## *Chapter 3*

## *Small-Scale Construction* 

### Brief Description of the Sector

Virtually all small-scale development activities---housing, sanitation,
water supply, roads, healthcare, energy, etc.---involve some amount of
construction. Construction is one or more of a set of diverse
activities: demolition; site-clearing; grading, leveling, and compacting
soil; excavating; laying pipe; installing equipment; or erecting
structures. The development benefits of construction come not from the
construction itself, but from the buildings and infrastructure which are
its result.

The details of the construction carried out in support of any particular
development activity or site will have a number of unique aspects.
Construction activities in general, however, share a set of common
features and potential adverse environmental impacts.

This sector briefing addresses a number of these common elements. It is
intended to apply to the types of projects mentioned above, as well as
the construction of schools, health posts, storage silos, market or
community centers, fire observation towers, and any similar small-scale
construction projects. It is only intended to identify key issues and
illustrate potential mitigation measures associated with the
construction process. Detailed guidelines for the specific type of
project should also be consulted (e.g., the "Housing" or "Water Supply
and Sanitation" sections of the Guidelines).

### Potential Environmental Impacts of Construction and Their Causes 

Construction projects may cause both direct and indirect potential
adverse environmental impacts. An example of a direct impact is the
filling of a wetland to use as a project site. Indirect impacts are
induced changes in the environment, population, and use of land and
environmental resources. Examples of indirect impacts include:

-   in-migration of population to take advantage of schools, health
    posts or other infrastructure;

-   effects on fish spawning associated with siltation of streams from
    soil erosion at a construction site; or

-   the spread of disease from insect vectors breeding in flooded and
    abandoned quarries and borrow pits (areas from which construction
    materials were excavated, or "borrowed").

Another example could be a construction project's use of unsustainably
extracted timber, which may contribute to the degradation of a forest
some distance away. Direct impacts often receive more attention, but
indirect effects can be just as significant.
![](media/image1.wmf){width="3.171527777777778in"
height="1.8729166666666666in"}

Direct and indirect impacts of *associated* or *ancillary* activities
also need to be considered. For example, construction of a small-scale
irrigation system may require construction of a new road or improvement
of an existing road so that materials and equipment can reach the
project site. The road is an associated or ancillary activity, with its
own set of environmental impacts. The size and scope of both indirect
and ancillary effects may be magnified over time, or through the
cumulative effects of building many small facilities.

Construction can also have significant effects on public health---for
example, the spread of HIV/AIDS and other communicable diseases is often
associated with workers and construction camps. Standing water in
quarries and borrow pits may become sources of contaminated water and
disease-bearing insects.

All potential impacts should be considered and mitigated to the extent
possible, but the most significant impacts should be addressed first. As
with any project, the best way to accomplish this is by careful planning
and incorporation of mitigation measures into project design.

Environmental impacts of special concern include:

-   **Damage to sensitive or valuable ecosystems.** Construction in
    wetlands, estuaries or other sensitive ecosystems may destroy or
    significantly damage exceptional natural resources and the benefits
    they provide. This damage may reduce economic productivity, impair
    essential ecosystem services (such as flood control or breeding
    habitat for food fish), or degrade the recreational value of these
    resources.

    Compaction of the soil and grading of the site may alter drainage
    patterns and water tables, changing access to water by animals,
    people and vegetation, and may degrade water resources as well (see
    below). Improper extraction of construction materials such as wood,
    stone, gravel, or clay may damage terrestrial ecosystems (e.g., wood
    may come from relatively undegraded forests).

-   **Sedimentation of surface waters.** Removal of natural land cover,
    excavation, extraction of construction materials and other
    construction-related activities can result in soil erosion. Erosion
    can, in turn, lead to sedimentation in receiving waters.
    Sedimentation may reduce capacity of ponds and reservoirs,
    increasing flood potential, or substantially alter aquatic
    ecosystems by changing streambed, lakebed and estuary conditions.

-   **Contamination of ground and surface water supplies.** Toxic
    materials are often used in construction. Examples include solvents,
    paints, vehicle maintenance fluids (oil, coolant), and diesel fuel.
    If these are dumped on the ground or wash into streams they may
    contaminate ground or surface water supplies. This may harm the
    health of the local community, as well as populations living down
    gradient and downstream. Aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems may also
    be damaged. Where sanitary facilities for construction crews are
    inadequate, human waste may contaminate water resources.

-   **Adverse social impacts.** Construction may displace local
    inhabitants, or reduce their access to environmental resources. (For
    example, farmers' income or subsistence may be reduced.)
    Construction on or near culturally important sites (cemeteries,
    worshipping areas, meeting places) may generate conflict with the
    local community. If the new facility provides a valuable service not
    available elsewhere, it may cause migration to the area. Noise and
    dirt from the site may disturb neighbors. If local labor is not
    used, this may also generate resentment.

-   **Spread of disease.** An influx of construction workers from other
    regions or construction of a new road may introduce new diseases to
    the local population or increase the incidence of local infection.
    This is a particular concern with sexually transmitted diseases,
    such as HIV/AIDS.

> Specific types of facilities such as those for healthcare, sanitation,
> and solid waste can also increase the spread of a variety of diseases
> unless they follow proper waste-handling procedures (see Section
> 3-13).

-   **Damage to aesthetics of site/area.** If the structure is too
    large, the architectural style is not consistent with local
    architectural customs, or it is sited without adequate attention to
    existing aesthetic and scenic characteristics, the facility may harm
    the visual quality of the area.

### Sector Program Design---Key Questions for Construction Projects[^1]

**Apply best practices.** All best practices discussed in Chapter 1 of
this volume ("An Introduction to Environmentally Sound Design") apply to
the construction dimension of projects.

