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**DISCLAIMER**

This manual provides accurate technical data and engineering information
on disinfectants and oxidants that are not as widely used as chlorine.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency encourages drinking water
treatment utilities and drinking water primacy agencies to examine all
aspects of their current disinfection practices to improve the quality
of their finished water without reducing microbial protection.

This document is EPA guidance only. It does not establish or affect
legal rights or obligation. EPA decisions in any particular case will be
made applying the laws and regulation on the basis of specific facts
when permits are issued or regulations promulgated.

Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute an EPA
endorsement or recommendation for use.

**ACKNOWLEDGMENTS**

The Environmental Protection Agency gratefully acknowledges the
assistance of the members of the Microbial and Disinfection Byproducts
Federal Advisory Committee and Technical Work Group for their comments
and suggestions to improve this document. EPA also wishes to thank the
representatives of drinking water utilities, researchers, and the
American Water Works Association for their review and comment.

###### 

###### Contents

##### 1. INTRODUCTION 1-1

[1.1 Objective of this Manual 1-1]{.smallcaps}

[1.2 Background 1-2]{.smallcaps}

[1.3 Regulatory Context 1-3]{.smallcaps}

1.3.1 Disinfection Profiling and Benchmarking 1-7

[1.4 Use of Disinfectants as Chemical Oxidants 1-8]{.smallcaps}

[1.5 How Chlorine is Addressed in this Guidance Manual 1-8]{.smallcaps}

[1.6 A Summary of Alternative Disinfectant Properties 1-9]{.smallcaps}

[1.7 Selecting a Disinfection Strategy 1-11]{.smallcaps}

1.7.1 Disinfection Strategy Evaluation 1-12

1.7.2 Summary 1-17

[1.8 References 1-18]{.smallcaps}

##### 2. DISINFECTANT USE IN WATER TREATMENT 2-1

[2.1 Need for Disinfection in Water Treatment 2-1]{.smallcaps}

2.1.1 Pathogens of Primary Concern 2-2

2.1.2 Recent Waterborne Outbreaks 2-8

2.1.3 Mechanism of Pathogen Inactivation 2-9

[2.2 Other Uses of Disinfectants in Water Treatment 2-10]{.smallcaps}

2.2.1 Minimization of DBP Formation 2-10

2.2.2 Control of Nuisance Asiatic Clams and Zebra Mussels 2-11

2.2.3 Oxidation of Iron and Manganese 2-13

2.2.4 Prevention of Regrowth in the Distribution System and Maintenance
of Biological Stability 2-14

2.2.5 Removal of Taste and Odors Through Chemical Oxidation 2-15

2.2.6 Improvement of Coagulation and Filtration Efficiency 2-15

2.2.7 Prevention of Algal Growth in Sedimentation Basins and Filters
2-16

2.2.8 Removal of Color 2-16

[2.3 Disinfection Byproducts and Disinfection Residuals
2-16]{.smallcaps}

2.3.1 Types of DBPs and Disinfection Residuals 2-16

2.3.2 Disinfection Byproduct Formation 2-19

2.3.3 DBP Control Strategies 2-23

2.3.4 CT Factor 2-25

[2.4 Pathogen Inactivation Versus DBP Formation 2-26]{.smallcaps}

[2.5 Disinfectant Residual Regulatory Requirements 2-27]{.smallcaps}

[2.6 Summary of Current National Disinfection Practices
2-28]{.smallcaps}

[2.7 Chlorine 2-30]{.smallcaps}

2.7.1 Chlorine Chemistry 2-31

