BEES for ANTS: Space Mission Applications for the Autonomous
NanoTechnology Swarm

P.E. Clark[^1] and M.L. Rilee[^2]

Location: NASA/GSFC, Greenbelt, MD 20771 USA

Affiliation: L3Communications, GSI, 3750 Centerview Drive, Chantilly, VA
20151 USA

S.A. Curtis[^3], W. Truszkowski[^4], G. Marr[^5], C. Cheung[^6]

NASA/GSFC, Greenbelt, MD 20771 USA

and

M. Rudisill[^7]

NASA/LARC, Hampton, VA 23861 USA

The Autonomous NanoTechnology Swarm (ANTS) mission architecture is based
on BEES (biologically inspired engineering for exploration
systems)autonomous, addressable, self-configuring components with a
tetrahedral structural framework which form tethers, struts, or shells
which can be reversibly deployed or stowed from nodes. The architecture
is currently being implemented using ElectroMechanical Systems (EMS) as
Addressable Reconfigurable Technology (ART). The design elements and
issues are being finalized as a working prototype, a tetrahedral walker,
is being built. Near-future ANTS Miniaturized ART (MART) systems using
MEMS systems for the Lunar or Mars surface applications would involve a
payload carrying multi-tetrahedral (12 or more tetrahedral elements)
multi-functional lander/rover. In current simulations, this ANTS craft
indicates a capability for 'flow' across highly fractal surfaces. Future
ANTS NEMS-based or Super Miniaturized Reconfigurable Technology (SMART)
for small body survey applications have been conceptualized. Such
applications of ANTS architecture could be implemented in two decades,
requiring only the anticipated incremental advances in nanotechnology.

# Nomenclature {#nomenclature .unnumbered}

*BEES* = Biologically-inspired Engineering for Exploration Systems

*ANTS* = Autonomous NanoTechnology Swarm Space Architecture

*ART* = Autonomous Reconfigurable Technology (EMS)

*MART* = Miniaturized ART (MEMS)

*SMART* = Super Miniaturized ART (NEMS)

*MEMS* = Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

*NEMS* = Nano Electro Mechanical Systems

*PAM* = ANTS Prospecting Asteroid Mission Concept

*LARA* = ANTS Lander Amorphous Rover Antenna Mission Concept

*SARA* = ANTS Saturn Autonomous Ring Array Mission Concept

*TetWalker* = 1, 4, 12, or many tetrahedra system used as ANTS rover

*Node&Strut*= deployment mechanism for ANTS structures: nodes apices,
struts sides of tetrahedra

# Introduction

THE Autonomous NanoTechnology Swarm (ANTS) is a mission architecture
based on an ant colony analogue, as the name implies. \[See official
ANTS website http://ants.gsfc.nasa.gov.\] Reconfigurable and
transformable both individually and collectively, ANTS structures,
mechanisms, and organization are designed to excel at survival and
achievement of goals as discussed in references 1 and 2. As in living
systems, major keys to success are the capabilities for mobility in a
range of environments, in this case from space to rugged surface, and
for effective gathering and management of energy and information
resources in those environments. These capabilities are achieved by
using autonomous, addressable, self-configuring nodes which form a
reversibly deployable/stowable structural framework. The framework
itself is the skeletal-muscular structure, consisting of tethers,
struts, or shells. Individuals (systems or crafts) have common
frameworks with common subsystems, as well as one of a small number of
special function subsystems, such as a particular instrument, all
deployed from nodes.

As in living systems, modularity, recapitulated at every organizational
level, combined with the high degree of addressability and reversibility
in each module, allow for operation and transformation of the structure
in response to the movement or function required. Essentially, we have a
biomechanical analogue^3,4^.

The simple tetrahedral structures based on ANTS architecture are capable
of reconfiguration and are thus dynamic. This attribute clearly depends
on the capability for reversible deployment of several or more
structural elements from individual nodes. As the number of nodes, and
the number of elements deployed per node, increases, more complex,
continuous behavior emerges to allow major shifts in functionality to
meet environmental demands (space to surface to underground) or human
needs. In addition, a robust response to injury or environmental change
is achievable, as in a biological system, through the built-in
reversible behavior mechanisms at the nodes, allowing adapting to the
injury by 'limping' while stored replacement nodes migrate to damage
site to replace 'broken' components.

