![](media/image1.jpeg){width="6.49375in" height="1.1333333333333333in"}

**IMPORTATION OF FRESH, DEHUSKED, IMMATURE, BABY CORN, *ZEA MAYS* L.,
FROM ZAMBIA INTO THE CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES**

**A Qualitative, Pathway-Initiated Risk Assessment**

**June, 2005**

**Agency contact:**

Kenneth Lakin, Ph.D.

United States Department of Agriculture

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Plant Protection and Quarantine

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

1017 Main Campus Drive, Suite 1550

Raleigh, NC 27606

**Executive Summary**

This document assesses the risks associated with the importation of
fresh, dehusked, immature baby corn (maize), *Zea mays* L., from Zambia
into the Continental United States. A search of print and electronic
resources identified one quarantine-significant pest that occurs in
Zambia and could be introduced into the Continental United States in
shipments of the commodity. The consequences of introduction were
estimated by assessing five elements that reflect the biology and
ecology of the pest: climate-host interaction, host range, dispersal
potential, economic impact and environmental impact. The likelihood of
introduction was estimated by considering both the quantity of the
commodity imported annually and the potential for pest introduction and
establishment. The overall pest risk potential was estimated by summing
the ratings for the consequences of introduction and the likelihood of
introduction.

The quarantine pests likely to follow the pathway (*i.e.* accompany
shipments of dehusked, immature baby corn) included one fungus,
*Phomopsis jaczewskii* Panasenko (Coelomycetes: Diaporthales).

This pest is likely to follow the pathway and could pose a phytosanitary
risk to American agriculture. It was assigned a medium Pest Risk
Potential based on the consequences of its introduction and the
likelihood that it would be introduced. Additional phytosanitary
measures may be necessary to guard against the introduction and
establishment of this pest.

**Table of Contents**

[A. Introduction 3](#a.-introduction)

[B. Risk Assessment 3](#b.-risk-assessment)

[1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action
3](#initiating-event-proposed-action)

[2. Assessment of Weed Potential of Corn
4](#assessment-of-weed-potential-of-corn)

[3. Current Status, Previous Risk Assessments and Pest Interceptions
4](#current-status-previous-risk-assessments-and-pest-interceptions)

[4. Pest Categorization - Identification of Quarantine Pests and
Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway
7](#pest-categorization---identification-of-quarantine-pests-and-quarantine-pests-likely-to-follow-the-pathway)

[5. Consequences of Introduction - Economic/Environmental Importance
22](#consequences-of-introduction---economicenvironmental-importance)

[6. Likelihood of Introduction - Quantity Imported and Pest Opportunity
24](#__RefHeading___Toc66760168)

[7. Conclusion---Pest Risk Potential and Pests Requiring Phytosanitary
Measures 26](#__RefHeading___Toc66760169)

[C. Contributors (in alphabetical order)
26](#c.-contributors-in-alphabetical-order)

[D. Literature Cited 26](#d.-literature-cited)

# A. Introduction

This risk assessment was prepared by the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA), Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS),
Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ), Center for Plant Health Science
and Technology (CPHST) on behalf of the Ministry of Agriculture, Food
and Fisheries, Zambia. Plant pest risks associated with the importation
of fresh, dehusked ears of immature baby corn, *Zea mays* L., from
Zambia into the Continental United States were estimated and assigned
the qualitative terms of high, medium and low, in accordance with the
template document, *Guidelines for Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk
Assessments*, *Version 5*.*02* (USDA., 2000). Throughout this document,
the term "baby corn" referred to dehusked, immature, sweet corn for
consumption.

The methods used to initiate, conduct and report the plant pest risks
associated with importing baby corn from Zambia into the Continental
United States conformed to regional and international guidelines
provided by the North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO) and
the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) of the United
Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Biological and
phytosanitary terms conformed to the NAPPO Compendium of Phytosanitary
Terms (Hopper, 1995) and the Definitions and Abbreviations (Introduction
Section) in *International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures*:
*Guidelines for Pest Risk Analysis* (FAO, 1996).

This risk assessment is one component of a complete pest risk analysis,
which FAO (1996) described as having three stages: Stage 1 (initiation),
Stage 2 (risk assessment) and Stage 3 (risk management). This document
satisfies FAO (1996) Stage 1 and 2 requirements.

Zambia proposed to export wrapped, ready to eat, baby corn as part of a
vegetable meal. The requirements for harvesting and packaging the corn
were precisely defined by Agriflora Limited, specifying that the
commodity must be of the highest quality (Duncan, 2003). Acceptable ears
should measure 10-25 mm (0.4\~ 1.0 inches) in diameter and 60-105 mm
(2.36-4.13 inches) in length (Duncan, 2003). They should be conical in
shape, pale to mid-yellow in color, firm, crisp and turgid, with
properly developed kernels, and with butts and silks still attached to
the cob (Duncan, 2003). Pickers and packers are directed to reject corn
showing mechanical damage, shriveling and softness, disease, rot or
decay, pest damage, and tissue break down (Duncan, 2003). The corn will
be transported from the field to the packing facility in closed or open
trucks with the commodity covered by cloth, which helps prevent
dehydration and dust contamination (Duncan, 2003). When the corn arrives
at the packing facility, cobs will be blast chilled for one hour, or
long enough to bring the temperature down to 2^o^C. After that, they
will be stored at 4-6^o^C for a maximum of two days before processing
(Duncan, 2003).

# B. Risk Assessment

## 1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action

This risk assessment was developed in response to a request by the
Republic of Zambia through the Chief Executive Officer of the Zambian
Export Growers Association, Mr. Steven Humphrey, for USDA authorization
to permit importation of fresh, dehusked ears of immature baby corn into
the Continental United States. Entry of this commodity into the
Continental United States presents a potential pathway for the
introduction of exotic plant pests. Title 7, Part 319, Section 56 of the
United States Code of Federal Regulations (7 CFR §319.56) provides
regulatory authority for the importation of fruits and vegetables from
foreign countries into the United States, while section 24 (7 CFR
§319.24) specifically regulates the importation of corn.

## 2. Assessment of Weed Potential of Corn

The potential of the commodity to become a weed after it enters the
United States was examined in this step. A pest-initiated risk
assessment was not conducted because the analysis did not indicate that
the commodity had a significant weed potential.

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Table 1. Assessment of the Weed Potential of Corn**                 |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Commodity:** Baby Corn (*Zea mays* L.) (Poaceae)                    |
|                                                                       |
| **Phase 1:** Corn is native to the Americas. It is widely cultivated  |
| in commercial and private gardens throughout the United States        |
| (USDA-NRCS, 2003; White, 1999). Corn is commercially grown on a large |
| scale in Colorado, Delaware, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, |
| Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi,         |
| Montana, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio,        |
| Oregon, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, West Virginia and Wisconsin (Toth  |
| and Stinner, 2003).                                                   |
|                                                                       |
| **Phase 2:** Is the species listed in:                                |
|                                                                       |
| > [No]{.underline} *Geographical Atlas of World Weeds* (Ho*lm et      |
| > a*l., 1979)                                                         |
| >                                                                     |
| > [Yes]{.underline} *World Weeds*: *Natural Histories and             |
| > Distribution* (Holm, 1997)                                          |
| >                                                                     |
| > [No]{.underline} Report of the Technical Committee to Evaluate      |
| > Noxious Weeds: Exotic Weeds for Federal Noxious Weed Act (Gunn and  |
| > Ritchie, 1982)                                                      |
| >                                                                     |
| > [No]{.underline} *Economically Important Foreign Weeds* (Reed,      |
| > 1977)                                                               |
| >                                                                     |
| > [Yes]{.underline} Weed Science Society of America Composite List of |
| > Weeds (WSSA, 1989)                                                  |
| >                                                                     |
| > [No]{.underline} Does any literature indicate weed potential        |
| > (*e.g.* AGRICOLA, CAB, Biological Abstracts, AGRIS search on        |
| > "species name" combined with "weed")                                |
|                                                                       |
| **Phase 3:** Corn is discussed in Holm *et al*., (1997) as a crop.    |
| The WSSA (1989) only lists \"volunteer corn,\" which is corn growing  |
| in a field where it was not recently and intentionally planted        |
| (*e.g.* corn in a soybean field), as a weed. Because corn is widely   |
| cultivated in and indigenous to the United States, and because the    |
| literature did not indicate that corn was a serious weed, a           |
| pest-initiated risk assessment was not deemed necessary.              |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

## 

## 3. Current Status, Previous Risk Assessments and Pest Interceptions

Current status, previous decisions and pest interceptions were examined
and summarized below. Title 7, Part 319, Section 56 of the United States
Code of Federal Regulations (7 CFR §319.56) does not currently permit
importation of fresh corn from Zambia into the Continental United
States. Title 7, Part 319, Section 41 of the United States Code of
Federal Regulations (7 CFR §319.41) does not allow the entry of corn on
the cob from foreign sources into the United States (including the
Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Hawaii and Alaska) with some exceptions.
Mature and green corn on the cob and corn smut galls[^1] can be imported
into Guam and the United States from the Bahamas, Bermuda, Central
America, Mexico, South America, the West Indies, and from provinces of
Canada west of and including Manitoba. Small lots of green corn on the
cob that are intended for local use can be imported into the United
States from all areas of Canada adjacent to the United States. Corn from
these areas is subject to inspection and must be certified free of
European corn borer (*Ostrinia nubilalis* (Hübner)), other injurious
insects, and plant diseases.

