# A review of records and recovery actions for the critically endangered Fiji Petrel *Pseudobulweria macgillivrayi*

DAVID PRIDDEL, NICHOLAS CARLILE, KOLINIO MOCE and DICK WATLING

## Summary

The critically endangered Fiji Petrel *Pseudobulweria macgillivrayi* is
believed to breed only on the island of Gau, Fiji, but its nesting
grounds have yet to be located. Until a bird was captured in 1984, the
species was known from only a single museum specimen (collected in
1855), one sighting on land (in 1965) and four unverified sightings at
sea (1964--65). Local knowledge of the Fiji Petrel is restricted to a
few lines of a traditional lullaby. In this paper we collate and review
all records of the species, and examine all known attempts to locate
nesting sites. Since 1985 there have been 15 reports of sightings on
land and six at sea. Two additional specimens, both pre-breeding adults,
have been obtained. Although our knowledge of this elusive species is
slowly increasing, the timing of the breeding cycle remains uncertain,
making the search for nesting sites particularly challenging. Known
potential threats on Gau include predation by introduced cats, rats, and
pigs. We detail recent conservation efforts and prescribe some new
initiatives, including the use of sniffer dogs. Locating the nesting
grounds of the Fiji Petrel remains the prime conservation priority for
this species.

## Introduction

The Fiji Petrel *Pseudobulweria macgillivrayi* is a small, all-dark,
gadfly petrel with a heavy bill. Formerly known from only a single
museum specimen collected in 1855 (Gray 1859), a few unverified
sightings, and the capture of a single bird in 1984 (Watling and
Lewanavanua 1985), the Fiji Petrel is one of the world's most elusive
and least-studied birds. It is thought to breed on the island of Gau in
the Fijian archipelago but, despite several searches, nesting sites have
yet to be discovered.

The Fiji Petrel is known locally as the *kathau*, but the indigenous
people have no knowledge of its whereabouts or habits. Nothing is known
about the species' population size, breeding ecology, or foraging
behaviour. Even the timing of its breeding cycle is uncertain. We
presume that, like other Pacific members of the genus (Brooke 2004), the
Fiji Petrel is strictly nocturnal at colonies, but confirmatory evidence
is lacking. Despite the elusiveness of the Fiji Petrel, the people of
Fiji have great pride in this enigmatic seabird; it is the emblem of a
national airline (Air Fiji) and it features on the Fijian fifty-dollar
banknote.

The Fiji Petrel is classified as *Critically Endangered* because it is
estimated, given the paucity of sightings, that there is only a tiny
population which is confined to a very small breeding area (BirdLife
International 2007b). Furthermore, it is assumed to be declining because
of predation by introduced cats *Felis catus* and rats *Rattus* spp.
(Watling and Lewanavanua 1985) and, more recently, pigs *Sus scrofa*.

In this paper we: (i) collate, update and review all records of the Fiji
Petrel; (ii) examine the extent and findings of all known surveys; (iii)
report the collection of two additional specimens; (iv) investigate, as
far as is possible, the timing of the breeding cycle; (v) describe
recent conservation initiatives; and (vi) prescribe additional actions
needed to conserve the species.

Avian nomenclature and taxonomy follow the BirdLife taxonomic checklist
(BirdLife International 2007a). Place names and elevations are taken
from the 1:50,000 topographic map of Gau Island published by the Fiji
Department of Lands and Survey (1996).

## The Island of Gau

Gau Island (18º02\' S, 179º18\' E) is situated \~50 km east of the main
Fijian island of Viti Levu. It is 136 km^2^ in area, the fifth largest
of Fiji's 332 islands. The island is of volcanic origin and rugged.
Approximately 55% of the island, mostly the upland areas of the
interior, support intact, dense tropical rainforest (Watling and
Lewanavanua 1985). In contrast, the lowlands have been cleared
extensively for settlement, agriculture and forest plantations. The high
land in the north of the island is dominated by the peaks of Delaco (715
m) and Vatuvula (705 m) (Figure 1). From Delaco the main range runs
roughly southeast to Koroninokonoko (615 m). Waiboteigau Creek, the
island's major water course, flows from the southern flanks of this
range toward the south-east. Historically (pre 1850), the hinterland was
heavily used during periods of tribal warfare, and derelict earthworks
and fortified refuges occur along many mountain ridges. In recent times,
the islanders have adopted a more-coastal existence, and walking tracks
that once crossed the island no longer exist (Watling and Lewanavanua
1985).