**Consider the full range of impacts.** When planning a construction
project, in order to properly evaluate their options, project developers
must examine all the classes of impacts described above---direct,
indirect, ancillary, cumulative and socio-cultural. Assessment of
indirect effects is especially important for large infrastructure
development projects, but must also be considered for small-scale
activities. Ancillary, cumulative, and socio-cultural effects can occur
with any size project. The magnitude of impacts is likely to be
proportional to the size of the project.

The following questions, categorized by project phase, are intended to
stimulate consideration of the full range of impacts. Consult the
mitigation and monitoring tables for measures to address these impacts.
Please note: not all apply to all projects, nor are all possible
mitigation measures incorporated in these tables.

#### Site Selection

-   What are the current uses and activities at the proposed project
    site? Who will be displaced?

-   How close are neighboring residences?

-   What types of environment, landscape, flora and fauna are present in
    the area? Are any species of particular biological, medicinal,
    cultural, historical, social or commercial value---and, if so, could
    the project damage them?

-   Is the site itself of cultural, archeological, historical, or social
    value?

-   Are there any bodies of water, wooded areas, slopes, wetlands or
    other vulnerable sites nearby?

-   Is the area and/or site prone to landslides, flooding, heavy
    rainfall, earthquakes and other disasters?

-   Is the site steeply sloped? Is the soil sufficiently stable? What is
    its thickness, texture, drainage and topographical features?

-   How distant is the site from the intended users?

-   Would use of the site require construction or improvement of a
    road?![](media/image2.jpeg){width="4.038888888888889in"
    height="2.667361111111111in"}

-   Are water and sanitary facilities readily available or would they
    need to be provided?

-   Are historical data available on precipitation, surface water flows
    and climatic conditions?

-   Can the extent and quality of groundwater supplies be determined?
    Are historical and seasonal data available?

#### Planning and Design

-   What are the local zoning, building, and permit requirements?

-   Is the proposed design constructed of materials appropriate to the
    climate and site?

-   Are erosion and flood protection measures incorporated?

-   Is this a small, isolated project, or one of many similar projects?

-   Will ancillary or associated infrastructure development be
    necessary?

-   What indirect effects are possible? For example, if a new facility
    is to be built in a forest, will the road servicing the facility
    encourage illegal logging and poaching?

-   What are the types, quantities and source of construction materials?
    Where does the material come from, e.g., quarries, borrow pits,
    relatively undegraded forest?

-   Where will workers sleep? What types of water supply, sanitation and
    solid waste disposal will be provided for workers? Have steps been
    taken to ensure that these services are provided in an
    environmentally sound manner?

-   If water supply and sanitation facilities are to be constructed,
    will they be designed according to the "Water Supply and Sanitation"
    sector briefing in this volume?

-   If healthcare facilities are to be constructed, will their waste
    streams be handled as described in the "Healthcare Waste:
    Generation, Handling, Treatment and Disposal" sector briefing in
    this volume?

> For example, is there a waste storage room, an incinerator (if rural),
> a space for encapsulation and a plastic/clay-lined pit for safe
> burial? How will graywater from bathing and washing of bedding, etc.,
> be disposed of? What system of human waste disposal will be provided
> to prevent undue health risks? Will water be provided to the facility
> in a manner that minimizes risk of contamination for patients and
> nearby communities?

-   If the facility will generate solid waste, does the design include
    space and features for source separation of recyclables and organic
    waste, as described in "Management of Solid Waste from Residential,
    Commercial and Industrial Facilities" in this volume?

-   If hazardous chemicals, radioactive waste or other types of
    hazardous materials will be produced, does the design include proper
    storage, handling and disposal facilities, as described for some
    sectors in "Activities with Micro and Small Enterprises (MSEs)" in
    this volume? (These materials could include heavy metals, oil,
    lubricants, batteries, dyes, glue, solvents, acids, etc.)

-   If cooling waters, soaking waters, or water containing suspended
    matter, mercury, lead, soaps or other previously mentioned products
    are likely to be generated, does the design include elements for
    treatment, storage and discharge, as described for some sectors in
    "Activities with Micro and Small Enterprises (MSEs)" in this volume?

-   What kind of public health education will construction workers
    receive? Will it include information about HIV/AIDS?

#### Construction Phase

-   Where will the construction crew come from? Will the construction
    schedule compete with local crop harvesting?

-   What site preparation and construction activities will be carried
    out? Will there be demolition, excavation, leveling, clearing,
    filling, backfilling or wetland reclamation?

-   How will any construction and demolition debris be disposed of?

-   How will the materials be conveyed to the site and stored?

-   What toxic materials will be used during construction? Are non-toxic
    substitutes available? Are measures in place to ensure that toxic
    materials are properly disposed of?

-   What measures are in place for monitoring environmental impacts and
    ensuring adherence to environmental guidelines?

### Environmental Mitigation and Monitoring Issues

Table 1: Environmental Mitigation and Monitoring Issues for
Construction-Related Aspects of Development Projects