Addressable nodes create the capability for both (1) standalone
autonomic operation as called for by environmental feedback within a
subsystem or system, and (2) team collaborative operation requested as a
result of higher level decision making by the CPU-enhanced heuristics
onboard or externally by a human agent. The use of bilevel intelligence
should allow full functioning in both autonomous routine (decentralized)
and heuristic decision based (centralized) behavior. The basis for this
intelligence is described elsewhere^2,5-7^.

In the sections which follow we will describe the ANTS-based conceptual
design and its biological analogues for major components of the
architecture: Tetrahedral Structure (Units and Networks), Structural
Nodes and Struts, and Structural Layer (Surfaces). We will also look at
prototypes and models for examples of simple, transitional, and complex
structures. The range of applications of the ANTS paradigm considered
span the continuum in terms of level of complexity and development
time: 1) near-term mobile platforms for planetary surfaces, Lander
Amorphous Rover Antenna (LARA) in reference 8, 2) future autonomous
flyers for survey of dynamic deep space targets, Prospecting Asteroid
Mission (PAM) in reference 9, and Saturn Autonomous Ring Array (SARA) in
reference 10.

# Tetrahedral Structure

Why use the tetrahedron as the basic structural unit in ANTS
architecture?

The tetrahedron is a polyhedron with properties which make it optimally
suited for stability and space filling \[Fuller, 1975; Edmondson,
1986\]. As illustrated in its comparison with the cube and sphere in
Table 1, it has a minimal structure (the fewest edges and least volume
per surface area) as discussed by Fuller (1975) in reference 11 and
Edmondson (1986) in reference 12. Its triangulated structure gives it
the great mechanical stability of triangles. Just as triangular facets
can be used multiply to express the area of all surfaces, tetrahedra can
be used multiply to express the volume of all 3D systems. Irregular or
beveled edge^11^ tetrahedra, or tetrahedra in combination with
octahedral 'holes'^12^ can be used to fill space. In ANTS space-filling
architecture, the basic structural unit is the irregular tetrahedron.

Due to its distinctive properties, the tetrahedron is ubiquitous in
nature. The utility of the tetrahedron is well demonstrated (e.g., Mason
and Berry, 1968)^15^ by the role of silicate (silicon surrounded by 4
oxygens) as building

blocks for non-organic solid material (rock) (Figure 1). Silicate
tetrahedra occur singly (nesosilicates with Si:O of 1:4), as pairs
sharing one oxygen 'corner' (sorosilicates with Si:O of 2:7), as ring
structures where two oxygens are shared (cyclosilicates with Si:O of
1:3), as single (Si:O of 1:3) or double (Si:O of 4:11) chain structures
where two or more oxygens are shared (inosilicates), as sheets where
three oxygens are shared (phyllosilicates with Si:O of 2:5), and
three-dimensional networks where all oxygens are shared (tektosilicates
with Si:O of 1:2). The greater the sharing of 'corners' to fill space,
the greater the distortion in the Si-O-Si bond angle. In silicates, that
variation is limited to angles between 180 to 90 degrees \[e.g., Mason
and Berry, 1968\]^15^. Cations can thus permanently fill 'spaces'
between the tetrahedra pairs, rings, layers, or networks.

![](media/image1.png){width="2.4783464566929134in"
height="6.341732283464567in"}In complex ANTS structures, tetrahedra are
formed between successive layers of nodes (Figure 2) Edges of
tetrahedra, or struts, are connected in multiples of three at
multi-faceted nodes, varying from 18 to a combination of 12 and 9 facets
in alternate layers. Tetrahedral shapes aren't constrained as in rock
forming materials and can be changed. The design of nodes allows the
angle between sides to range from nearly 180 to nearly 0 degrees, a
feature which provides a dynamic structure, capable of both changing
shape and in fact locomotion.

As the number of the tetrahedra in a structure increase, so does its
inherent complexity and capability for transformation. The sequence of
images in Figure 3 illustrates the well defined steps taken as
identifiable nodes deploy/stow struts within a simple tetrahedral
'walker'. As the number of tetrahedral increases and a more continuous
structure is formed, more complex, continuous behavior of multi-node
systems emerges to achieve the required functionality.

# Nodes and Struts

All ANTS structures consist of interconnected nodes. Struts are deployed
from nodes, which must have the capability of deploying several struts
using an ElectroMechanical mechanism in simple architectures, and many
struts (up to 18) using MEMS or NEMS mechanisms in more complex
structures. In all cases, a major challenge is deploying individual
struts independently over the widest possible range of angles.