INSERT FIGURE 1 HEREABOUTS

The island's population of 3115 people is largely dispersed among 16
coastal villages and one small settlement (Fiji Government Bureau of
Statistics 1996 census). The majority exist on subsistence fishing and
farming, with gardens tended up to 300 m above sea level. Small pine
plantations have been established on the island, but there is no
intensive agriculture or industry. Small-scale harvesting of coconuts
for the production of copra provides a small source of income for some
islanders.

A single unsealed road joins the villages, but there are very few
vehicles. A shipping dock and a boarding secondary school are situated
on the west coast near Nawaikama, and a grass airstrip at the southern
end of the island provides a regular commercial air link to Suva, the
nation's capital. The only regularly used inland trail leads south from
Navukailagi to a telecommunication tower on a peak just below Delaco.
This tower and the derelict earthworks mentioned above are the only
man-made structures above 300 m.

## Records of the Fiji Petrel

In total, we collated 18 reports of the Fiji Petrel on land, all on the
island of Gau (Table 1). Details of each report are contained in
Supplementary Material 1. Two specimens were obtained: one in 1985, the
other in 2007. Measurements and description and of the 2007 specimen are
contained in Supplementary Material 2.

INSERT TABLE 1 HEREABOUTS

We investigated, as far as possible, the veracity of each report.
Reports were classified as either: (i) *confirmed* if the bird was
retained as a specimen, or handled by one of the authors, or
photographed and subsequently identified by the authors; (ii) of *high*
reliability if the bird was not seen by the authors but the description
given was correct; and (iii) of *low* reliability if the description was
poor, incomplete or flawed. We do not regard as credible reports the six
records designated as *low* reliability (see Table 1). They are included
here for completeness, but have been omitted from all subsequent tallies
and discussion. We found no records of the Fiji Petrel ashore elsewhere
in Fiji, despite the suggestion (in BirdLife International 2007b) that
they might also nest on Taveuni Island.

Of the 12 credible reports of Fiji Petrels on Gau (Table 1), 10 were of
single individuals that landed in one of four villages: Nukuloa (*n* =
5), Nawaikama (*n* = 3), Levuka (*n* = 1) and Sawaieke (*n* = 1), all on
the western side of the island (see Figure 1). The other two reports
were the collection of the original specimen (from a site unknown) and
the intentional luring (by spotlight) and capture of a bird near Delaco
in the interior of the island.

Three additional sightings of Fiji Petrel were reported (see
Supplementary Material 1), but upon further investigation were found to
erroneous, the species being misidentified. It appears that many
islanders do not differentiate between Fiji Petrels and Collared Petrels
*Pterodroma brevipes*, a species that also breeds on Gau (Watling
1986a). The population of Collared Petrels on Gau is unknown but it
probably exceeds several hundred pairs. Also, the remains of a Tahiti
Petrel *Pseudobulweria rostrata* have been found on the island (Plan*t
et a*l. 1989), suggesting that this species might also breed there. The
potential for erroneous identification has important implications for
the reliability of unverified records of groundings, particularly as it
is this information upon which the timing of any future surveys and the
areas to be searched are likely to be based.

### Records at sea

Ten sightings of the Fiji Petrel at sea have been reported (Table 2).
All have occurred since 1964, but none have been substantiated by
specimens or photographs. Details of each report are contained in
Supplementary Material 3. No attempt has been made to assess the
veracity of these reports. It is possible that some are actually
sightings of Bulwer's Petrel *Bulweria bulwerii*, a similar all-dark
petrel that also occurs in the central Pacific.

INSERT TABLE 2 HEREABOUTS

### Surveys to locate the nesting grounds of the Fiji Petrel

Several surveys have been undertaken to locate the nesting grounds of
the Fiji Petrel on Gau (Table 3). To date, all have been unsuccessful.
Details of each survey are contained in Supplementary Material 4.

INSERT TABLE 3 HEREABOUTS

### Conservation action

Prior to confirmation of its continued survival in 1984 (Watling and
Lewanavanua 1985), groundings of the Fiji Petrel went largely
unreported. Any remains found by locals were apparently either buried or
fed to dogs. Since 1984, more groundings have been reported, but the
information obtained has been delayed, minimal and imprecise.
Consequently, determining the veracity of some reports has been
difficult. One of the underlying reasons for the lack of good
information is the absence of ornithological expertise on the island.
Data that could have been gleaned from grounded birds may have revealed
critically important facets of the species' ecology, such as the timing
of its breeding cycle.