**Decision History for Baby Corn and Corn from Sub Saharan Africa**

No documents were found in the APHIS, PPQ, Biological Assessment and
Taxonomic Support (BATS) library regarding previous decisions on
requests to import corn from Zambia, except that a single shipment of
fresh, white corn from South Africa was allowed entry into Texas on
December 28, 1974 under a permit issued to Thomas P. Gonzalez Company.
The shipment was allowed entry following the determination that \"corn
for consumption originating in the Republic of South Africa may be
allowed to enter the United States under permit without risking the
introduction of *Sclerospora phillippinensis* Weston.\" The only other
pertinent document found in the BATS library addressed a request to
import baby corn from Thailand. This request was disapproved on May 26,
1992 due to the presence of various ear boring insects (*i.e.*
*Helicoverpa armigera* (Hübner), *Sesamia* spp. and *Chilo* spp.), downy
mildews (*Peronosclerospora* spp.) and witch weed (*Striga asiatica*
(L.)).

**Pest Interceptions**

American Agriculture Inspectors check passenger baggage and cargo for
agricultural pests. Few passengers travel from Zambia to the United
States, so pest interceptions from southern Africa (*i.e.* Angola,
Botswana, Congo, Mozambique, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, and
Zimbabwe) were summarized in Table 2 to better represent the area's
potential pests. The following pest list includes pests intercepted on
corn or other commodities from the region of Southern Africa (PIN,
2003). Note that the pests listed in Table 2 that were not intercepted
on corn from the region were included because they had been intercepted
on corn from other countries. (Pests included in the list below may not
be present in Zambia.)

  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  **Table 2. PPQ                                                  
  Interceptions of                                                
  Corn Pests from                                                 
  Southern Africa                                                 
  (1995-2002)**                                                   
  -------------------- -------------- ------------ -------------- -----------------
  **Pest**             **Associated   **Origin**   **Location**   **Number of
                       With**                                     Interceptions**

  **INSECTS**                                                     

  **COLEOPTERA**                                                  

  **Anthribidae**                                                 

  *Araecerus* sp.      Fruit          Cote d'Ivore Baggage        1

  **Curculionidae**                                               

  *Balanogatris* sp.   Fruit          Africa       Baggage        1

  **DIPTERA**                                                     

  **Muscidae**                                                    

  *Antherigona* sp.    Seed           South Africa Baggage        1

  **HOMOPTERA**                                                   

  **Aphididae**                                                   

  *Rhopalosiphum*      Fruit          Kenya        Baggage        1
  sp*.*                                                           

  **LEPIDOPTERA**                                                 

  **Crambidae**                                                   

  *Diaphania* sp.      Fruit          Nigeria      Baggage        1

  **Noctuidae**                                                   

  *Helicoverpa* sp.    Fruit          Ghana        Baggage        1

  *Heliothis* sp.      Seed           Kenya        Baggage        1

  *Busseola fusca*     Fruit          Kenya        Baggage        1

  *Busseola fusca*     Fruit          Nigeria      Baggage        1

  **Pyralidae**                                                   

  *Etiella* sp.        Fruit          Ghana        Baggage        1

  *Chilo* sp.          Fruit          Nigeria      Baggage        2

  *Diatrea lineolata*  Fruit          Nigeria      Baggage        1

  *Diatrea* sp.        Fruit          Nigeria      Baggage        1

  **Tortricidae**                                                 

  *Cryptophlebia*      Fruit          Cameroon     Baggage        1
  sp*.*                                                           

  *Cryptophlebia*      Fruit          Cote         Baggage        1
  sp*.*                               d'Ivoire                    

  *Cryptophlebia*      Fruit          Kenya        Baggage        7
  sp*.*                                                           

  *Cryptophlebia*      Fruit, Seed    Ghana        Baggage        6
  sp*.*                                                           

  *Cryptophlebia       Fruit          Nigeria      Baggage        5
  leucotreta*                                                     

  *Cryptophlebia*      Fruit, Seed    Nigeria      Baggage        14
  sp*.*                                                           

  *Cryptophlebia*      Fruit          Sierra Leone Baggage        1
  sp*.*                                                           

  *Thaumatotibia*                     Nigeria      Baggage        1
  sp*.*                                                           

  *Thaumatotibia*                     Kenya        Baggage        1
  sp*.*                                                           

  **Thysanoptera**                                                

  *Leucothrips* sp*.*  Fruit          Nigeria      Baggage        1

  **FUNGI**                                                       

  *Fusarium* sp*.*     Stem           Ghana        Baggage        1

  *Cladosporium* sp*.* Fruit          Nigeria      Baggage        1

  *Fusarium* sp*.*     Fruit          Nigeria      Baggage        1
  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

##  

## 4. Pest Categorization - Identification of Quarantine Pests and Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway

Pests that were associated with corn and occur in Zambia were listed in
Table 3. Information on the geographic distribution of these pests,
affected plant part(s), quarantine status, with respect to the
Continental United States, and relevant references on distribution and
biology were also included in Table 3. Table 3, therefore, served as a
"master list" that provided the basis for selecting pests for further
analyses.

The quarantine pests that were likely to follow the pathway (*i.e.*
accompany shipments of baby corn) were listed in Table 4 and subjected
to steps 5-7 (USDA., 2000) in this document. Numerous pests included in
Table 3 were not subjected to further analyses for the following
reasons: they were widely established in the Continental United States,
they were mainly associated with plant parts other than the commodity,
or they were associated with the commodity, but not likely to remain
with the commodity during processing.

Pest risk analyses, by necessity, must focus on organisms for which
biological information is available, so none of the pests listed at the
level of genus or higher were selected for further analyses. Pests not
identified to the species level may still pose a serious phytosanitary
risk to American agriculture, however. If they are intercepted and
identified to the species level in the future, the risk may be
reevaluated.