2.7.2 Chlorine Generation 2-32

2.7.3 Primary Uses and Points of Application of Chlorine 2-33

2.7.4 Pathogen Inactivation and Disinfection Efficacy 2-35

2.7.5 DBP Formation and Control 2-39

2.7.6 Operational Considerations 2-41

[2.8 Summary 2-42]{.smallcaps}

2.8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Chlorine Use 2-42

2.8.2 Summary Table 2-44

2.8.3 Reference for Additional Information on Chlorine 2-44

[2.9 References 2-45]{.smallcaps}

##### 3. OZONE 3-1

[3.1 Ozone Chemistry 3-1]{.smallcaps}

[3.2 Ozone Generation 3-4]{.smallcaps}

3.2.1 Ozone Production 3-4

3.2.2 System Components 3-5

3.2.3 Operation and Maintenance 3-15

[3.3 Primary Uses and Points of Application of Ozone 3-16]{.smallcaps}

3.3.1 Primary Uses of Ozone 3-16

3.3.2 Points of Application 3-18

3.3.3 Impact on Other Treatment Processes 3-19

3.3.4 Biologically Active Filtration 3-19

3.3.5 Pathogen Inactivation and Disinfection Efficacy 3-21

3.3.6 Inactivation Mechanisms 3-22

3.3.7 Disinfection Parameters 3-22

3.3.8 Inactivation of Microorganisms 3-24

[3.4 Ozonation Disinfection Byproducts 3-27]{.smallcaps}

3.4.1 Ozone Byproduct Control 3-30

[3.5 Status of Analytical Methods 3-31]{.smallcaps}

3.5.1 Monitoring of Gas Phase Ozone 3-31

3.5.2 Monitoring of Liquid Phase Residual Ozone 3-35

3.5.3 Bromate Monitoring for Systems Using Ozone 3-37

[3.6 Operational Considerations 3-38]{.smallcaps}

3.6.1 Process Considerations 3-38

3.6.2 Space Requirements 3-38

3.6.3 Material Selection 3-39

3.6.4 Ozone System Maintenance 3-39

3.6.5 Ozone Safety 3-39

[3.7 Summary 3-41]{.smallcaps}

3.7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ozone Use 3-41

3.7.2 Summary Table 3-42

[3.8 References 3-43]{.smallcaps}

##### 4. CHLORINE DIOXIDE 4-1

[4.1 Chlorine Dioxide Chemistry 4-1]{.smallcaps}

4.1.1 Oxidation Potential 4-1

[4.2 Generation 4-2]{.smallcaps}

4.2.1 Introduction 4-2

4.2.2 Chlorine Dioxide Purity 4-3

4.2.3 Methods of Generating Chlorine Dioxide 4-4

4.2.4 Generator Design 4-9

4.2.5 Chemical Feed Systems 4-11

4.2.6 Generator Power Requirements 4-13

[4.3 Primary Uses and Points of Application for Chlorine Dioxide
4-13]{.smallcaps}

4.3.1 Disinfection 4-13

4.3.2 Taste and Odor Control 4-14

4.3.3 Oxidation of Iron and Manganese 4-14

[4.4 Pathogen Inactivation and Disinfection Efficacy 4-15]{.smallcaps}

4.4.1 Inactivation Mechanisms 4-15

4.4.2 Environmental Effects 4-15

4.4.3 Disinfection Efficacy 4-17

[4.5 Chlorine Dioxide Disinfection Byproducts 4-22]{.smallcaps}

4.5.1 Production of Chlorite and Chlorate 4-22

4.5.2 Organic DBPs Produced by Chlorine Dioxide 4-25

4.5.3 Chlorine Dioxide DBP Control Strategies 4-25

[4.6 Status of Analytical Methods 4-26]{.smallcaps}

4.6.1 Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite Analytical Methods 4-27

4.6.2 Chlorine Dioxide Monitoring for Systems Using Chlorine Dioxide
4-27

4.6.3 Chlorite Monitoring for Systems Using Chlorine Dioxide 4-28

[4.7 Operational Considerations 4-28]{.smallcaps}

4.7.1 Process Considerations 4-30

4.7.2 Generator Operation 4-31

4.7.3 Feed Chemicals 4-31

[4.8 Summary 4-33]{.smallcaps}

4.8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Chlorine Dioxide Use 4-33

