Hydrology:** Science that deals with the waters above and below the
land surfaces of the Earth, their occurrence, circulation and
distribution, both in time and space, their biological, chemical and
physical properties, their reaction with their environment, including
their relation to living beings. (**WMO** 1992, 306)

**Ice Storm:** Intense formation of ice on objects by the freezing, on
impact, of rain or drizzle. (**WMO** 1992, 314)

**Incident:** An event, accidentally or deliberately caused, which
requires a response from one or more of the statutory emergency response
agencies. (**Australian Fire Authorities** *Glossary* 1996)

**Incident:** "An occurrence or event, natural or human-caused, that
requires an emergency response to protect life or property. Incidents
can, for example, include major disasters, emergencies, terrorist
attacks, terrorist threats, wildland and urban fires, floods, hazardous
materials spills, nuclear accidents, aircraft accidents, earthquakes,
hurricanes, tornadoes, tropical storms, war-related disasters, public
health and medical emergencies, and other occurrences requiring an
emergency response." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 103)

**Incident:** "Any condition that meets the definition of major disaster
or emergency which causes damage or hardship that may result in a
Presidential declaration of a major disaster or an emergency." (**FEMA**
*Disaster Dictionary* 2001, 62-63, citing Title 44 CFR 206.32)

**Incident: "**Under the ICS concept, an incident is an occurrence,
either human-caused or by natural phenomena, that requires action by
emergency service personnel to prevent or minimize loss of life or
damage to property and/or natural resources." (**FEMA** *Disaster
Dictionary* 2001, 62-63, citing National Wildfire Coordinating Group,
Incident Command System, National Training Curriculum, *ICS Glossary*
(PMS 202, NFES #2432), October 1994)

**Incident:** A minor situation. (**Oxford Canadian Dictionary**, 1998)

**Incident Command System (ICS):** The combination of facilities,
equipment, personnel, procedures, and communications operating within a
common organizational structure with responsibility for management of
assigned resources to effectively direct and control the response to an
incident. Intended to expand as the situation requires greater resources
without requiring new, reorganized, command structures.

**Incident Command System (ICS):** "A multi-discipline,
multi-jurisdictional command system in which the responsibilities and
duties of those persons holding key positions within the command
structure have been designated by formal agreement and a systm which is
capable of expanding or shrinking as the situation warrants." **(FEMA**
*IEMC Terrorism*, 11-5)

**Incident Command System (ICS):** A standardized on-scene emergency
management concept specifically designed to allow it's users to adopt an
integrated organizational structure equal to the complexity and demands
of single or multiple incidents, without being hindered by
jurisdictional boundaries. (**NWCG** 1994)

**Incident Commander (IC):** ICS term for the person, usually from the
local jurisdiction, who is responsible for overall management of an
incident. On most incidents, the command activity is carried out by a
single IC. The IC may be assisted by a deputy from the same agency or
from an assisting agency. (**FEMA** 1993)

**Incident Management**: "The organized process of responding to an
emergency event (or incident), protecting lives (human and animal) from
further harm, and creating a safe environment for restoring order to
critical infrastructures." "Good (i.e. effective) IM answers the four
big questions of emergency response: (1) Who is in charge? (2) How are
we going to respond? (3) What resources are available? And (4) How are
we going to pay for the response." (**Biby** 2005, 62)

**Individual and Family Grant (IFG) Program:** A program through which
the Federal government makes a grant to a State for the purpose of
making grants to individuals and families adversely affected by a major
disaster. Individual and family grants are intended to meet
disaster-related necessary expenses or serous needs in those cases where
such individuals or families are unable to meet their expenses or needs
through assistance under other provisions of the Stafford Act or through
other means. (***Stafford Act***)

**Individual Assistance:** Supplementary Federal assistance provided
pursuant to a Presidential Declaration of emergency or major disaster
under the Stafford Act to individuals and families adversely affected.
Such assistance may be provided directly by the Federal Government or
through State or local governments or disaster relief organizations.

**ISAC:** Information Sharing and Analysis Center. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006,
p. 101)

**Integrated Emergency Management System (IEMS):** A strategy for
implementing emergency management activities which builds upon those
functions common to preparedness for any type of occurrence and provides
for special requirements of individual emergency situations.

**Intensity:** ...refers to the damage-generating attributes of a
hazard. For example, water depth and velocity are commonly used measures
of the intensity of a flood. For hurricanes, intensity typically is
characterized with the Saffir/Simpson scale, which is based on wind
velocity and storm surge depths...The absolute size of an earthquake is
given by its Richter magnitude (and other similar magnitude scales), but
its effects in specific locations are described by the Modified Mercalli
Intensity (MMI) Scale...Earthquake intensity is also ascertained by
physical measures such as peak ground acceleration (expressed as a
decimal fraction of the force of gravity, e.g., 0.4 g), peak velocity,
or spectral response, which characterizes the frequency of the energy
content of the seismic wave. (**Deyle, French, Olshansky, and Paterson**
1998, 124.)

**JTIF:** Joint Terrorism Task Force. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 101)

**Key Resources**: "As denied in the Homeland Security Act, 'key
resources' are publicly or privately controlled resources essential to
the minimal operations of the economy and government." (**DHS, NIPP**
2006, p. 104)

**La Niña:** The opposite of an El Niño event, during which waters in
the west Pacific are warmer than normal, trade winds or Walker
circulation is stronger and, consequently, rainfalls heavier in
Southeast Asia. (**Bryant** 1991)

**Lightning:** Luminous manifestation accompanying a sudden electrical
discharge which takes place from or inside a cloud or, less often, from
high structures on the ground or from mountains. (**WMO** 1992, 358)

**Major Disaster:** Any natural catastrophe (including any hurricane,
tornado, storm, high water, wind-driven water, tidal wave, tsunami,
earthquake, volcanic eruption, landslide, mudslide, snowstorm, or
drought) or, regardless of cause, any fire, flood, or explosion, in any
part of the United States, which, in the determination of the President,
causes damage of sufficient severity and magnitude to warrant major
disaster assistance under the Stafford Act to supplement the efforts and
available resources of States, local governments, and disaster relief
organizations in alleviating the damage, loss, hardship, or suffering
caused thereby. (**Robert T. Stafford Act** 102; 44 CFR 206.2 and
206.36)

**Management:** Management consists of decision-making activities
undertaken by one or more individuals to direct and coordinate the
activities of other people in order to achieve results that could not be
accomplished by any one person acting alone. Effective management
focuses on group effort, various forms of coordination, and the manner
of making decisions. Management is required whenever two or more persons
combine their efforts and resources to accomplish a goal that cannot be
accomplished by acting alone. Coordination is necessary when the actions
of group participants constitute parts of a total task. If one person
acts alone to accomplish a task, no coordination may be required; but
when that person delegates a part of the task to others, the individual
efforts must be coordinated. (Unknown source)

**Mass Emergency:** "An unexpected or undesirable event which requires
the resources from most of all municipal departments and limited
assistance from outside agencies may be needed." (**Drabek** 1996,
Session 2, p. 3)

**Military Support to Civil Authorities (MSCA):** Those activities and
measures taken by Department of Defense components to foster mutual
assistance and support between DoD and any civil government agency in
planning or preparedness for, or in the application of resources for
response to, the consequences of civil emergencies or attacks, including
national security emergencies. MSCA is described in DoD Directive
3025.1. The Secretary of the Army is designated as the DoD executive
agent for MSCA. (Title 32 CFR 185)

**Mitigate:** To lessen in force or intensity. This definition does not
preclude "Lessening to Zero" when mitigation or to mitigate are used in
relation to hazards that could cause or contribute to a peacetime civil
emergency. (**FEMA** 1990)

**Mitigation:** "...mitigation is the *social* attempt to reduce the
occurrence of a disaster, to reduce the vulnerability of certain
populations, and to more equitably distribute the costs within the
society." (**Dynes** 1993, 179)

**Mitigation:** "Activities designed to reduce or eliminate risks to
persons or property or to lessen the actual or potential effects or
consequences of an incident. Mitigation measures may be implemented
prior to, during, or after an incident. Mitigation measures are often
developed in accordance with lessons learned from prior incidents.
Mitigation involves ongoing actions to reduce exposure to, probability
of, or potential loss from hazards. Measures may include zoning and
building codes, floodplain buyouts, and analysis of hazard-related data
to determine where it is safe to build or locate temporary facilities.
Mitigation can include efforts to educate governments, businesses, and
the public on measures they can take to reduce loss and injury." (**DHS,
NIPP** 2006, p. 104)

**Mitigation:** Those activities designed to alleviate the effects of a
major disaster or emergency or long-term activities to minimize the
potentially adverse effects of future disaster in affected areas.
(**FEMA** 1990)

**Mitigation:** All steps necessary to minimize the potentially adverse
effects of the proposed action and to restore, preserve, and enhance
natural values of wetlands; or long-term activities to minimize the
potentially adverse effects of future disaster in affected areas.
(**FEMA** 1996)

**Mitigation:** "...sustained action taken to reduce or eliminate
long-term risk to people and property from hazards and their effects.
Mitigation distinguishes actions that have a long-term impact from those
that are more closely associated with preparedness for, immediate
response to, and short-term recovery from a specific event" (**FEMA**
1997, *Multi Hazard...*, xxii).

**Mitigation:** "Any action taken to eliminate or reduce the long-term
risk to human life and property from natural hazards. Mitigation actions
are accomplished by:

-   **Acting on the hazard.** Seeding hurricanes or triggering
    avalanches may eliminate a hazard before a disaster occurs.

-   **Redirecting the hazard.** A seawall or dune restoration program
    helps keep water away from people by redirecting the impact areas
    away from vulnerable locations.

-   **Interacting with the hazard.** Seismic safety provisions
    incorporated into building codes result in structures that are more
    able to withstand impacts and earthquakes.

-   **Avoiding the hazard.** River corridor projects create multiple
    beneficial uses of the floodplain while relocating structures to
    less vulnerable locations." (**FEMA** **IS-513**, 1999, I-50)

**Mitigation:** In its simplest sense, mitigation is risk management. It
is a term that we at FEMA use to describe actions that can be taken at
the individual, local, State and Federal levels to reduce the overall
risk from natural disasters. It is getting a handle on the costs of
disasters in our society, including not only moneys, but also suffering
and economic disruptions. (**Krimm** 1998)

**Mitigation:** "Activities that reduce the degree of long-term risk to
human life and property from natural and man-made hazards; e.g.,
building codes, disaster insurance, land-use management, risk mapping,
safety codes, and tax incentives and disincentives." (**McLoughlin**
1985, 166)

> "Mitigation consists of planned and orderly efforts to prevent hazards
> that are preventable and lessen the impact of those that are not.
> Mitigation activities can act in three ways to prevent or reduce
> effects of potential hazards. First, they can act on the hazard to
> eliminate it or to reduce the frequency and intensity of its
> occurrence. Second, they can change the way a hazard interacts with
> people and their support systems. Third, they can alter the way people
> live and the systems they create." (**McLoughlin** 1985, 170)

**Mitigation:** Action to reduce the effects of a disaster on a
population. (**Nimpuno**, 1998)

**Mitigation:** "...mitigation is seen as prevention -- stopping a
negative event before it happens." (**Peterson and Perry** 1999, 242)

**Mitigation:** Measures taken in advance of a disaster aimed at
decreasing or eliminating its impact on society and on environment.
(**U.N.** 1992, 4)

**Mitigation:** "Structural and non-structural measures undertaken to
limit the adverse impact of natural hazards, environmental degradation
and technological hazards." (**U.N. ISDR** 2002, 25)

**Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale:** A measure of the effects of an
earthquake in a specific location. (**Deyle, French, Olshansky, and
Paterson** 1998, 124)

**Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale:** (**Jaffe, Buffer, and Thurow**
1981)

## Intensity Detectability/Level Impact

I Detected only by sensitive instruments

II Felt by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors

III Felt noticeably indoors, but not always recognized as a quake

IV Felt indoors by many, outdoors by a few

V Felt by most people, damage to glass and plaster

VI Felt by all, many frightened and run outdoors, damage small

VII Everybody runs outdoors, damage to buildings varies

VIII Panel walls thrown out of frames, fall of walls and chimneys

IX Buildings shifted off foundations, cracked, thrown out of plumb

X Most masonry and framed structures destroyed, ground cracked

XI New structures still standing, bridges destroyed, ground fissures

XII Damage total, waves seen on ground surface

**MS-ISAC:** Multi-State Information Sharing and Analysis Center.
(**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 101)

**NADB:** National Asset Database. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 32)

**National Disaster Medical System (NDMS):** A federally coordinated
initiative to augment the nation's emergency medical response capability
by providing medical assets to be used during major disasters or
emergencies. NDMS has three major components: Disaster Medical
Assistance Teams and Clearing-Staging Units to provide triage, patient
stabilization, and austere medical services at a disaster site; an
evacuation capability for movement of patients from a disaster area to
locations where definitive medical care can be provided; and a voluntary
hospital network to provide definitive medical care. NDMS is
administered by the Department of Health and Human Services/U.S. Public
Health Service, in cooperation with the Department of Defense, the
Department of Veterans Affairs, FEMA, State and local governments, and
the private sector. (**Facts on the NDMS**)

**National Infrastructure Advisory Council (NIAC):** "The NIAC provides
the President, through the Secretary of Homeland Security, with advice
on the security of physical and cyber systems across all CI/KR
\[critical infrastructure, key resources\] sectors. The Council is
comprised of up to 30 members appointed by the President. Members are
selected from the private sector, academia, and State and local
governments. The Council was established (and amended) under Executive
Orders 13231, 13286, and 13385." (**DHS, NIPP**, 2006, p. 28.)

**National Infrastructure Inventory:** "The inventory addresses the
physical, cyber, and human elements of each asset, system, network, or
function under consideration. The compilation process relies on the
substantial body of previous assessments that have been completed for
natural disasters, industrial accidents, and other incidents. The
inventory includes basic information on the relationships, dependencies,
and interdependencies between various assets, systems, networks, and
functions; on service providers, such as schools and businesses, that
may be of relevance to more than one sector; and on the foreign assets,
systems, networks, and functions on which U.S. CI/KR may rely. The
inventory also includes a cyber data framework that is used to
characterize each sector's unique cyber assets, systems, networks, or
functions." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, pp. 31-32)

**National Security Emergency:** "Any occurrence, including natural
disaster, military attack, technological emergency, or other emergency,
that seriously degrades or seriously threatens the national security of
the United States." (**FEMA** *Disaster Dictionary* 2001, 84; cites
Executive Order 12656)

**National Security Telecommunications Advisory Committee (NSTAC):**
"The NSTAC provides industry-based advice and expertise to the President
on issues and problems related to implementing National Security and
Emergency Preparedness (NS/EP) communications policy. The NSTAC is
comprised of up to 30 industry chief executives representing the major
communications and network service providers and information technology,
finance, and aerospace companies. It was created under Executive Order
12382." (**DHS, NIPP**, 2006,, p. 28).

**National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disasters (NVOAD):** An
umbrella organization of established and experienced voluntary
organizations that serve disaster-affected communities. (**FEMA** 1995)

**Natural Disaster:** See "Disaster, Natural"

**Natural Hazards:** See "Hazard, Natural"

**NCC:** National Coordinating Center for Telecommunications. (**DHS,
NIPP** 2006, p. 101)

**NCIP R&D:** National Critical Infrastructure Protection Research &
Development. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**NCRCG:** National Cyber Response Coordination Group. (**DHS, NIPP**
2006, p. 102)

**NCS:** National Communications System. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**NCSA:** National Cyber Security Alliance. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**NCTC:** National Counterterrorism Center. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**NHC:** National Hurricane Center.

**NIAC:** National Infrastructure Advisory Council. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006,
p. 102)

**NIAP:** National Information Assurance Partnership. (**DHS, NIPP**
2006, p. 102)

**NICC:** National Infrastructure Coordinating Center. (**DHS, NIPP**
2006, p. 102)

**NIMS:** National Incident Management System.

**NIPP:** National Infrastructure Protection Plan. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006,
p. 1)

**NIPP Risk Management Framework:** (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, pp. 29-50)

> Set Security Goals
>
> Identify Assets, Systems, Networks and Functions
>
> Assess Risks
>
> Prioritize
>
> Implement Protective Programs
>
> Measure Effectiveness

**NISAC:** National Infrastructure Simulation and Analysis Center.
(**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**NIST:** National Institute of Standards and Technology.

**NJTTF:** National Joint Terrorism Task Force. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p.
102)

**No Adverse Impact**: Concept developed by the Association of State
Floodplain Managers to promote in efforts to reduce growing flood
losses. No Adverse Impact centers on "ensuring that the actions of one
property owner do not adversely impact the rights and interests of other
property owners, now and in the future." (**ASFPM** 2003, 45-46)

**NOC:** National Operations Center. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**NRC:** National Research Council.

**NRC:** Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

**NRCC:** National Response Coordination Center. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p.
102)

**NRP:** National Response Plan.

**NS/EP:** National Security and Emergency Preparedness. (**DHS, NIPP**,
2006, p. 28)

**NSTAC:** National Security Telecommunications Advisory Committee.
(**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**OI&A:** Office of Intelligence and Analysis (Division of DHS
Preparedness Directorate). (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**OIP:** Office of Infrastructure Protection (Division of DHS
Preparedness Directorate). (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**One-Hundred Year (100-Year) Floodplain:** The land area adjoining a
river, stream, lake, or ocean which is inundated by the 100-year flood,
also referred to as a flood having a 1 percent chance of occurring in
any given year. The 100-year flood is the regulatory (base) flood under
the NFIP. (**FEMA** 1990)

**One-Percent Annual Chance Flood:** A flood of the magnitude that has a
one-percent chance of being equaled or exceeded in any given year. Often
referred to as the "100-year" flood or base flood, the one-percent
annual chance flood is the standard most commonly used for floodplain
management and regulatory purposes in the United States.

**Partnership:** "The concept of partnership...is understood here to
encompass ongoing communication and sharing of knowledge, which, in
turn, relies on relations of trust and common commitments." (**Fagen and
Martin** 2005, 11)

**PCIIP:** Protected Critical Infrastructure Information Program.
(**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 5)

**PCIS:** Partnership for Critical Infrastructure Security. "The PCIS
membership is comprised of one or more members and their alternates from
each of the SCCs \[Sector Coordinating Councils\]." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006,
p. 5)

**PDD:** Presidential Decision Directive.

**Plume:** Identifiable stream of air with a temperature or composition
different from that of its environment. Examples are a smoke plume from
a chimney and a buoyant plume rising by convection from heated ground.
(**WMO** 1992, 456)

**Preliminary Damage Assessment (PDA):** A process used to determine the
impact and magnitude of damage and the resulting unmet needs of
individuals, businesses, the public sector, and the community as a
whole. Information collected as a result of the PDA process is used by
the State as a basis for the Governor's request for Federal assistance
under the Stafford Act, and by FEMA to document the recommendation made
to the President in response to the Governor's request. (**44 CFR
206.33**)

**Preparedness:** "Preparedness within the field of emergency management
can best be defined as a state of readiness to respond to a disaster,
crisis, or any other type of emergency situation. It includes that
activities, programs, and systems that exist before an emergency that
are used to support and enhance response to an emergency or disaster."
(**Bullock & Haddow** 2005, 181)

**Preparedness**: "The range of deliberate critical tasks and activities
necessary to build, sustain, and improve the operational capability to
prevent, protect against, respond to, and recover from domestic
incidents. Preparedness is a continuous process involving efforts at all
levels of government and between government and private sector and
nongovernmental organizations to identify threats, determine
vulnerabilities, and identify required activities and resources to
mitigate risk." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 104)

**Preparedness:** Those activities, programs, and systems that exist
prior to an emergency that are used to support and enhance response to
an emergency or disaster. (**FEMA** 1992)

**Preparedness:** "The term 'preparedness' refers to the existence of
plans, procedures, policies, training, and equipment necessary at the
Federal, State, and local level to maximize the ability to prevent,
respond to, and recover from major events. The term 'readiness' is used
interchangeably with preparedness." (**HSPD-8**, December 2003)

**Preparedness:** Establishing and delineating authorities and
responsibilities for emergency actions and making provisions for having
the people, equipment, and facilities in place to respond when the need
arises. Preparedness involves planning, training, exercising, procuring
and maintaining equipment, and designating facilities for shelters and
other emergency purposes. (**Michigan DEM**, 1998, 7)

**Preparedness:** "Preparedness represents actions that are undertaken
to reduce the negative consequences of events where there is
insufficient human control to institute mitigation measures."
(**Peterson and Perry** 1999, 242)

**Preparedness:** involves the development and regular testing of
warning systems (linked to forecasting systems) and plans for evacuation
or other measures to be taken during a disaster alert period to minimize
potential loss of life and physical damage; the education and training
of officials and the population at risk; the establishment of policies,
standards, organizational arrangements and operational plans to be
applied following a disaster impact; the securing of resources (possibly
including the stockpiling of supplies and the earmarking of funds); and
the training of intervention teams. It must be supported by enabling
legislation. (**Simeon Institute** 1998)

**Preparedness:** Activities designed to minimize loss of life and
damage, to organize the temporary removal of people and property from a
threatened location and facilitate timely and effective rescue, relief
and rehabilitation. See also "prevention." (**U.N**. 1992, 4)

**Preparedness:** "Activities and measures taken in advance to ensure
effective response to the impact of disasters, including the issuance of
timely and effective early warnings and the temporary removal of people
and property from a threatened location." (**U.N. ISDR** 2002, 25)

**Prevention:** "Actions taken to avoid an incident or to intervene to
stop an incident from occurring. Prevention involves actions taken to
protect lives and property. Involves applying intelligence and other
information to a range of activities that may include such
countermeasures as deterrence operations; heightened inspections;
improved surveillance and security operations; investigations to
determine the full nature and source of the threat; immunizations,
isolation, or quarantine; public health and agricultural surveillance
and testing processes; and, as appropriate, specific law enforcement
operations aimed at deterring, preempting, interdicting, or disrupting
illegal activity and apprehending potential perpetrators and bringing
them to justice." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 104)

**Prevention:** "The term 'prevention' refers to activities undertaken
by the first responder community during the early stages of an incident
to reduce the likelihood or consequences of threatened or actual
terrorist attacks." (**HSPD-8**, December 2003)

**Prevention:** Encompasses activities designed to provide permanent
protection from disasters. It includes engineering and other physical
protective measures, and also legislative measures controlling land use
and urban planning. See also "preparedness". (**U.N.** 1992, 5)

**Prevention:** "Activities to provide outright avoidance of the adverse
impact of hazards and related environmental, technological and
biological disasters." (**U.N.** ISDR 2002, 25)

**Private Sector Senior Advisory Committee (PVTSAC):** "The Secretary of
Homeland Security established the PVTSAC as a subcommittee of the HSAC
\[Homeland Security Advisory Committee\] to provide the HSAC with expert
advice from leaders in the private Sector." (**HHS, NIPP**, 2006, p. 27)

**Probability:** The likelihood of a specific outcome, measured by the
ratio of specific outcomes to the total number of possible outcomes.
Probability is expressed as a number between 0 and 1, with 0 indicating
an impossible outcome and 1 indicating an outcome is certain.
(**Standards** 1995)