+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **Table 3.    |           |        |         |        |            |
| Pests         |           |        |         |        |            |
| Associated    |           |        |         |        |            |
| with Corn in  |           |        |         |        |            |
| Zambia**      |           |        |         |        |            |
+===============+===========+========+=========+========+============+
| **Pest**      | **Geo     | *      | **Quara | **     | **Re       |
|               | graphic** | *Plant | ntine** | Likely | ferences** |
|               |           | Part** |         | to     |            |
|               | **Distr   |        | *       | Follow |            |
|               | ibution** | **Affe | *Pest** | Pat    |            |
|               | [^2]      | cted** |         | hway** |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *             |           |        |         |        |            |
| *ARTHROPODS** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **ACARI**     |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **Te          |           |        |         |        |            |
| tranychidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *             | ZM, US    | Leaf   | No      | No     | Bolla*nd   |
| Mononychellus | (FL)      |        |         |        | et al*.,   |
| tanajoa*      |           |        |         |        | 1998;      |
| Bondar        |           |        |         |        | CABI, 2003 |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Tetranychus  | ZM, US    | Leaf   | No      | No     | Bolla*nd   |
| urticae* Koch |           |        |         |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |        | 1998;      |
|               |           |        |         |        | CABI, 2003 |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *             |           |        |         |        |            |
| *COLEOPTERA** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **B           |           |        |         |        |            |
| ostrichidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Prostephanus | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| truncatus*    |           |        |         | [^3]   |            |
| Horn          |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **Brentidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Cylas        | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | No      | No     | CABI,      |
| formicarius*  |           | Root,  |         |        | 2003;      |
| Fabricius     |           | Stem   |         |        | Muku*ka et |
|               |           |        |         |        | al*., 2002 |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Cylas        | ZM        | Leaf,  | Yes     | No     | CABI,      |
| puncticollis* |           | Root,  |         |        | 2003;      |
| Boheman       |           | Stem   |         |        | Muku*ka et |
|               |           |        |         |        | al*., 2002 |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **Bruchidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Ac           | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| anthoscelides |           |        |         | Error: |            |
| obtectus* Say |           |        |         | Ref    |            |
|               |           |        |         | erence |            |
|               |           |        |         | source |            |
|               |           |        |         | not    |            |
|               |           |        |         | found  |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **Ch          |           |        |         |        |            |
| rysomelidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Megalognatha | ZM        | Silk   | Yes     | No     | G          |
| rufiventre*   |           |        |         | [^4]   | robbelaar, |
| Baly          |           |        |         |        | 1993;      |
|               |           |        |         |        | Muku*ka et |
|               |           |        |         |        | al*., 2002 |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **Co          |           |        |         |        |            |
| ccinellidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Epilachna*   | ZM        | Leaf   | Yes     | No     | Muku*ka et |
| sp*.*         |           |        |         | [^5]   | al*., 2002 |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **Cu          |           |        |         |        |            |
| rculionidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Nematocerus* | ZM        | Leaf,  | Yes     | No     | Muku*ka et |
| sp*.*         |           | Seed   |         | ^Er    | al*., 2002 |
|               |           | Stem   |         | ror:\  |            |
|               |           |        |         | Refere |            |
|               |           |        |         | nce\ s |            |
|               |           |        |         | ource\ |            |
|               |           |        |         |  not\  |            |
|               |           |        |         | found^ |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Sitophilus   | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| zeamais*      |           |        |         | Error: |            |
| Motschulsky   |           |        |         | Ref    |            |
|               |           |        |         | erence |            |
|               |           |        |         | source |            |
|               |           |        |         | not    |            |
|               |           |        |         | found  |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **            |           |        |         |        |            |
| Dermestidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Trogoderma   | ZM        | Seed   | Yes     | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| granarium*    |           |        |         | [      |            |
| Everts        |           |        |         | Error: |            |
|               |           |        |         | Ref    |            |
|               |           |        |         | erence |            |
|               |           |        |         | source |            |
|               |           |        |         | not    |            |
|               |           |        |         | f      |            |
|               |           |        |         | ound]{ |            |
|               |           |        |         | .mark} |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **S           |           |        |         |        |            |
| carabaeidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Heteronychus | ZM        | Stem   | Yes     | No     | CABI,      |
| arator*       |           |        |         |        | 2003;      |
| Fabricius     |           |        |         |        | Muku*ka et |
|               |           |        |         |        | al*., 2002 |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Heteronychus | ZM        | Leaf,  | Yes     | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| licas* Klug   |           | Root,  |         |        |            |
|               |           | Stem   |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *             |           |        |         |        |            |
| *Silvanidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Oryzaephilus | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| surinamensis* |           |        |         | Error: |            |
| Linnaeus      |           |        |         | Ref    |            |
|               |           |        |         | erence |            |
|               |           |        |         | source |            |
|               |           |        |         | not    |            |
|               |           |        |         | found  |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **Te          |           |        |         |        |            |
| nebrionidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Gonocephalum | ZM        | Fruit, | Yes     | No     | CABI,      |
| simplex*      |           | Leaf,  |         | ^Er    | 2003;      |
| Fabricius     |           | Seed,  |         | ror:\  | D          |
|               |           | Stem   |         | Refere | rinkwat*er |
|               |           |        |         | nce\ s | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         | ource\ | 2002;      |
|               |           |        |         |  not\  | Muku*ka et |
|               |           |        |         | found^ | al*., 2002 |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Tribolium    | ZM, US    | Fruit  | No      | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| castaneum*    |           |        |         | Error: |            |
| Herbst        |           |        |         | Ref    |            |
|               |           |        |         | erence |            |
|               |           |        |         | source |            |
|               |           |        |         | not    |            |
|               |           |        |         | found  |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **DIPTERA**   |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **A           |           |        |         |        |            |
| nthomyiidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Delia        | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | No      | Yes    | CABI,      |
| platura* Meig |           | Root,  |         |        | 2003;      |
|               |           | Seed   |         |        | Muku*ka et |
|               |           |        |         |        | al*., 2002 |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **Ce          |           |        |         |        |            |
| cidomyiidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **Muscidae**  |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Atherigona   | ZM, US    | Fruit, | No      | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| orientalis*   |           | Leaf,  |         | [^6]   |            |
| Schiner       |           | Root,  |         |        |            |
|               |           | Stem   |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Atherigona   | ZM        | Stem   | Yes     | No     | CABI,      |
| soccata*      |           |        |         |        | 2003;      |
| Rondani       |           |        |         |        | Muku*ka et |
|               |           |        |         |        | al*., 2002 |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **HEMIPTERA** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **Aphididae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *             | ZM, US    | F      | No      | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| Acyrthosiphon |           | lower, |         |        |            |
| pisum* Harris |           | Leaf   |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Aphis        | ZM, US    | F      | No      | No     | CABI,      |
| gossypii*     |           | lower, |         |        | 2003;      |
| Glover        |           | Leaf,  |         |        | Millar,    |
|               |           | Stem   |         |        | 1994       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Macrosiphum  | ZM, US    | F      | No      | No     | CABI,      |
| euphorbiae*   |           | lower, |         |        | 2003;      |
| Thomas        |           | Leaf,  |         |        | Millar,    |
|               |           | Stem   |         |        | 1994       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Melanaphis   | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | No      | No     | CABI,      |
| sacchari*     | (FL)      | Stem   |         |        | 2003;      |
| Zehntner      |           |        |         |        | Millar,    |
|               |           |        |         |        | 1994       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Myzus        | ZM, US    | F      | No      | No     | CABI,      |
| persicae*     |           | lower, |         |        | 2003;      |
| Sulzer        |           | Leaf,  |         |        | Millar,    |
|               |           | Stem   |         |        | 1994       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *             | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | No      | No     | Bohlen,    |
| Rhopalosiphum |           | Stem   |         |        | 1973;      |
| maidis* Fitch |           |        |         |        | CABI,      |
|               |           |        |         |        | 2003;      |
|               |           |        |         |        | Millar,    |
|               |           |        |         |        | 1994;      |
|               |           |        |         |        | Muku*ka et |
|               |           |        |         |        | al*., 2002 |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Schizaphis   | ZM, US    | Leaf   | No      | No     | CABI,      |
| germinum*     |           |        |         |        | 2003;      |
| Rondani       |           |        |         |        | Millar,    |
|               |           |        |         |        | 1994       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Sitobion     | ZM        | Leaf   | Yes     | No     | Millar,    |
| africanum*    |           |        |         |        | 1994       |
| Hille Ris     |           |        |         |        | Blackman   |
| Lambers       |           |        |         |        | and        |
|               |           |        |         |        | Eastop,    |
|               |           |        |         |        | 2000       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **C           |           |        |         |        |            |
| icadellidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Cicadulina   | ZM        | Leaf   | Yes     | No     | Bohlen,    |
| mbila*        |           |        |         |        | 1973;      |
| (Naudé)       |           |        |         |        | CABI, 2003 |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **            |           |        |         |        |            |
| Delphacidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Peregrinus   | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | No      | No     | Bohlen,    |
| maidis*       |           | Root,  |         |        | 1973;      |
| Ashmead       |           | Stem   |         |        | CABI, 2003 |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **P           |           |        |         |        |            |
| entatomidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Nezara       | ZM, US    | F      | No      | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| viridula*     |           | lower, |         | [^7]   |            |
| Linnaeus      |           | Fruit, |         |        |            |
|               |           | Leaf,  |         |        |            |
|               |           | Seed,  |         |        |            |
|               |           | Stem   |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **Pse         |           |        |         |        |            |
| udococcidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Dysmicoccus  | ZM, US    | Fruit, | No      | Yes    | CABI, 2003 |
| brevipes*     |           | Leaf,  |         |        |            |
| Cockerell     |           | Root,  |         |        |            |
|               |           | Stem   |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Ferrisia     | ZM, US    | Fruit, | No      | Yes    | CABI, 2003 |
| virgata* Cock |           | Leaf,  |         |        |            |
|               |           | Stem   |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **Isoptera**  |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *             |           |        |         |        |            |
| *Termitidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Ma           | ZM        | Root,  | Yes     | No     | Muku*ka et |
| crotermes*sp. |           | Stem   |         | Error: | al*., 2002 |
|               |           |        |         | Ref    |            |
|               |           |        |         | erence |            |
|               |           |        |         | source |            |
|               |           |        |         | not    |            |
|               |           |        |         | found  |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Microtermes* | ZM        | Root,  | Yes     | No     | Muku*ka et |
| sp.           |           | Stem   |         | Error: | al*., 2002 |
|               |           |        |         | Ref    |            |
|               |           |        |         | erence |            |
|               |           |        |         | source |            |
|               |           |        |         | not    |            |
|               |           |        |         | found  |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *             | ZM        | Root,  | Yes     | No     | Muku*ka et |
| Odontotermes* |           | Stem   |         | Error: | al*., 2002 |
| sp.           |           |        |         | Ref    |            |
|               |           |        |         | erence |            |
|               |           |        |         | source |            |
|               |           |        |         | not    |            |
|               |           |        |         | found  |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **            |           |        |         |        |            |
| Lepidoptera** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| **            |           |        |         |        |            |
| Gelechiidae** |           |        |         |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+
| *Sitotroga    | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      | No     | CABI,      |
| cerealella*   |           |        |         | Error: | 2003;      |
| (Olivier)     |           |        |         | Ref    | Zhang,     |
|               |           |        |         | erence | 1994       |
|               |           |        |         | source |            |
|               |           |        |         | not    |            |
|               |           |        |         | found  |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+--------+------------+

