[Watershed Description]{.underline}

(from the Silvio O. Conte National Fish and Wildlife Refuge Final Action
Plan and Environmental Impact Statement, October, 1995, U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Hadley, MA)

Overview

Water

Water Use and Quality

Point Sources of Pollution

Non-point Sources of Pollution

Landscape

Human Populations

Communities

Economy

Agriculture

Forestry

Open Space or \"Protected Lands\"

Overview

The Connecticut River flows south from Fourth Connecticut Lake on the
New Hampshire/Quebec border 410 miles to Long Island Sound. It forms the
boundary between New Hampshire and Vermont and then flows through
Massachusetts and Connecticut. Of the watershed's 7.2 million acres, 28%
is in New Hampshire, and 35% in Vermont 13% are in Connecticut, 24% in
Massachusetts. The watershed is 80% forested, 12% in agriculture, 3%
developed, 3% wetlands, and 2% water (Source: USGS GIRAS data derived
from 1:250,000 satellite photography taken 1978‑83).

Water

Daily flow of the Connecticut averages nearly 16,000 cubic feet per
second. However, the flow has ranged as high as 282,000 cubic feet per
second and as low as 971 cubic feet per second. In the spring, daily
flows average over 24,000 cubic feet per second, but drop to less than
5,000 cubic feet per second in late summer. There are 38 major
tributaries to the Connecticut River, and the watershed contains over
20,000 miles of streams. The mainstem of the Connecticut River has 16
functional dams, two that are breached and one other licensed for
construction. There are approximately 980 smaller dams located
throughout the watershed.

Water Use and Quality

There are over 170,000 acres of water in the watershed. The river is
generally bordered by wide floodplains and terraced glacial deposits
created during the ice age. It flows through hilly or mountainous
country until it empties into Long Island Sound. The river is tidal for
approximately 60 miles from Long Island Sound to the Sciantic River,
eight miles upriver from Hartford, Connecticut.

The mainstem of the Connecticut River receives water from 38 major
tributaries, 26 of which drain 100 square miles or greater. The aquatic
environment in the Connecticut River and its tributaries has changed
greatly as a result of the activities of mankind rather than as a result
of natural progression. The forests were cleared and the waters were
dammed. The first dam was built in 1798 at Turners Falls on the
mainstem. NinetyBone years later the first hydroelectric facility was
constructed on the Farmington River, Rainbow, Connecticut. The watershed
contains approximately 980 dams (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1995).
There are 16 functional obstructions on the mainstem of the Connecticut
River, 11 of which are hydroelectric dams. Additionally, a license to
construct a dam below the Murphy Dam has been approved.

Flows within the Connecticut River are seasonally highly variable. Low
flow periods are, however, highly regulated by the numerous dams on the
river system especially during the winter and summer. River discharge
has ranged from a high of 282,000 cubic feet per second to a low of 971
cubic feet per second. Daily flows in the spring average over 24,000
cubic feet per second, but drop to under 5,000 cubic feet per second in
late summer. Mean monthly river discharges are highest during April and
May and lowest during August and September. The average annual runoff
for the watershed as a whole is approximately 23 inches or approximately
one half of the average annual precipitation (Federal Power Commission
1976).

Water temperatures in many of the streams within the watershed closely
follow air temperatures. Temperatures in the lower Connecticut may reach
90^o^ Fahrenheit during the summer (Figure 3‑20). The water temperatures
generally average between 70 and 80^o^ Fahrenheit from late June through
early September. Minimum water temperatures occur from December through
March.

The lower 60 miles of the Connecticut River from Long Island Sound to
the Scantic River, eight miles above Hartford, Connecticut are tidal.
The range of tide height during periods of low flow is from one foot at
Hartford to 3.5 feet at the river\'s mouth. The saltwater wedge may
extend 17 miles upriver to the East Haddam Bridge (Rt. 182) or only four
miles to the Saybrook Bridge. The saltwater intrusion is dependent upon
surface water runoff, wind direction and tide conditions. Tidal
influences are greater during low river discharge and absent or nearly
absent during the spring runoff. The volume of saltwater entering the
river is approximately one‑half the fresh water volume entering during
the same period. The salinity of Long Island Sound ranges between 24 and
29 parts per thousand, changing with the seasonal fluctuations in river
discharge.