**Probability Analysis:** The derivation of both the likelihood of
incidents occurring and the likelihood of particular outcomes (or
effects) should those events occur. (**NSW** 1989)

**Protection:** "Dictionary definitions for 'protection' and 'protect'
are: 'Protection: the act of protecting; the state of being
protected...Protect: to cover or shield from exposure, injury, or
destruction...' The use of 'protect' in HSPD-7 \[Homeland Security
Presidential Directive\] is aligned with the dictionary definition in
that it maintains the defensive focus...The CITF \[Critical
Infrastructure Task Force\] believes that protection, in isolation, is a
brittle strategy. We cannot protect every potential target against every
conceivable attack; we will never eliminate all vulnerabilities.
Furthermore, it is virtually impossible to define a desired end-state --
to quantify how much protection is enough -- when the goal is to reduce
vulnerabilities. In contrast, a dictionary definition for 'resilience'
is: 'Resilience: an ability to recover from or adjust easily to
misfortune or change'." (**Critical Infrastructure Task Force** 2006, 4)

**Protection:** "Protection instills a defender's view (i.e, from the
inside out) and lessens the ability to see and effectively anticipate
what the enemy may see looking from the outside in -- what has been
termed the 'predator's view'." (**Critical Infrastructure Task Force**
2006, 15)

**Protection:** "Actions to mitigate the overall risk to CI/KR assets,
systems, networks, or their interconnecting links resulting from
exposure, injury, destruction, incapacitation, or exploitation. In the
context of the NIPP, protection includes actions to deter the threat,
mitigate vulnerabilities, or minimize consequences associated with a
terrorist attack or other incident. Protection can include a wide range
of activities, such as hardening facilities, building resiliency and
redundancy, incorporating hazard resistance into initial facility
design, initiating active or passive countermeasures, installing
security systems, promoting workforce surety, and implementing cyber
security measures, among various others." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 104)

**Public Assistance (PA):** Supplementary Federal assistance provided
pursuant to a Presidential Declaration of emergency or major disaster
under the Stafford Act to State and local governments or certain
private, not-for-profit organizations other than assistance for the
direct benefit of individuals and families. (**FEMA**/EMI 1996))

**Radiation:** Emission or transfer of energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves or particles. (**WMO** 1992, 492)

**Radiological Emergency:** A radiological incident that poses an
actual, potential, or perceived hazard to public health or safety or
loss of property. (**FRERP**, Appendix B)

**RAMCAP:** Risk Analysis and Management for Critical Asset Protection.
(**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**Recovery:** " The development, coordination, and execution of service-
and site-restoration plans for impacted communities and the
reconstitution of government operations and services through individual,
private sector, nongovernmental, and public assistance programs that
identify needs and define resources; provide housing and promote
restoration; address long-term care and treatment of affected persons;
implement additional measures and techniques, as feasible; evaluate the
incident to identify lessons learned; and develop initiatives to
mitigate the effects of future incidents." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 104)

**Recovery:** The coordinated process of supporting emergency-affected
communities in reconstruction of the physical infrastructure and
restoration of emotional, social, economic and physical well-being.
(**EMI Australia** 1996)

**Recovery:** Those long-term activities and programs beyond the initial
crisis period of an emergency or disaster and designed to return all
systems to normal status or to reconstitute these systems to a new
condition that is less vulnerable. (**FEMA** 1992)

**Recovery:** Activities traditionally associated with providing Federal
supplemental disaster recovery assistance under a Presidential major
disaster declaration. These activities usually begin within days after
the event and continue after the response activities' cease. Recovery
includes individual and public assistance programs, which provide
temporary housing assistance, grants and loans to eligible individuals
and government entities to recover from the effects of a disaster.
(**FEMA FRP** Appendix B)

**Recovery:** "The process of restoring community infrastructure and
social and economic systems following an emergency or disaster."
(**Michigan DEM**, 1998, 7)

**Recovery:** "...recovery measures encompass what has traditionally
been called reconstruction and recovery; ultimately the rebuilding of
the disaster-impacted community." (**Peterson and Perry** 1999, 242;
citing Drabek, 1986)

**Regulatory Floodway:** The area regulated by federal, state or local
requirements to provide for the discharge of the base flood so the
cumulative increase in water surface elevation is no more than a
designated amount (not to exceed one foot as set by the National Flood
Insurance Program).

**Relief:** Assistance and/or intervention during or after disaster to
meet the life preservation and basic subsistence needs. It can be of
emergency or protracted duration. (**U.N.** 1992, 5)

**Resilience:** "Resiliency is defined as the capability of a system to
maintaining its functions and structure in the face of internal and
external change and to degrade gracefully when it must." (**Allenby and
Fink** 2005, 1034)

**Resilience:** The capacity to recover successfully from loss and
damage. The central features of resilience appear to be access to
resources (particularly finance), access to information and services,
the capacity to manage one's own affairs and the capacity to deal with
the stress and emotions generated by the disaster. (**Buckle** 1995, 13)

**Resilience:** "...a dictionary definition \[Merriam-Webster Online
Dictionary\] for 'resilience' is: 'an ability to recover from or adjust
easily to misfortune or change'. Strategies based on resilience accept
that efforts to prevent attacks (reduce threats) and ato defend against
those attacks (reduce vulnerabilities), albeit necessary, will
inevitably prove insufficient. Strategies based on resilience address
all three components of the risk equation in an integrated fashion."
(**Critical Infrastructure Task Force** 2006, 4-5).

**Resilience:** "The ability at every level to detect, prevent, prepare
for and if necessary handle and recover from disruptive challenges."
(**Great Britain** 2004, 1)

**Resilience:** "Resilience as a concept was initially used in ecology
to describe the ability of ecosystems to resist and recover from
external negative impacts (Blaikie and Brookfield, 1985). The term is
increasingly used in the disaster management sphere and reflects a trend
towards a holistic and proactive approach that has the community, and
its ability to resist and recover as its focus. The term resilience
brings together the components of the disaster cycle -- response,
recovery, mitigation and preparedness, utilizing a range of structural
and non-structural approaches." (**O'Brien and Read** 2005, 354)

**Resilience/Resilient:** "The capacity of a system, community or
society to resist or to change in order that it may obtain an acceptable
level in functioning and structure. This is determined by the degree to
which the social system is capable of organizing itself, and the ability
to increase its capacity for learning and adaptation, including the
capacity to recover from a disaster." (**UN** **ISDR** 2002, 24)

**Resiliency:** "In the context of the NIPP, resiliency is the
capability of an asset, system, or network to maintain its function
during or to recover from a terrorist attack or other incident." (**DHS,
NIPP** 2006, p. 104)

**Resource Analysis:** The systematic identification and analysis of
available resources and authorities for managing these potential
resources in an emergency.

**Response:** "Activities that address the short-term, direct effects of
an incident, including immediate actions to save lives, protect
property, and meet basic human needs. Response also includes the
execution of emergency operations plans and incident mitigation
activities designed to limit the loss of life, personal injury, property
damage, and other unfavorable outcomes. As indicated by the situation,
response activities include applying intelligence and other information
to lessen the effects or consequences of an incident; increased security
operations; continuing investigations into the nature and source of the
threat; ongoing surveillance and testing processes; immunizations,
isolation, or quarantine; and specific law enforcement operations aimed
at preempting, interdicting, or disrupting illegal activity, and
apprehending actual perpetrators and bringing them to justice." (**DHS,
NIPP** 2006, pp. 104-105)

**Response:** Those activities and programs designed to address the
immediate and short-term effects of the onset of an emergency or
disaster. (**FEMA** 1992)

**Response:** Activities to address the immediate and short-term effects
of an emergency or disaster. Response includes immediate actions to save
lives, protect property, and meet basic human needs. Based on the
requirements of the situation, response assistance will be provided to
an affected State under the Federal Response Plan using a partial
activation of selected Emergency Support Functions (ESF's) or the full
activation of all 12 ESF's to meet the needs of the situation. (**FEMA
FRP**, Appendix B)

**Response:** "Carrying out time-sensitive actions to save lives and
protect property during an emergency or disaster. In addition to
managing the response, actions can include fire fighting, protective
actions by law enforcement, warning, evacuation, mass care, emergency
public information, search and rescue, health and medical care, resource
management, and other activities." (**Michigan DEM** 1998, 7)

**Response:** "Response refers to actions undertaken immediately before
and during impact to reduce primary and secondary negative effects."
(**Peterson and Perry** 1999, 242)

**Richter Scale:** Logarithmic magnitude scale of earthquake energy,
illustrated by typical impacts.

**Energies of earthquakes (Richter-scale Magnitude):**

**Magnitude Energies (TNT)**

1 = 1.7 Kg

2 = 5.9 Kg

3 = 180 Kg

4 = 6 tons

5 = 199 tons

6 = 6,270 tons

7 = 100,000 tons

8 = 6,270,000 tons

9 = 199,000,000 tons (Reference Center 1998)

**Risk:** A measure of the probability of damage to life, property,
and/or the environment, which could occur if a hazard manifests itself,
including the anticipated severity of consequences to people. (**Unknown
source**)

**Risk:** "Risk is the product of hazard (H) and vulnerability (V) as
they affect a series of elements (E) comprising the population,
properties, economic activities, public services, and so on, under the
threat of disaster in a given area....Risk is estimated by combining the
probability of events and the consequences (usually conceptualized as
losses) that would arise if the events take place." (**Alexander**, No
Date, 1)

**Risk:** "The economics literature is intrinsically important to
articulating an epistemological definition of risk in its
characterization of risk being something different from uncertainty. The
idea is that risk and uncertainty both relate to the unknown, but that
risk is an attempt to 'control' the unknown by applying knowledge based
on the orderliness of the world. Uncertainty, on the other hand,
represents the totally random unknown and thus cannot be controlled or
predicted." (**Althaus** 2005, 568)

**Risk:** Risk = Likelihood x Consequence. (**Ansell and Wharton** 1992,
100)

**Risk:** Risk is defined as: Risk = Hazard x Vulnerability divided by
Disaster Management, where "Risk is defined as the scope of consequences
(loss of life, damage to property or the environment.... Hazard is
defined as the 'Punch of Nature' (external forces)...Vulnerability is
defined as the weakness/strength of the element at risk...Disaster
Management is defined as a comprehensive strategy based on a set of
activities to reduce the risk by: 1. Reduction of the vulnerability of
the elements at risk. 2. Ensuring that adequate measures are implemented
before disaster strikes. 3. Responding as efficiently and effectively as
possible to disasters when they occur. 4. Assuring a sustainable
development of the region stricken." (**Benouar and Mimi** 2001, 6)

**Risk:** "Risk is nothing more than the consequences of hazard."
(**Bezek** 2002)

**Risk:** "We...need to identify and understand the links between risk,
vulnerability, resilience and capacity that go beyond the iconic (though
simplistic and misleading) formula of Risk = Vulnerability multiplied by
Resilience and divided by Hazard." (**Buckle** 2004, 8)

**Risk:** "...risk is when you know the possible range of things that
may happen following a choice; uncertainty is when you don't....Risk in
its general form is when it is possible, at least in principle, to
estimate the likelihood that an event (or set of events) will occur; the
specific forms of those estimates are the probabilities of adverse
consequences." (**Clarke** 1999, 11)

**Risk:** The possibility of suffering harm from a hazard. (**Cohrssen
and Covello** 1989, 7)

**Risk:** "...the three components of risk: threat, vulnerability, and
consequence." (**Critical Infrastructure Task Force** 2006, p. 4).