+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| **Table 3.    |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Pests         |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Associated    |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| with Corn in  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Zambia**      |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+===============+===========+========+=========+===+========+============+
| **Pest**      | **Geo     | *      | **Quara |   | **     | **Re       |
|               | graphic** | *Plant | ntine** |   | Likely | ferences** |
|               |           | Part** |         |   | to     |            |
|               | **Distr   |        | *       |   | Follow |            |
|               | ibution** | **Affe | *Pest** |   | Pat    |            |
|               |           | cted** |         |   | hway** |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| **Noctuidae** |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Agrotis      | ZM        | Leaf,  | Yes     | N |        | CABI,      |
| segetum*      |           | Root,  |         | o |        | 2003;      |
| Denis and     |           | Stem   |         |   |        | Muku*ka et |
| S             |           |        |         |   |        | al*., 2002 |
| chiffermüller |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Busseola     | ZM        | Cob,   | Yes     | N |        | Bohlen,    |
| fusca* Fuller |           | Leaf,  |         | o |        | 1973;      |
|               |           | Stem   |         | ^ |        | CABI,      |
|               |           |        |         | E |        | 2003;      |
|               |           |        |         | r |        | Muku*ka et |
|               |           |        |         | r |        | al*., 2002 |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | : |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | \ |        |            |
|               |           |        |         |   |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | R |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | \ |        |            |
|               |           |        |         |   |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | s |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | \ |        |            |
|               |           |        |         |   |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | t |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | \ |        |            |
|               |           |        |         |   |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | d |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | ^ |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Earias       | ZM        | F      | Yes     | N |        | CABI,      |
| insulana*     |           | lower, |         | o |        | 2003;      |
| Boisduval     |           | Fruit, |         | E |        | Zhang,     |
|               |           | Leaf,  |         | r |        | 1994       |
|               |           | Stem   |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | : |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | R |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | s |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | t |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | d |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Helicoverpa  | ZM        | Cob,   | Yes     | N |        | Bohlen,    |
| armigera*     |           | F      |         | o |        | 1973;      |
| Hübner        |           | lower, |         | E |        | CABI,      |
|               |           | Fruit, |         | r |        | 2003;      |
|               |           | Leaf   |         | r |        | Muku*ka et |
|               |           |        |         | o |        | al*., 2002 |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | : |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | R |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | s |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | t |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | d |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Sesamia      | ZM        | Cob,   | Yes     | N |        | Bohlen,    |
| calamistis*   |           | Stem   |         | o |        | 1973;      |
| Hampson       |           |        |         | E |        | CABI,      |
|               |           |        |         | r |        | 2003;      |
|               |           |        |         | r |        | Muku*ka et |
|               |           |        |         | o |        | al*., 2002 |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | : |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | R |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | s |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | t |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | d |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Spodoptera   | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | No      | N |        | Bohlen,    |
| exempta*      |           | Stem   |         | o |        | 1973;      |
| Walker        |           |        |         |   |        | CABI,      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | Muku*ka et |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | al*., 2002 |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Spodoptera   | ZM        | Fruit, | Yes     | N |        | Bohlen,    |
| littoralis*   |           | Leaf   |         | o |        | 1973;      |
| Boisduval     |           |        |         | E |        | CABI, 2003 |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | : |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | R |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | s |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | t |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | d |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| **Pyralidae** |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Chilo        | ZM        | Cob,   | Yes     | N |        | Bohlen,    |
| partellus*    |           | Fruit, |         | o |        | 1973;      |
| Swinhoe       |           | Leaf,  |         | E |        | CABI,      |
|               |           | Stem   |         | r |        | 2003;      |
|               |           |        |         | r |        | Muku*ka et |
|               |           |        |         | o |        | al*.,      |
|               |           |        |         | r |        | 2002;      |
|               |           |        |         | : |        | PNKTO,     |
|               |           |        |         | R |        | 1988       |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | s |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | t |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | d |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Cadra        | ZM, US    | Fruit, | No      | N |        | CABI, 2003 |
| cautella*     |           | Seed   |         | o |        |            |
| Walker        |           |        |         | E |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | : |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | R |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | s |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | t |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | d |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Spoladea     | ZM, US    | F      | No      | N |        | CABI,      |
| recurvalis*   |           | lower, |         | o |        | 2003;      |
| Fabricius     |           | Leaf,  |         |   |        | Zhang,     |
|               |           | Root,  |         |   |        | 1994       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| **            |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Tortricidae** |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *             | ZM        | Fruit, | Yes     | N |        | CABI,      |
| Cryptophlebia |           | Leaf,  |         | o |        | 2003;      |
| leucotreta*   |           | Seed   |         | E |        | PNKTO,     |
| Meyrick       |           |        |         | r |        | 1984;      |
|               |           |        |         | r |        | Zhang,     |
|               |           |        |         | o |        | 1994       |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | : |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | R |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | s |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | t |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | d |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *             |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| *Orthoptera** |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| **Acrididae** |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Locusta      | ZM        | Leaf   | Yes     | N |        | CABI, 2003 |
| migratoria*   |           |        |         | o |        |            |
| Linnaeus      |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Nomadacris   | ZM        | F      | Yes     | N |        | CABI, 2003 |
| se            |           | lower, |         | o |        |            |
| ptemfasciata* |           | Fruit, |         | E |        |            |
| Aud           |           | Leaf,  |         | r |        |            |
| inet-Serville |           | Stem   |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | : |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | R |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | s |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | t |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | d |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+