+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Issue or | Impact                | Mitigation                       |
| aspect   |                       |                                  |
| of       | *The activity may. .  | *Note: Mitigations apply to      |
| activity | .*                    | specified project phase: Site    |
|          |                       | Selection (SS); Planning and     |
|          |                       | Design (P&D), Construction (C),  |
|          |                       | or Operation and Maintenance     |
|          |                       | (O&M)*                           |
+==========+=======================+==================================+
| **Site   |                       |                                  |
| S        |                       |                                  |
| election |                       |                                  |
| (SS)**   |                       |                                  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Site     | Displace untenured    | -   Find alternative location    |
| occupied | residents or reduce   |     (SS). If that is not         |
| or used  | farmers' or           |     possible:                    |
| by local | pastoralists' lands   |                                  |
| r        |                       | -   Provide equivalent land      |
| esidents |                       |     and/or accommodations or     |
|          |                       |     fair monetary compensation,  |
|          |                       |     provided these are accepted  |
|          |                       |     voluntarily and without      |
|          |                       |     coercion (SS)                |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| D        | Facility and/or       | -   Build as far as practical    |
| wellings | construction disturbs |     from neighbors (SS)          |
| located  | neighbors, creating   |                                  |
| close by | noise and dust        | -   Concentrate noisiest types   |
|          |                       |     of work into as short a      |
|          |                       |     period as possible, and      |
|          |                       |     during least disruptive      |
|          |                       |     times of the day. Take       |
|          |                       |     measures to keep dust to a   |
|          |                       |     minimum (P&D)(C)             |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Screen facility with trees   |
|          |                       |     or fencing to control noise  |
|          |                       |     (P&D)                        |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Wet ground if water is       |
|          |                       |     abundant and/or leave        |
|          |                       |     natural cover intact as long |
|          |                       |     as possible (C)              |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Site has | Offend local          | -   Find alternative site (SS)   |
| h        | population; damage    |                                  |
| istoric, | local social fabric   |                                  |
| c        |                       |                                  |
| ultural, |                       |                                  |
| or       |                       |                                  |
| social   |                       |                                  |
| im       |                       |                                  |
| portance |                       |                                  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Site     | Cause one or more of  | -   Find alternative site.       |
| would    | a set of adverse      |     Evaluate "minimum tool"      |
| require  | environmental impacts |     alternatives (e.g. consider  |
| road     | typical of roads,     |     whether a foot or bicycle    |
| imp      | including erosion,    |     path might suffice (SS)      |
| rovement | changing water        |     (O&M)                        |
| or new   | tables, or providing  |                                  |
| road     | access for illegal    | -   Follow guidance on design,   |
| cons     | landclearing, logging |     construction, and operation  |
| truction | or poaching           |     and maintenance described in |
|          |                       |     "Rural Roads" and resources  |
| (Also    |                       |     listed there                 |
| consult  |                       |                                  |
| "Rural   |                       |                                  |
| Roads"   |                       |                                  |
| section  |                       |                                  |
| of the   |                       |                                  |
| Gui      |                       |                                  |
| delines) |                       |                                  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Site     | Destroy or harm       | Find alternative location (SS).  |
| contains | plants or animals of  | If that is not possible:         |
| habitat  | ecological, cultural, |                                  |
| for      | and/or economic       | -   Limit access to the site     |
| i        | importance            |                                  |
| mportant |                       | -   Design any infrastructure    |
| eco      |                       |     (if unavoidable) to create   |
| systems, |                       |     least impact (P&D)           |
| animals  |                       |                                  |
| or       |                       | -   Minimize disturbance of      |
| plants   |                       |     native flora during          |
|          |                       |     construction (P&D) (C)       |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Remove, without destroying,  |
|          |                       |     large plants and ground      |
|          |                       |     cover where possible (C)     |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Replant recovered plants and |
|          |                       |     other flora from local       |
|          |                       |     ecosystem after construction |
|          |                       |     (C)                          |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Site has | Destroy or harm these | Find alternative location (SS).  |
| i        | sites                 | If that is not possible:         |
| mportant |                       |                                  |
| scenic,  |                       | -   Limit access to site         |
| arche    |                       |                                  |
| ological |                       | -   Design any infrastructure    |
| or       |                       |     (if unavoidable) to create   |
| cul      |                       |     least impact (P&D)           |
| tural/hi |                       |                                  |
| storical |                       | -   Minimize disturbance of site |
| features |                       |     during construction (P&D)    |
|          |                       |     (C)                          |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Remove important artifacts   |
|          |                       |     where possible (C)           |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Provide worker incentives    |
|          |                       |     for discovery and safe       |
|          |                       |     removal of archeological or  |
|          |                       |     paleontological material.    |
|          |                       |     (SS) (C)                     |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Site is  | Destroy or harm       | Find alternative site. Wetlands  |
| wetland  | valuable and          | and *riparian* ecosystems (those |
| or abuts | sensitive ecosystems  | sited next to a body of water)   |
| body of  | and organisms         | are extremely sensitive.         |