**Risk:** "...the measure of likelihood of occurrence of the hazard"
(**Cutter** 1993, 2).

**Risk:** "*Risk* is the probability of an event occurring, or the
likelihood of a hazard happening (Presidential/Congressional Commission
on Risk Assessment and Risk Management 1997). Risk emphasizes the
estimation and quantification of probability in order to determine
appropriate levels of safety or the acceptability of a technology or
course of action. Risk is a component of hazard." (**Cutter** 2001, 3)

**Risk:** The probability that a hazardous event will occur and the
expected loss of lives and goods due to vulnerability to prevailing
hazards. (**D&E** Reference Center 1998)

**Risk:** The possibility of suffering harm from a hazard. (**Deyle**,
et al. 1998, 121)

**Risk:** "Risk is generally defined as the combination of the frequency
of occurrence, vulnerability, and the consequence of a specified
hazardous event." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 29)

**Risk:** "A measure of potential harm that encompasses threat,
vulnerability, and consequence. In the context of the NIPP, risk is the
expected magnitude of loss due to a terrorist attack, natural disaster,
or other incident, along with the likelihood of such an event occurring
and causing that loss." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 105)

**Risk:** "...the potential losses associated with a hazard and, defined
in terms of expected probability and frequency, exposure, and
consequences" (**FEMA** 1997, *Multi Hazard...Risk Assessment,* xxi).

**Risk:** The estimated impact that a hazard would have on people,
services, facilities, and structures in a community; the likelihood of a
hazard event resulting in an adverse condition that causes injury or
damage. Risk is often expressed in relative terms such as a high,
moderate, or low likelihood of sustaining damage above a particular
threshold due to a specific type of hazard event. It also can be
expressed in terms of potential monetary losses associated with the
intensity of the hazard (**FEMA** 2001 (August), a-6)

**Risk:** Risk "is the probability that a hazard will occur during a
particular time period." (**Godschalk** 1991, 132)

**Risk:** The potential for realization of unwanted, adverse
consequences to human life, health, property, or the environment;
estimation of risk is usually based on the expected result of the
conditional probability of the event occurring times the consequence of
the event given that it has occurred. (**Gratt** 1987, 244)

**Risk:** "The expected number of lives lost, persons injured, damage to
property, and disruption of economic activity due to a particular
natural phenomenon, and consequently the product of specific risk and
elements at risk -- UNDRO." (**Gunn** 1990, 374.

**Risk:** Risk is an expression or possible loss over a specific period
of time or number of operational cycles. It may be indicated by the
probability of an accident times the damage in dollars, lives, or
operating units. (**Hammer** 1972)

**Risk:** "A disaster risk is the probability of injury, loss of life,
damage to property, disruption of services and activities, and negative
environmental effects. The extent to which risk either increases or
decreases is the result of interactions within a multiple chain of
events." (**Jegillos** 1999, 12)

**Risk:** "...a measure of the probability of deviation from the
expected." (**Kloman** 2001, 24)

**Risk:** "The western approach defines risk as the probability of
physical harm due to technological or natural processes. However, we
know that physical risks are always created and effected in social
systems. Therefore, understanding risk means considering the social
systems within which risk occur. Furthermore, within a social system,
individuals do not necessarily share the same perceptions or risk and
underlying risk factors.... In the expert knowledge system, disasters
are seen as being driven primarily by hazard patters. By contrast, in a
people-centered approach, the emphasis shifts from the hazard to a focus
on socioeconomic vulnerability." (**Kotze** 1999, 35)

**Risk:** "Risk refers to the probability that death, injury, illness,
property damage, and other undesirable consequences will stem from a
hazard" (**Lerbinger** 1997, 267).

**Risk:** "There are as many definitions of 'vulnerability' and 'risk'
as there are agencies in federal, state, and local governments
combined....Currently, there is no universally accepted definition of
the most basic measures of criticality -- vulnerability and risk.

"For example, the intelligence community typically defines 'risk' as R =
T + V 9Threat plus Vulnerability). The FBI says 'risk' is R = I x T x V
(probability of an incident times threat times vulnerability).[^13] A
number of other methodologies use arbitrary metrics to gauge risk. The
most popular method of gauging criticality of an asset such as a port,
telecommunications center, water treatment plant, or transportation
terminal is to assign numbers to each asset and then add them together.
In ranked ordering systems such as the U.S. Coast Guard's port security
and risk assessment tool, risk is computed by summing assigned numbers
to various properties such as damage, casualties, vulnerability, and
threat. These numbers are provided by subject matter experts who, in
turn, rely on their individual judgment when rating 'vulnerability' and
'risk'. The prot asset with the highest total is declared the most
critical.

"The validity of this approach relies on subject matter experts, which
does not address the problem of inconsistency across experts. This leads
to uneven ranking, because every expert has a different idea of how to
assign numbers. It also leads to meaningless totals, because of the
different interpretations of what the numbers mean.

"The intelligence community's risk equation is difficult to apply
because it is not clear how one compares a low-threat,
high-vulnerability asset with a high-threat, low-vulnerability asset. If
we add threat and vulnerability together and get the same total, what is
the difference? Clearly, a high-threat condition deserves closer
scrutiny than a low-threat condition, regardless of the vulnerability,
and yet R = T + V produces indistinguishable totals....

"We need a standard, scientifically exact method of assessing
vulnerability and risk. Only then will we be able to define
vulnerability and risk. A standard definition means that states and
localities will be able to compare apples to oranges, and that the
result of vulnerability analysis will mean something -- across the 50
states....

"Suppose for example, 'vulnerability' is defined as the *probability
that an attack will succeed* and 'risk' is defined as the *expected
value of the damage caused by a successful attack* Vulnerability is a
probability (a number from zero to 100% and risk is a cost (a number
that represents the impact of an attack on an asset or entire sector).
Mathematically, risk is V x D, where V = vulnerability and D is
typically in units of dollars, casualties, or some other loss." (**Lewis
and Darken** 2005, 4-5)

**Risk:** "There are three components of risk -- the magnitude of loss,
the chance of loss, and the exposure of loss." (**MacCrimmon and
Wehrung** 1986, 10)

> "The main definition of the verb 'risk' in the *Oxford English
> Dictionary*, is 'to expose to the chance of injury or loss.' ...First,
> it is necessary that there be a potential loss of some amount (we will
> use 'loss' as a general expression to include 'injury'). Second, there
> must be a chance of loss. A sure loss is not a risk. Third, the notion
> 'to expose' means that the decision maker can take actions that can
> increase (or decrease) the magnitude or chance of loss. Therefore 'to
> risk' implies the availability of choice." (MacCrimmon and Wehrung
> 1986, 9)

**Risk:** Risk is when there is "accurate knowledge of a probability
distribution of the consequences that will follow on each alternative."
(**March and Simon**, 1993)

**Risk:** Risk can be related directly to the concept of disaster, given
that it includes the total losses and damages that can be suffered after
a natural hazard: dead and injured people, damage to property and
interruption of activities. Risk implies a future potential condition, a
function of the magnitude of the natural hazard and of the vulnerability
of all the exposed elements in a determined moment. (**Maskrey** 1989,
1)

**Risk:** "The term 'risk' is used in two ways. The first is to identify
what is **at risk** from the threats generated by the hazard. The second
is to identify **the probability** of losing community assets..."
(**May**, p. 6)

**Risk:** The probability of an event or condition occurring.
(**Mileti** 1999, 106)

**Risk:** Technical definition as follows: Risk (consequence/unit time)
= Frequency (events/unit time) x Magnitude (consequence/event). (**NRC**
1975)

**Risk:** "The probability, based on available data and scientific
knowledge, of a disaster occurring in a particular place." (**Pearce**
2000, Chapter 5, p. 27)

**Risk:** Defined in three ways:

> 1\. With regard solely to the occurrence probability of the damaging
> event -- a
>
> statistical concept.
>
> 2\. With regard to both event probability and the degree and type of
> damage or potential damage (here, risk is seen as the product of event
> probability and severity of impact).

3.  With regard to the distribution of power within society as well as
    to the

distribution of costs and benefits. In other words, who bears and who
imposes the risk? (**Penning-Rowsell** and Handmer 1990, 6; cited in
Pearce 2000, Chapter 2, 20)

**Risk:** A function of two major factors: (a) the probability that an
event, or series of events of various magnitudes, will occur, and (b)
the consequences of the event(s). (**Petak and Alkinson** 1982)

**Risk:** The potential for unwanted negative consequences of an event
or activity. (**Rowe** 1997)

**Risk:** "...three components...make up a standard risk equation --
scenario, probability and consequence...the first component, scenario,
challenges the imagination; and the second, probability, defies
knowledge. But the third component of risk -- consequence -- is the
outcome of the first two and the most important place to focus one's
energy." (**Scalet** 2006)

**Risk:** The potential losses associated with a hazard, defined in
terms of expected probability and frequency, exposure, and consequences.
(**Schwab**, et al. 1998, 329)

**Risk:** For engineering purposes, risk is defined as the expected
losses (lives lost, persons injured, damage to property, and disruption
of economic activity) caused by a particular phenomenon. Risk is a
function of the probability of particular occurrences and the losses
each would cause. Other analysts use the term to mean the probability of
a disaster occurring and resulting in a particular level of loss. A
societal element is said to be at "risk", or "vulnerable", when it is
exposed to known disaster hazards and is likely to be adversely affected
by the impact of those hazards if and when they occur. The communities,
structures, services, or activities concerned are described as elements
at "risk". Also, the FEMA damage and casualty production model for
simultaneously handling multiple nuclear attacks to produce the spectrum
of likely attack results and determine their associated possibilities. A
pre-attack planning tool. (**Simeon Institute** 1992)

**Risk:** Risk is an integral part of life. Indeed, the Chinese word for
risk "weij-ji" combines the characters meaning 'opportunity/chance' and
'danger' to imply that uncertainty always involves some balance between
profit and loss. Since risk cannot be completely eliminated, the only
option is to manage it. (**Smith** 1996, 54)

**Risk:** The probability per unit time of the occurrence of a unit cost
burden. The cost burden may be measured in terms of injuries (fatalities
or days of disability) or other damage penalties (expense incurred) or
total social costs (including environmental intangibles). Risk thus
involves the integrated combination of (a) the probability of
occurrences, (b) the spectrum of event magnitudes, and (c) the spectrum
of resultant personal injuries and related costs. (**Starr**, Rudman,
and Whipple 1976)

**Risk**: The product of probability and consequences. (**Tarrant**
1997--98, 20)

**Risk:** "...the chance that some event that affects us adversely will
occur." (**Terry** 2001, 330) "...the chance of an adverse event
happening and the consequences of that event taken together." (331)

**Risk:** Expected losses (of lives, persons injured, property damaged
and economic activity disrupted) due to a particular hazard for a given
area and reference period. Based on mathematical calculations, risk is
the product of hazard and vulnerability. (**U.N.** 1992, 5)

**Risk:** "The probability of harmful consequences, or expected loss (of
lives, people injured, property, livelihoods, economic activity
disrupted or environment damaged) resulting from interactions between
natural or human induced hazards and vulnerable/capable conditions.
Conventionally risk is expressed by the equation Risk = Hazards x
Vulnerability/Capacity." (**U.N. ISDR** 2002, 24)

**Risk:** The possibility of loss, injury, disadvantage or destruction;
to expose to hazard or danger; to incur risk or danger. (**Webster's**
1981)

**Risk:** Risk if the product of the probability of the occurrence of a
hazard and its societal consequences. (Pearce 2000, Chapter 2, 21;
citing **Whyte** and Burton, 1980)

**Risk Analysis:** Assesses probability of damage (or injury) and actual
damage (or injury) that might occur, in light of a hazard and
vulnerability analysis. (**Unknown source**)