To begin to understand the ecology of the Fiji Petrel, and ultimately to
ensure the continued survival of the species, it is essential that
information is extracted from those birds that do occasionally come to
hand. Basic data that needs to be recorded includes: date, time, weather
conditions, age, sex, weight, measurements, breeding condition, plumage
condition and moult. A photographic record of each grounded bird would
assist in confirming the species identification, and feather samples
could be used for genetic studies. Accordingly, recent conservation
action has focussed on educating the local community to ensure that: (i)
all groundings are adequately reported; (ii) as many data as possible
are collected from each grounded bird; and (iii) all dead specimens are
retained.

In 1987, Dick Watling (with funding from the Australia and Pacific
Science Foundation) initiated the first community awareness programme to
be undertaken on Gau. This programme, run by Kolinio Moce and Filimone
Kau through the National Trust of Fiji, produced and distributed posters
and leaflets, and held meetings in all the villages and at the Secondary
School.

In 2002, the National Trust of Fiji ran a follow-up awareness and
education programme to further raise the profile of the Fiji Petrel and
to educate the local community about the social and scientific
significance of this species. The programme emphasised the importance of
obtaining data from grounded birds and promoted the release of birds
back into the wild, explaining how best to do this.

Both of these programmes have met with considerable success. Not only
have the islanders developed an appreciation for the uniqueness of the
Fiji Petrel, but they are now aware of the international concern for the
bird's continued survival. Moreover, the local community on Gau appears
strongly sympathetic to genuine attempts to protect and conserve this
unique part of their natural heritage. Unfortunately, there has been a
downside to the increased local and overseas interest in the Fiji
Petrel. Rivalry has developed between villages, which now jockey and
compete for "ownership" of this iconic species and for the kudos and
rewards that the species might bring to their community. Although the
frequency of reported sightings has increased, some reports appear to be
fictitious, making the task of collecting reliable data challenging.
Increased interest has also had a negative consequence for the
conservation of the species. Although the villagers have been encouraged
to release any grounded birds found, interest within the community and
from the media distracts the finder from doing so. Without the knowledge
of how to feed petrels, any birds held in captivity are likely to die
from starvation. The most recent bird to be found on Gau was kept for a
week before it finally died.

After visiting Gau in 2003, the authors formulated an unofficial
recovery plan for the Fiji Petrel (Pridde*l et a*l. 2003). This plan
acknowledged that the only way of collecting reliable data from grounded
birds (other than killing those birds that come to hand) was for locals
to collect the information. Consequently, a key feature of the recovery
plan was to develop local expertise to collect scientific data from any
reported groundings. To facilitate this, Amania Taukei, a respected
elder of Gau, visited several islands in New South Wales, Australia in
December 2004 to receive training in the techniques of handling and
identifying seabirds, collecting morphometric data, cloacal sexing and
bird banding. He then returned to Gau where, in February 2005, he
conducted a workshop to pass on some of his new-found knowledge to
interested islanders. Taukei is now employed on an ongoing basis as a
ranger by the National Trust and is charged with the responsibility of
ensuring that groundings of any seabird are investigated and documented.
Reports are forwarded to the National Trust and then to the authors of
this paper. As a result of this initiative, recent groundings have
provided much more information than was obtained previously.

Although any deaths of Fiji Petrel are to be avoided, dead specimens are
of immense scientific value. They provide unequivocal data and material
for scientific study, as well as the odour needed to train sniffer dogs.
Taukei has also been charged with the responsibility of hastily
retrieving any dead specimens and transporting them to Suva, where they
can be dealt with appropriately.

Another action suggested in the Recovery Plan was an initiative aimed at
gathering ecological information more quickly by increasing the
frequency of groundings. This was to be done by using fixed spotlights
to attract petrels to land at Gau Secondary School. The lights were to
be switched on for the first few hours after sunset. The intent was for
the students to go about their normal business, but to be vigilant for
grounded birds at night. Under the guidance of a suitably trained local,
the students were then to gather information from any birds that
grounded. Although most grounded birds were likely to be Collared
Petrels, the experience gained in dealing with a relatively common
species would prepare them well for processing the occasional Fiji
Petrel. Unfortunately, we were unable to gain local permission to use
the school for the purpose of attracting petrels. For a short period,
islanders were employed to hand-hold lights on a nearby ridge. However,
without birds continually falling from the sky, enthusiasm soon waned,
and so this approach was abandoned.

