# GRAND CHALLENGE FOR BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH 

# IN HYDROGEN STORAGE

#  STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES

#### **INTRODUCTION**

In his January 2003 State of the Union Address, President Bush announced
the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative -- "so that America can lead the world in
developing clean, hydrogen-powered automobiles." Hydrogen storage
technology - the ability to carry enough hydrogen on-board a vehicle to
enable 300-mile vehicle range - is critical to the success of the
President's initiative. At the present time, no existing hydrogen
storage technology meets the challenging performance required to make
hydrogen-powered automobiles competitive with traditional vehicles. New
and innovative ideas are needed. Therefore, the Department of Energy
(DOE) is issuing a **"Grand Challenge"** to the scientific community to
solicit applications for research, development and demonstration of
hydrogen storage materials and technologies. The DOE Office of Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy and the Office of Science are
collaborating on basic and applied research to encourage
multi-disciplinary efforts. The Department envisions that the research
and development activities funded through this solicitation will form
the basis for a National Hydrogen Storage Project. In addition to
applied research and development, this Project will include substantial
basic research aimed at improving the understanding of the fundamental
mechanisms of hydrogen storage in materials. The basic research needs
for hydrogen storage are discussed later in the document.

The overall goal of the DOE hydrogen storage activity is to develop and
demonstrate viable hydrogen storage technologies for transportation and
stationary applications. The objectives are:

-   By 2005, develop and verify on-board hydrogen storage systems
    achieving 1.5 kWh/kg (4.5 wt%), 1.2 kWh/L, and \$6/kWh.

-   By 2010, develop and verify on-board hydrogen storage systems
    achieving 2 kWh/kg (6 wt%), 1.5 kWh/L, and \$4/kWh.

-   By 2015, develop and verify on-board hydrogen storage systems
    achieving 3 kWh/kg (9 wt%), 2.7 kWh/L, and \$2/kWh.

-   By 2015, develop and verify low-cost, compact hydrogen storage
    systems, as required for hydrogen infrastructure needs and
    portable/stationary power systems.

The technical targets for on-board hydrogen storage systems (see
Table 1) were established through the FreedomCAR partnership between DOE
and the U.S. Council for Automotive Research (USCAR).

This solicitation requests applications in two categories:

> Category 1. Research and development of metal hydrides, chemical
> hydrides, and carbon-based hydrogen storage materials to be conducted
> at virtual Centers of Excellence led by DOE national laboratories and
> including universities, industry, and/or other federal/national
> laboratories as partners. Only DOE national laboratories may submit
> joint application packages in response to Category 1. The proposed
> university and industry efforts must be part of those application
> packages.
>
> Category 2. Research and development through cooperative agreements in
> the following areas:

-   new materials or technologies for hydrogen storage

-   compressed and liquid hydrogen tank technologies

-   off-board hydrogen storage systems

> Category 2 is open to universities and industry; federal or national
> laboratories may be partners.

A summary of planned funding, project duration, anticipated number of
projects, and minimum cost share for each topic is provided in Table 2.
Funding levels are dependent on the availability of funds.

To prepare for this \"Grand Challenge,\" DOE held a series of planning
workshops to address basic and applied research needs for hydrogen
storage technologies, and identifying an implementation strategy for a
National Hydrogen Storage Project. Summaries of these planning meetings
are provided to applicants later in the document.