**Risk Analysis:** "Risk analysis involves identifying, measuring or
estimating and evaluating risk. There has been considerable debate
between engineers and social scientists about whether risk can
profitably and successfully be quantified, indeed, whether it is
necessary to quantify it al all (**Kleindorfer and Kunreuther** 1987).
Engineers (e.g. **Lind** 1987) regard risk analysis as a formal means of
quantitatively evaluating the possible misfunctioning of a system by
assigning probabilities to a set of predicted outcomes. Social
scientists (e.g. **Slovic** 1987) argue that risk need not be quantified
to be analyzed and that it is often sufficient to conceptualize a risk
in order to know the magnitude of a problem. In general types of risk
analysis, comparisons are often more meaningful than absolute numbers or
probabilities, especially when the values are quite small, as people
tend not to understand likelihoods expressed as small fractions."
(**Alexander**, no date, 2) "Formal risk analysis is based upon the
creation of an ensemble of scenarios which express what might happen as
a chain of occurrences." (p. 3)

**Risk Analysis:** "The term risk analysis is often used synonymously
with risk assessment. In this book, however, risk assessment refers to
the technical assessment of the nature and magnitude of a risk. Risk
analysis includes those functions, as well as methods to best use the
resulting information. Risk analysis includes methods for:

-   Hazard identification

-   Risk assessment

-   Determining the significance of risk

-   Communicating risk information." (**Cohrssen and Covello** 1989,
    355)

**Risk Analysis:** Estimates of the probability of various levels of
injury and damage to provide a more complete description of the risk
from the full range of possible hazard events in the area. (**Deyle**,
et al. 1998, 121-122) Risk analysis makes "a quantitative estimate of
damage, injuries, and costs likely to be experienced within a specified
geographic area over a specific period of time." (**Deyle**, et al.
1998, 133-134)

**Risk Analysis:** A detailed examination performed to understand the
nature of unwanted, negative consequences to human life, health,
property, or the environment; an analytical process to provide
information regarding undesirable events; the process of quantification
of the probabilities and expected consequences for identified risks.
(**Gratt** 1987, 244)

**Risk Analysis:** "...incorporates estimates of the probability of
various levels of injury and damage to provide a more complete
description of the risk from the full range of possible hazard events in
the area" (**Deyle, French, Olshansky, and Paterson** 1998, 121--122).

**Risk Analysis:** Risk analysis is the most sophisticated level of
hazard assessment. It involves making quantitative estimates of the
damage, injuries, and costs likely to be experienced within a specified
geographic area over a specific period of time. Risk, therefore, has two
measurable components: (1) the magnitude of the harm that may result
(defined through vulnerability assessment); and (2) the likelihood or
probability of the harm occurring in any particular location within any
specified period of time (risk = magnitude x probability). A
comprehensive risk analysis includes a full probability assessment of
various levels of the hazard as well as probability assessments of
impacts on structures and populations. (**Deyle, French, Olshansky, and
Paterson** 1998, 134.)

**Risk Analysis:** The systematic use of available information to
characterize risk. (**Salter** 1997--98, 24)

**Risk Assessment:** "A process by which the results of a risk analysis
(i.e., risk estimates) are prepared for use in decisions, either through
the relative ranking of risk reduction strategies or through comparison
with risk criteria." (**Center for Chemical Process Safety** 1995, xvii)

**Risk Assessment**: "refers to the technical assessment of the nature
and magnitude of risk". (**Cohrssen** and Covello, 1989)

**Risk Assessment:** "...emphasizes the estimation and quantification of
risk in order to determine acceptable levels of risk and safety; in
other words to balance the risks of a technology or activity against its
social benefits in order to determine its overall social acceptability"
(**Cutter** 1993, 2).

**Risk Assessment:** Determination of vulnerabilities and hazards in
certain location to establish risks and risk probabilities. (**D&E**
**Reference Center** 1998)

**Risk Assessment:** "Risk assessment includes one or more of the
following components:

-   Hazard identification,

-   Dose-response assessment,

-   Exposure assessment,

-   Risk characterization." (**Environmental Protection Agency** 1986)

**Risk Assessment:** The process of identifying the likelihood and
consequences of an event to provide the basis for informed decisions on
a course of action. (**FEMA 1992**)

**Risk Assessment:** "...a process or method for evaluating risk
associated with a specific hazard and defined in terms of probability
and frequency of occurrence, magnitude and severity, exposure, and
consequences" (**FEMA 1997**, *Multi Hazard...,* xxi).

**Risk Assessment:** "Risk Assessment defines the potential consequences
of a disaster based upon a combination of the community's hazard and
vulnerability identification." (**FEMA** **1998**, *Project Impact*, 17)

**Risk Assessment:** "Risk assessment is the process of measuring the
potential loss of life, personal injury, economic injury, and property
damage resulting from natural hazards by assessing the vulnerability of
people, buildings, and infrastructure to natural hazards.

Risk assessment answers the fundamental question that fuels the natural
hazard mitigation process: 'What would happen if a natural hazard event
occurred in your community.'"

A risk assessment tells you:

-   "The hazards to which your state or community is susceptible;

-   What these hazards can do to physical, social, and economic assets;

-   Which areas are most vulnerable to damage from these hazards; and

-   The resulting cost of damages or costs avoided through future
    mitigation projects." (**FEMA 2001**, iii)

**Risk Assessment:** Risk assessment estimates the probable degree of
injury and property damage in a given area over a specific time interval
(**Godschalk**, Kaiser, and Berke 1998, 99.)

**Risk Assessment:** The process, including both risk analysis and risk
management alternatives, of establishing information regarding and
acceptable levels of that risk for an individual, group, society, or the
environment. (**Gratt** 1987, 244)

**Risk Assessment:** "A risk assessment is an objective scientific
assessment of the chance of experiencing loss or adverse consequences
when physical and social elements are exposed to potentially harmful
natural and technological hazards, environmental impact, morbidity, and
mortality." (**Hays and Ryland** 2001)

**Risk Assessment:** "Risk assessment, is a systematic characterization
of the probability of an adverse event and the nature and severity of
that event (Presidential/Congressional Commission on Risk Assessment and
Risk Management 1997). Risk assessments are most often used to determine
the human health or ecological impacts of specific chemical substances,
microorganisms, radiation, or natural events....In the natural-hazards
field, risk assessment has a broader meaning, and involves a systematic
process of defining the probability of an adverse event (e.g., flood)
and where that event is most likely to occur." (**Hill and** **Cutter**
2001, 15-16)

**Risk Assessment:** "...the quantitative evaluation of the likelihood
of undesired events and the likelihood of harm or damage being caused
together with the value judgments made concerning the significance of
the results." (**Jones** 1992, 27)

**Risk Assessment:** "...a basic risk assessment:

-   Identifies the hazard,

-   Profiles the hazard event,

-   Inventories the assets that would be impacted (affected), and

-   Estimates the losses that would result from events (floods) of
    different probability." (**Larson and Emmer** 2004, Session 16, page
    11)

**Risk Assessment:** "Risk assessment should be recognized as a process
which consists of a number of steps. Whilst there is great diversity in
the detailed approaches and methodologies used, all risk assessments
share some common characteristics. The essential steps are hazard
identification including information gathering, an estimation of
consequences and frequencies, a characterizations of risk and an
evaluation of the significance of the results, which then forms an input
to a decision-making process." (**OECD Working Group** 1995, 12)

**Risk Assessment:** "Risk assessment involves the clarification of the
nature of a risk, including its probability of occurrence and likely
intensity, and measuring its potential impact on people, property and
the environment." (**Pine and Waugh** 2005, 16-9)

**Risk Assessment:** A five-step process comprised of:

\(1\) Identification of undesired events.

\(2\) Analysis of the mechanisms by which undesired events could occur.

\(3\) Consideration of the extent of any harmful effects.

> \(4\) Consideration of the likelihood of the undesired events and the
> likelihood of
>
> specific detrimental outcomes. Likelihood may be expressed as
> probability or
>
> frequency.
>
> \(5\) Judgements about the significance of the identified hazards and
> estimated
>
> risks. (**Royal Society Study Group** 1983)

**Risk Assessment:** (sometimes Risk Analysis) The process of
determining the nature and scale of the losses (due to disasters) which
can be anticipated in particular areas during a specified time period.
Risk assessment involves an analysis and combination of both theoretical
and empirical data concerning the probabilities of known disaster
hazards of particular force or intensities occurring in each area
("hazard mapping"); and the losses (both physical and functional)
expected to result to each element at risk in each area from the impact
of each potential disaster hazard ("vulnerability analysis and expected
loss estimation"). (**Simeon Institute** 1992)

**Risk Assessment:** ...*\[R\]isk Assessment*...is undertaken to find
out what the problems are. It involves evaluating the significance of a
given quantitative (if necessary, qualitative) measure or risk in an
integrated way...Generally speaking, risk assessment is such a complex
concept that a single, scientifically repeatable, solution will rarely
satisfy all the political and social realities of the decision-making
process. (**Smith** 1996, 54)

**Risk Assessment:** "The statistical analysis of risk...based on
mathematical theories of probability and scientific methods for
identifying causal links between different types of hazardous activity
and the resulting adverse consequences" (**Smith** 1996, 57).

According to **Kates and Kasperson** (1983), risk assessment comprises
three distinct steps:

1.  An identification of hazards likely to result in disasters, i.e.
    what hazardous events may occur?

2.  An estimation of the risks of such events, i.e. what is the
    probability of each event?

3.  An evaluation of the social consequences of the derived risk, i.e.
    what is the loss created by each event?" (**Smith** 1996, 58)

**Risk Assessment/Analysis:** "A process to determine the nature and
extent of risk by analyzing potential hazards and evaluating existing
conditions of vulnerability/capacity that could pose a potential threat
or harm to people, property, livelihoods and the environment on which
they depend." (**U.N. ISDR** 2002, 24

**Risk Assessment:** "The term risk analysis is often used synonymously
with risk assessment. In this book, however, risk assessment refers to
the technical assessment of the nature and magnitude of a risk." (**U.S.
Council on Environmental Quality**, 1989, 355)

**Risk Aversion:** "...the value people place directly on reducing their
own and others' risk of death and injury..." (**Smith** 1996, 72).

**Risk Characterization:** "Risk characterization is a synthesis and
summary of information about a potentially hazardous situation that
addresses the needs and interests of decision makers and of interested
and affected parties. Risk characterization is a prelude to decision
making and depends on an interative, analytical-deliberate process."
(**National Research Council**, 1996, p. 27)

**Risk Communication:** "According to acclaimed risk communication
experts Baruch Fischhoff, McGranger Morgan, Ann Bostrom, and Cynthia
Atman, risk communication is 'communication intended to supply laypeople
with the information they need to make informed, independent judgments
about risks to health, safety, and the environment'." (**Bullock &
Haddow** 2005, 295)

**Risk Communication:** "...risk communication: the effective
understanding of risks and the transfer of risk information to the
public, and the transfer of information from the public to
decisionmakers....Risk management decisions should not simply be made by
technical experts and public officials and then imposed on, and
justified to, the public after the fact. Risk Communication involves a
dialogue among interested parties -- risk experts, policy makers, and
affected citizens." (**Committee on Risk-Based Analysis**...2000, 37)

**Risk Communication:** "...an interactive process of exchange of
information and opinion among individuals, groups and institutions....We
construe risk communication to be successful to the extent that it
raises the level of understanding of relevant issues or actions for
those involved and satisfies them that they are adequately informed
within the limits of available knowledge." (**NRC** 1989, 2)

"The NRC (1989, 149) concludes that four objectives are key to improving
risk communications: (1) goal setting, (2) openness, (3) balance, and
(4) competence. As a means of achieving these objectives, it is
important, at the start of any given project, to determine:

-   what the public know, believe, and do not believe about the subject
    risk and ways to control it;

-   what quantitative and qualitative information participants need to
    know to make critical decisions;

-   and how they think about and conceptualize the risk. (NRC 1989,
    153)." (**Pearce** 2000, Chapter 3, 16)

"**Pidgeon** et al. (cited in **Horlick-Jones and Jones** 1993, 31)
conclude that there are

> four different conceptual approaches to risk communication:

-   Scientific communications -- 'top-down' or one-way transmission of
    some message about a hazard from a particular 'expert' source to a
    target 'non-expert' audience.