**Discussion**

Currently, 35 species of petrels and shearwaters (Procellariidae) are
threatened globally; nine are categorised as *Critically Endangered*,
nine as *Endangered*, and 17 are listed as *Vulnerable*. Another two
species are extinct and 12 are near-threatened (BirdLife International
2008). Many of the rarer species have required considerable effort to
locate their nesting grounds. Examples include the Bermuda Petrel
*Pterodroma cahow* (Murphy and Mowbray 1951), Magenta Petrel *P.
magentae* (Crockett 1994), Hawaiian Petrel *P. sandwichensis* (Simons
and Hodges 1998) and Zino's Petrel *P. madeira* (Zin*o et a*l. 2001).

The Fiji Petrel is one of several Pacific petrels whose nesting grounds
have yet to be discovered; others include Beck\'s Petrel *Pseudobulweria
becki* and the New Zealand Storm-petrel *Oceanites maorianus*. Beck\'s
Petrel is known from only two specimens collected in the waters of Papua
New Guinea and the Solomon Islands by Rollo Beck in the late 1920s
(Murphy 1930, Murphy and Pennoyer 1952) and a few recent unverified
sightings in the same general area (Onley and Scofield 2007). The New
Zealand Storm-petrel, previously known from only fossil material and
three 19^th^ Century specimens, has been sighted many times since 2003
in the Hauraki Gulf of New Zealand (BirdLife International 2004, Gaskin
and Baird 2005).

Until recently, the precise nesting locality of the Mascarene Petrel
*Pseudobulweria aterrima* was also unknown, but now several likely sites
have been identified, mostly in the Grand Bassin area on Reunion Island
(Le Corr*e et a*l. 2003). These sites were identified only on the basis
of nocturnal vocal displays of airborne birds; actual nests still remain
to be discovered (M. Le Corre, *personal communication*). Similarities
between the current state of knowledge for the Fiji Petrel and the past
situation for the Mascarene Petrel gives cautious optimism that the
nesting grounds of the Fiji Petrel on Gau Island will eventually be
discovered.

### Location of the nesting grounds

The Fiji Petrel must have bred on Gau in 1855 because the holotype that
was collected there is an immature with incompletely grown flight
feathers. Judging from the number of recent records of the Fiji Petrel
on Gau (Table 1) it is almost certain that the species still breeds
there. Unfortunately, there is no definitive information as to the
precise location of the breeding site or sites.

INSERT TABLE 4 HEREABOUTS

Due largely to the education and awareness programmes, the indigenous
people of Gau are now not only aware of the rarity and significance of
the Fiji Petrel, but they have acquired a much greater appreciation of
the need to conserve their remaining forests. The community leaders have
committed themselves to protecting, in perpetuity, any area of land
found to contain nesting Fiji Petrels (Ratu 2004). Discussions and
workshops with villagers to initiate full protection for the Gau
highlands are ongoing.

The current population of Gau is confined almost entirely to the coastal
lowlands, and few people venture into the rugged hinterland. The lack of
local knowledge about the Fiji Petrel suggests that it probably nests in
the interior. A traditional lullaby about the Fiji Petrel (Supplementary
Material 5) demonstrates some rudimentary knowledge of the bird's
behaviour and we suspect that previous generations were familiar with
the species, possibly because they used the interior of the island much
more extensively.

Imber (1986) considered the central ridge running most of the length of
Gau to be the most likely nesting site of the Fiji Petrel. He based this
opinion on evidence that *Pseudobulweria* is closely related to
*Procellaria* (Imber 1985), and that the latter prefer ridge tops for
siting their burrows. He also presumed that the Fiji Petrel would head
south to feed, attracted to deeper, colder, more-productive waters.
These beliefs, together with the locations of groundings on the western
side of Gau, led him to believe that the nests were most likely to be
located somewhere in the vicinity of Delaco or Koroninokonoko.
Consequently it is here that most effort has been focussed.

