# Session No. 7

**Course Title: Disaster Response Operations and Management**

**Session Title: Response Myths, Exaggerations and Realities**

## Time: 50 minutes

**Objectives:**

7.1 Understand common misperceptions about human behavior during the
disaster response phase of emergency management.

7.2 Dispel myths and exaggerations about human responses to disaster and
identify typical behavioral patterns in crisis situations.

**Scope:**

During this session the professor discusses the widely-held, but often
exaggerated views about human behavior in disasters (e.g. panic,
looting, anti-social behavior, etc.). The professor then reviews the
academic research provided by disaster sociologists that dispels these
myths and exaggerations. Finally, actual behavioral patterns are
identified to illustrate that altruistic and rational activities are
more typical in disasters than the common perception would have us
believe.

**Session Requirements:**

1.  Instructor Reading:

> Drabek, Thomas E. 1986. *Human System Responses to Disaster: An
> Inventory of Sociological Findings*. Springer-Verlag: New York.
>
> Fischer, Henry W. III. 1998. *Response to Disaster: Fact Versus
> Fiction and Its Perpetuation*. Lanham, MD: University Press of
> America, Inc.
>
> Fritz, Charles E. and J.H. Eli S. Marks. 1954. "The NORC Studies of
> Human Behavior in Disaster." *The Journal of Social Issues* 10: 26-41.
>
> McEntire, David A. 2006. "Anticipating Human Behavior." *Disaster
> Response and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for Resilience*. New
> York: Wiley.
>
> Quarantelli, E.L. 1996. "Emergent Behaviors and Groups in the Crisis
> Time of Disasters." Pp. 47-68. In *Individuality and Social Control:
> Essays in Honor of Tamotsu Shibutani*, edited by Kian M. Kwan. JAI
> Press: Greenwich, CT.
>
> Quaranteli, E.L. and Russell R. Dynes. 1972. "When Disaster Strikes it
> Isn't Much Like What You've Read About." *Psychology Today*
> (February): 67-70.
>
> Russell, Gordon W. and Robert K. Mentzel. 1990. "Sympathy and Altruism
> in Response to Disasters*." Journal of Social Psychology* 130:
> 309-316.
>
> Stephens, Hugh W. 1997. *The Texas City Disaster, 1947*. Austin:
> University of Texas Press.

2.  Student Reading:

> McEntire, David A. 2006. "Anticipating Human Behavior." *Disaster
> Response and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for Resilience*. New
> York: Wiley.
>
> Wenger, Dennis E., James D. Dykes, Thomas D. Sebok and Joan L. Neff.
> 1975. "It's a Matter of Myths: An Empirical Examination of Individual
> Insight into Disaster Response." *Mass Emergencies* 1:33-46.

3\. Videos:

Asteroid, Dante's Peak, The Day After, Deep Impact, Outbreak, Titanic,
Twister, Volcano.

4\. Handout:

Disaster Behavior (Myths, Exaggerations and Realities)

**Remarks:**

1\. The professor may want to start the lecture by asking students their
thoughts about how people react to and behave in disasters.

2\. Video clips from various popular disaster movies may help to draw
out the common misperceptions about responses to disaster.

3\. Referring to current disaster events and their portrayal by the
media may help students better understand the prevalence of disaster
myths and exaggerations. Hurricane Katrina, for example, provides an
excellent case to study human behavior. It tends to contradict some of
the findings in the academic literature and support others.

4\. The professor should emphasize the importance of sociological
research on disasters and pay special attention to academic findings.

5\. A guest lecture (with actual disaster response experience) may be
utilized to reiterate how people behave in times of crisis and disaster.
This may include a fire fighter or EMT to discuss pro-social activity. A
police officer or special agent from the Office of the Inspector General
may also provide valuable information about looting and criminal
activity in disasters.

6\. The professor may wish to spend more time on this session by
accessing material from Drabek, Thomas E. 1996. *The Social Dimensions
of Disaster*, Higher Education Instructor Guide. Federal Emergency
Management Agency, Emergency Management Institute. Sessions 6, 7, 16,
28, and 29 from the *Social Dimensions of Disaster* would be helpful for
this class session.