-   Two-way exchange -- an interactive process that recognizes the
    important role that feedback plays in any complex communication.

-   Wider institutional and cultural contexts stressed -- communicator
    takes account of the actions of risk management institutions,
    possible conflicting messages, and the history of the hazard in
    question.

-   Risk communication as part of a wider political process -- the
    process as a prerequisite to the enabling and empowerment of
    risk-bearing groups." (**Pearce** 2000, Chapter 3, 16)

**Risk Factors:** Frequency of Occurrence

Location

Spatial Area (% of jurisdiction hazard likely to impact)

Duration

Secondary Effects

Seasonality

Speed of onset

Warning availability

**Risk Management:** "The essence of risk management lies in maximizing
the areas that we have some control over the outcome while minimizing
the areas where we have absolutely no control over the outcome and the
linkage between cause and effect is hidden from us." (**Berstein**)

**Risk Management:** "Public Risk management is a process that is used
to decide what to do where a risk has been determined to exist. It
involves identifying the level of tolerance the community has for a
specific risk or set of risks and determines what risk assessment
options are acceptable within a social, economic, cultural and political
context. To achieve this, the process must be open since it has to
factor in benefits, costs of control and any statutory or socially
approved requirements needed to manage the risk. Hence, it requires
communicating and consulting with the public-at-large, either directly
or through appropriate representation as well as with specialists"
(**Britton** 1998, 1).

**Risk Management:** "Risk management is about playing the odds. It is
figuring out which attacks are worth worrying about and spending money
on and which are better left ignored. It is spending more resources on
the serious attacks -- defined as being very likely or if successful
having devastating effects -- and spending less on the trivial ones. It
is taking a finite security budget and making the best use of it.. In
other words, homeland security should be about wise choices, not just
increased spending." (**De Rugy** 2004, 20)

**Risk Management:** "Risk Management is a discipline for dealing with
uncertainty." (**Kloman** 2001, 24)

**Risk Management:** The art or act of handling the possibility of loss
or injury. Involves four components of (1) Indexing critical operations,
(2) Assessing risk exposure for those operations designated as "vital"
or "high," (3) Developing mitigation plan outlining who, what, when and
how the corrective and preventive actions will be implemented, and (4)
Testing and measurement of the effectiveness of the corrective and
preventive actions. (**Schaming** 1998, 26-28.)

**Risk Management:** The process of intervening to reduce risk---the
making of public and private decisions regarding protective policies and
actions that reduce the threat to life, property, and the environment
posed by hazards. Generally, the risk management process attempts to
answer the following questions:

1.  What can be done?

2.  What options or alternatives are available and what are their
    associated tradeoffs in terms of costs, benefits, and other (current
    and future risks?

3.  What are the effects of current decisions on future options?
    (**Shaw**, 1999.)

**Risk Management:** The process whereby decisions are made and actions
implemented to eliminate or reduce the effects of identified hazards.
(**Simeon Institute** 1992)

**Risk Management:** *Risk Management* means reducing the threats to
life and property (and the environment) posed by known hazards, whilst
simultaneously accepting unmanageable risks and maximizing any
associated benefits. (**Smith** 1996, 54)

**Risk Management:** A Framework for the systematic application of
management policies, procedures and practices to the tasks of
identifying, analyzing, evaluating, treating and monitoring risk.
(**Standards** 1995, 4360; quoted in Salter (1997--98, 22)

**Risk Management:** "The systematic management of administrative
decisions, organizations, operational skills and responsibilities to
apply policies, strategies and practices for disaster risk reduction."
(**U.N. ISDR** 2002, 25)

**Risk Management:** "Process of deciding what should be done about a
hazard; deciding which hazards at what scale (intensity, occurrence
interval) should be managed and in what priority." (**Williamson and
Lawless**, 2001)

**Risk Management Framework:** "A planning methodology that outlines the
process for setting security goals; identifying assets, systems,
networks, and functions; assessing risks; prioritizing and implementing
protective programs; measuring performance; and taking corrective
action. Public and private sector entities often include risk management
frameworks in their business continuity plans." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p.
105)

**Risk Perception:** "Slovic (cited in Slaymaker 1995, 3) defines risk
perception as 'the 'common sense' understanding of hazards, exposure and
risk, arrived at by a community through intuitive reasoning ...usually
expressed...as 'safe' or 'unsafe'.' He goes on the mention that 'policy
decisions are almost always driven by perceived risk among the
population affected and among decision makers \[and that\] these
perceptions are commonly at variance with 'technical' risk
assessments.'" (**Pearce** 2000, Chapter 3, 18)

**Risk Reduction:** Long-term measures to reduce the scale and/or the
duration eventual adverse effects of unavoidable or unpreventable
disaster hazards on a society which is at risk, by reducing the
vulnerability of its people, structures, services, and economic
activities to the impact of known disaster hazards. Typical risk
reduction measures include improved building standards, flood plain
zoning and land-use planning, crop diversification, and planting
windbreaks. The measures are frequently subdivided into "structural" and
"non-structural", " active" and "passive" measures. N.B. A number of
sources have used " disaster mitigation" in this context, while others
have used "disaster prevention." (**Simeon Institute** 1992)

**Risk Typologies:**

1\. *Subjective risk*: The mental state of an individual who experiences
uncertainty or doubt or worry as to the outcome of a given event.

2\. *Objective risk*. The variation that occurs when actual losses
differ from expected losses.

3\. *Real risk*. The combination of probability and negative consequence
that exists in the real world.

4\. *Observed risk:* The measurement of that combination obtained by
constructing a model of the real world.

5\. *Perceived risk:* The rough estimate of real risk made by an
untrained member of the general public. (**Thompson**, 1986)

**Safety:** Safety, in the traditional sense, refers to monitoring and
reducing the risk of personnel casualties (injuries and deaths) to some
acceptable level. (**Shaw** forthcoming)

**Saffir/Simpson Hurricane Scale:** A scale for expressing the relative
intensity of hurricanes, consisting of five levels of increasing
intensity---Categories 1 through 5. (**Notification Manual**)

#  Saffir/Simpson Hurricane Scale[^14]

[Storm Category Wind Speed (mph) Storm Surge (ft)]{.underline}

1 74-95 4-5

2 96-110 6-8

3 111-130 9-12

4 131-155 13-18

5 \> 155 \> 18

**SCCs:** Sector Coordinating Councils -- "...comprised of private
sector representatives." Relate to the National Infrastructure
Protection Plan. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 4)

**Sector Coordinating Council:** "The private sector counterpart to the
GCCs, these councils are self-organized, self-run, and self-governed
organizations that are representative of a spectrum of key stakeholders
within a sector. SCCs serve as the government's principal point of entry
into each sector for developing and coordinating a wide rnage of CI/KR
protection activities and issues." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, 105)

**Sector-Specific Agency:** "Federal departments and agencies identified
in HSPD-7 as responsible for CI/KR protection activities in specified
CI/KR sectors." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 105)

**Sector-Specific Plan:** Augmenting plans that complement and extend
the NIPP Base Plan and detail the application of the NIPP framework
specific to each CI/KR sector. SSPs are developed by the SSAs I close
collaboration with other security partners." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p.
105)

**Security:** Security in the traditional sense refers to monitoring and
reducing the risk of human induced events that adversely affect people
or property (intrusion of unauthorized personnel, theft, sabotage,
assault, etc.), to some acceptable level. (**Shaw** 1999)

**Severe Weather:** Any atmospheric condition potentially destructive or
hazardous form human beings. It is often associated with extreme
convective weather (tropical cyclones, tornadoes, severe thunderstorms,
squalls, etc.) and with storms of freezing precipitation or blizzard
conditions. (**WMO** 1992, 544)

**SHSP:** State Homeland Security Program. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**SLTGCC:** State, Local, and Tribal Government Cross-Sector Council.
(**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 5)

**SPP:** Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America. (**DHS,
NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**SSAs:** Sector-Specific Agencies, National Infrastructure Protection
Plan. See following reference for examples. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 3)

**SSP:** Sector-Specific Plan. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**S&T:** Science and Technology Directorate, DHS.

**Stafford Act:** 1) The Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and
Emergency Assistance Act, Public Law 93-288, as amended. 2) The Stafford
Act provides an orderly and continuing means of assistance by the
Federal Government to State and local governments in carrying out their
responsibilities to alleviate the suffering and damage which result from
disaster. The President, in response to a State Governor's request, may
declare and "emergency" or "major disaster" in order to provide Federal
assistance under the Act. The President, in Executive Order 12148,
delegated all functions, except those in Sections 301, 401, and 409, to
the Director, of FEMA. The Act provides for the appointment of a Federal
Coordinating Officer who will operate in the designated area with a
State Coordinating Officer for the purpose of coordinating state and
local disaster assistance efforts with those of the Federal Government.
(**44 CFR 206.2**)

**Storm Surge:** The difference between the actual water level under
influence of a meteorological disturbance (storm tide) and the level
which would have been attained in the absence of the meteorological
disturbance (i.e. astronomical tide). (**WMO** 1992, 584)

**Superfund:** The trust fund established initially under the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
and extended under the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act to
provide money that can be used during cleanups associated with inactive
hazardous waste disposal sites. (**FEMA** 1992)

**Sustainable Communities:** ...where people and property are kept out
of the way of natural hazards, where the inherently mitigating qualities
of natural environmental systems are maintained, and where development
is designed to be resilient in the face of natural forces..."
(**Godschalk, Kaiser, and Berke** 1998, 86)

**Sustainable Development:** "In its broader sense, sustainability is
defined as development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
In the context of emergency management, this meaning remains and it is
linked to creating places that are less vulnerable to natural and
technological hazards and that are resilient to those events.
Sustainable hazard management has five components: environmental
quality; quality of life; disaster resilience; economic vitality; and
inter- and intra-generational equity. Reducing the risk from hazards,
reducing losses from disasters and working toward sustainable
communities go hand-in-hand" (**Britton** 1998, 1).

**Sustainable Development:** "...the reconciliation of society's
development goals with Planet Earth's environmental limits over the long
term." (**Carrido and Hays** 2001, 1)

**Sustainable Development:** A strategy for improving the quality of
life while preserving the environmental potential for the future, of
living off interest rather than consuming natural capital. Sustainable
development mandates that the present generation must not narrow the
choices of future generations but must strive to expand them by passing
on an environment and an accumulation of resources that will allow its
children to live at least as well as, and preferably better than, people
today. Sustainable development is premised on living within the Earth's
means. (**National Commission** 1993, 2)

**Sustainable Development:** "Sustainable development -- which meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs -- is generally understood to
require (1) economic growth, (2) protection of the environment, and (3)
sustainable use of ecological systems. There is, however, a fourth
criterion of equal importance: Sustainable development must be resilient
with respect to the natural variability of the Earth and the solar
system." (**NSTC** 1996, 4)

**Sustainable Development:** Development in the present that does not
destroy the resources needed for future development (**Simeon
Institute** 1998[^15]).