+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| **Table 3.    |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Pests         |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Associated    |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| with Corn in  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Zambia**      |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+===============+===========+========+=========+===+========+============+
| **Pest**      | **Geo     | *      | **Quara |   | **     | **Re       |
|               | graphic** | *Plant | ntine** |   | Likely | ferences** |
|               |           | Part** |         |   | to     |            |
|               | **Dis     |        | *       |   | Follow |            |
|               | tribution | **Affe | *Pest** |   | Pat    |            |
|               | ^1^**     | cted** |         |   | hway** |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| **Te          |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| ttigoniidae** |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Acanthoplus  | ZM        | Fruit  | Yes     | N |        | Muku*ka et |
| speiser*      |           |        |         | o |        | al*., 2002 |
| Brancsik      |           |        |         | E |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | : |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | R |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | s |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | r |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | c |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | e |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | t |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | f |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | o |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | u |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | n |        |            |
|               |           |        |         | d |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| **Nematodes** |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *A            | ZM, US    | Root   | No      |   | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| phelenchoides |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| besseyi*      |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Aph           |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| elenchoididae |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *He           | ZM        | Root   | Yes     |   | No     | Kleynha*ns |
| licotylenchus |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| africanus*    |           |        |         |   |        | 1996       |
| (Micoletzky)  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Andrássy      |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (H            |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| oplolaimidae) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *He           | ZM, US    | Root   | No      |   | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| licotylenchus |           |        |         |   |        | Kleynha*ns |
| multicinctus* |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| (Cobb) Golden |           |        |         |   |        | 1996       |
| (H            |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| oplolaimidae) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *He           | ZM, US    | Root   | No      |   | No     | CABI,      |
| licotylenchus |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| ps            |           |        |         |   |        | Kleynha*ns |
| eudorobustus* |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| (Steiner)     |           |        |         |   |        | 1996       |
| Golden        |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (H            |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| oplolaimidae) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Hi           | ZM, US    | Root   | No      |   | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| rschmanniella |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| spinicaudata* |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (Schuurmans   |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Stekhoven,    |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| 1944) Luc and |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Goodey        |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (Pr           |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| atylenchidae) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Longidorus   | ZM, US    | Root   | No      |   | No     | CABI,      |
| africanus*    |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (de Man)      |           |        |         |   |        | Kleynha*ns |
| Micoletzky    |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | 1996       |
| Longidoridae) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Meloidogyne  | ZM, US    | Root   | No      |   | No     | Fle*tt et  |
| incognita*    |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Kofoid and   |           |        |         |   |        | 1996;      |
| White)        |           |        |         |   |        | White,     |
| Chitwood      |           |        |         |   |        | 1999       |
| (H            |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| eteroderidae) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Meloidogyne  | ZM, US    | Root   | No      |   | No     | Fle*tt et  |
| javanica*     |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Treub)       |           |        |         |   |        | 1996;      |
| Chitwood      |           |        |         |   |        | White,     |
| (H            |           |        |         |   |        | 1999       |
| eteroderidae) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Pa           | ZM, US    | Root   | No      |   | No     | CABI,      |
| ratrichodorus |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| minor*        |           |        |         |   |        | Kleynha*ns |
| (Colbran)     |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| Siddiqi       |           |        |         |   |        | 1996;      |
| (T            |           |        |         |   |        | White,     |
| richodoridae) |           |        |         |   |        | 1999       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Pratylenchus | ZM, US    | Root   | No      |   | No     | CABI,      |
| coffeae*      |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (Zimmermann)  |           |        |         |   |        | Kleynha*ns |
| Filipjev and  |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| Schuurmans    |           |        |         |   |        | 1996       |
| Stekhoven     |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (Pr           |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| atylenchidae) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Pratylenchus | ZM, US    | Root   | No      |   | No     | CABI,      |
| zeae* Graham  |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (Pr           |           |        |         |   |        | Kleynha*ns |
| atylenchidae) |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1996       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Radopholus   | ZM, US    | Root   | No      |   | No     | CABI,      |
| similis*      |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (Cobb) Thorne |           |        |         |   |        | Kleynha*ns |
| (Pr           |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| atylenchidae) |           |        |         |   |        | 1996       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *             | ZM, US    | Root   | No      |   | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| Rotylenchulus |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| parvus*       |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (Williams)    |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Sher          |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (Rot          |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| ylenchulidae) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Scutellonema | ZM, US    | Root   | No      |   | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| brachyurus*   |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Steiner       |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Andrássy      |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (H            |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| oplolaimidae) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| **VIRUSES**   |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| Maize Streak  | ZM        | Whole  | Yes     |   | No     | Fle*tt et  |
| (MSV)         |           | plant  |         |   | [^8]   | al*.,      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1996;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | White,     |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1999       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| **BACTERIA**  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Burkholderia | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | No      |   | Yes    | CABI, 2003 |
| andropogonis* |           | Seed,  |         |   |        |            |
| (Smith)       |           | Stem   |         |   |        |            |
| Gillis        |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (Burk         |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| holderiaceae) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Erwinia      | ZM, US    | Stem   | No      |   | No     | Fle*tt et  |
| carotovora*   |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| ssp*.         |           |        |         |   |        | 1996;      |
| carotovora*   |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| (Jones)       |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Bergey        |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| (Entero       |           |        |         |   |        | 1991;      |
| bacteriaceae) |           |        |         |   |        | White,     |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1999       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Pseudomonas  | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | No      |   | Yes    | CABI,      |
| andropogonis* |           | Seed,  |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (Smith)       |           | Stem   |         |   |        | White,     |
| Stapp. (=     |           |        |         |   |        | 1999,      |
| *Burkholderia |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| a             |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| ndropogonis*) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (Burk         |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| holderiaceae) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| **FUNGI**     |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Acremonium   | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| strictum* W.  |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Gams          |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (P            |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| yrenomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Hypocreales)  |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Aspergillus  | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| candidus*     |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Link:Fr.      |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Eurotiales)   |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Aspergillus  | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| chevalieri*   |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| L. Mangin     |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Eurotiales)   |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Aspergillus  | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| clavatus*     |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Desmaz.       |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Eurotiales)   |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Aspergillus  | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| flavus*       |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Link:Fr.      |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Eurotiales)   |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | White,     |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1999       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Aspergillus  | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| fumigatus*    |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Fresen.       |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Eurotiales)   |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Aspergillus  | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| niger* Tiegh. |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Eurotiales)   |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Aspergillus  | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| sydowii*      |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Bainier and  |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| Sartory) Thom |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| and Church    |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
| Eurotiales)   |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Aspergillus  | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| tamari* Kita  |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Eurotiales)   |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Aspergillus  | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| wentii*       |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Wehmer.       |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Eurotiales)   |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Bipolaris    | ZM, US    | Leaf   | No      |   | No     | Fa*rr et   |
| maydis*       |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Nisikado and |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| Miyabe)       |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Shoemaker     |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| (Dot          |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| hideomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
| Pleosporales) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Bipolaris    | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | Yes     |   | No     | CABI,      |
| sacchari*     | (FL, HI)  | Stem   |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (E.J. Butler) |           |        |         |   |        | Fa*rr et   |
| Shoemaker     |           |        |         |   |        | al*., 1989 |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Hyphomycetes) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *B            | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | No      |   | Yes    | CABI,      |
| otryodiplodia |           | Root,  |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| theobromae*   |           | Seed,  |         |   |        | Fa*rr et   |
| (Dearn. and   |           | Stem,  |         |   |        | al*., 2003 |
| Barth.)       |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Sivanesan     |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Coelomycetes) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *C            | ZM, US    | Stem   | No      |   | No     | White,     |
| ephalosporium |           |        |         |   |        | 1999;      |
| acremonium*   |           |        |         |   |        | Whiteside, |
| Auct. Non     |           |        |         |   |        | 1966       |
| Corda         |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Hypocreales)  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Cercospora   | US, ZM    | Leaf   | No      |   | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| sorghi*       |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (Ellis and    |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Everh)        |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Hyphomycetes) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Chaetomium   | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| bostrychodes* |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Zopf          |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (P            |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| yrenomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Sordariales)  |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Cochliobolus | ZM, US    | Leaf   | No      |   | No     | CABI,      |
| he            |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| terostrophus* |           |        |         |   |        | White,     |
| (Drechs.)     |           |        |         |   |        | 1999       |
| (Syn:         |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| *Ophiobolus   |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| het           |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| erostrophus*) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (Locul        |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| oascomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Dothideales)  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Cochliobolus | ZM, US    | Root,  | No      |   | No     | CABI,      |
| sativus* Ito  |           | Stem   |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| and           |           |        |         |   |        | Fa*rr et   |
| Kuribayashi   |           |        |         |   |        | al*., 2003 |
| (Locul        |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| oascomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Dothideales)  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *C            | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | No      |   | No     | Fa*rr et   |
| olletotrichum |           | Stem   |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| graminicola*  |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (Ces.) G.W.   |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Wils.         |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| Coelomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
| Ph            |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| yllachorales) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Corticium    | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | No      |   | Yes    | CABI, 2003 |
| rolfsii*      |           | Root,  |         |   |        |            |
| Curzi         |           | Seed,  |         |   |        |            |
| (B            |           | Stem   |         |   |        |            |
| asidiomyctes: |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Aph           |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| yllophorales) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Diplodia     | ZM, US    | Cob    | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| macrospora*   |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Earle         |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (Coelom       |           |        |         |   |        | Whiteside, |
| ycetesmitotic |           |        |         |   |        | 1966       |
| fungi)        |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Diplodia     | ZM, US    | Cob    | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| maydis*       |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Berk.) Sacc. |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | Whiteside, |
| Coelomycetes) |           |        |         |   |        | 1966       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Exserohilum  | ZM, US    | Leaf   | No      |   | No     | Fa*rr et   |
| turcicum*     |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Pass.         |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (Dot          |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| hideomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Pleosporales) |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Fusarium     | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| equisiti*     |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Corda.)      |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| Sacc.         |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| Hypocreales)  |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Fusarium     | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| fusarioides*  |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Gonz. Frag.  |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| and Cif. ) C. |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Booth         |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
| Hypocreales)  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Fusarium     | ZM, US    | Cob,   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| graminearum*  |           | Seed,  |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Schwabe (Syn: |           | Stem   |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| *Gibberella   |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| zeae*)        |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
| Hypocreales)  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Fusarium     | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | CABI, 2003 |
| longipes*     |           |        |         |   |        | Ecoport,   |
| Wollenweber   |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| and Reinking  |           |        |         |   |        | Fa*rr et   |
| anamorph      |           |        |         |   |        | a*l.,      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| \[= *F*.      |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| *equiseti*    |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| (Corda)       |           |        |         |   |        | et a*l.,   |
| Sacccardo\]   |           |        |         |   |        | 1991;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | Summere*ll |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | et a*l.,   |
| Hypocreales)  |           |        |         |   |        | 2001       |