4.8.2 Summary Table 4-34

[4.9 References 4-35]{.smallcaps}

##### 5. POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE 5-1

[5.1 Potassium Permanganate Chemistry 5-1]{.smallcaps}

5.1.1 Oxidation Potential 5-1

5.1.2 Ability to Form a Residual 5-1

[5.2 Generation 5-1]{.smallcaps}

[5.3 Primary Uses and Points of Application 5-2]{.smallcaps}

5.3.1 Primary Uses 5-2

5.3.2 Points of Application 5-4

[5.4 Pathogen Inactivation and Disinfection Efficacy 5-4]{.smallcaps}

5.4.1 Inactivation Mechanisms 5-4

5.4.2 Environmental Effects 5-5

5.4.3 Use as a Disinfectant 5-5

[5.5 Disinfection Byproduct Formation 5-7]{.smallcaps}

5.5.1 Chapel-Hill and Durham, North Carolina Water Treatment Plants 5-7

5.5.2 American Water Works Association Research Foundation TTHM Study
5-9

[5.6 Status of Analytical Methods 5-9]{.smallcaps}

[5.7 Operational Considerations 5-9]{.smallcaps}

[5.8 Summary 5-10]{.smallcaps}

5.8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Potassium Permanganate Use 5-10

5.8.2 Summary Table 5-11

[5.9 References 5-12]{.smallcaps}

##### 6. CHLORAMINES 6-1

[6.1 Chloramines Chemistry 6-1]{.smallcaps}

6.1.1 Equilibrium, Kinetic, and Physiochemical Properties 6-1

[6.2 Generation 6-3]{.smallcaps}

6.2.1 Chlorine Feed Facilities 6-4

6.2.2 Ammonia Feed Facilities 6-5

[6.3 Primary Uses and Points of Application 6-10]{.smallcaps}

6.3.1 Primary Uses 6-10

6.3.2 Points of Application 6-11

[6.4 Pathogen Inactivation and Disinfection Efficacy 6-12]{.smallcaps}

6.4.1 Inactivation Mechanisms 6-12

6.4.2 Environmental Effects 6-12

6.4.3 Disinfection Efficacy 6-13

[6.5 DBP Formation 6-15]{.smallcaps}

[6.6 Status of Analytical Methods 6-16]{.smallcaps}

6.6.1 Monitoring of Chloramines 6-16

6.6.2 Disinfectant Interferences 6-17

6.6.3 Chloramine Monitoring for Systems Using Chloramines 6-19

[6.7 Operational Considerations 6-20]{.smallcaps}

6.7.1 Conversion to Chloramination from Chlorination 6-20

6.7.2 Potential Operational Impacts from Chloramination Disinfection
6-22

6.7.3 Special Considerations for Chloramination Facilities 6-25

[6.8 Summary 6-27]{.smallcaps}

6.8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Chloramine Use 6-27

6.8.2 Summary Table 6-28

[6.9 References 6-29]{.smallcaps}

##### 7. PEROXONE (OZONE/HYDROGEN PEROXIDE) 7-1

[7.1 Peroxone Chemistry 7-1]{.smallcaps}

7.1.1 Oxidation Reactions 7-2

7.1.2 Reactions with Other Water Quality Parameters 7-3

7.1.3 Comparison between Ozone and Peroxone 7-3

[7.2 Generation 7-4]{.smallcaps}

[7.3 Primary Uses and Points of Application 7-5]{.smallcaps}

7.3.1 Primary Uses 7-5

7.3.2 Points of Application 7-6

[7.4 Pathogen Inactivation 7-6]{.smallcaps}

7.4.1 Inactivation Mechanism 7-6

7.4.2 Environmental Effects 7-7

7.4.3 Disinfection Efficacy and Pathogen Inactivation 7-8

[7.5 Disinfection Byproducts 7-9]{.smallcaps}

[7.6 Status of Analytical Methods 7-10]{.smallcaps}

7.6.1 Monitoring of Hydrogen Peroxide 7-10

[7.7 Operational Considerations 7-13]{.smallcaps}

7.7.1 Process Considerations 7-13

7.7.2 Space Requirements 7-13

7.7.3 Materials 7-13

[7.8 Summary 7-14]{.smallcaps}

7.8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Peroxone Use (Ozone/Hydrogen
Peroxide) 7-14