Extensive searches of many ridgelines, chiefly around Delaco, however,
have proved fruitless, suggesting it may now time to consider other
possibilities. When Rollo Beck visited Gau in 1925 he trekked from
Sawaieke to "the summit" (presumably Delaco) and recorded that "the
chief finally went with me to the top of the island where I understood
that shearwaters \[petrels\] nest, but when we stood on the top, after a
rough climb, he pointed down to dense canyons on the far \[eastern\]
side of the island saying that the birds nested there" (Jenkins 1986).
Consequently, future searches on Gau should include the eastern side of
Gau, particularly the headwaters of Waiboteigau Creek. Other petrels
breed in similar habitat elsewhere. For example, on Chatham Island, the
Magenta Petrel nests within dense forest near a river tributary about 5
km inland (Aikma*n et a*l. 2001).

### Timing of the breeding cycle

Logistical difficulties associated with undertaking upland searches on
Gau make the task of locating the nesting grounds of the Fiji Petrel
exceedingly challenging. The current dearth of information about the
timing of the breeding cycle exacerbates the problem. Typically, petrels
are absent from their nesting grounds for about half the year, and are
most detectable during the brief periods of courtship and egg-laying,
when they engage in noisy courtship flights and vigorously defend nest
burrows. Breeding petrels returning to land to feed their chicks
typically arrive and depart quickly and silently. Consequently, searches
for the Fiji Petrel would be more likely to be successful if the timing
of the breeding cycle were known.

The immediate vicinity near where birds have been found on Gau suggest
that these individuals grounded after becoming disorientated by
unshielded electric lights. Based on similar experiences elsewhere, the
grounded birds are likely to be fledglings or inexperienced breeders. Of
the 2348 seabirds that grounded on Reunion Island between January 1996
and December 1999, \> 90% were recently fledged birds (Le Corr*e et a*l.
2002, Le Cor*re et a*l. 2003). As many procellariiforms have a fairly
synchronous breeding season, groundings of fledglings are often
restricted to a few months. Thus, for most species, the timing of
groundings usually provides a good indication of the time of fledging,
from which the timing of the breeding cycle can be estimated. For the
Fiji Petrel, reported groundings span many months (April to December),
and two of the three birds whose breeding status is known were not
fledglings but pre-breeding adults. Other studies have shown that
pre-breeding procellariiforms visit the nesting grounds from mating time
to about midway through the chick-rearing period (e.g., Serventy 1967).

The time taken for adult petrels to incubate their eggs to hatching and
to rear their chicks to fledging are both dependent on body size, with
larger species taking longer for both processes (Warham 1990). Warham
calculated the relationship between incubation length (*y*, in days) and
body mass (*x*, in g) to be *y* = 26.33 *x*^0.116^ (Warham 1990, p.
319). He also calculated the relationship between nestling period (*y*)
and body mass (*x*) to be *y* = 22.72 *x*^0.229^ (Warham 1990, p. 356).
By (i) using these equations, (ii) assuming an adult body weight of 143
g (Watling and Lewanavanua 1985), and (iii) adding an arbitrary 10%
variation, we estimate the incubation period of the Fiji Petrel to be
42--52 days and the nestling period to be 64--78 days.

The period between the return of breeding birds and egg deposition
varies considerably among species according to body size and migratory
status. For gadfly petrels it is about 30--38% of the whole reproductive
cycle (Warham 1990, p. 237). Based on the combined estimate for
incubation and chick-rearing (106--130 days), we calculate the period
between return to the colony and egg laying to be 45--79 days. Mating
takes place during this period. As far as is known, all petrels (or at
least the females) go to sea after mating, while the egg is being formed
(Warham 1990). When the females return they lay almost immediately. The
duration of this pre-laying exodus is highly variable among species
(Warham 1990, pp. 258--259). Typically, it is about 14-21 days, but for
some species such the Hawaiian Petrel *Pterodroma sandwichensis* it is
about 40 days (Baker and Coleman 1977, Simons 1985). Thus, we assume the
duration of the pre-breeding exodus for the Fiji Petrel to be between 14
and 40 days.

There is only one record (the type specimen) where the bird was
confirmed to be recently fledged. As best as can be ascertained, this
individual was captured sometime during 2--17 October. Using the
estimates above, we surmise that this bird probably hatched in the
second half of July or first half of August, and the egg was probably
laid sometime in late May, June or early July (Table 5). Mating would
then have probably occurred sometime between mid April and mid June, the
birds having first returned to the colony sometime between early March
and mid May (Table 5). Typically, activity of petrels at the nesting
grounds is most apparent in the three weeks or so prior to mating (e.g.,
Baker and Coleman 1977). For Fiji Petrels this is likely to be sometime
during April or May. These estimates, based on a single estimated date
of fledging, a single adult mass and some guesswork, should be
interpreted cautiously. Moreover, the further we extrapolate backwards
from the presumed fledging date, the lower the level of precision (Table
5).