| \[teleomorph  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| = *Gibberella |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| intricans*    |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Wollenweber   |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (P            |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| yrenomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| H             |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| ypocreales)\] |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Fusarium     | ZM, US    | Seed,  | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| moniliforme*  |           | Stem   |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| J. Sheld.     |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Hypocreales)  |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Fusarium     | ZM, US    | Cob,   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| moniliforme   |           | Seed,  |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| var.          |           | Stem,  |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| subglutinans* |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| (Wollenweb.   |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| and Reinking) |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| P.E. Nelson,  |           |        |         |   |        | 1991;      |
| T.A.          |           |        |         |   |        | Summere*ll |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | 2001;      |
| Hypocreales)  |           |        |         |   |        | Whiteside, |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1966       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Fusarium     | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| oxysporum*    |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Sch           |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| lechtend.:Fr. |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| Hypocreales)  |           |        |         |   |        | 1991;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | Summere*ll |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 2001       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Fusarium     | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| semitectum*   |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Berk. and     |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| Ravenel       |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| Hypocreales)  |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Geosmithia   | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| putterillii*  |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Thom) Pitt   |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | Pitt,      |
| \[=           |           |        |         |   |        | 1979;      |
| *Penicillium  |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| pallidum* G.  |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Sm.\]         |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Hypocreales)  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Geotrichum   | ZM, US    | Stem   | No      |   | No     | Fa*rr et   |
| candidum*     |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Link.         |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Sacch         |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| aromycetales) |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Gibberella   | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | No      |   | Yes    | CABI,      |
| fujikuroi*    |           | Root,  |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (Sawada) Ito  |           | Seed,  |         |   |        | Fa*rr et   |
| (P            |           | Stem   |         |   |        | al*., 2003 |
| yrenomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Hypocreales)  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Gibberella   | ZM, US    | Cob,   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| zea* (Ana*:   |           | Stem   |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Fusarium      |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| graminearum*) |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| (Schwein)     |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Petch         |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| (P            |           |        |         |   |        | 1991;      |
| yrenomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | White,     |
| Hypocreales)  |           |        |         |   |        | 1999;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | Whiteside, |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1966       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Gliocladium  | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| roseum*       |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Bainier       |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Sacch         |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| aromycetales) |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Gl           | ZM, US    | Leaf   | No      |   | No     | CABI,      |
| oeocercospora |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| sorghi* Bain  |           |        |         |   |        | Fa*rr et   |
| and Edgerton  |           |        |         |   |        | al*., 1989 |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Pleosporales) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Glomerella   | ZM, US    | Leaf   | No      |   | No     | CABI,      |
| graminicola*  |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (Politis)     |           |        |         |   |        | Fa*rr et   |
| (P            |           |        |         |   |        | al*., 1989 |
| yrenomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Ph            |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| yllachorales) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *             | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| Lasiodiplodia |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| theobromae*   |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (Pat.)        |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Griffon and   |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Maubl.        |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
| Coelomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Dothideales ) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Macrophomina | ZM, US    | Cob,   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| phaseolina*   |           | Root,  |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Tassi)       |           | Stem   |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| Goidanich     |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Coelomycetes) |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | White,     |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1999;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | Whiteside, |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1966       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Nigrospora   | ZM, US    | Cob,   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| oryzae*       |           | Root,  |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Berk. and    |           | Stem   |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| Broome) Petch |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| mitosporic    |           |        |         |   |        | 1991;      |
| fungi)        |           |        |         |   |        | White,     |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1999;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | Whiteside, |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1966       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Nigrospora   | ZM, US    | Seed,  | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| sphaerica*    |           | Stem   |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Sacc.) E.    |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| Mason         |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| mitosporic    |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
| fungi)        |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Para         | ZM, US    | Leaf   | No      |   | No     | Fa*rr et   |
| phaeosphaeria |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| michotti*     |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (Westend.) O. |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Eriksson      |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| (Locul        |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| oascomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
| Dothideales)  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Penicillium  | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| citrinum*     |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Thom.         |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | Pitt,      |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | 1979;      |
| Eurotiales)   |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Penicillium  | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| cyclopium*    |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Dierckx       |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | Pitt,      |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | 1979;      |
| Eurotiales)   |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Penicillium  | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| funiculosum*  |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Thom          |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Eurotiales)   |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Penicillium  | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| islandicum*   |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Sopp          |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Eurotiales)   |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Penicillium  | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| oxalicum*     |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Currie and    |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| Thom          |           |        |         |   |        | Pitt,      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | 1979;      |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Eurotiales)   |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Pero         | ZM, US    | Leaf   | No      |   | No     | Fa*rr et   |
| nosclerospora |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| sorgi* (W.    |           |        |         |   |        | 1989;      |
| Weston and    |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Uppal) C.G.   |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Shaw          |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| (Oomycetes:   |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
| Pe            |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| ronosporales) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *P            | ZM, US    | Leaf   | No      |   | No     | Fa*rr et   |
| haeoramularia |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| fusimaculans* |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (Atk.) X. Liu |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| and Guo       |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
| mitosporic    |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| fungi )       |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Phomopsis    | ZM        | Seed   | Yes     |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| jaczewskii*   |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Panasenko     |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (Coelomycetes |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| :             |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Diaporthales) |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Phyllosticta | ZM, US    | Leaf   | No      |   | No     | Fa*rr et   |
| zeae* G.L.    |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Stout         |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Coelomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| )             |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | Whiteside, |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1966       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Physoderma   | ZM, US    | Leaf   | Yes     |   | No     | Fa*rr et   |
| maydis*       |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Miyabe        |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (Chyt         |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| ridiomycetes, |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Bla           |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| stocladiales) |           |        |         |   |        | 1991;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | White,     |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1999;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | Whiteside, |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1966       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Pithomyces   | ZM, US    | Leaf   | No      |   | No     | Fa*rr et   |
| chartarum*    |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Berk. and    |           |        |         |   |        | 1989;      |
| M.A. Curtis)  |           |        |         |   |        | Fa*rr et   |
| M.B. Ellis    |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Pleosporales) |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Puccinia     | ZM, US    | Leaf   | No      |   | No     | Fa*rr et   |
| polysora*     |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Underw        |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Pucciniaceae: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Uredinales)   |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | White,     |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1999       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Puccinia     | ZM, US    | F      | No      |   | Yes    | Arthur,    |
| purpurea*     |           | lower, |         |   |        | 1934;      |
| Cooke         |           | Leaf,  |         |   |        | CABI, 2003 |
| (             |           | Seed   |         |   |        |            |
| Pucciniaceae: |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Uredinales)   |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Puccinia     | ZM, US    | Leaf   | No      |   | No     | Fa*rr et   |
| sorghi*       |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Schwein.      |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Pucciniaceae: |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| Uredinales)   |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | White,     |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1999       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Pyrenophora  | ZM, US    | F      | No      |   | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| teres*        |           | lower, |         |   |        |            |
| Drechsler     |           | Leaf,  |         |   |        |            |
|               |           | Seed   |         |   |        |            |
| (P            |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| leosporaceae: |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Dothideales)  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Pythium      | ZM, US    | Root   | No      |   | No     | CABI,      |
| ap            |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| hanidermatum* |           |        |         |   |        | McGee,     |
| (Edson)       |           |        |         |   |        | 1988       |
| Fitzp.        |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (Pythiaceae:  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Pythiales)    |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Pythium      | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | No      |   | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| myriotylum*   |           | Root,  |         |   |        |            |
| Drechsler     |           | Stem   |         |   |        |            |
| (Pythiaceae:  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Pythiales)    |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Rhizoctonia  | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| solani* Kühn  |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Cerat        |           |        |         |   |        | 1989;      |
| obasidiaceae: |           |        |         |   |        | Fa*rr et   |
| Cera          |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| tobasidiales) |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | White,     |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1999       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Rhizopus     | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| oryzae* Went  |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| and Prinsen   |           |        |         |   |        | 1989;      |
| Geerligs      |           |        |         |   |        | Fa*rr et   |
| (Zygomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Mucorales)    |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Rhizopus     | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| rhi           |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| zopodiformis* |           |        |         |   |        | 1989;      |
| (Cohn) Zopf   |           |        |         |   |        | Fa*rr et   |
| in Schenk     |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Zygomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| Mucorales)    |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Rhizopus     | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| stolonifer*   |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Ehrenb.:Fr.) |           |        |         |   |        | 1989;      |
| Vuill.        |           |        |         |   |        | Fa*rr et   |
| (Zygomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Mucorales)    |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *             | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| Sphacelotheca |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| reiliana*     |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| (Kühn) G.P.   |           |        |         |   |        | Fle*tt et  |
| Clinton       |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Mic          |           |        |         |   |        | 1996;      |
| robotryaceae: |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Mi            |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| crobotryales) |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | White,     |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1999;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | Whiteside, |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1966       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *             | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| Stenocarpella |           | Seed,  |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| macrospora*   |           | Stem,  |         |   |        | 1989;      |
| (Earle)       |           |        |         |   |        | Fa*rr et   |
| Sutton        |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (syn*Diplodia |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| macrospora*)  |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| (Coelom       |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| ycetesmitotic |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| fungi)        |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *             | ZM, US    | Seed,  | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| Stenocarpella |           | Stem   |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| maydis*       |           |        |         |   |        | 1989;      |
| (Berk.)       |           |        |         |   |        | Fa*rr et   |
| Sutton        |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| Coelomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| )             |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| (syn*Diplodia |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
| maydis*)      |           |        |         |   |        | 1991;      |
| (Coelom       |           |        |         |   |        | White,     |
| ycetesmitotic |           |        |         |   |        | 1999       |
| fungi)        |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *             | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | Yes     |   | No     | CABI, 2003 |
| Thanatephorus | (HI)      | Root,  |         |   |        |            |
| cucumeris*    |           | Stem   |         |   |        |            |
| (Frank) Donk  |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| (Ba           |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| sidiomycetes) |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Trichoderma  | ZM, US    | Leaf,  | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| viride*       |           | Root,  |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Pers.:fr.     |           | Seed,  |         |   |        | 1989;      |
| (             |           | Stem   |         |   |        | Fa*rr et   |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| Hypocreales)  |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Tritirachium | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| album*        |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | 2003;      |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        | R          |
| Mitotic       |           |        |         |   |        | aemaeke*rs |
| fungi)        |           |        |         |   |        | et al*.,   |
|               |           |        |         |   |        | 1991       |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+
| *Tritirachium | ZM, US    | Seed   | No      |   | Yes    | Fa*rr et   |
| oryzae*       |           |        |         |   |        | al*.,      |
| (Vincens) De  |           |        |         |   |        | 1989;      |
| Hoog          |           |        |         |   |        | Fa*rr et   |
| (             |           |        |         |   |        | al*., 2003 |
| Hyphomycetes: |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| Mitotic       |           |        |         |   |        |            |
| fungi)        |           |        |         |   |        |            |
+---------------+-----------+--------+---------+---+--------+------------+