**Objective 7.1 Understand common misperceptions about human behavior
during the disaster response phase of emergency management.**

**Requirements:**

Present the following information as a lecture.

I. The public (including political leaders and even some emergency
managers) often hold **incorrect views about public behavior** in
disaster situations. Among others, **common myths and
exaggerations**[^1] **include**:

-   **irrational behavior**

-   **anti-social behavior**

-   **unreliable emergency workers**

-   **helpless state of disaster victims**.

II\. One of the most widely held exaggerations is that **people act
irrationally** in disaster situations.

> A. In particular, it is believed that **people affected by
> disasters**, whether it be a fire, earthquake or other hazard,
> **will** **panic** (Quarantelli and Dynes 1972).
>
> 1\. The belief is that **people will not know what to do**,
>
> 2\. or they may will **run frantically** from buildings or the
> disaster scene.

B. Another common conceptualization is **masses of people evacuating**
in cars, buses, boats, helicopters or other forms of transportation.

III\. A second major exaggeration is in regards to **anti-social
behavior** (Quarantelli 1986). This includes at least **two aspects**.

> A. First, people assume that **everyone loots after disaster**.

-   Because doors and windows are broken, people will automatically
    **enter businesses and homes to steal food, electronic equipment and
    other goods**.

IV\. Second, other types of **deviant behavior**, including **violence**
or **price gouging**, are viewed as predominant behavioral patterns in
the aftermath of disaster.

> A. People **resort to violence to protect their interests**
>
> 1\. **Drawing a gun to guard** their business, home and property from
> looters.
>
> B. Most people **take advantage of disaster victims** to make money
>
> 1\. **Stores sell ice at inflated costs** as people need to store food
> due to the loss of power.
>
> 2\. **Building suppliers raise** **the price of plywood** as scores of
> people need to board up windows before or after the hurricane.

V. An additional exaggeration is that **emergency workers are
unreliable** in the aftermath of disaster (Wenger et. al. 1975).

> A. It is believed that **police officers, fire fighters and responding
> medical technicians will not fulfill their roles**; they will leave
> their post when disaster strikes in order to take care of personal or
> family needs.
>
> B. Emergency workers may be **scared because of the danger** inherent
> in responding to flooding, building collapses or hazardous chemical
> releases.
>
> C. Others may **quit their jobs** in order to obtain peace of mind,
> **check on the status of their families** or take care of the needs of
> parents, siblings, spouses and children.

VI\. People often have wrong or incomplete **views about disaster
victims** (Quarantelli and Dynes 1972).

> A. Some think that victims will always be **in a state of shock** and
> disbelief after disaster, which renders them **unable to think or take
> care of themselves**.
>
> B. Therefore, it is often assumed that **political leaders, emergency
> workers or relief agencies are required to help the victims**.
>
> C. Furthermore, it is often believed that **a large number of disaster
> victims will require and use shelter**. There is no place for victims
> to find refuge.

VII\. There are other exaggerations about **other disaster behavior**
**and issues** as well.

> A. For instance, it is frequently assumed that the **media provides an
> accurate portrayal of the disaster** including statistics regarding
> the number of dead or injured.
>
> B. People also believe that a massive amount of **aid** (e.g. food,
> clothing, and other supplies) **is always needed** by the disaster
> victims.
>
> C. Consequently, people feel they **must** **send in-kind donations**
> to the site of disaster.
>
> D. A final myth is that **martial law must be imposed** to respond to
> the disaster and bring order to society.

-   Hence, the **military and** **National Guard must be mobilized and
    utilized** to meet disaster needs and maintain social stability.

VII\. To summarize, **irrational behavior, anti-social behavior,
unreliable emergency workers, the helpless state of disaster victims and
other exaggerations are commonly held views** about peoples' behavior in
disaster.

**Objective 7.2 Dispel exaggerations about human responses to disaster
and identify typical behavioral patterns in crisis situations**.

**Requirements:**

Present the following as a lecture:

I. The research literature on disasters indicates that the **myths**
listed above **are** **incorrect and really exaggerations**.