7.8.2 Summary Table 7-15

[7.9 References 7-16]{.smallcaps}

##### 8. ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION 8-1

[8.1 UV Chemistry (Photochemical) 8-1]{.smallcaps}

8.1.1 UV Radiation 8-1

8.1.2 UV Disinfection Reactions 8-2

8.1.3 Process Variables 8-2

[8.2 Generation 8-3]{.smallcaps}

8.2.1 UV Lamps 8-4

8.2.2 Ballasts 8-4

8.2.3 UV Reactor Design 8-5

[8.3 Primary Uses and Points of Application 8-8]{.smallcaps}

[8.4 Pathogen Inactivation and Disinfection Efficiency 8-8]{.smallcaps}

8.4.1 Inactivation Mechanism 8-8

8.4.2 Environmental Effects 8-10

8.4.3 Disinfection Efficacy 8-12

[8.5 Disinfection Byproducts of UV Radiation 8-15]{.smallcaps}

8.5.1 Ground Water 8-15

8.5.2 Surface Water 8-16

3.  DBP Formation with Chlorination and Chloramination following UV
    Radiation

8-16

[8.6 Status of Analytical Methods 8-17]{.smallcaps}

8.6.1 Monitoring of Generated Ultraviolet Radiation 8-17

8.6.2 Disinfectant Interferences 8-18

[8.7 Operational Considerations 8-18]{.smallcaps}

8.7.1 Equipment Operation 8-19

8.7.2 Equipment Maintenance 8-19

8.7.3 Standby Power 8-20

[8.8 Summary Table 8-21]{.smallcaps}

[8.9 References 8-21]{.smallcaps}

##### 9. COMBINED DISINFECTANTS 9-1

[9.1 Primary and Secondary Disinfectants 9-1]{.smallcaps}

1.  DBP Formation with Various Primary and Secondary Disinfectant

> Combinations 9-3

9.1.2 Impact of Modifying Disinfection Practices 9-6

9.1.3 Chlorine/Chlorine to Chlorine/Chloramine 9-8

9.1.4 Chlorine/Chlorine to Ozone/Chlorine 9-8

9.1.5 Chlorine/Chlorine to Ozone/Chloramine 9-9

9.1.6 Chlorine/Chlorine to Chlorine Dioxide/Chlorine 9-9

9.1.7 Chlorine/Chlorine to Chlorine Dioxide/Chlorine Dioxide 9-10

9.1.8 Chlorine/Chloramine to Ozone/Chloramine 9-10

9.1.9 Chlorine/Chloramine to Chlorine Dioxide/Chloramine 9-10

9.1.10 Ozone/Chlorine to Ozone/Chloramine 9-11

9.1.11 Summary 9-11

[9.2 Pathogen Inactivation with Interactive Disinfectants
9-11]{.smallcaps}

9.2.1 Inactivation Mechanism 9-12

9.2.2 Environmental Effects 9-13

9.2.3 Pathogen Inactivation Efficiency Using Interactive Disinfectants
9-16

9.2.4 Summary: Pathogen Inactivation with Interactive Disinfectants 9-23

[9.3 Analytical Methods 9-23]{.smallcaps}

9.3.1 Ozone 9-23

9.3.2 Chlorine Dioxide 9-24

9.3.3 Potassium Permanganate 9-24

9.3.4 Chloramine 9-24

9.3.5 Hydrogen Peroxide 9-24

9.3.6 UV Radiation 9-24

9.3.7 Summary of Analytical Methods 9-24

[9.4 Summary 9-25]{.smallcaps}

[9.5 References 9-26]{.smallcaps}

**APPENDIX A. SUMMARY OF DISINFECTANT USAGE IN THE UNITED STATES A-1**

**APPENDIX B. SELECTED COSTS OF ALTERNATIVE DISINFECTION SYSTEMS B-1**

###### Figures 

Figure 1-1. Flow Diagram to Evaluate Current Disinfection Practices 1-14

Figure 1-2. Flow Diagram to Narrow Selection of a New Primary
Disinfectant 1-16

Figure 1-3. Flow Diagram to Narrow Selection of a New Secondary
Disinfectant 1-17