Nodes are spherical enclosures in order to maximize volume for a given
size, a solution often used to solve comparable problems in biological
systems as discussed in reference 16. Nodes must be large enough for the
permanent mounting and protection of deployment devices for each strut,
along with required electronics, power and communication systems.
Ideally, all of these are housed in the nodes to optimize weight
distribution for ease of operation.

A variety of biologically inspired^16^ strut deployment mechanisms are
being considered for ANTS architecture. Mechanisms include combinations
of telescoping appendages, angling (pulling or winding) line, constant
force springs (coiling), or compression/extension springs,
opening/closing surfaces, as in living systems. Biological mechanisms
are a good place to look for inspiration in the design of efficient,
robust, configurable mechanisms. The need to develop efficient
mechanisms in nature is driven by the greater energy requirement for
larger mass creatures on one side, and the greater energy per mass (due
to greater surface area and thus heat loss per volume) for smaller mass
creatures on the other.

## Telescoping

![](media/image2.png){width="3.1653543307086616in"
height="3.5818897637795275in"}The telescoping movement, pulling or
pushing apart of overlapping otherwise identical segments of
progressively smaller size, is widely used in nature to perform a
variety of functions, due to the relatively simple design and minimal
energy consumption requirements^14^.

A ubiquitous mechanism among invertebrates, especially insects, is the
telescoping of specialized organs of the lower extremity. Ants
themselves have been observed to respirate through telescoping the
segments of the gaster, rapidly contracting and slowly relaxing lower
abdominal segments to release carbon dioxide^17^. The females of many of
the larger insect species use telescoping ovipositors to deposit eggs
within a plant or animal host^18^ In addition, aquatic insects use
telescoping gills for respiration^19^ Figure 4 illustrates the range of
these biological mechanisms.

![](media/image3.png){width="4.829133858267716in"
height="0.8692913385826772in"}A more complex mechanism, still based on
the telescoping principle applied in more than one dimension, is
employed by vertebrates for movement of external appendages. Striated
muscle fibers (Figure 4) used for external movement consist of a three
dimensional network of interleaving bundles, which increase in the
degree of overlap to decrease the size and length of tissue expanse when
the muscle is contracted and decrease in the degree of overlap to
increase the size and length of tissue expanse when the muscle is
extended. Lengthening of muscle achievable through this telescoping
action varies from typical factors of greater than one to two for
internal muscle, but is greater for external muscles with specialized
function. Salamander and chameleon tongue used in prey capture deploys
to six times greater than its stowed size as discussed in by Deban in
references 20 and 21. In terms of strength, animal muscle is normally
capable of, because designed conservatively to, 'carry its own weight'.

![](media/image4.png){width="4.133858267716535in"
height="0.9173228346456693in"}In our current prototype, we are using
telescoping legs, with a minimum to maximum size ratio of 2.5. Our
requirement is to design a system which will 'carry its own weight' plus
a small payload, which constrains the thickness and weight of materials
used in the struts. Telescoping struts (Figure 5), consisting of either
PCV pipe or COTS thin wall brass tubes, and are in three segments
ranging from just under half an inch to 2 inches in diameter and from 12
to 18 inches in length. Deployment mechanisms under consideration
(Figure 5) include a motorized string pulley system, discussed in
section B, a motorized cable connected to compression spring system,
discussed in section C, or pneumatic or hydraulic systems.

## Angling (Pulley and String)

![](media/image5.png){width="3.783464566929134in"
height="3.3165354330708663in"}In the biological world, the ultimate
'angler', albeit a passive one, is the jellyfish, which uses barbed,
detachable, sticky stinging cells (nematocysts) to paralyze and attach
itself to any living thing coming in contact with its tentacles. Those
tentacles wrap around the victim as the jellyfish swims, acting as line,
as the jellyfish attempts to move its prey right up to its interior oral
feeding tube as discussed in reference 22. Figure 6 illustrates the
ubiquitous jellyfish, one the notoriously venomous box jelly from the
tropics \[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu

/cnidaria/C_sivickisi.html\], and the other an unidentified jellyfish
from the temperate mid-ocean deeps \[http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/

explorations/02sab/logs/aug19/media/jelly_600.jpg\]. Tentacles vary in
length, but are generally comparable or shorter in length than the body
diameter. Longer tentacles mean greater likelihood for entangling prey,
a strategy used by some species such as Man of War, but more work
getting the food inside.