A. During and after disasters, **people act rationally and are
altruistic**.

B. **Workers do not neglect their duties** and **victims can do much to
take care of themselves**.

C. Other common **perceptions about the media, the need for disaster
relief and martial law are also incorrect**.

II\. Instead of acting irrationally in disasters, **people are actually
very rational** (Quarantelli 1986, 4).

A. People typically **respond with logical and calm behavior**.

-   They often **know what to do** to care for themselves and others,
    and they respond accordingly.

B. The only time they participate in "**flight behavior**" is when a
**threat requires immediate action** (e.g., **running out of a burning
building**).

-   This, of course, is **not panic per se (although it is commonly
    viewed this way), but rational behavior** to save one's life.

C. What is more, the belief about **mass evacuation is often incorrect**
(Quarantelli and Dynes 1972).

> 1\. It is true that **people do in fact leave** an area when requested
> to do so (e.g. those leaving the coast when a hurricane is
> approaching).
>
> 2\. However, it is also likely that **many people will not evacuate**.
>
> a\. Instead, these people will **ignore warnings, risks, and requests
> for evacuation**.

b.  These are often the people that **require rescue** (e.g. by boat or
    helicopter during flooding incidents).

c.  **Hurricane Katrina** illustrated these points clearly. About
    **100,000 people failed to leave New Orleans**, and many of these
    **individuals had to be rescued by the National Guard and the Coast
    Guard**.

III\. If there is **looting** or **anti-social behavior** during
disaster, it is typically exhibited only among a **very small minority
of the population**.

A. In fact, studies reveal that **deviant behavior actually declines**
in times of disaster. Nonetheless,

> 1\. There are newspaper reports of a few individuals who have **had
> their property stolen**.

-   At least 66 people **illegally withdrew fifteen million dollars**
    from the Municipal Credit Union in New York City when a **computer
    failed** due to the collapse of the World Trade Center (Saulny
    2002).

-   There was a **notable degree of looting in New Orleans** after
    Hurricane Katrina. Some **people did need food and water** to
    sustain life, but **others ran off with TVs and other electronic
    equipment**.

> 2\. People may also be taken advantage of by **vendors** or
> **contractors** who get paid in advance, but are **misleading in their
> advertisements** or **fail to make the necessary repairs**.

-   A scam promoted by one corporation promised **consumers** **would be
    reimbursed by FEMA** if they purchased air conditioners and
    purifiers. Advertisements such as flyers and websites implied that
    **everyone would be eligible** for this special offer and **did not
    mention the unique requirements for each grant** (FEMA 2002).

B. The **vast majority** of people illustrate **pro-social behavior**.

> 1\. They **work together to solve mutual problems** or respond to
> individual and collective needs

-   co-workers help one another evacuate if the building is on fire.

> 2\. Taking this into account, Quarantelli (1986; 5) observes: "**if
> disasters unleash anything it is not the criminal in us, but the
> altruistic.**"

IV\. The assertion that **emergency workers** **will fail to report**
**to work** or will neglect their responsibilities is often
**ludicrous**.

A. Police, fire fighters and medical personnel **often go to work or
volunteer** in times of disaster even when they have **not been asked to
report for duty**.

-   In fact, there are often **too many emergency personnel responding**
    to the disaster (Drabek 1986).

B. Emergency workers **recognize the dangers** inherent in their work,
but they **do it anyway**.

-   For instance, **fire fighters enter burning buildings** (in spite of
    the heat and dangerous fumes) to extinguish it and rescue those that
    are trapped.

-   Some **police officers did leave their duties** unattended after
    Hurricane Katrina however. They **stopped patrolling the streets**
    during the flooding and **some even** **participated in criminal
    behavior** such as looting. This is probably more the exception than
    the rule however.

C. Furthermore, **emergency workers typically do not stop working** to
take care of their own personal or family needs.

-   In contrast, workers actually **work too long and often burn
    themselves out** responding to the disaster.

V. Although **some victims may be dazed, stunned, overwhelmed or
otherwise incapacitated** due to the nature of the disaster, the
predominant proportion are **not helpless**.

A. Those affected by disaster **take care of themselves and others**
(Stephens 1997).

> 1\. As an example, some may **fight fires with extinguishers or garden
> hoses** until fire fighters arrive.
>
> 2\. Others may **provide basic first aid** to the wounded.