| water    |                       | Wetlands provide important       |
|          |                       | environmental services such as   |
|          |                       | water storage, bird and animal   |
|          |                       | habitat, flood control, and      |
|          |                       | filtering toxins and nutrients   |
|          |                       | from runoff (SS). If no          |
|          |                       | alternative is available:        |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Set back any infrastructure  |
|          |                       |     as far as possible from the  |
|          |                       |     water body/wetland and       |
|          |                       |     minimize the amount of       |
|          |                       |     wetland destroyed by         |
|          |                       |     infrastructure footprint or  |
|          |                       |     construction (SS) (P&D)      |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Revegetate as soon as        |
|          |                       |     possible (C)                 |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | *If facility will include        |
|          |                       | sanitation facility, find        |
|          |                       | alternative site* (SS)           |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Site is  | Cause erosion and     | Find alternative site (SS). If   |
| steeply  | damage to terrestrial | that is not possible:            |
| sloped   | and aquatic           |                                  |
|          | ecosystems during     | -   Design facility and apply    |
|          | construction or use   |     construction practices that  |
|          |                       |     minimize risk, e.g., use hay |
|          |                       |     bales to control erosion     |
|          |                       |     during construction. Pay     |
|          |                       |     particular attention to      |
|          |                       |     potential erosion and        |
|          |                       |     redirection of water flows   |
|          |                       |     during design and            |
|          |                       |     construction (SS) (P&D) (C)  |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Revegetate as soon as        |
|          |                       |     possible (C)                 |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | ```{=html}                       |
|          |                       | <!-- -->                         |
|          |                       | ```                              |
|          |                       | -   Maintain design features     |
|          |                       |     (O&M)                        |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Area is  | Degrade forest,       | Find alternative location if     |
| heavily  | contributing to       | area is old growth or relatively |
| wooded   | flooding potential    | undegraded forest (SS). If that  |
|          |                       | is not possible:                 |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Design so as to minimize     |
|          |                       |     clearing or disturbance      |
|          |                       |     (P&D)                        |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Avoid destroying rare or     |
|          |                       |     unique species. Consult with |
|          |                       |     local populations about      |
|          |                       |     current use of forest and    |
|          |                       |     preferences for preservation |
|          |                       |     (SS) (P&D) (C)               |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Site     | Be destroyed and/or   | Find alternative site or design  |
| prone to | subject workers or    | infrastructure so it is raised   |
| flooding | inhabitants to risk   | above flood plain, if possible   |
|          | of injury or death    | (SS)                             |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          | Cause environmental   | Design infrastructure to         |
|          | damage from           | minimize risk, e.g., design with |
|          | accidental release of | proper grading and drainage      |
|          | toxic, infectious or  | (P&D)                            |
|          | otherwise harmful     |                                  |
|          | material during       | Maintain design features such as |
|          | flooding              | drainage structures (O&M)        |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          | Contaminate drinking  | Avoid constructing sanitation or |
|          | water                 | other facilities that will use   |
|          |                       | and store harmful materials at   |
|          |                       | flood-prone sites (SS). If that  |
|          |                       | is not possible:                 |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Design storage area so that  |
|          |                       |     hazardous materials are      |
|          |                       |     above ground and/or in       |
|          |                       |     waterproof containers with   |
|          |                       |     locking lids that are kept   |
|          |                       |     closed. Ensure that facility |
|          |                       |     operators follow these       |
|          |                       |     practices (P&D)(O&M)         |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Chose dry sanitation options |
|          |                       |     or closed disposal systems,  |
|          |                       |     instead of wet ones such as  |
|          |                       |     septic tanks or detention    |
|          |                       |     ponds (P&D)                  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Area     | Be destroyed and/or   | Find alternative site on stable  |
| and/site | expose workers or     | ground (SS). If that is not      |
| prone to | inhabitants to risk   | possible:                        |
| la       | of injury or death    |                                  |
| ndslides |                       | -   Design infrastructure to     |
|          | Cause environmental   |     minimize risk, e.g., plant   |
|          | damage from           |     trees all around facility    |
|          | accidental release of |     ((P&D)                       |
|          | toxic, infectious or  |                                  |
|          | otherwise harmful     | -   Maintain protective design   |
|          | material              |     features (O&M)               |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          | Contaminate water     | > Avoid constructing sanitation  |
|          | supplies              | > or other facilities that will  |
|          |                       | > use and store hazardous or     |
|          |                       | > biohazardous materials at      |
|          |                       | > landslide-prone sites (SS). If |
|          |                       | > that is not possible:          |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Design storage area so that  |
|          |                       |     hazardous materials are      |
|          |                       |     stored in durable leak-      |
|          |                       |     proof containers with        |
|          |                       |     locking lids, and that these |
|          |                       |     are kept closed (P&D)(O&M)   |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Chose dry sanitation options |
|          |                       |     or closed disposal systems,  |
|          |                       |     instead of wet ones such as  |
|          |                       |     septic tanks or detention    |
|          |                       |     ponds (P&D)                  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+