The water quality of the Connecticut River watershed has improved
considerably in the last 25 years. Water pollution control agencies in
Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts and Connecticut are actively
working with industries, municipalities and agricultural groups toward
reducing the pollution within the watershed. Point and nonBpoint
pollution (defined below) are still a concern within the watershed.
Thermal loading of the streams resulting from impounding water behind
dams and clearing forested lands up to the stream banks (riparian
habitat) continues to adversely affect the indigenous fish and other
animal and plant populations.

Freshwater streams are classified A, B, or C, and are further divided
into cold water fishery or warm water fishery. All waters within the
watershed are classified as either Class A or Class B waters. There are
no Class C waters. Each state is responsible for classifying its waters.
Within the classes, there are designations for \"degree\" of suitability
for the recognized uses(s) of the water. Surface Water Quality Standards
for each state provide detailed criteria and definitions. Each river
within the watershed is divided into segments based on their varied
pollution problems.

Presently, two nuclear power plants exist within the watershed: Vermont
Yankee located in Vernon, Vermont and Connecticut Yankee, in Haddam,
Connecticut. Both plants use the water from the mainstem for cooling.
Three fossil fueled generating plants also use the mainstem of the
Connecticut River for cooling water. Two plants are located in
Massachusetts and one is located in Connecticut.

Water diversion from the watershed is an important consideration. The
Quabbin Reservoir, located on the Swift River in the Chicopee River
drainage, stores the runBoff from 86 square miles for utilization in the
greater Boston area. Flows in excess of 85 millions gallons per day in
the upper Ware River are diverted to either the Quabbin or Wachusetts
Reservoirs. OutBofBwatershed water diversions continue to be evaluated
as a source of potable water for the greater Boston area. These
potential diversions include water from the mainstem of Connecticut
River and the Millers River.

Smaller diversions and removals can also greatly impact biological
resources. Fish and other aquatic life can freeze in the winter or
suffocate during the summer if minimum flows are not adequate.

Many aquatic plants and animals are sensitive to pollution. The types
and diversity of life forms present reflect the long‑term health of a
river segment, which depends on the overall health of the upstream
watershed. Biological indicators make such excellent measures of water
quality that they are beginning to be used in conjunction with the
traditional chemical tests.

Point Sources of Pollution

Point sources of pollution generally refer to what are termed
conventional sources of pollution, namely, industrial and municipal, but
are defined in the Clean Water Act as:

> \"any discernible, confined and discrete conveyance including but not
> limited to any pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete
> fissure, container, rolling stock, concentrated animal feeding
> operation, or vessel or other floating craft from which pollutants may
> be discharged. This term does not include agricultural stormwater
> discharges and return flows from irrigated agriculture\".

Dams may be considered as point sources of thermal pollution during the
periods of the year when typical flowing segments change from a
stream/river system to a lakeBlike system comprised of a series of
reservoirs. Great progress has been made in eliminating point sources of
pollution through implementation of pointBsource permit programs
administered by the states as delegated by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency in accordance with the Clean Water Act.

Point sources of pollution, however, continue to be identified in the
state Water Quality Assessment 305(b) Reports. Most of the concerns with
the point sources are associated with municipal waste water treatment
plant effluent not meeting the water quality standards for the receiving
water. Information on the location of the municipal and industrial point
source discharges that adversely affect the receiving water is contained
within these state 305(b) reports (State of Connecticut 1992;
Commonwealth of Massachusetts 1992; State of New Hampshire 1992; and
State of Vermont 1992). A summary of the data reveals that 15 municipal
and 3 industrial point sources affect approximately 91 miles of water.
The point sources that impact the Special Focus Areas are identified by
area in Table 3B11.

NonBpoint Sources of Pollution

Non‑point sources of water pollution are difficult to pinpoint and
eliminate. Non‑point sources of pollution are regulated under Section
208 of the Clean Water Act. This section of the Act requires states to
identify bodies of water where water quality criteria are not met.
Non‑point source pollution enters surface waters in a diffuse manner and
at intermittent intervals. The extent of the pollution is affected by
uncontrollable events, such as storms as well as geographic and geologic
conditions, and may differ greatly from place to place and year to year.
Non‑point sources of pollution include fertilizers and pesticides;
sediment from erosion; lead, oils and other road runoff; and metals and
other pollutants from buildings, sidewalks, and a variety of urban land
uses. Furthermore, landfill leachate, physical alterations
(channelization, dredging, and strip mining), loss of riparian
vegetation, and damming contribute to water quality impairments. These
sources of pollution end up in local streams, ponds, lakes, and wetlands
much farther downstream. Improper land development adjacent to rivers
and streams is particularly damaging, especially when adjacent to fish
spawning or nursery areas.