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **^Table\ 1.                                                          |
| \ DOE\ Technical\ Targets:\ On-Board\ Hydrogen\ Storage\ Systems^**a, |
| b, c                                                                  |
|                                                                       |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Storage Parameter    | Units      | 2005   | 2010  | 2015     |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| |                      |            |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| |                      |            |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Usable,              | kW^.^hr/kg | 1.5    | 2     | 3        |     |
| | specific-energy from |            |        |       |          |     |
| | H~2~                 | (kg        | (      | (     | (0.09)   |     |
| |                      | H~2~/kg)   | 0.045) | 0.06) |          |     |
| | (net useful          |            |        |       |          |     |
| | energy/max system    |            |        |       |          |     |
| | mass)^d^             |            |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| |                      |            |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Usable energy        | kW^.^hr/L  | 1.2    | 1.5   | 2.7      |     |
| | density from H~2~    |            |        |       |          |     |
| | (net useful          | (kg        | (      | (0    | (0.081)  |     |
| | energy/max system    | H~2~/L)    | 0.036) | .045) |          |     |
| | volume)              |            |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| |                      |            |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Storage system cost  | \          | 6      | 4     | 2        |     |
| | ^e^                  | $/kWe^.^hr |        |       |          |     |
| |                      | net        | \      | \(    | \(67\)   |     |
| |                      |            | (200\) | 133\) |          |     |
| |                      | (\$/kg     |        |       |          |     |
| |                      | H~2~)      |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| |                      |            |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Fuel cost ^f^        | \$ per     | 3      | 1.5   | 1.5      |     |
| |                      | gallon     |        |       |          |     |
| |                      | gasoline   |        |       |          |     |
| |                      | equivalent |        |       |          |     |
| |                      | at pump    |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Operating ambient    | °C         | -20/50 | -     | -40/60   |     |
| | temperature^g^       |            | (sun)  | 30/50 | (sun)    |     |
| |                      |            |        | (sun) |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Cycle life (1/4 tank | Cycles     | 500    | 1000  | 1500     |     |
| | to full)^h^          |            |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Cycle life           | \% of mean | N/A    | 90/90 | 99/90    |     |
| | variation^i^         | (min) @ %  |        |       |          |     |
| |                      | confidence |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Minimum and Maximum  | °C         | -      | -3    | -40/100  |     |
| | delivery temperature |            | 20/100 | 0/100 |          |     |
| | of H~2~ from tank    |            |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Minimum full flow    | (g/sec)/kW | 0.02   | 0.02  | 0.02 FC  |     |
| |                      |            |        | FC    |          |     |
| |                      |            |        |       | 0.033    |     |
| |                      |            |        | 0.027 | ICE      |     |
| |                      |            |        | ICE   |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Minimum delivery     | Atm (abs)  | 2.5 FC | 2.5   | 2 FC     |     |
| | pressure of H~2~     |            |        | FC 35 |          |     |
| | from tank FC=fuel    |            | 10 ICE | ICE   | 35 ICE   |     |
| | cell, I=ICE          |            |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Transient response   | Sec        | 0.5    | 0.5   | 0.5      |     |
| | 10%-90% and 90%-0%   |            |        |       |          |     |
| | ^j^                  |            |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Start time to full   | Sec        | 4      | 0.5   | 0.5      |     |
| | flow at 20°C         |            |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Start time to full   | Sec        | 8      | 4     | 2        |     |
| | flow at minimum      |            |        |       |          |     |
| | ambient              |            |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Refueling rate^k^    | kg         | 0.5    | 1.5   | 2        |     |
| |                      | H~2~/min   |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Loss of useable      | (g/hr)/kg  | 1      | 0.1   | 0.05     |     |
| | hydrogen^l^          | H~2~       |        |       |          |     |
| |                      | stored     |        |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Permeation and       | Scc/hr     | F      |       |          |     |
| | leakage^m^           |            | ederal |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | e      |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | nclose |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | d-area |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | saf    |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | ety-st |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | andard |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Toxicity             |            | Meets  |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | or     |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | e      |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | xceeds |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | appl   |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | icable |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | sta    |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | ndards |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Safety               |            | Meets  |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | or     |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | e      |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | xceeds |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | appl   |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | icable |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | sta    |       |          |     |
| |                      |            | ndards |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
| | Purity^n^            |            | 98%    |       |          |     |
| +----------------------+------------+--------+-------+----------+     |
|                                                                       |
| ^a^ Based on the lower heating value of hydrogen and a minimum of     |
| 300-mile vehicle range; targets are for complete                      |
|                                                                       |
| system, including tank, material, valves, regulators, piping,         |
| mounting brackets, insulation, added cooling capacity, and/or other   |
| balance-of-plant components.                                          |
|                                                                       |
| ^b^ Unless otherwise indicated, all targets are for both internal     |