Figure 2-1. Free Chlorine *Giardia* and Virus CT Requirements 2-38

Figure 2-2. CT Values for Inactivation of *Giardia* Cysts by Free
Chlorine at 10°C

(at Cl~2~ dose of 3.0 mg/L) 2-38

Figure 2-3. CT Values for Inactivation of *Giardia* Cysts by Free
Chlorine at pH 7.0

(at Cl~2~ dose of 3.0 mg/L) 2-39

Figure 3-1. Oxidation Reactions of Compounds (Substrate) During
Ozonation of Water 3-2

Figure 3-2. Reaction of Ozone and Bromide Ion Can Produce Bromate Ion
and Brominated

Organics 3-3

Figure 3-3. Basic Ozone Generator 3-4

Figure 3-5. Schematic of an Air Preparation System 3-7

Figure 3-6. Cylindrical Electrode Schematic 3-9

Figure 3-7. Ozone Bubble Contactor 3-11

Figure 3-8. Sidestream Ozone Injection System 3-12

Figure 3-9. Turbine Mixer Ozone Contactor 3-14

Figure 3-10. CT Values for Inactivation of Viruses by Ozone (pH 6 to 9)
3-26

Figure 3-11. Principal Reactions Producing Ozone Byproducts 3-28

Figure 3-12. Main Pathways of Bromate Ion Formation when Ozone Reacts
with Bromide

Ion 3-30

Figure 4-1. Conventional Chlorine Dioxide Generator When Using
Chlorine-Chlorite

Method 4-7

Figure 4-2. Chlorine Dioxide Generation Using Recycled Aqueous Chlorine
Method 4-8

Figure 4-3. Effect of Temperature on *N.* *Gruberi* Cyst Inactivation at
pH 7 4-17

Figure 4-4. Comparison of Germicidal Efficiency of Chlorine Dioxide and
Chlorine 4-19

Figure 4-5. CT Values for Inactivation of *Giardia* Cysts by Chlorine
Dioxide 4-21

Figure 4-6. CT Values for Inactivation of Viruses by Chlorine Dioxide
4-22

Figure 4-7. *C. parvum* Inactivation by Chlorine Dioxide at 20°C 4-23

Figure 4-8. *C. parvum* Inactivation by Chlorine Dioxide at 10°C 4-23

Figure 6-1. Theoretical Breakpoint Curve 6-2

Figure 6-2. Distribution Diagram for Chloramine Species with pH 6-3

Figure 6-3. Gaseous Chlorine Feed System 6-5

Figure 6-4. Hypochlorite Feed System 6-6

Figure 6-5. Anhydrous Ammonia Direct Feed System 6-7

Figure 6-6. Anhydrous Ammonia Solution Feed System 6-8

Figure 6-7. Aqua Ammonia Feed System 6-9

Figure 8-1. Closed Vessel Ultraviolet Reactor 8-6

Figure 8-2. Germicidal Inactivation by UV Radiation 8-9

Figure 8-3. UV Dose Required for Inactivation of MS-2 Coliphage 8-11

Figure 8-4. Particle Interactions that Impact UV Effectiveness 8-12

Figure 8-5. UV Doses Required to Achieve Inactivation of *Giardia
lamblia* Cysts Obtained

from Two Different Sources 8-14

Figure 8-6. Impact of Growth Stage of *A. rhysodes* on the Required UV
Dosage to Achieve