**Sustainable Development:** Sustainable development is that which
"meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs." (**UN World Commission**
1987, 8)

**SVA:** Security Vulnerability Assessment. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**TCL:** Target Capabilities List. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**Terrorism:** "...premeditated, politically motivated violence
perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or
clandestine agents." (**Department of State)**

**Terrorism:** "Any activity that (1) involves an act that is (a)
dangerous to human life or potentially destructive of critical
infrastructure or key resources, and (b) a violation of the criminal
laws of the United States or of any State or other subdivision of the
United States; and (2) appears to be intended to (a) intimidate or
coerce a civilian population, (b) influence the policy of a government
by intimidation or coercion, or (c) affect the conduct of a government
by mass destruction, assignation, or kidnapping." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006,
p. 105)

**Terrorism:** "The calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of
unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate
governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally
political, religious, or ideological." (**FEMA *Disaster Dictionary***
2001, 120; citing DoD Joint Pub 1-102)

**Terrorism:** "...the unlawful use of force or violence against persons
or property to intimidate or coerce a Government, the civilian
population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or
social objectives." (**FBI**)

**Terrorism:** "The unlawful use of force or violence against persons or
property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population,
or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social
objectives. Domestic terrorism involves groups or individuals who are
based and operate entirely within the United States and U.S. territories
without foreign direction and whose acts are directed at elements of the
U.S. government or population." (**FEMA** 2001, ***Guide for All-Hazard
Emergency Operations**...*p. 6-G-F-3)

**Terrorism:** A violent act to attain specific goals. Distinguished
from other types of criminal acts by:

Political aims and motives.

Violent or acts that threaten violence.

Far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond immediate victim or
target.

Conducted by organization with identifiable chain of command or
structure.

Perpetrated by sub-national group or non-state entity. (**Hoffman**,
1998)

**Terrorism:** "...the calculated use of unexpected, shocking, and
unlawful violence against noncombatants (including, in addition to
civilians, off-duty military and security personnel in peaceful
situations) and other symbolic targets perpetrated by a clandestine
member(s) of a subnational group or a clandestine agent(s) for the
psychological purpose of publicizing a political or religious cause
and/or intimidating or coercing a government(s) or civilian population
into accepting demands on behalf of the cause." (**Library of Congress**
1999, 12)

**Terrorism:**

Simple definition: Violence or threatened violence intended to produce
fear or change.

Legal definition: Criminal violence violating legal codes and punishable
by the state.

State-sponsored terrorism: National or other groups used to attack other
interests.

State terrorism: Power of the government used to repress its people to
the point of submission. (**Rosie,** 1987)

**Terrorism:** "The word *terrorism* emerged during the French
revolution of the late 1700s to describe efforts by the revolutionary
government to impose its will through widespread violence; the *Academie
Francaise* soon defined terrorism as a 'system or rule of terror.'"
(**Sauter and Carafano** 2005, 64)

"...*terrorism* usually includes most or all of the following central
elements:

-   Conducted by subnational groups

-   Targeted at random noncombatant victims

-   Directed at one set of victims in part to create fear among a larger
    audience

-   Aimed at coercing governments or populations

-   Planned to get publicity

-   Motivated by political, ideological, or religious beliefs

-   Based on criminal actions (actions that would also violate the rules
    of war)." (p. 66)

**Terrorism:** "Terrorism, or the threat of terrorism, involves acts of
violence used in peace, conflict or war and are acts that shock the
senses of reasonable people." (**Simonsen**, 2004)

**Terrorist:** Under U.S. law and sentencing guidelines a terrorist is
someone who "appears to be intended to intimidate or coerce a civilian
population." (**US Code,** Title 18, Part I, Chapter 113b, Section
2331**)**

**Threat:** "The intention and capability of an adversary to undertake
actions that would be detrimental to CI/KR." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p.
105)

**Thunderstorm:** Sudden electrical discharges manifested by a flash of
light (lightning) and a sharp or rumbling sound (thunder). Thunderstorms
are associated with convective clouds (Cumulonimbus) and are, more
often, accompanied by precipitation in the form of rain showers or hail,
or occasionally snow, snow pellets, or ice pellets. (**WMO** 1992, 622)

**Tornado:** A violently rotating storm of small diameter; the most
violent weather phenomenon. It is produced in a very severe thunderstorm
and appears as a funnel cloud extending from the base of a Cumulonimbus
to the ground. (**WMO** 1992, 626)

**Tragedy:** "An intensely sad, calamitous, or fatal event or course of
events; disaster" (**Funk & Wagnalls** 1996).

> "The word 'tragedy' summons up in one's mind the inevitability not
> only of this event but of other similar events in the past and more to
> follow. Responsibility can be successfully abrogated with the
> application of the label 'tragedy'...One needs to look no further into
> the cause or causes of this event because it has now been lifted
> outside of one's power and into the domain of Greek drama and fate. As
> a tragedy, it was fated to be and the only possible response is to
> accept it (and others of its kind) as part of the inescapable human
> situation. The event may be mourned and one may sympathize briefly
> with the victims. But one is freed (by thinking of it as a tragedy)
> from the need to examine the conceptual apparatus that led to this
> outcome" (**Allinson** 1993, 14).

**TSA:** Transportation Security Administration. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p.
102)

**Typhoon:** Name given to a tropical cyclone with maximum sustained
winds of 64 knots or more near the centre in the western North Pacific.
(**WMO** 1992, 644)

**UASI:** Urban Areas Security Initiative. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**Unified Command:** A method for all agencies or individuals who have
jurisdictional responsibility, or in some cases who have functional
responsibilities at the incident, to contribute to: determination of
overall objectives for the incident, and selection of strategies to
achieve the objectives.

**Unified Command:** "Under the ICS \[Incident Command System\] concept
of operations, Unified Command is a unified team effort which allows all
agencies with responsibility for an incident, either geographical or
functional, to manage an incident by establishing a common set of
incident objectives and strategies. This Unified Command effort is
accomplished without losing or abdicating agency authority,
responsibility, or accountability." (**FEMA** *Disaster Dictionary*
2001, 124; citing ICS Glossary)

**US-CERT:** United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team. (**DHS,
NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**UTL:** Universal Task List. (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 102)

**Vision Statement:** "To develop a society more resilient to natural
disasters, where sustained planning, investment and action results in
more sustainable communities." (**Canadian Risk and Hazards Network**
2005, 11)

**Volcanic Dust:** Dust of particles emitted by a volcano during an
eruption. They may remain suspended in the atmosphere for long periods
and be carried by the winds to different regions of the Earth. (**WMO**
1992, 662)

**Vulnerabiltiy:** "People and things are vulnerable to natural hazards,
in that they are susceptible to damage and losses. In this respect,
vulnerability determines the losses \[to disaster\] to a greater degree
than does hazard." (**Alexander**, No Date, 1)

**Vulnerability:** ...the characteristics of a person or group in terms
of their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist, and recover from the
impact of a natural hazard. It involves a combination of factors that
determine the degree to which someone's life and livelihood is put at
risk by a discrete and identifiable event in nature or in society.
(**Blaikie** et al., 9)

**Vulnerability:** The likelihood that a person will be negatively
affected by environmental hazards refers to his or her *vulnerability*
(**Bolin/Stanford** 1998, 9).

**Vulnerability:** A measure of the extent to which a potential event is
likely to deplete or damage available resources such that the
reestablishment of usual living conditions cannot be achieved within a
reasonable period. In this sense vulnerability may be measured as a
ratio of damaged to undamaged resources. (**Buckle** 1995, 11)

"Buckle (1995, 11) adds the concept of resilience to the definition of
vulnerability. He identifies potential social, economic, and
environmental effects and introduces the notion that vulnerability is
associated with an ability to recover (which is not always apparent in
other definitions..." (**Pearce** 2000, Chapter 2, 23)

**Vulnerability:** "...A measure of the degree and type of exposure to
risk generated by different societies in relation to hazards (**Cannon**
1994, 16)."

Vulnerability is a characteristic of individuals and groups of people
who inhabit a given natural, social and economic space, within which
they are differentiated according to their varying position in society
into more or less vulnerable individuals and groups. It is a complex
characteristic produced by a combination of factors derived especially
(but not entirely) from class, gender and ethnicity. Differences in
these socio-economic factors result in hazards having a different degree
of impact. (**Cannon** 1994, 19)

**Vulnerability:** *Vulnerability* is the susceptibility of human
settlements to the harmful impacts of natural hazards. Impacts of
concern include injuries and deaths to human populations; damage to
personal property, housing, public facilities, equipment, and
infrastructure; lost jobs, business earnings, and tax revenues, as well
as indirect losses caused by interruption of business and production;
and the public costs of planning, preparedness, mitigation, response,
and recovery. (**Deyle** et al. 1998, 121)

**Vulnerability:** 1) undefended against, open to attack, disease and
hazards 2) degree of potential loss of people and goods from a damaging
phenomenon. Vulnerability to hazards is the cause of disasters. (**D&E
Reference Center** 1998)

**Vulnerability:** "A weakness in the design, implementation, or
operation of an asset, system, or network that can be exploited by an
adversary, or disrupted by a natural hazard or technological failure."
(**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 105)

**Vulnerability:** "Risk is derived from a factual event or condition
and the probability of its occurrence multiplied by the consequences it
produces. Vulnerability more often involves a combination of factors
tthat make up a system. Infrastructure systems such as power supply or
telecommunications or even all of the infrastructures making up a
society as a whold can be analyzed for their vulnerability.
Vulnerability is a measure of how well a system can cope with or sustain
a risk." (**Dymon** 2005, 8)

**Vulnerability:** The vulnerability concept is used to characterize a
system's lack of robustness or resilience with respect to various
threats, both within and outside the boundaries of the system....the
term vulnerability...describe\[s\] the properties of an industrial
system that may weaken its ability to survive and perform its mission in
the presence of threats....The properties of an industrial system; its
premises, facilities, and production equipment, including its human
resources, human organization and all its software, hardware, and
net-ware, that may weaken or limit its ability to endure threats and
survive accidental events that originate both within and outside the
system boundaries. (**Enarson** and Rausand 1998, 535-36)

**Vulnerability:** "Any weakness that can be exploited by an aggressor
or, in a non-terrorist threat environment, make an asset susceptible to
hazard damage." (**FEMA** (BDHS), 2004)

**Vulnerability:** "\[The\] susceptibility to injury or damage from
hazards." (**Godschalk** 1991, 132)

**Vulnerability:** "The degree of loss to a given element at risk, or
set of such elements resulting from the occurrence of a natural
phenomenon of a given magnitude and expressed in a scale from 0 (= no
damage) to 1 (= total loss) -- UNDRO." (**Gunn** 1990, 374)

**Vulnerability:** "Vulnerability has been variously defined as the
threat of exposure, the capacity to suffer harm, and the degree to which
different social groups are at risk (Cutter 1996)....Perhaps equally
important is the notion that vulnerability varies by location (or space)
and over time -- it has both temporal and spatial dimensions....There
are many types of vulnerability of interest to the hazards community,
but three are the most important: individual, social, and biophysical.
Individual vulnerability is the susceptibility of a person or structure
to potential harm from hazards....social vulnerability...describes the
demographic characteristics of social groups that make them more or less
susceptible to the adverse impacts of hazards. Social vulnerability
suggests that people have created their own vulnerability, largely
through their own decisions and actions....Biophysical
vulnerability...examines the distribution of hazardous conditions
arising from a variety of initiating events such as natural
hazards...chemical contaminants, or industrial accidents." (**Hill and**
**Cutter** 2001, 14-15)

**Vulnerability:** "Vulnerability is a set of prevailing or
consequential conditions composed of physical, socioeconomic and/or
political factors that adversely affect ability to respond to events.
Vulnerabilities can be physical, social, or attitudinal and can be
primary or secondary in nature. Strategies that lower vulnerability also
reduce disaster risk." (**Jegillos** 1999, 12)