Notes

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
  **Table 4. Quarantine Pests Selected for Further Analyses**

  **FUNGI**

  *Phomopsis jaczewskii* Panasenko (Coelomycetes: Diaporthales)
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

## 

Thirteen quarantine-significant pests that were associated with the
commodity (*i.e.* corn cob, fruit, seed or silk) were identified in
Table 3. Only one of the thirteen was considered likely to follow the
pathway. Justifications for the assigned pathway determinations are
presented below.

The beetles, *Megalognatha rufiventre*, *Trogoderma granarium* and
*Gonocephalum simplex* were considered unlikely to follow the pathway.
*Megalognatha rufiventre* feeds on corn silk (Grobbelaar, 1993; Muku*ka
et a*l., 2002), which is removed from the commodity prior to shipment
(Duncan, 2003). As a member of the subfamily Galerucinae (Gustafsson,
2001), it is expected to behave similar to other galerucine beetles,
which typically feed on roots or foliage as larvae (Borr*or et a*l.,
1989; CABI, 2003), and are highly mobile as adults (Risch, 1981). The
risk of introducing *M*. *rufiventre* into the Continental United States
with shipments of dehusked, immature baby corn was considered low
because the highly mobile adult is unlikely to remain with the commodity
during processing. The dermestid, *T*. *granarium*, feeds on corn
kernels, but it typically attacks dry, stored seed (CABI, 2003) so it is
unlikely to be associated with the commodity during harvest. Finally,
*G*. *simplex*, typically attacks rotting fruit and germinating seed
(CABI, 2003), so it too is unlikely to be associated with fresh, baby
corn during harvest.

The moths, *Busseola fusca*, *Chilo partellus*, *Cryptophlebia
leucotreta*, *Earias* *insulana*, *Helicoverpa armigera*, *Spodoptera
calamistis* and *Spodoptera littoralis*, were also considered unlikely
to follow the pathway because of the phenological stage of the commodity
at harvest and the well defined postharvest procedures. The harvesting
protocol specifies that the commodity is picked 2-3 days after tassel
emergence to meet the size specifications of 10-25mm in diameter and
60-105mm in length. Post-harvest procedures specify that the husk be
removed and each cob be visually inspected for arthropod pests and
diseases five times before being sealed (in microwavable trays or boil
ready plastic bags) and marked with a lot number (Duncan, 2003).
Randomly selected packages from each lot are held at room temperature
for seven days to evaluate shelf life and pest contamination (Duncan,
2003). These quality control measures will undoubtedly reveal and remove
any arthropod that feeds externally or between the husk and cob prior to
shipment, such as *H*. *armigera* (CABI, 2003). Internal feeders (*i.e.
B*. *fusca*, *C*. *partellus*, *C*. *leucotreta*, *E*. *insulana*, *S*.
*calamistis* and *S*. *littoralis*) were also considered likely to be
detected and removed prior to shipment because full grown larvae are
large (c.a. 15-45mm 0.59-1.77 inches in length) (CABI, 2003) relative to
the size of the commodity (c.a. 60-105mm in length). The risk of neonate
larvae accompanying the commodity and establishing populations in the
Continental United States was assumed to be low because insect mortality
is often concentrated in early instars (Price, 1997) and the commodity
packaging should prevent these larvae from escaping if they did survive.
Also, corn cobs attacked by lepidopteran larvae are typically culled
because they frequently show signs of fungal or bacterial infection
(Ajanga and Hillocks, 2000; CABI, 2003).

The orthopterans, *A*. *speiser* and *N*. *septemfasciata*, were
considered unlikely to follow the pathway because even minimal
processing of the commodity would remove these highly mobile pests
(CABI, 2003; Muku*ka et a*l., 2002) prior to shipment.

Although information on the fungi, *P*. *jaczewskii*, was limited, it
was considered likely to follow the pathway because it infects corn
kernels (Raemaeke*rs et* a*l*., 1991), and the genus is capable of
producing latent infections (Brut*on et a*l., 1998) that could escape
detection during postharvest processing.

## 5. Consequences of Introduction - Economic/Environmental Importance

The consequences of introduction values were estimated by assessing five
risk elements that reflect the biology and ecology of the pests. The
following paragraphs briefly describe USDA (2000) criteria for assigning
the qualitative terms high, medium and low to each risk element.

**Risk Element 1: Climate - Host Interaction**

The current distribution of the pest was gleaned from print and
electronic sources and used in conjunction with USDA Plant Hardiness
Zone maps to determine where the pest could potentially establish in the
Continental United States. If suitable host plants are present in these
areas, then the risk was rated as follows:

Low (1): In a single plant hardiness zone.

Medium (2): In two or three plant hardiness zones.

High (3): In four or more plant hardiness zones.

**Risk Element 2: Host Range**

The risk was rated as a function of host range.

Low (1): Pest attacks a single species or multiple species within a
single genus.

Medium (2): Pest attacks multiple species within a single plant family.

High (3): Pest attacks multiple species among multiple plant families.

**Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential**

The following items were considered when assigning a rating to this risk
element: reproductive patterns (*e.g.*, voltinism, biotic potential),
inherent powers of movement, and factors facilitating dispersal (*e.g.*
wind, water, presence of vectors, human activity).

> Low (1): Pest has neither high reproductive potential nor rapid
> dispersal capability.
>
> Medium (2): Pest has either high reproductive potential OR the species
> is capable of dispersal.
>
> High (3): Pest has high biotic potential (*e.g.* many generations per
> year, many offspring per reproduction, "r-selected" species), AND
> evidence exists that the pest is capable of rapid dispersal (*e.g.*
> over 10 km 6.25 mile/year under its own power via natural forces,
> wind, water, vectors or human-assistance).

**Risk Element 4: Economic Impact**

Introduced pests are capable of causing a variety of direct and indirect
economic impacts. They can lower crop yields by causing plant mortality
or by acting as disease vectors, they can lower commodity value by
increasing production costs and/or by lowering market price, they can
cause foreign or domestic markets to be lost due to the presence of a
new quarantine pest.

Low (1): Pest causes any one or none of the above impacts.

Medium (2): Pest causes any two of the above impacts.

High (3): Pest causes all three of the above impacts.

**Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact**

Environmental impact was assessed by considering: 1.) Whether or not the
pest will cause significant and direct environmental impacts by
disturbing ecosystems and/or reducing biodiversity; 2.) Whether or not
the pest will have direct impacts on species listed as Threatened or
Endangered in Title 50, Chapter 17, Sections 11 and 12 of the Code of
Federal Regulations (50 CFR §17.11 and §17.12) by infesting or infecting
a listed plant. If the pest attacks other species within a listed genus
or other genera within a listed family and preference/no preference
tests have not been conducted with the listed plant and the pest, then
the listed plant was assumed to be a host; 3.) Whether or not the pest
will have indirect impacts on species listed as threatened or endangered
by disrupting sensitive, critical habitat; 4.) Whether or not
introduction of the pest will stimulate chemical and/or biological
control programs.

> Low (1): None of the above would occur; it is assumed that
> introduction of a non-indigenous pest will have some environmental
> impact (by definition, introduction of a non-indigenous species
> affects biodiversity).
>
> Medium (2): One of the above would occur.
>
> High (3): Two or more of the above would occur.