Non‑point sources of water pollution, unlike pointBsources such as
sewage an industrial effluent, are difficult to regulate. Such sources
of pollution are diffuse and come from a variety of land use and
activities. Pollutants arrive in water bodies as stormwater flows over
land surface and picks up sediments and pollution along the way. Such
pollution is \"the result of various actions by many people, animals,
and businesses\" (Narragansett Bay Project 1992). Land development
activity can increase levels of pollution as \"disturbing the land
cover, altering natural drainage patterns, and increasing impervious
area all increase the quality and rate of runoff\" (U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency 1983). Efforts to protect water resources, therefore,
must address land use conditions and human activities on the land.

Non‑point sources of pollution caused by surface water runoff include
mineral sediments, phosphorous, nitrogen, bacteria, hydrocarbons, trace
metals, fertilizers, pesticides, and other chemicals (State of Maine
1992; Narragansett Bay Project 1992; Schueler 1987). These pollutants
impact water quality in a number of ways. Heavy metal pollutants such as
lead, nickel, and chromeBBwhich come from automobiles, roads, and
parking lotsBBmake water unsafe for humans to drink (U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1983). Hydrocarbon compounds, from oil and
greaseBBwhich come from parking lots, roads, and service station
runoffBBare known to be toxic to aquatic life (Schueler 1987). Microbial
pathogens from leaking septic tanks and domestic animal droppings make
water unsafe for humans to use for swimming or bathing and makes both
shellfish and finfish unsafe to eat (Narragansett Bay Project 1992;
Ortolano 1984; Schueler 1987). Nutrients such as phosphorous and
nitrogenBB which come from fertilizers, organic litter, and eroded
soilsBBlead to algal blooms which reduce oxygen levels and degrade the
quality of aquatic habitat. Algal blooms also produce surface scum and
unpleasant odors, which make waters unswimmable (Schueler 1987).

While there are a number of different physical and biological impacts of
non‑point source water pollution, the United States Environmental
Protection Agency defines a water quality \"problem\" as a condition
which meets one or more of three criteria. The first is impairment or
denial of beneficial uses. This implies the limitation of human uses of
a water body or water resources. The second is the violation of water
quality criterion set by Federal or state water quality laws. The third
is local public perception that a problem exists (U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency 1983). If one or more of these criteria is met,
according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, a water quality
problem exists and warrants mitigating actions.

Pathogens are a major cause of nonBattainment of water quality
standards. The sources of pathogens are stormwater runoff and combined
sewer overflows. The greatest impact from stormwater generally occurs in
urban areas which coincides with impacts from combined sewer overflows.

On private lands the most prevalent non‑point pollution problems are
caused by agriculture and urban development (Doppelt et al. 1993). The
data from the State Water Quality 305(b)Assessment Reports for
Connecticut, Massachusetts, Vermont and New Hampshire supports this
finding. Two of the conclusions of the Connecticut River Watch Program
in the watershed in the midBvalley of New Hampshire and Vermont were
that this section of the watershed is negatively impacted by heavy
rainfall events and that agricultural runoff is the most significant
non‑point source of pollution (Caduto and Dates 1994). Most erosion
within the watershed results from agricultural practices, construction
and fluctuating water levels. Agricultural and urban runoff and landfill
leachate contribute to toxic sediments. Nutrient enrichment generally
originates from Waste Water Treatment Plants, agricultural practices and
failed residential septics. Some acid mine drainage problems occur.

Non‑point sources of pollution for the watershed were identified using
the state 305(b) reports, state non‑point source program reports,
private organization reports and interviews with local, state and
federal individuals. The non‑point sources of pollution identified for
the Special Focus Areas indicates that a minimum of 121 projects have
been identified that affect 413 stream miles.

Landscape

The northernmost section of the watershed‑‑from Fourth Connecticut Lake
to Pittsburg, New Hampshire‑‑is characterized by mountains with
elevations of over 3,000 feet. The river in this area is a narrow,
swift, coldwater stream, that in 30 miles falls some 900 feet, the
sharpest drop within the rivers profile. There are three artificial
impoundments‑‑Second Connecticut Lake, First Connecticut Lake, and Lake
Francis‑‑within this section of the river.

The next section‑‑from Pittsburg to Moore Reservoir‑‑is characterized by
only occasional elevations of over 2,000 feet. Here the river is wider,
slower, more meandering, despite the fact that it makes its second
greatest fall, dropping some 400 feet between Gilman and East Ryegate.
The width and slower flow here can be attributed in part to the presence
of five dams.