+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| -   **   |                       |                                  |
| Planning |                       |                                  |
|     and  |                       |                                  |
|          |                       |                                  |
| Design** |                       |                                  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Area     | Be destroyed and/or   | -   Design infrastructure to     |
| exp      | expose workers or     |     minimize risk, e.g., in      |
| eriences | inhabitants to risk   |     earthquake-prone areas,      |
| heavy    | of injury or death    |     build structures with wood   |
| r        |                       |     frames instead of concrete   |
| ainfall, | Cause environmental   |     or brick (P&D)               |
| ear      | damage and/or         |                                  |
| thquakes | contaminate water     | -   Maintain protective design   |
|          | supplies via          |     features (e.g., drainage     |
|          | accidental release of |     structures and vegetation on |
|          | toxic, infectious or  |     slopes). (O&M)               |
|          | otherwise harmful     |                                  |
|          | material              | -   Use material appropriate to  |
|          |                       |     the climate (e. g., stucco   |
|          |                       |     instead of adobe in areas    |
|          |                       |     with heavy rainfall) (P&D)   |
|          |                       |     (C)                          |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Design storage area so that  |
|          |                       |     hazardous materials are      |
|          |                       |     above the ground and/or in   |
|          |                       |     waterproof containers.       |
|          |                       |     Ensure that facility         |
|          |                       |     operators follow these       |
|          |                       |     practices (P&D)(O&M)         |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Chose dry sanitation options |
|          |                       |     or closed disposal systems,  |
|          |                       |     instead of wet ones such as  |
|          |                       |     septic tanks or detention    |
|          |                       |     ponds (P&D)                  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Facility | Deplete ground and/or | -   Determine safe and           |
| is or    | surface water         |     sustainable yield. Establish |
| will     | resources and damage  |     system for regulating use    |
| include  | local ecosystems or   |     (P&D) (O&M)                  |
| a water  | dow                   |                                  |
| supply   | nstream/down-gradient | -   Test seasonal water quality  |
| imp      | communities           |     and examine historical water |
| rovement |                       |     quality and quantity data    |
|          | Poison users with     |     before building facility     |
| (Also    | natural or man-made   |     (SS) (P&D)                   |
| consult  | chemical contaminants |                                  |
| "Water   | such as arsenic       | -   Incorporate siting, design   |
| Supply   |                       |     and operation and            |
| and      | Spread disease with   |     maintenance practices that   |
| San      | pathogenic            |     minimize environmental       |
| itation" | contaminants          |     impacts as described in      |
| section  |                       |     "Water Supply and            |
| of the   | Cause groundwater     |     Sanitation" secction of      |
| Gui      | contamination         |     these *Guidelines* (e.g.,    |
| delines) |                       |     community participation,     |
|          |                       |     fee-for-service pricing,     |
|          |                       |     preventing livestock grazing |
|          |                       |     near water supply, etc.)     |
|          |                       |     (SS) (P&D) (C) (O&M)         |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Facility | Discharge untreated   | -   Do not site in wetland or    |
| is or    | or insufficiently     |     next to stream, river, lake  |
| will     | treated sewage that:  |     or well (SS)                 |
| include  |                       |                                  |
| a        | -   Contaminates      | -   Do not site up-gradient from |
| sa       |     drinking water    |     potable water sources such   |
| nitation |     (ground and       |     as wells, if possible (SS)   |
| imp      |     surface)          |                                  |
| rovement |                       | -   Do not site where water      |
|          | -   Spreads diseases  |     table is high or underlying  |
| (Also    |                       |     geology makes contamination  |
| consult  | -   Degrades aquatic  |     of groundwater likely.       |
| "Water   |     ecosystems        |     Alternately, choose dry      |
| Supply   |                       |     sanitation options or closed |
| and      |                       |     disposal systems, instead of |
| San      |                       |     wet ones such as septic      |
| itation" |                       |     tanks or detention ponds     |
| section  |                       |     (SS) (P&D)                   |
| of the   |                       |                                  |
| *Guid    |                       | -   Incorporate design features, |
| elines*) |                       |     education/social marketing   |
|          |                       |     programs, construction and   |
|          |                       |     operation and maintenance    |
|          |                       |     practices described in the   |
|          |                       |     "Water Supply and            |
|          |                       |     Sanitation" section of these |
|          |                       |     *Guidelines* and resources   |
|          |                       |     listed there; e.g. community |
|          |                       |     participation, sanitation    |
|          |                       |     promotion focusing on women  |
|          |                       |     and children, use of         |
|          |                       |     appropriate natural          |
|          |                       |     treatment systems, etc. (SS) |
|          |                       |     (P&D) (C) (O&M)              |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Facility | Spread disease via    | -   Do not site in wetland or    |
| will     | failure to (1)        |     next to stream, river, lake  |
| provide  | sterilize infectious  |     or well (SS)                 |
| he       | waste and/or (2)      |                                  |
| althcare | prevent access to     | -   Incorporate design features  |
| services | waste by waste        |     and O&M procedures,          |
|          | pickers or disease    |     described in the "Healthcare |
| (Also    | vectors               |     waste: Generation, Handling, |
| consult  |                       |     Treatment and Disposal"      |
| the      | Expose local          |     section of the *Guidelines*, |
| "He      | community to health   |     including, but not limited   |
| althcare | risks via unsafe      |     to, hand-washing facilities, |
| Waste:   | disposal of toxic,    |     waste storage rooms,         |
| Gen      | carcinogenic and      |     incinerators (if rural),     |
| eration, | teratogenic[^2]       |     spaces for encapsulation,    |
| H        | materials             |     and a plastic/clay-lined pit |
| andling, |                       |     for safe burial (SS)         |
| T        | Contaminate water     |     (P&D) (C) (O&M). Among the   |
| reatment | supplies (ground      |     most important guidelines    |
| and      | and/or surface) via   |     from this section:           |
| D        | improper land         |                                  |
| isposal" | disposal. (May also   | ```{=html}                       |
| section  | damage local          | <!-- -->                         |
| of the   | ecosystems, animals   | ```                              |
| *Guid    | or plants.)           | -   If waste will be buried on   |
| elines*) |                       |     site, avoid wherever         |
|          |                       |     possible siting the burial   |
|          |                       |     pit up-gradient from a       |
|          |                       |     drinking water source such   |
|          |                       |     as a well. Pit must be lined |
|          |                       |     with impermeable material    |
|          |                       |     such as clay or polyethylene |
|          |                       |     (SS) (P&D) (C)               |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   If waste will be buried on   |
|          |                       |     site, avoid wherever         |
|          |                       |     possible sites where water   |
|          |                       |     table is high or underlying  |
|          |                       |     geology makes contamination  |
|          |                       |     of groundwater likely. If no |
|          |                       |     alternative site is          |
|          |                       |     available, ensure that pit   |
|          |                       |     is lined with impermeable    |
|          |                       |     material such as clay or     |
|          |                       |     polyethylene (SS) (P&D) (C)  |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Provide for safe disposal of |