| combustion engine and for fuel cell use, based on the                 |
|                                                                       |
| low likelihood of power-plant specific fuel being commercially        |
| viable.                                                               |
|                                                                       |
| ^c^ Systems must be energy efficient - for reversible systems,        |
| greater than 90% energy efficient; for systems                        |
|                                                                       |
| generated off-board, greater than 70% life-cycle efficiency. Useful   |
| constants: 0.2778kWhr/MJ, \~33.3kWhr/gal gasoline equivalent.         |
|                                                                       |
| ^d^ Generally the 'full' mass (including hydrogen) is used, for       |
| systems that gain weight, the highest mass during                     |
|                                                                       |
| discharge is used.                                                    |
|                                                                       |
| ^e^ 2003 US\$; total cost includes any component replacement if       |
| needed over 15 years or 150,000 mile life.                            |
|                                                                       |
| ^f^ 2001 US\$; includes off-board costs such as liquefaction,         |
| compression, regeneration, etc; 2015 target based on H~2~ production  |
| cost of \$1.50/gasoline gallon equivalent untaxed.                    |
|                                                                       |
| ^g^ Stated ambient temperature plus full solar load                   |
|                                                                       |
| ^h^ Equivalent to 100,000; 200,000; and 300,000 miles respectively    |
| (current gasoline tank spec).                                         |
|                                                                       |
| ^i^ All targets must be achieved at end of life                       |
|                                                                       |
| ^j^ At operating temperature.                                         |
|                                                                       |
| ^k^ 2015 target is equivalent to 3-5 minutes refueling time.          |
|                                                                       |
| ^l^ Total hydrogen lost from the storage system, including leaked or  |
| vented hydrogen; relates to loss of range.                            |
|                                                                       |
| ^m^ Total hydrogen lost into the environment [as]{.underline} H~2~;   |
| relates to hydrogen accumulation in enclosed spaces. Storage system   |
| must comply with CSA/NGV2 standards for vehicular tanks. This         |
| includes any coating or enclosure that incorporates the envelope of   |
| the storage system.                                                   |
|                                                                       |
| ^n^ For fuel cell systems: less than 10 ppb sulfur, 1ppm carbon       |
| monoxide, 1 ppm carbon dioxide, 1ppm ammonia, 100 ppm hydrocarbons,   |
| and water, oxygen, nitrogen and argon can\'t exceed 19000 ppm.        |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ######### Table 2. Summary of Planned DOE Funding\*                   |
|                                                                       |
| **\* *All funding is subject to availability of funds through the     |
| annual appropriations process*.**                                     |
|                                                                       |
| *\*\* A minimum cost share of 20% is required for the university and  |
| business portions of*                                                 |
|                                                                       |
| *the Center's annual operating budget. No cost share is required for  |
| the national laboratory*                                              |
|                                                                       |
| *portions of the Center's annual operating budget.*                   |
|                                                                       |
| ###                                                                   |
|                                                                       |
| ### APPLICATIONS ARE SOLICITED IN THE FOLLOWING TOPICS:               |
|                                                                       |
| ###                                                                   |
|                                                                       |
| ### Category 1. National Laboratory Centers of Excellence             |
|                                                                       |
| The overarching technical challenge for hydrogen storage is how to    |
| store enough hydrogen on-board a vehicle to achieve a driving range   |
| of 300 miles or more, within the vehicular constraints of weight,     |
| volume, efficiency, safety, and cost. To meet this challenge,         |
| dramatic increases in both gravimetric and volumetric hydrogen        |
| storage capacities are required, and hydrogen storage system costs    |
| must be reduced. This category addresses Topic 1 which solicits joint |
| application packages from DOE national laboratories to establish      |
| virtual centers addressing the three current materials approaches to  |
| hydrogen storage: complex metal hydrides, chemical hydrides, and      |
| carbon-based materials.                                               |
|                                                                       |
| Topic 1. Virtual Centers for Hydrogen Storage Materials Research and  |
| Development                                                           |
|                                                                       |
| Applications are sought for the establishment of virtual centers of   |
| excellence in hydrogen storage R&D led by a DOE national laboratory   |
| and including universities, industry, and/or other federal/national   |
| laboratories as partners. Applications must describe the technical    |
| approach and work plan used to identify and investigate advanced      |
| material storage approaches that have the potential to achieve 2010   |
| system targets of 2 kWh/kg (6 wt%) and 1.5 kWh/L, as well as other    |
| key targets listed in Table 1. "Virtual" means that the center        |
| participants will not be co-located and that no new physical plant    |
| and only minor capital equipment is required to carry out the R&D     |
| tasks. Rather, the center is a focal point of technical expertise for |
| conducting unified research and development in hydrogen storage. Each |
| center is expected to focus on one of the following classes of        |
| materials for hydrogen storage:                                       |
|                                                                       |
| -   Reversible Metal Hydrides, particularly complex metal hydrides;   |
|                                                                       |
| -   Chemical Hydrides, which would typically be regenerated           |
|     off-board; or                                                     |
|                                                                       |
| -   Carbon-Based Materials, including but not limited to carbon       |
|     nanotubes.                                                        |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