B. In many cases, **victims are very creative** in how that respond to
the demands made evident by the emergency or disaster

-   people trapped in collapsed buildings **eat gum** to stay alive and
    **tap debris** (with fingers, hands, rocks or other debris) to help
    emergency workers locate them.

C. In spite of the fact that many responding organizations set up and
operate **shelters** after disaster, **most victims will not use them**.

> 1\. They tend to **stay in hotels or visit friends and relatives**
> (Quarantelli 1995).
>
> 2\. The **expected** **number** of people needing shelters is often
> **over-estimated**.

VI\. There are many other **exaggerations** and these have been
**discredited** to some extent by disaster research.

A. At least initially, the **reports** by the media are likely to be
**inaccurate, incomplete and even misleading** (Scanlon 1985).

> 1\. For instance, the **number of deaths reported** by the media is
> **blown out of proportion**

-   e.g., reported vs. actual deaths at the terrorist attack on the
    **World Trade Center**.

-   The number of **deaths after Hurricane Katrina was also
    substantially lower** than predicted.

B. Although some specific types of disaster assistance may be needed,
**relief is sometimes unwarranted**.

> 1\. **Food, clothing** and other supplies **are available** to victims
> and emergency workers.
>
> 2\. Some **disaster aid** **may even create additional problems** for
> emergency managers and workers (Neal 1994).

C. Finally, major disasters do sometimes require the **services of the
National Guard and armed forces**.

> 1\. **Reservists and active-duty personnel may be requested** by the
> governor or president to keep people away from dangerous areas or
> clean up debris.
>
> 2\. However, **martial law has never been imposed** upon any disaster
> affected community in the United States. Even with the social chaos
> and disturbing behavior **after Hurricane Katrina, marshal law was not
> imposed** (although some force was needed at times to reign in
> criminals with guns).

VII\. In conclusion, the **exaggerations do not always accurately
reflect the reality** **of disaster response**.

A. **People typically act rationally** in disasters and exhibit strong
**pro-social behavior**.

B. **Emergency workers are most often selfless** individuals that
respond to the needs of disaster-affected communities.

C. **Those adversely affected** by emergencies or disasters are
frequently pro-active as they **take care of themselves and others**.

D. **Media reports are not always accurate** and **disaster assistance
is not always needed** at the scene.

E. The **government does not always use the military or become a
police-state** when disaster strikes.

F. The **reality of disaster behavior** is therefore **very different**
than the myths and exaggerations which are so commonly believed.

**Questions to be asked:**

1\. If a disaster were to occur and affect our class, how would people
react?

2\. Is looting in times of disaster as common as the media and Hollywood
would have us believe? Has it occurred in previous disasters?

3\. Is anti-social behavior prevalent of during disaster response
operations?

4\. Do people panic in disasters or act rationally?

5\. What is altruistic behavior and does it occur during disasters?

6\. Do emergency workers leave their posts and neglect their duties?

7\. Why is it important for an emergency manager/worker to understand
actual behavior in disaster?

8\. Why do these exaggerations persist and what can we do to dispel
them?

9\. What does Hurricane Katrina tell us about disaster research and
disaster behavior?

**Disaster Behavior**

[Myths/Exaggerations]{.underline} [Realities]{.underline}

Those involved in disaster act irrationally act rationally

will panic are calm

will evacuate may not evacuate

Community response looting is prevalent looting is infrequent

deviance rises crime goes down

selfishness altruism

Emergency workers will not report to work volunteer for work

will leave post or role stay too long

Victims in shock not dazed or bewildered

helpless are self-sufficient

will need shelter stay with friends/family

Media reports accurate/complete inaccurate/incomplete

Aid/relief always needed not necessarily required

Martial law is necessary has never been imposed

[^1]: The author of this instructor guide prefers to use the term
    exaggeration instead of myth. A myth may imply that something is
    entirely false. However, there are instances of panic (e.g., Rhode
    Island night club), looting, anti-social behavior, and unreliable
    emergency personnel (e.g., Hurricane Katrina).