|          |                       |     graywater from bathing and   |
|          |                       |     washing of bedding, etc.     |
|          |                       |     (P&D; O&M)                   |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Ensure that the system of    |
|          |                       |     human waste disposal         |
|          |                       |     provided minimizes health    |
|          |                       |     risks (P&D; O&M)             |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Ensure that water is         |
|          |                       |     provided to the facility in  |
|          |                       |     a manner that minimizes risk |
|          |                       |     of contamination for         |
|          |                       |     patients and nearby          |
|          |                       |     communities (P&D; O&M)       |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Facility | Spread disease        | -   Include space and features   |
| will     |                       |     for source separation of     |
| generate | Contaminate drinking  |     recyclables and organic      |
| solid    | water (ground and     |     waste. Consider including    |
| waste    | surface)              |     space and/or constructing a  |
|          |                       |     compost bin or worm box if   |
| (Also    | Degrade aquatic       |     facility will produce        |
| consult  | ecosystems            |     organic waste (P&D) (C)      |
| the      |                       |     (O&M)                        |
| "Ma      | Generate greenhouse   |                                  |
| nagement | gases                 |                                  |
| of Solid |                       |                                  |
| Waste    |                       |                                  |
| from     |                       |                                  |
| Resi     |                       |                                  |
| dential, |                       |                                  |
| Co       |                       |                                  |
| mmercial |                       |                                  |
| and      |                       |                                  |
| In       |                       |                                  |
| dustrial |                       |                                  |
| Fac      |                       |                                  |
| ilities" |                       |                                  |
| section  |                       |                                  |
| of the   |                       |                                  |
| *Guid    |                       |                                  |
| elines*) |                       |                                  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Facility | Expose workers or     | -   Do not site near wetlands or |
| will     | local population to   |     bodies of water (SS)         |
| house    | toxic, carcinogenic   |                                  |
| aut      | and teratogenic       | -   Design with proper storage,  |
| omotive, | materials such as     |     handling and treatment       |
| la       | heavy metals, oil,    |     facilities (SS) (P&D) (C)    |
| boratory | lubricants,           |     (O&M)                        |
| or other | batteries, dyes,      |                                  |
| in       | glue, solvents,       |                                  |
| dustrial | acids, etc.           |                                  |
| ac       |                       |                                  |
| tivities | Contaminate drinking  |                                  |
|          | water (ground and     |                                  |
| (Also    | surface)              |                                  |
| consult  |                       |                                  |
| the      | Damage local          |                                  |
| "Ac      | ecosystems, animals   |                                  |
| tivities | or plants             |                                  |
| with     |                       |                                  |
| Micro    |                       |                                  |
| and      |                       |                                  |
| Small    |                       |                                  |
| Ent      |                       |                                  |
| erprises |                       |                                  |
| (MSEs)"  |                       |                                  |
| section  |                       |                                  |
| of the   |                       |                                  |
|          |                       |                                  |
| *Guid    |                       |                                  |
| elines*) |                       |                                  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Facility | Expose workers or     | -   Incorporate cleaner          |
| will     | local population to   |     production technologies into |
| generate | toxic, carcinogenic   |     design, operation and        |
| cooling  | and teratogenic       |     maintenance as described in  |
| waters,  | materials             |     the "Activities with Micro   |
| soaking  |                       |     and Small Enterprises        |
| waters,  | Contaminate drinking  |     (MSEs)" section of these     |
| or water | water (ground and     |     *Guidelines* and resources   |
| co       | surface)              |     listed there (SS) (P&D) (C)  |
| ntaining |                       |     (O&M)                        |
| s        | Damage local          |                                  |
| uspended | ecosystems, animals   | -   Design with elements for     |
| organic  | or plants             |     storage, treatment and       |
| mater,   |                       |     discharge of wastewater      |
| mercury, |                       |     (P&D) (O&M)                  |
| lead,    |                       |                                  |
| soaps,   |                       |                                  |
| etc.     |                       |                                  |
|          |                       |                                  |
| (Also    |                       |                                  |
| consult  |                       |                                  |
| the      |                       |                                  |
| "Ac      |                       |                                  |
| tivities |                       |                                  |
| with     |                       |                                  |
| Micro    |                       |                                  |
| and      |                       |                                  |
| Small    |                       |                                  |
| Ent      |                       |                                  |
| erprises |                       |                                  |
| (MSEs)"  |                       |                                  |
| section  |                       |                                  |
| of the   |                       |                                  |
| *Guid    |                       |                                  |
| elines*) |                       |                                  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Indirect | Damage or destroy     | -   Research indirect effects    |
| effects  | natural resources     |     that may be associated with  |
| on local |                       |     the particular type of       |
| pop      | Increase in-migration |     facility being built and     |
| ulations |                       |     evaluate other possible      |
|          | Damage local social   |     impacts of this type. If the |
|          | and cultural          |     project falls into one of    |
|          | integrity             |     the sectors covered in the   |
|          |                       |     *Guidelines*, the relevant   |
|          | Facilitate spread of  |     sector briefing and the      |
|          | disease to both       |     resources listed therein are |
|          | people and animals    |     starting points for this     |
|          |                       |     research (SS) (P&D) (C)      |
|          |                       |     (O&M)                        |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Cu       | Cause excessive       | -   Develop logging, quarrying   |
| mulative | extraction of         |     and borrowing plans that     |
| effects  | building materials,   |     take into account cumulative |
| of one   | multiply impacts      |     effects and include          |
| dev      | associated with       |     reclamation plans (P&D)      |
| elopment | logging undegraded    |                                  |
| project  | forest, quarrying and | -   Monitor adherence to plans   |
| over     | obtaining sand,       |     and impacts of extraction    |
| time or  | gravel and fill       |     practices. Modify as         |
| many     | ("borrowing"). (see   |     necessary (C) (O&M)          |
| small    | below for more        |                                  |
| deve     | detail)               |                                  |
| lopments |                       |                                  |
| built    |                       |                                  |
| within a |                       |                                  |
| short    |                       |                                  |
| time     |                       |                                  |
| period   |                       |                                  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+