The prototype ANTS walker currently under development uses a motorized
string pulley mechanism for deployment of struts (Figure 5). The length
of the string is initially wrapped around the telescoping tubes, and the
strut is stowed. This system is lightweight, compact and has the
mechanical advantage of a pulley, minimizing the power requirement. This
mechanism has limitations in weight-bearing, and payload carrying,
capability, and thus is considered a near term solution.

## Compressional/Extensional Springs

![](media/image6.png){width="2.6354330708661418in"
height="1.698031496062992in"}An exemplary biological analogue for
compressional/extensional springs is found in the extremely efficient
and effective dolphin swimming mechanism as discussed in reference 23
and illustrated in Figure 7. The up and down motion of the broad fluke
on the narrow tail causes forward motion in the water, or swimming. It
isn't performed by the muscle contraction mechanism just discussed, but
by a pair of passive internal compressional spring-like tissue, which
generate a 'pogo stick' motion. This tissue combines connective tissue
and fat with 3D structure which make it especially stiff. It includes
the subdermal sheath, helically wound around the tail and attached to
the skeletal frame, combined with wedges of stiff dolphin collagen-rich
blubber attached to the top and bottom of the tail. This mechanism is so
efficient that the dolphin's metabolic rate does not increase as their
tails beat and they swim faster. up to 20 miles an hour, over long
distances. A kangaroo hops in an analogous manner.

A mechanism under consideration for the next version of the ANTS walker
uses compressional spring (Figure 5), compressed to stow the strut as
needed and store up energy for strut deployment. A motorized steel cable
pulls a compression string embedded in the struts. The initial position
for the strut is thus fully extended. A major limitation is the power
required to maintain a strut in any other position. Thus, this design is
seen as evolving into a pneumatic or hydraulic design.

## Constant Force Spring (Coiling)

![](media/image7.png){width="6.384645669291339in"
height="1.8838582677165354in"}The formation of a coil acting as a
constant force spring, albeit a passive or very low resistance one in
many cases, is a frequent strategy of living systems. Such coiling is
done to efficiently store and minimize exposed area and exposure to
potential loss or attack. Figure 8 presents several examples of this
strategy. Recently, DNA has been observed to form flat, helical tori in
'storage' locations^24^. Early invertebrates, gastropods, used a flat
helical shell
\[http://www.museum.vic.gov.au/collections/sciences/natfoss.asp\], later
adapted to an elongated form for more efficient swimming^25^. Many
animals with elongated body morphology, vertebrates such as salamanders
and invertebrates such as millipedes, coil to minimize exposure as a
defense mechanism^26^.

Future ANTS structures will be designed with opposing pairs of constant
force springs (Figure 8) for strut deployment, evolving from the
telescoping and compression spring mechanism. The deployment device will
consist of oppositely wound tapes, carbon based in later versions,
combined by zippering of notches or a spring spiral. Such a mechanism is
compact and efficient and offers a major mechanical advantage of
complete strut stowing. The key to success will be the design for the
mechanism for locking the oppositely curved tapes. This essentially
becomes a combined mechanism.

## Combined Mechanisms

![](media/image8.png){width="4.748425196850394in"
height="1.00748031496063in"}Biological organisms frequently combine
mechanisms to perform more complex functions. One such example, also an
effective dual spring mechanism, is the tongue of salamanders and
chameleons discussed in references 20, 21 (briefly mentioned above), 27,
and 28 (Figure 9). Extremely interleaved muscle fibers wrap around a
bone in the center of the tongue, acting as an unleashed compression
spring and telescoping outward with a force of 50g, expending its length
by a factor of 6. In addition, telescoping layers of protein fibers wrap
around the tongue, also attached to the bone at its base, and act as a
tensional spring, slipping off the tongue bone but pulling the tongue
back as it reaches its maximum extent. This retraction creates suction
at the end of the tongue, which keeps the prey in place as the chameleon
flips it into its mouth.

## Surfaces

For deployment of layers, sheets of material with a variety of
functions, the plant kingdom offers simple, efficient analogues. Plants
deploy layers, known as foliage. Movement of foliage is controlled
through electro chemical mechanisms, analogous to those in animal
muscle.