From Moore Reservoir to Turners Falls, Massachusetts, the river flows
through hilly and rolling country, with elevations of up to 2,000 feet,
and gradually drops 365 feet. This section of the river valley contains
six dams. The section from Turners Falls to Middletown, Connecticut, is
characterized by a wide elongated valley floor, less than 500 feet above
sea level, with adjacent uplands that rise sharply to an elevation of
500 to 1,000 feet. The river here has an extensive floodplain and a
gradual fall. There are two dams‑‑one at Holyoke, Massachusetts and one
in Enfield, Connecticut‑‑in this stretch of the river. The Enfield Dam
has been naturally breached.

South of Middletown, Connecticut, the area can be characterized as a
plateau with only a few hilly or mountainous elevations rising to 660
feet. Lands along the river are fairly steep, and little valley floor
exists. The river here is free‑flowing and tidal. The area from Chester,
Connecticut, south to Long Island Sound is characterized by a gradual
decrease in elevation from the uplands to an area of tidal coves,
extensive tidal marshes, meadowlands, and large estuarine islands. The
mouth of the river is defined by sandy beaches and sheltered bays, as
well as a number of offshore rocks, shoals, and shifting sandbars. The
Connecticut is one of the few large rivers in the United States that
does not have a major city at its mouth.

Human Populations

In 1990, the 390 cities and towns located either partially or entirely
within the watershed, had a total population of over 2.3 million people
(Table 3‑2). The widely ranging distribution of population varies from
just 6,400 people living in northern Vermont\'s Essex County, to the
849,700 people who live in urban Hartford County, Connecticut.
Population densities follow a similar pattern, with 10 people per square
mile in Essex County compared to 1,156 people per square mile in
Hartford County. Eighty‑four percent of watershed\'s residents live in
Connecticut and Massachusetts, the most densely populated portion of the
watershed.

Communities

The major metropolitan areas found within the watershed are concentrated
at its southern end. They include the cities and towns of Hartford, East
Hartford, West Hartford, Manchester, and East Windsor in Hartford
County, Connecticut; as well as Springfield, West Springfield, Chicopee,
Holyoke, and Agawam in adjacent Hampden County, Massachusetts. The tidal
area stretching south from Hartford to Long Island Sound contains a
number of cities and towns including Middletown, East Haddam, Essex,
Lyme, and Old Saybrook. The less densely populated northern area of the
watershed contains many smaller cities and towns including Northampton,
Amherst, Greenfield, Charlemont, and Athol in Massachusetts;
Brattleboro, Springfield, Woodstock, St. Johnsbury, and Canaan in
Vermont; and Keene, Claremont, Lebanon, Littleton, and Pittsburg in New
Hampshire.

Economy

Generally, income in the Connecticut River watershed is lower than in
the surrounding four‑state area. Per capita income was \$18,728 in 1990,
which is more than \$2,000 lower than the average of the four‑state
region. Over the past ten years, average income growth in the watershed
has trailed state averages, except in the Connecticut section. Thus, the
gap between income in the watershed and the states has widened over the
past ten years.

The range of the income distribution in the watershed is striking, and
similar to the distribution of population. Moving north from
Connecticut, where Hartford County\'s income in 1990 averaged \$21,600
per person, income steadily declines, reaching a minimum of \$10,200 in
Essex County. The relative importance of agriculture in the northern
part of the watershed helps explain these differences. High paying jobs
in manufacturing, which attract people seeking employment, are found in
the southern part of the watershed. The resultant growing demand for
housing and related services cause their prices to rise. Consequently,
the cost of living is higher in the southern part of the watershed, and
people require higher incomes to live and work there.

The watershed accounts for about one‑third of the economic output and
jobs in the four‑state region. Connecticut dominates in this realm,
because a large part of the defense related industry is located in the
river counties of Hartford and New London. In addition, Connecticut\'s
financial center is Hartford County. In contrast, the

manufacturing and service industries produce much of their output
outside of the watershed in the other three states.

This region\'s recovery from the last economic recession has been
lagging behind that of the rest of the country. Cutbacks in defense
spending, technological change and uncertainty in the financial sector,
and rapid changes in the electronics industry have combined to impede
gains in jobs and income, and help maintain unemployment rates above
those in the rest of the country.

Manufacturing, services, and financial, insurance and real estate are
the top three sectors in the watershed, producing nearly 60% of total
output. They are highly aggregated, and combine many individual
industries, which explains their relative position.