Consideration will be given to materials that fall outside those focus
areas, but the proposal should describe how those materials are related
to the center's objectives.

The centers will be funded for a five-year period consisting of two
phases with a go/no-go decision point at the end of the first phase.
Phase 1, three years in length, is to include both basic and applied
research and is intended to demonstrate technical feasibility of the
storage material, as well as to develop greater understanding of the
dynamics of hydrogen storage in materials. Phase 2, two years in length,
is intended to continue basic and applied research and to address
further technology development, and demonstration in a prototype
hydrogen storage system with a capacity of 1 kg of available hydrogen.

Applications submitted in response to this topic must describe in detail
all tasks necessary to bring today's state-of-the-art technology to
successful demonstration toward the 2010 system performance targets,
including those tasks to be performed by center partners. The
application must also include a comprehensive project management plan
that includes intellectual property agreements among its team members.

The role of the lead laboratory in each center is to provide technical
and programmatic cohesiveness and guidance to the team. The lead
laboratory is expected to build on and to exploit the synergy of the
collective technical expertise of team members by maximizing individual
contributions while minimizing duplication of effort. Finally, the lead
laboratory will be responsible and accountable to DOE for the overall
technical progress of the center.

The level of effort and funding of the lead laboratory should constitute
33 % of the total center funding. Each center should include 7
universities to be funded at \$300K per year. National laboratories may
apply as the lead for only one center, although they may, and are
encouraged to, be a team member on other center applications. Industry
participation in the centers is also encouraged. The DOE Golden Field
Office will execute and administer cooperative agreements for the
university and industry partners. National laboratories will be funded
through Annual Operating Plans and universities and industry through
Financial Assistance Awards. Duration of projects and funding is
provided in Table 2. Universities and industry partners must contribute
a minimum of 20% cost share of the total funding for their tasks.

# 

The Phase 1 deliverables for this topic will be:

-   Annual oral and written reports describing the proof-of-feasibility
    of new hydrogen storage materials and/or concepts, including the
    technical data and other results indicating status toward the 2010
    targets;

-   Material samples resulting from the R&D effort for independent,
    standardized testing at a facility specified by DOE.

The Phase 2 deliverables will be:

-   Annual oral and written reports describing the demonstration and
    performance status of the materials and/or technologies developed in
    the center in a hydrogen storage system relative to the 2010 system
    targets, including the technical data and other results generated by
    the R&D effort.

-   One-kilogram material samples resulting from the R&D effort for
    independent, standardized testing at a facility specified by DOE.