Inactivation 8-14

Figure 9-1. Inactivation of *C. parvum* Attributed to Synergistic
Effects. Application of

Ozone Followed by Chlorine Dioxide 9-14

Figure 9-2. Inactivation of *C. parvum* Attributed to Synergistic
Effects. Application of

Chlorine Dioxide Followed by Free Chlorine 9-14

Figure 9-3. Inactivation of *C. parvum* Attributed to Synergistic
Effects. Application of

Chlorine Dioxide Followed by Monochloramine 9-15

Figure 9-4. Inactivation of *E. coli* Using Free Chlorine and
Monochloramine 9-18

###### Tables

Table 1-1. Key Dates for Regulatory Activities 1-4

Table 1-2. Primary Drinking Water Regulations Related to Microbiological

Contaminants 1-6

Table 1-3. Primary Drinking Water Regulations Related to Disinfection
Byproducts 1-6

Table 1-4. Primary Drinking Water Regulations Related to Residual
Disinfectants 1-7

Table 1-5. Log Removal/Inactivation through Filtration and Disinfection
Required

Under the SWTR 1-7

Table 1-6. Summary of Disinfectant Properties (Based on Typical
Disinfectant

Application) 1-11

Table 2-1. Waterborne Diseases from Bacteria 2-3

Table 2-2. Waterborne Diseases from Human Enteric Viruses 2-4

Table 2-3. Waterborne Diseases from Parasites 2-6

Table 2-4. Attributes of the Three Waterborne Pathogens of Concern in
Water

Treatment 2-7

Table 2-5. Human Parasitic Protozoans 2-7

Table 2-6. The Effects of Various Oxidants on Mortality of the Asiatic
Clam

(*Corbicula fluminea*) 2-12

Table 2-7. Oxidant Doses Required for Oxidation of Iron and Manganese
2-14

Table 2-8. List of Disinfection Byproducts and Disinfection Residuals
2-17

Table 2-9. Status of Health Information for Disinfectants and DBPs 2-18

Table 2-10. Conditions of Formation of DBPs 2-22

Table 2-11. Inorganic DBPs Produced During Disinfection 2-23

Table 2-12. Required Removal of TOC by Enhanced Coagulation for Surface
Water

Systems Using Conventional Treatment (percent reduction) 2-25

Table 2-13. CT Values for Inactivation of Viruses 2-26

Table 2-14. CT Values for Inactivation of *Giardia* Cysts 2-26

Table 2-15. Summary of Disinfection Impacts 2-27

Table 2-16. Disinfection Practices of Water Systems that Include Some
Form of

Treatment 2-29

Table 2-17. Ozone Application in Water Treatment Plants in the United
States 2-30

Table 2-18. Chlorine Uses and Doses 2-34

Table 2-19. Typical Chlorine Points of Application and Uses 2-34

Table 2-20. Typical Chlorine Dosages at Water Treatment Plants 2-35

Table 2-21. Percent Reduction in DBP Formation by Moving Chlorination
Point Later

In Treatment Train 2-40

Table 2-22. Summary of Chlorine Disinfection 2-44

Table 3-1. Types of Compressors Used in Air Preparation Systems 3-7

Table 3-2. Comparison of Air and High Purity Oxygen Feed Systems 3-8

Table 3-3. Comparison of Primary Characteristics of Low, Medium, and
High Frequency

Ozone Generators 3-10

Table 3-4. Bubble Diffuser Contactor Advantages and Disadvantages 3-12

Table 3-5. Injection Contacting Advantages and Disadvantages 3-13

Table 3-6. Turbine Mixer Contactor Advantages and Disadvantages 3-14

Table 3-7. Criteria for Selecting Ozone Feed Points for Small Systems
3-18

Table 3-8. Summary of Reported Ozonation Requirements for 99 Percent
Inactivation

of Cryptosporidium Oocycts 3-27

Table 3-9. Principal Known Byproducts of Ozonation 3-28

Table 3-10. Characteristics and Comparisons of Gas-Phase Ozone
Analytical Methods 3-33