![](media/image9.png){width="3.34251968503937in"
height="2.7291338582677165in"}![](media/image10.png){width="5.873622047244094in"
height="4.3527559055118115in"}Sensitive Plant, has been singled out for
discussion and study because it is one of a handful of plants which
displays a comprehensive foliage closure mechanism in response to
minimal mechanical stimulation and does so easily, reversibly, rapidly,
and, because it is not carnivorous, it has no unusual energy
requirements ^29,30^ (Figure 10). Thus, MP is a potential analogue for
ANTS surface deployment and stowing mechanism.

This leaf closure response, a defense mechanism for protecting foliage
from predators, occurs as a result of reduction in cell turgor, or
osmotic water pressure, and thus is a form of wilting^29,30^. How does
this 'plant hydraulic' reaction occur? In MP, this reversible response
(nastic movement) can result not only from touch (thigmonastic), but
also from movement (seismonastic) and light reduction (nyctinastic).
These responses are caused by electrochemical changes in the leaves.
Studies have indicated that mechanically stimulated parts of the plant
exhibit ![](media/image11.png){width="4.248425196850394in"
height="0.6866141732283465in"}![](media/image12.png){width="4.311023622047244in"
height="0.8570866141732284in"}![](media/image13.png){width="4.296456692913385in"
height="1.0744094488188976in"}flaccid cells, correlated with lowering of
osmotic water pressure, and lower potassium ion levels, whereas
unstimulated areas contain turgid cells, correlated with increase in
osmotic water pressure, and high potassium ion levels ^31,32^.
Typically, outflow of water follows outflow of potassium ions, in an
attempt to maintain equilibrium in ionic concentrations. Studies have
also found high abundances of turgidity controlling substances called
turgorins in MP leaves^31,32^. A motor organ at the base of the leaves,
called a pulvinus (vascular core surrounded by a two regions, extensor
and tensor, of thin-walled cell cortex^29,30^, controls whole leaf
motion (Figure 11). Apparently, the permeability of cells in the pulvini
increase in response to rise in sucrose accompanying mechanical
stimulation, allowing rapid flow of ions, including calcium and
potassium. Outflow on stimulated

side is accompanied by decreased turgor and contraction, while inflow on
the other side is accompanied by increased turgor and expansion. In this
way, a leaf can be 'turned'. As the electrochemical shifts occur in a
stimulated area, the response can be transmitted to adjoining areas as
well. The electrochemical 'signal' is transmitted rapidly (1 cm/sec) and
accompanied with a measurable electric response (galvanometric
negativity)^33-35^.

![](media/image15.jpeg){width="1.0555118110236221in"
height="4.24015748031496in"}![](media/image16.jpeg){width="1.0555118110236221in"
height="4.24015748031496in"}Behaviors and requirements for deployment
for future ANTS components, including surfaces and hydraulic struts, are
in many ways similar to those described for MP. Such deployment would
require efficient (low power @ \<1 Watt and low mass @ \<\<1 kg for
power generation system), rapid, reversible movement in response to a
minimal electrical signal, ideally caused by flow of charge through the
nodes, analogous to pulvini.

ANTS surface deployment mechanisms will be implementable at the MEMS
level^36^. Several mechanisms have been proposed for deployment,
depending on the extent to which carbon nanotubule technology is
developed as discussed in references 37-39 (Figure 11). For near future
application, carbon fiber composite MEMS nodes could be used to deploy
the relatively low aerial density (5g/cm2) \[see http://www.esli.com and
http://www.meetingsmanagement.com/pdf/PF-2004.pdf\] carbon fiber
composite sheets with 'shape memory' in the full deployment position.
The 2D spooling mechanism could be a shade-like roll up device
progressively released or stowed by an opposing force carbon-based
spring. As CNT technology advances and continuous CNTs
\[http://www.ipt.arc.nasa.gov/\], with properties approaching individual
nanotubes become available^40^, mechanisms using only the nanotubes
themselves could be utilized, thus reducing aerial density and power
requirements. As in the salamander tongue, the core would consist of
interior interleaved multiwalled CNTs acting as compressional springs
under compression to provide the releasing force. Wrapped around the
interior would be helical carbon nanotubes acting as tensional springs,
to provide the stowing force. Attached to the core would be telescoping
helically wrapped dendritic nanotube branches, to create a multi-layer
capability. The more branches and the higher the order of branching, the
greater the effective surface area would be. Carbon-based material
carries charge; thus, as in MP, induced changes in electrical potential
could by used to activate the open or close side of the node, and thus
regulate the amount of surface material deployed.