**Vulnerability:** "...defined as the difference between response
capacity and service demand." (**Johnson** 2004, 12)

**Vulnerability:** "Risk...should not be confused with vulnerability,
which refers to the resources and coping abilities of a specific
community to a specific hazard...Vulnerability is a reflection of the
community's coping resources and may vary within the smaller social and
economic groups which form a large community." (**Lindsay** 1993, 68)

**Vulnerability:** Vulnerability of any physical, structural or
socioeconomic element to a natural hazard is its probability of being
damaged, destroyed or lost. Vulnerability is not static but must be
considered a dynamic process, integrating changes and developments that
alter and affect the probability of loss and damage of all the exposed
elements. (**Maskrey** 1989, 1)

**Vulnerability:** "Vulnerability is defined as the susceptibility of
life, property, or the environment to damage if a hazard occurs."
(**May**, p. 6)

**Vulnerability:** "For some, particularly natural and physical
scientists, vulnerability is defined as proximity or exposure to natural
hazards or the probability of a disastrous occurrence (including the
potential for losses owing to triggering agents) (see Reynolds
1993).[^16] Engineers, in contrast, define vulnerability as the ability
of a built structure to resist the strain or force exerted by natural or
other disaster agents (Norton and Chantry 1993).[^17] Sociologists,
anthropologists and other social scientists define vulnerability as the
amount of coping capacity, or the degree to which social, cultural,
political and economic factors limit the ability to take steps to
mitigate, prepare for, respond to, or recover from disaster (see Blaikie
and others 1994; Sinha 1992a[^18]; Pelanda 1982[^19])." (**McEntire**
1999, 5)

**Vulnerability:** "...vulnerability is the reactive or dependent
component of disaster which is comprised of both the negative and
positive attributes from the physical and social environments that
increase risk and susceptibility and/or limit resistance and resilience
to triggering events..." (**McEntire** 1999, 5)

**Vulnerability:** "...the potential for loss or the capacity to suffer
harm from a hazard...can generally be applied to individuals, society,
or the environment" (**Mitchell** 1997, 10).

**Vulnerability:** "The susceptibility of people, property, industry,
resources, ecosystems, or historical buildings and artifacts to the
negative impact of a disaster." (**Pearce** 2000, Chapter 5, p. 37). Is
"a function of people, place, preparedness, and time..." (Ibid., p. 44)

**Vulnerability:** "Vulnerability can be defined as the propensity to
incur loss." (**Puente** 1999,296)

**Vulnerability:** The degree of susceptibility and resilience of the
community and environment to hazards, the characteristics of a community
or system in terms of its capacity to anticipate, cope with, and recover
from events. (**Salter** 1997--98, 28)

**Vulnerability:** The extent to which a community, structure, service,
or geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of
a particular disaster hazard, on account of their nature, construction,
and proximity to hazardous terrain or a disaster-prone area. For
engineering purposes, vulnerability is a mathematical function defined
as the degree of loss to a given element at risk, or set of such
elements, expected to result from the impact of a disaster hazard of a
given magnitude. It is specific to a particular type of structure, and
expressed on a scale of 0 (no damage) to 1 (total damage). For more
general socio-economic purposes and macro-level analyses, vulnerability
is a less-strictly-defined concept. It incorporates considerations of
both the intrinsic value of the elements concerned and their functional
value in contributing to communal well-being in general and to emergency
response and post-disaster recovery in particular. In many cases, it is
necessary ( and sufficient) to settle for a qualitative classification
in terms of "high", "medium", and "low"; or explicit statements
concerning the disruption likely to be suffered. (**Simeon Institute**)

**Vulnerability:** Ability to withstand damage -- expressed on a scale
of 0 (no damage) to 10 (total damage). (**UNDRO** 1991)

**Vulnerability:** Degree of loss (from 0% to 100%) resulting from a
potentially damaging phenomenon. (**U.N.** 1992, 5)

**Vulnerability:** "Vulnerability to disasters is a status resulting
from human action. It describes the degree to which a society is either
threatened by or protected from the impact of natural hazards. This
depends on the condition of human settlements and their infrastructure,
the way in which public policy and administration are engaged in
disaster management, the level of information and education about
hazards and how to deal with them." (**UNISDR** 2001)

**Vulnerability:** "A set of conditions and processes resulting from
physical, social, economical and environmental factors, which increase
the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards." (**U.N.
ISDR** 2002, 24)

**Vulnerability Analysis:** Identifies what is susceptible to damage.
Should provide information on extent of the vulnerable zone; population,
in terms of size and types that could be expected to be within the
vulnerable zone; private and public property that may be damaged,
including essential support systems and transportation corridors; and
environment that may be affected.

**Vulnerability Analysis:** The process of estimating the vulnerability
to potential disaster hazards of specified elements at risk. For
engineering purposes, vulnerability analysis involves the analysis of
theoretical and empirical data concerning the effects of particular
phenomena on particular types of structures. For more general
socio-economic purposes, it involves consideration of all significant
elements in society, including physical, social and economic
considerations (both short and long-term), and the extent to which
essential services (and traditional and local coping mechanisms) are
able to continue functioning. (**Simeon Institute** 1998)

**Vulnerability Analysis:** The objectives of a vulnerability analysis
of an industrial system may comprise:

To identify potential threats to the system

To verify that the vulnerability of the system is acceptable

To verify that the system's security actions and installations, and
safety functions are

adequate

To evaluate the cost-effectiveness of a proposed action to improve the
vulnerability

To aid in establishing an emergency preparedness plan

As a design tool---to design a robust system

In a vulnerability analysis we work with open system models, where risk
factors both inside and outside the physical boundaries of the system
are taken into account. A vulnerability analysis and a risk analysis of
the same company will therefore produce quite different sets of
accidental events....

A traditional risk analysis is mainly limited to accidental events
taking place within the physical boundaries of the system, and the
threats studied are often limited to technological hazards within these
boundaries....The actions to mitigate, restore and restart the
activities after an accident are normally not part of a risk
analysis....A vulnerability analysis focuses on the whole disruption
period until a new stable situation is obtained....The focal point of a
vulnerability analysis is the (business) survivability of the system.
(**Einarsson and Raussand** 1998)

**Vulnerability Assessment:** Evaluation of the likely degree of loss to
a risk or a set of hazards. (**D&E** **Reference Center** 1998)

**Vulnerability Assessment:** ...characterizes the exposed populations
and property and the extent of injury and damage that may result from a
natural hazard event of a given intensity in a given area. (**Deyle**,
French, Olshansky and Paterson 1998, 121).

**Vulnerability Assessment:** Vulnerability assessment, the second level
of hazard assessment, combines the information from the hazard
identification with an inventory of the existing (or planned) property
and population exposed to a hazard. It provides information on who and
what are vulnerable to a natural hazard within the geographic areas
defined by hazard identification; vulnerability assessment can also
estimate damage and casualties that will result from various intensities
of the hazard." (**Deyle** et al. 1998, 129)

**Vulnerability Assessment:** A vulnerability assessment presents "the
extent of injury and damage that may result from a hazard event of a
given intensity in a given area. The vulnerability assessment should
address impacts of hazard events on the existing and future built
environment." (**FEMA** 2001 (August), 7)

**Vulnerability Assessment:** Vulnerability assessment estimates the
number of people exposed to hazards (including special populations such
as the elderly, hospitalized, disabled, and concentrated populations
such as children in schools), the property exposed, and the critical
facilities exposed (such as medical care facilities, bridges, sewage
treatment and water pumping and treatment plants, power plants, and
police and fire stations. (**Godschalk**, Kaiser, and Berke 1998,
98-99.)

**Vulnerability Assessment:** "Vulnerability assessments include
risk/hazard information, but also detail the potential population at
risk, the number of structures that might be impacted, or the lifelines,
such as bridges or power lines (Platt 1995), that might be damaged.
Vulnerability assessments describe the potential exposure of people and
the built environment. The concept of vulnerability incorporates the
notion of differential susceptibility and differential impacts." (**Hill
and Cutter**, 2001, 16)

**Vulnerability Assessment:** "Some emergency managers include
geophysical and topographical factors in the vulnerability assessment
process, while others include them in the risk assessment process. For
example, Picket and Block (1991, 278-79), following the work of Terrence
Haney, discuss the development of an earthquake hazard vulnerability
model that utilizes data from five key areas: (1) geophysical, (2)
topographical, (3) transportation and utility infrastructure, (4)
structural facilities (buildings and bridges), and (5) demographic
factors. Pearce et al. (1993, 4) argue that the consideration of
geophysical and topographical factors belongs in the risk assessment
process. For example, an analysis that concludes that the existence of a
fault-line increases the likelihood of an earthquake occurring is part
of risk assessment; however, the proximity of the community to the
fault-line may increase or decrease the vulnerability of the population.
Related to this argument is Anderson's (1992) suggestion that emergency
planners should give special consideration to the growing vulnerability
of metropolitan areas. Anderson makes an important point, as often the
consequences of disasters in metropolitan areas are related to how
geographic and topographic information has been considered. If, for
example, such information is perceived to be part of risk assessment,
then proximity to a fault-line would lead to mitigation measures that
could address the need to reduce risk by zoning against construction
near the line, expropriating existing properties, and so on. If, on the
other hand, such information is perceived to be part of vulnerability
assessment, then the issue becomes not one of reducing the likelihood of
experiencing an earthquake but of how to decrease one's vulnerability by
residing in an earthquake-resistant building, improving the
infrastructure, or whatever." (**Pearce** 2000, Chapter 2, 24-25)

**Warning:** Dissemination of message signaling imminent hazard which
may include advice on protective measures. See also "alert". (**U.N**.
1992, 5)

**Warning:** A warning is issued by the National Weather Service to let
people know; that a severe weather event is already occurring or is
imminent. People should take immediate safety action. (**Simeon
Institute** 1992)

**Watch:** A watch is issued by the National Weather Service to let
people know that conditions are right for a potential disaster to occur.
It does not mean that an event will necessarily occur. People should
listen to their radio or TV to keep informed about changing weather
conditions. A watch is issued for specific geographic areas, such as
counties, for phenomena such as hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, flash
floods, severe thunderstorms, and winter storms. (**Simeon Institute**
1992)

**Weapons of Mass Destruction: "**(1) Any explosive, incendiary, or
poison gas (i) bomb, (ii) grenade, (iii) rocket having a propellant
charge of more than 4 ounces, (iv) missile having an explosive or
incendiary charge of more than one-quarter ounce, or (v) mine or (vi)
similar device; (2) any weapon that is designed or intended to cause
death or serious bodily injury through the release, dissemination, or
impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals or their precursors; (3) any
weapon involving a disease organism; or (4) any weapon that is designed
to release radiation or radioactivity at a level dangerous to human life
(18 U.S.C. 2332a)." (**DHS, NIPP** 2006, p. 105)

**Wetlands:** Those areas which are inundated or saturated by surface or
ground water with a frequency sufficient to support, or that under
normal hydrologic conditions does or would support, a prevalence of
vegetation or aquatic life typically adapted for life in saturated or
seasonally saturated soil conditions. Examples of wetlands include, but
are not limited to, swamps, fresh and salt water marshes, estuaries,
bogs, beaches, wet meadows, sloughs, potholes, mud flats, river
overflows, and other similar areas. This definition includes those
wetland areas separated from their natural supply of water as a result
of activities such as the construction of structural flood protection
methods or solid-fill road beds and activities such as mineral
extraction and navigation improvement. This definition is intended to be
consistent with the definition utilized by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service in the publication entitled, Classification of Wetlands and Deep
Water Habitats of the United States (**Cowardin** et al., 1977).
(**FEMA** 1992)

**WMD:** Weapons of Mass Destruction.

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