+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Issue or | Impact                | Mitigation                       |
| aspect   |                       |                                  |
| of       | *The activity may. .  | *Note: Mitigations apply to      |
| activity | .*                    | specified project phase: Site    |
|          |                       | Selection (SS); Planning and     |
|          |                       | Design (P&D), Construction (C),* |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | *or Operation and Maintenance    |
|          |                       | (O&M)*                           |
+==========+=======================+==================================+
| **Constr |                       |                                  |
| uction** |                       |                                  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Cons     | Damage local habitat, | -   Explore off-site             |
| truction | compact soil and      |     accommodation for crew (P&D) |
| crews    | create erosion via    |     (C)                          |
| and      | building and          |                                  |
| camps    | occupation of         | -   Keep camp size to a minimum. |
|          | construction camps    |     Require that crew preserve   |
|          |                       |     as much vegetation as        |
|          | Contaminate surface   |     possible, e.g., by creating  |
|          | water and spread      |     defined footpaths (P&D) (C)  |
|          | disease via solid     |                                  |
|          | waste and feces       | -   Provide temporary sanitation |
|          | generated by camps    |     on site, e.g., pit latrine   |
|          |                       |     (assuming the water table is |
|          | Spread communicable   |     low enough, with soil and    |
|          | diseases including    |     geology of appropriate       |
|          | malaria,              |     composition) (P&D) (C)       |
|          | tuberculosis, and     |                                  |
|          | HIV/AIDS via          | -   Use local or regional labor, |
|          | construction crews    |     if possible. Screen          |
|          | who come from outside |     potential crew members for   |
|          | the region            |     HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis.   |
|          |                       |     Provide education and strict |
|          | Introduce alcohol or  |     guidelines regarding contact |
|          | other socially        |     with local residents, and    |
|          | destructive           |     enforce guidelines (P&D) (C) |
|          | substances via        |                                  |
|          | construction crews    | -   Set guidelines prohibiting   |
|          |                       |     poaching and collection of   |
|          | Deplete local fauna   |     plants/wood with meaningful  |
|          | and flora (especially |     consequences for violation   |
|          | game and fuelwood)    |     such as termination of       |
|          | via poaching and      |     employment. Provide adequate |
|          | collection by         |     quantities of food and       |
|          | construction crews    |     cooking fuel; both should be |
|          |                       |     of good quality (C)          |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Use of   | Cause erosion due to  | -   Minimize use of heavy        |
| heavy    | machinery tracks,     |     machinery (P&D) (C)          |
| e        | damage to roads,      |                                  |
| quipment | stream banks, etc     | ```{=html}                       |
|          |                       | <!-- -->                         |
|          | Compact soil,         | ```                              |
|          | changing surface and  | -   Set protocols for vehicle    |
|          | groundwater flows and |     maintenance such as          |
|          | damaging future use   |     requiring that repairs and   |
|          | for agriculture       |     fueling occur elsewhere or   |
|          |                       |     over impervious surface such |
|          | Contaminate ground or |     as plastic sheeting. Prevent |
|          | surface water when    |     dumping of hazardous         |
|          | machinery repairs     |     materials. Burn waste        |
|          | result in spills or   |     materials that are not       |
|          | dumping of hydraulic  |     reusable/readily recyclable, |
|          | oil, motor oil or     |     do not contain heavy metals  |
|          | other harmful         |     and are flammable (P&D) (C)  |
|          | mechanical fluids.    |                                  |
|          |                       |     -                            |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Use of   | Contaminate ground or | -   Prevent dumping of hazardous |
| h        | surface water when    |     materials. Burn waste        |
| azardous | hazardous             |     materials that are not       |
| m        | construction          |     reusable/readily recyclable, |
| aterials | materials are spilled |     do not contain heavy metals  |
|          | or dumped             |     and are flammable (P&D) (C)  |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          | Put workers at risk   |     -   Investigate and use less |
|          | from exposure to      |         toxic alternative        |
|          | hazardous materials   |         products (P&D) (C)       |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| De       | Bother or endanger    | -   Recover all reusable         |
| molition | neighbors via noise,  |     material (this may be        |
| of       | dust, and debris from |     standard practice in many    |
| existing | demolition            |     developing countries) (P&D)  |
| st       |                       |     (C)                          |
| ructures | Contaminate soil,     |                                  |
|          | groundwater or        | -   Determine whether toxic      |
|          | surface water from    |     materials are present. If    |
|          | demolition waste      |     possible, dispose of waste   |
|          | containing residual   |     in lined landfill.           |
|          | amounts of toxic      |     Otherwise, explore options   |
|          | materials (e.g.,      |     for reuse in areas where     |
|          | leaded paint)         |     potential for contamination  |
|          |                       |     of surface and groundwater   |
|          |                       |     are small (e.g., consider    |
|          |                       |     the feasibility of use as    |
|          |                       |     roadbed material, if         |
|          |                       |     non-hazardous.). (See the    |
|          |                       |     "Management of Solid Waste   |
|          |                       |     from Residential, Commercial |
|          |                       |     and Industrial Facilities"   |
|          |                       |     section of the Guidelines    |
|          |                       |     and references listed there  |
|          |                       |     for a more information)      |
|          |                       |     (P&D) (C)                    |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Site     | Damage or destroy     | -   Design infrastructure so     |
| clearing | sensitive terrestrial |     that it will create least    |
| and/or   | ecosystems in the     |     impact (P&D)                 |
| leveling | course of site        |                                  |
|          | clearing/preparation  | -   Minimize disturbance of      |
|          |                       |     native flora during          |
|          | Produce areas of bare |     construction (P&D) (C)       |
|          | soil which cause      |                                  |
|          | erosion, siltation,   | -   Remove, without destroying,  |
|          | changes in natural    |     large plants and ground      |
|          | water flow, and/or    |     cover where possible (P&D)   |
|          | damage to aquatic     |     (C)                          |
|          | ecosystems            |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Use erosion control measures |
|          |                       |     such as hay bales (C)        |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Replant recovered plants and |