INSERT TABLE 5 HEREABOUTS

There are confirmed records of Fiji Petrels present on Gau in April,
May, July, October and December (Table 1). All other records, both
reliable and otherwise, fall within this period---April to December.
Groundings in October--December (presumably of young) suggest that
breeding may not be highly synchronous, with both egg laying and
fledging spanning several months (May--August and September--December
respectively). There are no records of birds on land for the period
January to March inclusive. We conclude (albeit with a great deal of
uncertainty) that the Fiji Petrel probably breeds over a protracted
period during the austral winter and spring, and those birds that ground
on Gau are most likely either pre-breeders (approximately April to
August) or juveniles on first departure from the colony (approximately
September to December). Again, these conclusions are based on the
interpretation of scant, fragmented data and should be used with
caution. Data from additional groundings of fledglings, or from nests
(when they are found), will help to better clarify the exact time of
breeding. Congeners include both winter- and summer-breeding species (Le
Cor*re et a*l. 2003, Villar*d et a*l. 2006, Shirihai 2008, P. Raust *in
litt*.), providing little indication as to the likely breeding cycle of
the Fiji Petrel.

### Threats

Although the size of the Fiji Petrel population is not known, the
infrequency with which this distinctive petrel is sighted and the
elusiveness of its nesting sites suggest that there must be few birds.
Consequently, the species is regarded as highly vulnerable to
extinction. As little is known about the ecology of the Fiji Petrel we
can only guess as to the nature and extent of any threats.

Fortunately, Gau is free of mongoose, a serious predator of
ground-nesting birds on many of Fiji's larger islands. However, cats
have been introduced to Gau and are present on the highest ridges
(Watling and Lewanavanua 1985) where they are known to kill and consume
Collared Petrels (Imber 1986). Pacific Rats *Rattus exulans* also occur
on the ridges. Brown Rats *R. norvegicus* pose a far greater threat to
small petrels (Town*s et a*l. 2006), but have been trapped only at the
villages (Imber 1986). The highly destructive Black Rat *R. rattus* is
also reported to be present on Gau (Morgan Williams cited in Jenkins
1986), but its distribution is unknown. Cats and rats have caused many
local extirpations of petrels (Moors and Atkinson 1984). As far as we
can ascertain, there are no cliffs or inaccessible mountain ledges on
the island of Gau where petrels could nest out of the reach of either
cats or rats. Domestic pigs roam free around the villages and
plantations, and a feral population has recently established in the
southern hinterland (Ratu 2004). This is a serious emerging threat as
pigs have caused the demise of seabirds on numerous other islands around
the world (see review by Moors and Atkinson 1984). If nests are not
located and protected soon, the Fiji Petrel may be lost forever.

We presume that, like most other petrels, Fiji Petrels nest either in
earth burrows or in natural cavities. If this species is a cavity-nester
there is an abundance of natural holes, crevices and cavities on Gau in
which it can nest. If it nests in earth burrows there is the potential
for competition from Collared Petrels, which are of a similar size.
Imber (1986) raised the possibility that the loss of Collared Petrel
colonies on the main Fijian island of Viti Levu may be driving a
compensatory increase on Gau. If so, competition for existing burrows,
including those used by Fiji Petrels, may be intense. Fiji Petrels are
not only at a competitive disadvantage numerically, but also temporally,
as their breeding season probably begins later than that of the Collared
Petrel (young Collared Petrels are in the nest from May to August;
Watling 1986a).

### Future conservation action

Although we have written a recovery plan for the Fiji Petrel to guide
our own actions, the plan has not been officially adopted or sanctioned
by the Fijian Government and has no legal standing. To date, the impetus
to locate and conserve the Fiji Petrel has come primarily from Watling
working collaboratively with the National Trust of Fiji and with
scientists from Australia and New Zealand. This situation is unlikely to
change in the foreseeable future.

The Fiji Petrel is extremely rare and any losses due to predation at the
nesting grounds are of major concern. The control or eradication of
cats, rats and pigs across the whole of Gau would help protect the
species, but the size of the island and the presence of both a large
human population and free-ranging livestock make this goal highly
problematic. However, local predator control around the petrel's nesting
grounds may be achievable. Such action requires knowledge as to the
whereabouts of the nesting grounds; knowledge that is currently lacking.
Thus, finding the nesting sites of the Fiji Petrel is paramount if the
species is to be conserved. Now that a population of feral pigs has
established on Gau, the need to locate the nesting grounds becomes even
more urgent.