Agriculture, forestry and wood products, and food processing make up 3%
of the watershed\'s economic output, and contribute 4% of the jobs. The
forestry industry is particularly important to northern Vermont\'s
economy, where it contributes 20% of that area\'s output.

The category \"recreation services\" includes many diverse amusement and
recreation services, from businesses such as canoe rental to amusement
parks. This category, and the groups labeled \"hotels and lodging\" and
\"restaurants\" are included as a measure of recreation and tourism.
Tourism also has an impact on many other sectors, especially retail
trade. In areas where the economy depends heavily on tourism, state and
local governments and the construction industry may also be involved in
the maintenance of the infrastructure needed to support the tourist
industry.

Agriculture

The fertile Connecticut River Valley plays a major role in New
England\'s agricultural production (White 1988; Schnidman et al. 1990).
In the four‑state region of Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire
and Vermont, 37% of the farm land is in the Connecticut River watershed,
and it produces almost half of the region\'s output. Even so, the
agricultural sector constitutes a relatively small part of the
watershed\'s economy (1.2% in 1990). In 1990, agriculture and related
industries provided important employment opportunities and significant
output in the northern section of the watershed. Although agriculture is
not a major contributor to the watershed\'s overall economic life, it
involves a significant amount of the region\'s land. In 1992, there were
close to a million acres of farmland in the 25 counties in the
Connecticut River watershed, which is about 11% of the total land area
(Table 3‑4 and Figure 3‑4). These farms provide fresh products, scenic
vistas, and rural charm for local residents to enjoy. Pioneer Valley
farms are considered a valuable asset in Massachusetts.

The share of agriculture in the overall economy, farmland acreage, and
the number of farms have decreased significantly over time. These trends
can be traced as far back as the 1880\'s and continue downward to the
present, although recent efforts at farmland preservation have slowed
the rate of decline. Historically, former farmland in New England has
been abandoned and has reverted to forest land. For example, 38% of
Massachusetts land was forested in 1906; by 1985, the figure had risen
to 64% (Petersen 1989). In addition, residential and commercial
development have claimed agricultural land, especially in southern New
England where population density is greatest. Post‑World War II
urbanization pressures have had a major impact on the resource base.
Flat farm land, which has already been cleared for crop production,
provides ideal sites for development.

The number of farms and the amount of land in agriculture declined
steeply through 1974. Until 1974, farm size rose slightly as the number
of farms fell faster than the amount of farmland. Since then, the trend
has been increasingly toward fewer acres per farm.

Agriculture in the Northeast is significantly different from that in the
rest of the U.S. in a number of important aspects. Although
substantially livestock‑based, it is generally more diversified than in
many other regions. There are a large number of \"specialty crops\" in
such areas as horticulture, fruits, and vegetables. Farms in the
Northeast tend to be somewhat smaller than the national average in terms
of the value of sales, yet in terms of land values and average tax
levels Northeast farms are generally well above national averages.

Forestry

Most of the watershed's woodlands are owned by private landowners who
may or may not plan to harvest the trees. In northern Vermont/New
Hampshire, the forest industry used to own about 15% of forest lands,
and forestry had a corresponding impact on the local economy. Recent
divestment by timber companies and resulting large land conservation
projects in Essex County, Vermont, and Coos County, New Hampshire, has
changed this somewhat, although some of the land was protected from
development by easements but continues to be owned and managed by timber
companies for forest harvests. Forestry is also an important part of the
economy locally in other areas. For example, in Massachusetts\'
Berkshire and Franklin counties, forestry and wood products contribute
about 7% of total industrial output. Elsewhere in the watershed,
forestry plays a relatively minor economic role.

Publicly and privately owned forests provide more to the region than
economic output and employment. Forests furnish recreational
opportunities and wildlife habitat. Woven together with agricultural
land and quaint rural villages, forests are an important ingredient in
the distinctive New England landscape.

Open Space or \"Protected Lands\"

Within the watershed, many agencies, organizations, and private
individuals own and maintain land as open space for a variety of
different primary purposes including water supply, flood protection,
timber production, agricultural use, recreational use, and wildlife
habitat. All open space, regardless of its primary purpose, also
provides wildlife habitat to some group of species. Forested areas used
for water supply and timber production offer habitat to forest‑interior
dwelling plants and animals; hayfields and agricultural lands offer
habitat for some grassland species; and reverting agricultural fields
and mixed open and shrubby areas host a different group of species that
prefer edge habitat.