Such nodes would be used form the PAM concept for the proposed 10,000
facet 100 sq meter solar sail supported by a 3D truss structure
consisting of two layers of interconnected nodes illustrated in Figure
12^9,36^. Very effective attitude control could potentially be achieved
by using such reversibly deployable components for surface and struts to
control amount and distribution of sail area (and thus center of
pressure) as well as shape. \[See Sail Animations at official ANTS
website, http://ants.gsfc.nasas.gov\]. Even if control of individual
facets was minimal, with only fully deployed or fully stowed positions
available, deploying as few as 3 or 4 facets properly distributed, would
lower sail area by more than a factor of 1000 (the nominal requirement)
while controlling the attitude. By changing the effective shape and size
of the 3D truss structure, the direction of momentum vectors, and thus
direction and speed, could be dramatically modified.

# Models of ANTS Systems Based on BEES

Detailed models, for near term applications of ANTS architecture, based
on the mechanisms outlined above, are already being constructed. A
prototype for the single tetrahedron walker is currently being
constructed. Under consideration here are models for the single
tetrahedron walker (Figure 3), for which a prototype is currently being
constructed, the 4Tetrahedron version of the walker with a central
payload carrying node, or 4Tet, for which detailed engineering and field
testing plans are being developed, the 12Tet, a rover exhibiting
behaviors of greater continuity and complexity, for which models are
being developed.

Shown in Figure 13 is a series of images of the four-tetrahedral walker
through one 'flip'. As in the prototype, struts can move freely over
almost 180 degrees of motion and can be changed in size by a factor 3 to
4. Forward flipping occurs when the center of mass is pushed far enough
off center by extending above ground struts. Struts can then be trimmed
every few steps as needed to maintain the step size appropriate for the
terrain. The interior 'payload node

of the 4Tet can be used to advantage in changing the center of mass so
that a forward 'flip' occurs.

![](media/image17.jpeg){width="1.0590551181102361in"
height="4.240944881889764in"}![](media/image18.jpeg){width="1.0590551181102361in"
height="4.240944881889764in"}Shown in Figure 14 are stationary models of
the 12Tet. Notice the capability for transformation from the stable
tetrahedron, transition through less stable more spherical form for
locomotion, or to less stable cube (2 tetrahedral bases per face) more
easily tipped, with just 12 tetrahedra!

Figure 15 shows a sequence illustrating the 4Tet locomotion in a lunar
surface environment. The interior node is designed to be used for a
payload as well as to adjust the center of mass.

Figure 16 shows two sequences from an animation clip of the 12Tet,
showing stowing for storage (decreasing in size) in bottom five frames,
and complex transformations to climb up and over an object in top five
frames. For comparison, transformations of a many-Tet system, from
flyer, to rover, to antenna, are shown in Figure 17, as the system
shifts from landing (aerodynamically stable and flattened), to surface
mobility (amoeba-like, high degree of freedom) to communication (convex
curves on stable base). Animations of all of these structures may be
seen at http://ants.gsfc.nasa.gov.

# Summary

Table 2 shows compares mechanisms in ANTS systems to their biological
analogues, their requirements, optimal applications, strengths, and
weaknesses. An important issue for biological systems as well as for
ANTS architecture is power consumption. Biological systems use combined
(opposing force) mechanisms to minimize organism fuel requirements,
meaning access to food and time spent eating, during prolonged activity.
This observation is particularly true when movement is required. ANTS
system development is already moving in that direction.

# Acknowledgments {#acknowledgments .unnumbered}

We would like to acknowledge the important contributions to this work
made by our students Jason Leggett, Richard Watson, Noah Desch, Adrienne
Davis, Tom Comberiate, and Jeff Lee. We thank NASA/GSFC DDF, GSFC Codes
695, 544, and 588, and the RASC Program for their support.