A Cumulative Risk Rating was calculated by summing risk elements 1-5 and
assigned a qualitative value:

> Low: 5-8 points
>
> Medium: 9-12 points
>
> High: 13-15 points

+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Phomopsis jaczewskii*    | **Risk   |
| Panasenko**                                               | Value**  |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| **Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | Medium   |
|                                                           | (2)      |
| *Phomopsis jaczewskii* has been reported from Zambia      |          |
| (Raemaeke*rs et* a*l*., 1991) and India (Fa*rr et* a*l*., |          |
| 2003). Based on this distribution, it is estimated that   |          |
| *P*. *jaczewskii* could become established in the         |          |
| Continental United States in USDA Hardiness Zones 10 and  |          |
| 11. One or more of its potential hosts occur in these     |          |
| Zones (USDA-NRCS, 2003).                                  |          |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| **Risk Element 2: Host Range**                            | Medium   |
|                                                           | (2)      |
| *Phomopsis jaczewskii* reportedly attacks *Sorghum        |          |
| vulgare* (Rajak, 1981), *Triticum aestivum* (Fa*rr et*    |          |
| a*l*., 2003) and *Zea mays* (Raemaeke*rs et* a*l*.,       |          |
| 1991).                                                    |          |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| **Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential**                   | High (3) |
|                                                           |          |
| *Phomopsis jaczewskii* produces small (210-270um wide)    |          |
| pycnidia that develop within host tissues (Behe*ra et     |          |
| a*l., 1972). The pycnidia emerge from host tissues and    |          |
| release numerous, small (15.5-30um long), bent spores     |          |
| upon maturation (Behe*ra et a*l., 1972). These spores can |          |
| be dispersed locally by rain and over long distances by   |          |
| animals (including man) and wind (Agrios, 1997).          |          |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| **Risk Element 4: Economic Impact**                       | Low (1)  |
|                                                           |          |
| *Phomopsis* species are often associated with blights,    |          |
| wilts and rots (Horst, 2001); however, yield losses are   |          |
| not reported in the literature for *P*. *jaczewskii* and  |          |
| are assumed to be minimal. In fact, McGee (1988) reported |          |
| that *Phomopsis* rot of seed corn is economically         |          |
| insignificant. If this pest becomes established in the    |          |
| Continental United States, it is likely to cause foreign  |          |
| and domestic markets to be lost because *P*. *jaczewskii* |          |
| is not widely distributed and would be considered a       |          |
| quarantine pest by most governments.                      |          |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| **Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact**                  | Low (1)  |
|                                                           |          |
| *Phomopsis jaczewskii* is not known to attack any species |          |
| listed as threatened or endangered in the Continental     |          |
| United States, nor genera that contain threatened or      |          |
| endangered species (USFWS, 2002), so the Environmental    |          |
| Impact is rated Low.                                      |          |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+

+--------------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| **Table 5.   |         |        |        |        |        |         |
| Risk Rating  |         |        |        |        |        |         |
| for          |         |        |        |        |        |         |
| Consequences |         |        |        |        |        |         |
| of           |         |        |        |        |        |         |
| In           |         |        |        |        |        |         |
| troduction** |         |        |        |        |        |         |
+--------------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| **Pest**     | **Risk  | **Risk | **Risk | **Risk | **Risk | **Cum   |
|              | Element | E      | E      | E      | E      | ulative |
|              | 1**     | lement | lement | lement | lement | Risk    |
|              |         | 2**    | 3**    | 4**    | 5**    | R       |
|              | **      |        |        |        |        | ating** |
|              | Climate | **Host | **Dis  | **Ec   | **En   |         |
|              | -**     | R      | persal | onomic | viron- |         |
|              |         | ange** | Poten  | Im     | mental |         |
|              | **Host  |        | tial** | pact** | Im     |         |
|              | Intera  |        |        |        | pact** |         |
|              | ction** |        |        |        |        |         |
+--------------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| *Phomopsis   | Medium  | Medium | High   | Low    | Low    | Medium  |
| jaczewskii*  | (2)     | (2)    | (3)    | (1)    | (1)    | (9)     |
+--------------+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc66760168 .anchor}**6. Likelihood of Introduction -
Quantity Imported and Pest Opportunity**

Cumulative Risk Ratings for the likelihood of introduction were
estimated from the quantity of the commodity imported annually and the
probability that a pest would survive post-harvest treatment and
shipment, enter the Continental United States undetected, and arrive in
an area with a climate and host plants that supported reproduction
(USDA, 2000). Cumulative Risk Ratings for the likelihood of introduction
were summarized in Table 6.

**Quantity Imported Annually**

The government of Zambia indicated their intention to import
approximately 16, 40-foot-long shipping containers of baby corn into the
Continental United States annually. This quantity was assigned a risk
rating of medium in accordance with the template document, *Guidelines
for Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessments, Version 5*.*02* (USDA,
2000).

**Survive Postharvest Treatment**

Fungi in the genus *Phomopsis* can produce latent infections (Brut*on et
a*l., 1998) that would go undetected by inspectors, so *P*. *jaczewskii*
was assigned a medium risk for this sub-element. Obviously infected ears
of baby corn would be culled during postharvest processing.

**Survive Shipment**

The optimum temperature for shipping sweet corn is between 0-1.5°C
(Suslow and Cantwell, 2002). Fungal growth may be inhibited at these
temperatures, as most imperfect fungi have growth minima above 0°C
(Griffin, 1994), but mortality is not expected so *P. jaczewskii* was
given a high risk for this sub-element.

**Not Detected at Port of Entry**

The probability inspectors detect a pathogen at the port of entry
depends on how well the symptoms are expressed in the commodity.
*Phomopsis* species generally produce a creamy white fungal growth on
corn (McGee, 1988), which would be difficult to detect. The slow growth
of *Phomopsis* on corn also makes the fungus difficult to detect
(Nwigwe, 1974). For these reasons *P. jaczewskii* was rated high risk
for Not Detected at Port of Entry.

**Moved to Suitable Habitat**

Sweet corn has widespread acceptance among consumers in the United
States, which means that markets exist in all parts of the United
States. As a result, some infected corn is likely to arrive in regions
suitable for pest survival. The risk ratings for this sub-element were
based on the area of the Continental United States that each pest could
potentially establish. *Phomopsis jaczewskii* was rated low because it
could establish in USDA Hardiness Zones 10 and 11, which represent an
estimated 10% of the United States.

**Contact with Host Material**

*Phomopsis jaczewskii* was rated high for this sub-element because
spores can be dispersed over long distances by wind (Agrios, 1997), and
its hosts (*i.e.* corn, wheat and sorghum) are common throughout the
Continental United States (USDA- NRCS, 2002).

  ---------------- ------------ ------------- ------------ ---------- ----------- ------------ --------------
  **Table 6. Risk                                                                              
  Rating for                                                                                   
  Likelihood of                                                                                
  Introduction**                                                                               

  **Pest**         **Quantity   **Survive     **Survive    **Not      **Moved to  **Contact    **Cumulative
                   Imported     Postharvest   Shipment**   Detected   Suitable    with Host    Risk Rating**
                   Annually**   Treatment**                at Port of Habitat**   Material**   
                                                           Entry**                             

  *Phomopsis       Medium (2)   Medium (2)    High (3)     High (3)   Low (1)     High (3)     Medium (14)
  jaczewskii*                                                                                  
  ---------------- ------------ ------------- ------------ ---------- ----------- ------------ --------------

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc66760169 .anchor}**7. Conclusion---Pest Risk
Potential and Pests Requiring Phytosanitary Measures**

Pest Risk Potentials, which are summations of the Consequences of
Introduction and Likelihood of Introduction values, were recorded in
Table 7. Pest Risk Potential is an estimation of the risk associated
with importation of the commodity in the absence of any mitigative
measures. According to the template document, *Guidelines for
Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessments, Version 5*.*02* (USDA, 2000),
port of entry inspection provides sufficient phytosanitary security for
pests assigned low pest risk potentials, while specific phytosanitary
measures may be necessary for medium pest risk potentials and are
strongly recommended for high pest risk potentials.

  ---------------------- ---------------- ---------------- ---------------
  **Table 7. Pest Risk                                     
  Potential**                                              

  **Pest**               **Consequences   **Likelihood of  **Pest Risk
                         of               Introduction**   Potential**
                         Introduction**                    

  *Phomopsis jaczewskii* Medium (9)       Medium (14)      Medium (23)
  ---------------------- ---------------- ---------------- ---------------

# C. Contributors (in alphabetical order)

K.E. Colpetzer, Entomologist, CPHST, PERAL

R.A. Duncan, Agriculturist, CPHST, PERAL

S.P. Robertson, Entomologist, CPHST, PERAL

# D. Literature Cited

[^1]: Corn smut galls (*[Ustilago]{.underline}* *[maydis]{.underline}*)
    are tumor-like and are covered with glistening, greenish to
    silvery-white tissue. The galls might be found on any above ground
    part.

[^2]: ZM = Zambia; US = United States of America (specific states were
    listed only if the distribution was limited; FL = Florida; HI =
    Hawaii)

[^3]: Species was considered unlikely to attack fresh, baby corn or
    follow the pathway because it is primarily a stored product pest
    (CABI, 2003; Papachristos and Stamopoulos, 2002).

[^4]: See discussion following Table 4.

[^5]: Pests listed at the level of genus or higher were not analyzed
    because a lack of specific information precluded analysis.

[^6]: *Atherigona orientalis* was considered unlikely to follow the
    pathway because no member of the subgenus *Acrotochaeta* is known to
    be an obligate phytophage (CABI, 2003). Most are saprophages that
    develop in rotting or damaged fruit (CABI, 2003), which is likely to
    be culled during postharvest treatment.

[^7]: Highly mobile arthropods that fed externally on the commodity were
    considered unlikely to follow the pathway because minimal processing
    of the commodity would remove these pests prior to shipment.

[^8]: Not transmitted by seed (ICTV, 2002)