###### **Category 2. Cooperative Agreements for R&D of Hydrogen Storage** 

This category invites applications responding to Topics 2-4 from
universities and industry for cooperative agreements for R&D of new
storage materials, on-board compressed and liquid hydrogen storage tank
technologies, and off-board hydrogen storage systems.

**Topic 2. New Classes of Materials for Hydrogen Storage**

The goal of this topic is to identify and determine the feasibility of
new materials and approaches for storing hydrogen on-board a vehicle.
Applications to identify and investigate advanced concepts for material
storage that have the potential to achieve 2010 targets of 2 kWh/kg
(6wt%) and 1.5 kWh/L, as well as the other targets listed in table 1,
are solicited. Successful applications are expected to recognize and
address the remaining technical issues through innovative applied
research and development. Applicants are expected to provide evidence of
outstanding scientific capability as evidenced by a record of technical
accomplishments. While this topic focuses on new storage materials,
innovative research and development projects addressing complex metal
hydrides, chemical hydrides, or carbon structures will also be
considered.

Two-phase, four-year research and development projects are solicited in
this topic. Cooperative agreements with a minimum of 20% cost share will
be awarded to successful applicants. See Table 2 for additional funding
information. Universities and industry are invited to submit
applications. Universities are encouraged to team with national
laboratories and/or industry to facilitate technology transfer. The
first phase of the projects, two years in length, will determine
technical feasibility of the approach. A go/no-go decision point just
prior to the end of Phase 1 will determine if the project proceeds to
continued development in the two-year Phase 2 period .

The Phase 1 deliverables for this topic will be:

-   Annual oral and written reports describing the proof-of-feasibility
    of new hydrogen storage materials and/or concepts, including the
    technical data and other results indicating status toward the 2010
    targets;

-   Material samples resulting from the R&D effort for independent,
    standardized testing at a facility specified by DOE.

The Phase 2 deliverables will be:

-   Annual oral and written reports describing the demonstration and
    performance status of the materials and/or technologies developed in
    a hydrogen storage system relative to the 2010 system targets,
    including the technical data and other results generated by the R&D
    effort.

-   One-kilogram material samples resulting from the R&D effort for
    independent, standardized testing at a facility specified by DOE.

**Topic 3. On-Board Compressed and Liquid Hydrogen Storage Tank
Technologies**

Compressed and liquid hydrogen technologies represent the
state-of-the-art for hydrogen storage systems. They will be instrumental
in the near-term demonstration of hydrogen-powered vehicles and fueling
stations. Because these technologies are near commercialization, the DOE
program will provide limited funding to address the remaining R&D
issues.

Applications are solicited from industry for three-year R&D projects to
develop advanced technologies for compressed gas, cryogas, and cryogenic
liquid storage tanks that meet the applicable 2005 or 2010 performance
targets listed in Table 1. Applications may include university and/or
national laboratory partners. Technical areas requiring additional
research and development include, but are not necessarily limited to,
the following:

-   Development of conformable tanks and tanks with unusual shapes.

-   Assessment of the potential of new materials and methods to reduce
    boil-off in cryogenic tanks. (The boil-off of liquid hydrogen
    requires venting and results in an energy penalty and a potential
    safety hazard, particularly when the vehicle is in an enclosed
    environment.)

The deliverables for this topic are annual oral and written reports
documenting the validation of the technology in a full-scale system,
including performance data relative to the 2005 or 2010 targets.
Functionality and performance of components must be demonstrated in a
hydrogen storage system; tanks must be demonstrated in a
hydrogen-powered vehicle. Applications should describe how the proposed
technology will meet the applicable 2005 performance targets contained
in Table 1.

**Topic 4. Off-Board Hydrogen Storage Systems**

The overall goal of the off-board storage effort is to develop low-cost,
energy efficient technology for required storage systems within the
hydrogen delivery system infrastructure.