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+-------------------+-------------------------+-----------------------+
| **Table 2         |                         |                       |
| Comparison of     |                         |                       |
| Biological and    |                         |                       |
| ANTS ART          |                         |                       |
| Mechanisms**      |                         |                       |
+-------------------+-------------------------+-----------------------+
| **Morph           | **Natural Analogue**    | **ANTS**              |
| ology/Mechanism** |                         |                       |
+-------------------+-------------------------+-----------------------+
| Tetrahedral       | Basis of Si and C       | One or more           |
| Structure         | bonding (4              | tetrahedra with nodes |
|                   | coordination)           | at apices which       |
|                   |                         | deploy struts as      |
|                   | Basis of Non-organic    | sides form basis of   |
|                   | Solids (Si)             | all structures, from  |
|                   |                         | simple walkers to     |
|                   |                         | continuous surfaces.  |
|                   |                         | Great variety of      |
|                   |                         | structures and        |
|                   |                         | behaviors possible.   |
+-------------------+-------------------------+-----------------------+
| Node and Strut:   | Used extensively in     | Strut extension       |
|                   | biological systems. For | mechanism for early   |
| Telescoping       | special appendages in   | walker. Combines well |
|                   | invertebrates; for      | with other            |
|                   | muscle tissue in higher | mechanisms, as in     |
|                   | phyla.                  | biomechanics.         |
+-------------------+-------------------------+-----------------------+
| Node and Strut:   | Used in invertebrates   | Very efficient String |
|                   | such as jellyfish to    | Mechanism for         |
| Pulley            | capture and hold prey   | connecting winding    |
|                   | in buoyant environment  | motor to strut in     |
|                   | with minimal energy     | early walker but with |
|                   | requirement.            | minimal strength.     |
+-------------------+-------------------------+-----------------------+
| Node and Strut:   | Pairs used for          | Powerful Spring and   |
|                   | pogo-stick like         | Cable deployment      |
| Compre            | efficient locomotion in | mechanism for early   |
| ssional/Tensional | higher phyla, including | walker but with       |
| Springs           | mammals, e.g.,          | greater power         |
|                   | dolphins, kangaroos.    | requirement.          |
+-------------------+-------------------------+-----------------------+
| Node and Strut:   | Used extensively for    | Opposing wound tapes  |
|                   | coiling to minimize     | in metal allow or     |
| Constant Force    | surfaces from loss or   | carbon based material |
| Springs           | destruction in          | for next generation   |
|                   | biological systems,     | ANTS systems.         |
|                   | from DNA to worms to    |                       |
|                   | amphibians.             |                       |
+-------------------+-------------------------+-----------------------+
| Combined          | Used in higher phyla    | For early walkers,    |
| Mechanisms        | for survival edge       | telescoping and       |
|                   | complex mechanisms,     | Springs. At MEMS/NEMS |
|                   | e.g., amphibians        | level, to minimize    |
|                   | tongues, with           | energy requirement    |
|                   | telescoping interleaved | for surface           |
|                   | muscle fibers for       | deployment,           |
|                   | deployment and striking | telescoping or        |
|                   | prey circumscribed by   | compression           |
|                   | radially wound muscles  | spring-like network   |
|                   | acting as tensional     | for deployment        |
|                   | spring for retrieving   | wrapped with          |
|                   | prey and stowing.       | tensional springs for |
|                   |                         | stowing for CNTs.     |
+-------------------+-------------------------+-----------------------+
| Surfaces          | In plant kingdom,       | For near future       |
|                   | mechanisms using        | surface deployment,   |
|                   | pulvini for opening and | Carbon fiber          |
|                   | closing leaves,         | compressive Sheets    |
|                   | electrochemically       | for protective,       |
|                   | controlled hydraulic    | reflective, or        |
|                   | mechanism operating     | absorptive surfaces   |
|                   | under a variety of      | deployed from special |
|                   | circumstances,          | nodes using           |
|                   | especially developed in | pneumatic, hydraulic, |
|                   | Sensitive Plant.        | or constant force     |
|                   |                         | spring mechanisms.    |
+-------------------+-------------------------+-----------------------+

[^1]: Scientist, Magnetospheric Physics Branch, Code 695, Non-member

[^2]: Scientist, Magnetospheric Physics Branch, Code 695, Non-member

[^3]: Branch Chief, Magnetospheric Physics Branch, Code 695, Non-member

[^4]: Engineer, Advanced Architectures and Automation Branch, Code 588,
    Member

[^5]: Engineer, Flight Dynamics Analysis Branch, Code 595, Non-member

[^6]: Scientist, Magnetospheric Physics Branch, Code 695, Non-member

[^7]: Manager, Spacecraft and Sensors Branch, MS 328, Non-member