|          |                       |     local flora as soon as       |
|          |                       |     possible (C)                 |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Ex       | Cause erosion,        | Cover pile with plastic          |
| cavation | siltation, changes in | sheeting, prevent runoff with    |
|          | natural water flow,   | hay bales, or similar measures   |
|          | and/or damage to      | (P&D) (C)                        |
|          | aquatic ecosystems    |                                  |
|          | when excavated soil   | -   Place fence around           |
|          | is piled              |     excavation (P&D) (C)         |
|          | inappropriately       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Investigate alternatives     |
|          | Expose inhabitants    |     allowing shallower or no     |
|          | and crew to risk of   |     excavation (P&D)             |
|          | falls and injuries in |                                  |
|          | excavation pits       |                                  |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          | Deprive down-gradient |                                  |
|          | populations and       |                                  |
|          | ecosystems of water   |                                  |
|          | if higher regions of  |                                  |
|          | aquifer are blocked   |                                  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Filling  | Block water courses   | -   Do not fill the flow-line of |
|          | when fill is          |     a watershed                  |
|          | inappropriately       |                                  |
|          | placed                | -   Be aware that in arid areas, |
|          |                       |     occasional rains may create  |
|          | Destroy valuable      |     strong water flows in        |
|          | ecosystems when fill  |     channels. A culvert may not  |
|          | is inappropriately    |     supply adequate capacity for |
|          | placed                |     rare high volume events such |
|          |                       |     as flash floods. (SS) (P&D)  |
|          | Result in land        |                                  |
|          | subsidence or         | -   Design so that filling will  |
|          | landslides later if   |     not be necessary. Transplant |
|          | fill is               |     as much vegetation and       |
|          | inappropriately       |     groundcover as possible (SS) |
|          | placed, causing       |     (P&D) (C)                    |
|          | injuries or damage    |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Use good engineering         |
|          |                       |     practices (e.g., do not use  |
|          |                       |     soil alone. First lay a bed  |
|          |                       |     of rock and gravel) (P&D)    |
|          |                       |     (C)                          |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Road     | Erosion and changes   | -   Find alternative site.       |
| improve  | to water quality and  |     Evaluate whether an          |
| ment/new | natural water flows   |     alternative mode of          |
| road     | via poor road         |     transport would suffice      |
| cons     | construction          |     (e.g., rail, water, or       |
| truction | practices and         |     footpath ). (SS) (P&D)       |
|          | maintenance           |                                  |
| (Consult |                       | -   Adhere to specifications for |
| the      | Provide access for    |     road design and maintenance  |
| "Rural   | clearing agricultural |     that keep water off road     |
| Roads"   | land, logging,        |     surfaces (P&D) (C) (O&M)     |
| section  | poaching, mining,     |                                  |
| of the   | settlement or other   | -   Follow best practices for    |
| *Gui     | development that      |     design, construction, and    |
| delines* | destroys natural      |     operation and maintenance    |
| and      | resources and/or      |     described in the "Rural      |
| r        | harms local           |     Roads" section of the        |
| esources | populations           |     Guidelines and resources     |
| listed   |                       |     listed there. These include  |
| there)   | Lead to the spread of |     practices such as developing |
|          | human or livestock    |     quarry and borrow pit plans, |
|          | disease               |     following the contour line,  |
|          |                       |     using camber and turnout     |
|          |                       |     drains, training operations  |
|          |                       |     and maintenance personnel,   |
|          |                       |     etc. (SS)(P&D) (C) (O&M)     |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Source   | Damage aquatic        | -   Identify the most            |
| of       | ecosystems through    |     environmentally sound source |
| building | erosion and siltation |     of materials within budget   |
| m        |                       |     (P&D)                        |
| aterials | Harm terrestrial      |                                  |
|          | ecosystems via        | -   Develop logging, quarrying   |
|          | harvesting of timber  |     and borrowing plans that     |
|          | or other natural      |     take into account cumulative |
|          | products              |     effects (P&D)                |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          | Spread vector-borne   | -   Monitor adherence to plans   |
|          | diseases when         |     and impacts of extraction    |
|          | stagnant water        |     practices. Modify as         |
|          | accumulates in active |     necessary (C) (O&M)          |
|          | or abandoned quarries |                                  |
|          | or borrow pits and    | -   Fill in quarries and pits    |
|          | breeds insect vectors |     before abandoning (C)        |
|          |                       |                                  |
|          |                       | -   Control runoff into pit (C)  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| > **D    |                       |                                  |
| ecommiss |                       |                                  |
| ioning** |                       |                                  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| H        | Buildings with        | -   Remove or bury all abandoned |
| azardous | collapsing roofs and  |     construction materials and   |
| a        | walls, open latrines  |     rubble                       |
| bandoned | or septic systems,    |                                  |
| st       | accumulation of       | ```{=html}                       |
| ructures | rubble                | <!-- -->                         |
|          |                       | ```                              |
|          |                       | -   Fill in and close all        |
|          |                       |     latrines and septic systems  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+
| Eroded   | Gulleying and         | -   Restore the site through     |
| soils in | siltation. Damage to  |     replanting, reseeding and    |
| the      | aesthetics            |     use of soil erosion control  |
| vicinity |                       |     measures (hay bales, etc.)   |
| of       |                       |                                  |
| a        |                       |                                  |
| bandoned |                       |                                  |
| infras   |                       |                                  |
| tructure |                       |                                  |
+----------+-----------------------+----------------------------------+

Resources and References

CIDA "Checklist #2 / Building Construction" (1997). *Handbook on
Environmental Assessment of Non-Governmental Organizations and
Institutions: Programs and Practices.* Canadian International
Development Agency. <http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/search-e.htm>

[^1]: Incorporates material from "Checklist #2 / Building Construction"
    (1997), *Handbook on Environmental Assessment of Non-Governmental
    Organizations and Institutions Programs and Practices,* Canadian
    International Development Agency.

[^2]: Teratogenic means causing birth defects.