Some of this land is \"dedicated open space,\" meaning that the
intention of the owners is that it remain in open space forever (for
example, state parks), while other lands remain in open space only as
long as the current use provides adequate economic return for the owner
(for example, land held for timber or agricultural production).
Dedicated open space is considered to be \"protected\" land, although
this label can misleading. While the dedicated open space is protected
from development, in some case extractive and recreational uses take
precedence over the protection of plants and animals. In addition, even
in cases where regulations to protect the plants and animals are in
place, law enforcement efforts may not always be able to protect certain
species, especially rare ones with a high monetary value, from harm. In
other cases, certain species require active management to retain
appropriate habitat; benign neglect of the land, caused either by lack
of awareness or lack of management resources, can result in the loss of
critical habitats as plant succession or other habitat changes proceed.

Figure 3‑7 show approximate acres in the watershed held by various
agencies and organizations. This table was derived from Geographic
Information System data (1990 vintage), which made it possible to
determine which dedicated open space lands within each state also fell
within the watershed. Since many of the small parcels held by
municipalities and small land trusts had not yet been digitized, actual
totals in the local and private categories are underestimated.

The watershed as a whole has at least 1,533,095 acres, or roughly 22%,
dedicated open space. This does not include large tracts held by
electric utilities and forest products companies.

  -------------- ------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- ---------------
  Table 3‑8.                                                                   
  Acres of                                                                     
  dedicated open                                                               
  space in the                                                                 
  Connecticut                                                                  
  River                                                                        
  watershed by                                                                 
  state.                                                                       

                 Connecticut   Massachusetts   Vermont         New Hampshire   Totals

  Federal        2,195         5,605           183,851         720,550         912,201

  State          76,354        292,328         120,736         44,065          533,483

  Local          25,652^1^     29,409          ^\_\_\_\_\_2^   ^\_\_\_\_\_2^   ^\_\_\_\_\_2^

  Private lands  4,888         13,605          9,216^3^        4,641           87,411^3^

  Totals         109,089       340,947         313,803         769,256         1,533,095

  Sources: CTDEP                                                               
  Natural                                                                      
  Resources                                                                    
  Center GIS;                                                                  
  Midstate                                                                     
  Regional                                                                     
  Planning                                                                     
  Agency (CT);                                                                 
  University of                                                                
  New Haven                                                                    
  (CT); The                                                                    
  Nature                                                                       
  Conservancy                                                                  
  (CT); MassGIS;                                                               
  NH GRANIT;                                                                   
  Vermont VCGI;                                                                
  South Windsor                                                                
  Regional                                                                     
  Planning                                                                     
  Commission                                                                   
  (VT);                                                                        
  Northeastern                                                                 
  Vermont                                                                      
  Development                                                                  
  Association;                                                                 
  and the U.S.                                                                 
  Fish and                                                                     
  Wildlife                                                                     
  Service.                                                                     

  ^1^ This                                                                     
  includes                                                                     
  22,159 acres                                                                 
  held to                                                                      
  protect water                                                                
  supplies.                                                                    

  ^2^ This could                                                               
  not be                                                                       
  determined                                                                   
  from the data                                                                
  available.                                                                   

  ^3^ Local and                                                                
  private lands                                                                
  combined.                                                                    
  -------------- ------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- ---------------

In the Connecticut portion of the watershed, about 109,000 acres,
roughly 13% is \"dedicated open space.\" The state owns 70% of this,
followed in order of decreasing ownership percentages by municipal
governments (24%), non‑profit organizations, private, and federal (U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers flood control projects). Looking at the purposes
for which the land is held, 62% is state forests and parks, 21% for
municipal water supplies, and 6% is for wildlife management.

In the watershed in Massachusetts, about 393,000 acres, roughly 24%, is
in some kind of dedicated open space: the state owns 74% of this,
followed in order of decreasing percentages by private ownership like
utilities, municipal ownership, non‑profit organizations, and the
federal government. State forests and parks and municipal parks account
for 53% of the total open space, state water supply 20%, state wildlife
management areas 9%. Land trusts, although very active in Massachusetts,
hold only 3% of the total open space.

In New Hampshire, 37% of the watershed is held by the U.S. Forest
Service in the White Mountain National Forest. The State owns about 2%
of the watershed; the bulk of that acreage is at Nash Stream.

Seven percent of the Vermont portion of the watershed is presently owned
by the U.S. Forest Service as the Green Mountain National Forest,
although they have only acquired about 55% of the lands inside their
proclamation boundary, so their ownership will increase. The State owns
an additional 5% of the watershed.