Table 3-11. Characteristics and Comparisons of Residual Ozone Analytical
Methods 3-36

Table 3-12. Summary of Ozone Disinfection Considerations 3-42

Table 4-1. Commercial Chlorine Dioxide Generators 4-5

Table 4-2. Surface Water Chlorine Dioxide Demand Study Results 4-14

Table 4-3. Analytical Methods for Chlorine Dioxide and Related Compounds
4-30

Table 4-4. Properties of Sodium Chlorite as Commercially Available 4-32

Table 4-5. Summary for Chlorine Dioxide 4-34

Table 5-1. Potassium Permanganate CT Values for 2-log Inactivation of
MS-2

Bacteriophage 5-7

Table 5-2. Summary of Potassium Permanganate Use 5-12

Table 6-1. Chlorine Dose Required for NH3 - Cl2 Reaction 6-3

Table 6-2. Time to 99 Percent Conversion of Chlorine to Monochloramine
6-4

Table 6-3. Methods of Chlorine Addition 6-4

Table 6-4. CT Values for *Giardia* Cyst Inactivation Using Chloramines
6-15

Table 6-5. CT Values for Virus Inactivation Using Chloramines 6-15

Table 6-6. Characteristics and Comparisons of Monochloraminea Analytical

Methods 6-18

Table 6-7. Survey of Chloramine Users in the United States 6-25

Table 6-8. Summary of Chloramine Disinfection 6-29

Table 7-1. Comparison Between Ozone and Peroxone Oxidation 7-4

Table 7-2. Calculated CT Values (Mg•Min/L) for the Inactivation of
*Giardia Muris* 7-8

Table 7-3. Characteristics and Comparisons of Hydrogen Peroxide
Analytical

Methods 7-12

Table 7-4. Summary of Peroxone Disinfection Consideration 7-15

Table 8-1. Water Quality and Associated UV Measurements 8-3

Table 8-2. Doses Required for MS-2 Inactivation 8-13

Table 8-3. Summary of UV Disinfection 8-21

Table 9-1. Potential Primary Disinfectants 9-2

Table 9-2. Primary/Secondary Disinfectant Combinations and Typical
Applications in

Water Treatment 9-3

Table 9-3. DBPs Associated with Various Combined Oxidation/Disinfection
Processes 9-4

Table 9-4. Strategies for Primary and Secondary Disinfectants 9-6

Table 9-5. Impacts of Disinfection Practice on DBP Formation 9-7

Table 9-6. Virus Inactivation By Individual Disinfectants and
Simultaneous

Chloramination 9-17

Table 9-7. *C. parvum* Inactivation Using Ozone Followed by Chlorine
Dioxide 9-19

Table 9-8. *C. parvum* Inactivation Using Chlorine Dioxide Followed by
Free Chlorine 9-19

Table 9-9. *G. muris* Inactivation Using Chlorine Dioxide Followed by
Free Chlorine 9-19

Table 9-10. *B. cereus* Inactivation Using Chlorine Dioxide Followed by
Free Chlorine 9-19

Table 9-11. *C. parvum* Inactivation Using Chlorine Dioxide Followed by
Chloramine 9-20

Table 9-12. *G. muris* Inactivation Using Chlorine Dioxide Followed by
Chloramine 9-20

Table 9-13. *G. muris* Inactivation Using Ozone Followed by Free
Chlorine 9-21

Table 9-14. *B. cereus* Inactivation Using Chlorine Dioxide Followed by
Free Chlorine 9-21

Table 9-15. *G. muris* Inactivation Using Ozone Followed by Chloramine
9-21

Table 9-16. *G. muris* Inactivation by Free Chlorine Followed by
Monochloramine 9-22

Table 9-17*. C. parvum* Inactivation by Sequential Application of Ozone
and Chloramine 9-22