Until recently, the nesting grounds of the Magenta Petrel on Chatham
Island were also unknown. After numerous searches, the nests were
eventually located using radio telemetry (Imbe*r et a*l. 1994). Birds
were attracted to lights, captured and fitted with minature
radio-transmitters, released and then radio-tracked to their nesting
grounds. This technique requires specialised skills and equipment, and
detailed knowledge of transmitter attachment procedures. It cannot be
done opportunistically on Gau using local personnel, particularly when
it involves such a critically endangered species. Radio-tracking would
only be feasible if groundings proved to be a regular or predictable
occurrence. With one notable exception, attempts to attract Fiji Petrels
with spotlights have so far failed. Obtaining recordings of
vocalisations may improve the chances of attracting birds, but there
have been no reports of grounded birds vocalising.

The recent acquisition of a freshly dead specimen provides the best
opportunity yet to locate the nesting grounds of the Fiji Petrel. Some
feathers from this specimen have been removed and are to be used to
train sniffer dogs (known in New Zealand as wildlife search dogs) to
seek out nesting Fiji Petrels by scent; a technique that has proved
successful in locating nests of the Magenta Petrel (Aikm*an et a*l.
2001). To make the dog team as mobile as possible they would need to be
re-provisioned every few days. Searches will be planned on the basis
that the Fiji Petrel breeds during the austral winter, with young
present in the nest at least between June and October. Quarantine issues
associated with the international transfer of dogs and a current absence
of funding remain the only obvious obstacles.

Once the nesting grounds have been located, a research programme will
need to be established to: (i) improve our understanding of the ecology
and demography of the species; (ii) assess breeding success; and (iii)
evaluate the causes of egg, chick and adult mortality. Solutions to any
identified threats should then be developed, and action taken to
ameliorate them. Predator control around the nesting grounds is the most
likely conservation action that will need to be undertaken.

## Acknowledgements

The awareness programmes on Gau and the expeditions in search of this
species would not have been possible without the support of the local
community. In particular, we gratefully acknowledge the support of Ratu
Marika Lewanavanua, Paramount Chief of Gau, and Savenaca Waqa, Chief of
the village of Navukailagi. We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of
the National Trust of Fiji since the inception of the research
undertaken by Dick Watling. Milika Ratu and Amania Taukei of the
National Trust of Fiji assisted in all aspects of the work since 2002.
We also acknowledge the generous support of the Wildlife Conservation
Society, BirdLife International, the Department of Environment and
Climate Change (New South Wales), the Tasmanian Conservation Trust and
Environment Consultants Fiji. We thank the staff of the Fiji Museum for
making available to us their only specimen of the Fiji Petrel. Walter
Boles, Curator of Birds at the Australian Museum, travelled to Fiji to
prepare the most recent specimen of Fiji Petrel. Adrian Plant kindly
provided field notes from his visit to Gau. We thank Robert Wheeler,
Mike Imber, Matthieu Le Corre, Guy Dutson and an anonymous referee for
providing useful comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript.

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DAVID PRIDDEL\*, NICHOLAS CARLILE

*Department of Environment and Climate Change, PO Box 1967, Hurstville,
NSW 2220, Australia.*

KOLINIO MOCE, DICK WATLING

*NatureFiji-MareqetiViti, Box 2041, Government Buildings, Suva, Fiji*

*^\*^Author for correspondence; e-mail:
david.priddel@environment.nsw.gov.au*

Figure 1. Map of the island of Gau showing places mentioned in the text.

Table 1. Reported groundings of Fiji Petrels on Gau, Fiji.

Additional details are contained in Supplementary Material 1. Reports
were *confirmed* if the bird was either: (i) retained as a specimen,
(ii) handled by the authors, or (iii) photographed and subsequently
identified by the authors; of *high* reliability if the bird was not
seen by the authors but the description given was correct; and of *low*
reliability if the description was poor. Question mark indicates data
not known.