Table 9-18. Summary of Combined Disinfectants 9-25

**ACRONYMS**

AECL Alternate enhanced coagulant level

ACUK Acid chrome violet K

AOC Assimilable organic carbon

ASDWA Association of State Drinking Water Administrators

AWWA American Water Works Association

AWWARF AWWA Research Foundation

BAC Biologically active carbon

BAF Biologically active filtration

BAT Best Available Technology

BCAA Bromochloroacetic acid

BDOC Biodegradable organic carbon

BMP Best management practice

BOM Biodegradable Organic Matter (=BDOC + AOC)

Br- Bromide ion

BrO2- Bromite ion

BrO3- Bromate ion

CI Confidence interval

Cl2 Chlorine

ClO2 Chlorine Dioxide

CT Concentration-Time

CWS Community Water System

D/DBP Disinfectants/disinfection byproducts

DBPR Disinfectants/disinfection byproducts rule

DBP Disinfection byproduct

DBPFP Disinfection byproduct formation potential

DBPP Disinfection byproduct precursors

DBPRAM DBP Regulatory Assessment Model

DBPs Disinfection byproducts

DOC Dissolved organic carbon

DPD N,N-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine

DWEL Drinking Water Equivalent Level

EBCT Empty bed contact time

EMSL EPA Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory (Cincinnati)

EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

ESWTR Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule

FBR Filter Backwash Rule

FY Fiscal year

GAC Granular activated carbon

GWR Ground Water Rule

GWSS Ground Water Supply Survey

H2O2 Hydrogen Peroxide

HAA5 Haloacetic acids (five)

HOBr Hypobromous acid

HOCl Hypochlorous acid

IC Ion chromotography

ICR Information Collection Rule

IESWTR Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule

IOA International Ozone Association

IOC Inorganic chemical

KMnO4 Potassium permanganate

LOAEL Lowest observed adverse effect level

LOQ Limit of quantitation

LT1ESWTR Long Term Stage 1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule

M-DBP Microbial and disinfection byproducts

MCL Maximum Contaminant Level

MCLG Maximum Contaminant Level Goal

MDL Method Detection Limit

mg/L Milligrams per liter

mgd Million gallons per day

MIB Methylisoborneol

MRDL Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level (as mg/l)

MRDLG Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level Goal

MRL Minimum Reporting Level

MX 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxyl-2(5H)-furanone

NaCl Sodium chloride

NCI National Cancer Institute

ND Not detected

NH2Cl Monochloramine

NIPDWR National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulation

NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

NOAEL No Observed Adverse Effect Level

NOM Natural Organic Matter

NOMS National Organic Monitoring Survey

NORS National Organics Reconnaissance Survey for Halogenated Organics

NPDWR National Primary Drinking Water Regulation

NTNCWS Nontransient noncommunity water system

NTP Normal Temperature and Pressure

O2 Oxygen

O3 Ozone

OBr- Hypobromite ion

OCl- Hypochlorite ion

PCE Perchloroethylene

PE Performance evaluation

POE Point-of-Entry Technologies

POU Point-of-Use Technologies

ppb Parts per billion

ppm Parts per million

PQL Practical Quantitation Level

PTA Packed Tower Aeration

PWS Public water system

RIA Regulatory Impact Analysis

RMCL Recommended Maximum Contaminant Level

RNDB Regulations Negotiation Data Base

RSC Relative Source Contribution

SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act, or the "Act," as amended in 1996

SM Standard Method

SMCL Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level

SMR Standardized mortality ratios

SOC Synthetic Organic Chemical

SWTR Surface Water Treatment Rule

TCE Trichloroethylene

THM Trihalomethane

THMFP Trihalomethane formation potential

TMV Tobacco mosaic virus

TOC Total organic carbon

TTHM Total trihalomethanes

TWG Technologies Working Group

UV Ultraviolet

VOC Volatile Organic Chemical

WIDB Water Industry Data Base

WS Water supply

XDBPs Halogenated DBPs

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