## Year Date Location Estimate reliability Breeding status Source

1855 02--17 October Gau Confirmed (specimen) Immature Gray 1859

1965 ? Nukuloa High ? K. Moce

1984 30 April Near Delaco Confirmed (handled) Adult Watling and
Lewanavanua 1985

1985 April or May Nukuloa High ? K. Moce

1985 03 July Nukuloa Confirmed (specimen) Pre-breeding adult K. Moce

1987 30 July Nawaikama High ? K. Moce

1987 11 October Nawaikama High ? K. Moce

1989 18 December Nukuloa Confirmed (handled) ? K. Moce

1990 ? Nawaikama High ? K. Moce

2000 December Nukuloa Low ? M. Ratu

2001 ? Nawaikama Low ? M. Ratu

? ? Lele Low ? Ratu 2004

2002 29 December Nukuloa Confirmed (photographed) ? Ratu 2004

2002 December Lamiti Low ? Ratu 2004

2003 26 June Lovu Low ? Ratu 2004

2003 28 June Nacavanadi Low ? Ratu 2004

2005 4 May Sawaieke Confirmed (photographed) Adult A. Taukei

2007 12 April Levuka Confirmed (specimen) Pre-breeding adult A. Taukei

## Table 2. Reported sightings of the Fiji Petrel at sea.

Additional details are contained in Supplementary Material 3.

Year Date Latitude Longitude Approximate location Source

1964 8 November 19º30\' S 176º30\' W 550 km ESE of Suva, Fiji Bourne
1967

1964 31 December 24º00\' S 178º30\' E 650 km S of Suva, Fiji Bourne 1967

1965 1 January 21º30\' S 176º30\' W 140 km WSW of Nuku'alofa, Tonga
Bourne 1967

1965 23 May 10º00\' S 180º^º^00\' E 360 km NE of Rotuma, Fiji Bourne
1967

1986 12 June 18º00\' S 179º13\' E Herald Bay, Gau Island, Fiji D.
Watling

1986 August 18º10\' S 178º50\' E Between Suva and Gau Island, Fiji A.
Tabaiwalu

1999 Early October 16º13\' S 179º10\' E 20 km N of Vanua Levu, Fiji D.
Watling

1999 Early October 15º55\' S 171º59\' W 230 km ENE of Tafahi, Tonga D.
Watling

2003 14 August 05º00\' S 150º20\' S Kimbe Bay, West New Britain, Papua
New Guinea H. Shirihai

2007 12 April 01º42\' S 153º56\' E 400 km N of Bougainville, Papua New
Guinea Howell 2007

Table 3. Surveys undertaken to search for the nesting grounds of the
Fiji Petrel on Gau, Fiji.

Additional details are contained in Supplementary Material 4.

##  Date Participants Source

17--21 February 1925 Whitney South Sea Expedition, American Museum of
Natural History Jenkins 1986

October 1971 J.B. Smart King 1981

July--August 1982 Ornithologists from New Zealand Lovegrove 1984

May 1983 -- August 1984 Dick Watling Watling and Lewanavanua 1985,

Watling 1986b

17--26 June 1985 Mike Imber, Andrew Brown, Dick Watling Imber 1986

15 September -- 9 October 1987 Adrian Plant, Kolinio Qalo, Kinijioji
Vererusa and Dick Watling Pla*nt et a*l. 1989

March 1989 Dick Watling

June 2003 David Priddel, Nicholas Carlile and Dick Watling Priddel and
Carlile 2003

Table 4. Measurements of the Fiji Petrel.

Additional details of the 2007 specimen are contained in Supplementary
Material 2.

Specimen Age Sex Weight Wing Tail Tarsus

\(g\) (mm) (mm) (mm)

1855 ^A^ Immature Male - 205 85 35.3

1984 ^B^ Adult - 143 227 92 37

2007 Adult Female 120 ^C^ 220 91 35.3

^A^ Specimen measured by M. Imber and reported in Watling and
Lewanavanua 1985

^B^ Data from Watling and Lewanavanua 1985

^C^ Bird had not eaten for a week

Table 5. Estimated dates of mating, laying and hatching of Fiji Petrel
based on: (i) a single fledging date of 2--17 October, (ii) a nestling
period of 64--78 days, (iii) an incubation period of 42--52 days, (iv)
an exodus period of 14--40 days, and (v) a period between return to the
colony and egg laying of 45--79 days.

Arrival Mating Egg laying Hatching Fledging

Earliest 7 March 15 April 25 May 16 July 02 October

Latest 18 May 19 June 03 July 14 August 17 October

Range (days) 72 65 39 29 15