Off-board hydrogen storage systems will be needed throughout the
hydrogen delivery infrastructure. For example, storage is required at
hydrogen production sites, hydrogen refueling stations, and stationary
power sites. Temporary storage may also be required at terminals and/or
intermediate storage locations. Requirements for off-board bulk storage
are generally less restrictive than on-board requirements; for example,
there may be no or less restrictive weight requirements, but there may
be volume or "footprint" requirements. In this solicitation off-board
hydrogen storage considerations will be limited to storage systems at
vehicle refueling stations where performance requirements include
capacity, footprint, leak rate, and safety. A typical refueling station
will be delivering 200-1500 kg/day of hydrogen.

Cost, both capital and operating, is a major factor in off-board
hydrogen storage; economics will be a major factor in the ultimate
implementation of hydrogen infrastructure. At the present time, lack of
infrastructure definition complicates determination of important
off-board storage requirements such as quantity, operating parameters
(pressure range, temperatures, cycling, etc.) that will be dictated by
the development of the surrounding production, delivery, and consumption
infrastructure.

The following performance requirements for refueling stations were
identified at the recent DOE Hydrogen Delivery Workshop:

> Table 3. Performance Requirements for Off-Board
>
> Hydrogen Storage in a Fueling Station^a,b^

  ----------------------------------------------- -----------------------
  **Performance Requirement**                     **Value**

  Total Hydrogen Stored                           \<50 t

  System Volume                                   \<20 m^3^/t

  Operating Temperature Range                     -40 to 60^o^C

  Delivery Flow Rate                              \>1 kg/min

  Response Time (0 to 90%)                        30 sec

  Hydrogen Purity                                 98 %^c^

  Cycle Life (fills)                              10,000

  Operational Lifetime                            15 years

  Permeation Loss                                 \<1 scc/hr/l
  ----------------------------------------------- -----------------------

> ^a^ Targets are preliminary and subject to change.
>
> ^b^ All storage tanks must comply with ASME standard for
>
> pressurized tanks - safety factor of 3.5, etc.
>
> ^c^ For fuel cell systems: less than 10 ppb sulfur, 1ppm carbon
>
> monoxide, 1 ppm carbon dioxide, 1ppm ammonia, 100 ppm
>
> hydrocarbons; and water, oxygen, nitrogen and argon cannot
>
> exceed 19000 ppm.

Applications are sought for two-phase projects of one to three years in
duration to develop lower cost, off-board storage of gaseous hydrogen at
vehicle refueling stations. Phase one, one year in length, is to include
a detailed system design and analysis that quantifies the current
performance and cost of the technology. Based on the results of the
analysis, the applicant will have the option to submit a proposal for
research and development to overcome the barriers to improve the
performance (based on the targets in Table 3) and also to reduce the
cost. Technical areas that have been identified as needing additional
research and development include the following:

-   Comprehensive system analyses and modeling to optimize the design of
    hydrogen storage systems at fueling stations including capital and
    operating cost, materials, footprint, location, capacity, operating
    pressure, and interfacing and connections to dispensing systems.

-   Materials development and design to reduce the cost and footprint of
    high pressure high pressure storage vessels.

-   Design for manufacture to reduce the manufacturing costs of storage
    vessels at high volumes, e.g. 500,000 units/year.

The Phase 1 deliverable for this topic is an oral and written report
documenting the system design and analysis of the current performance
and cost. The Phase 2 deliverable will be defined if and when the Phase
2 option is implemented.

**APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS**

The applications requested under this Solicitation must include detailed
descriptions of all proposed work for the complete project period
(including all phases) and explain how the technical approach will lead
to technologies meeting the applicable targets. Applications must
include a schedule with milestones and critical decision points,
including go/no-go decisions. Applicants must describe the go/no-go
decision points and the performance-based metrics to be used for
evaluation. The application must include a management plan describing
team coordination and communication and each team member's function and
contribution. In accordance with deliverable requirements, applicants
must submit a test plan, to be reviewed and approved by DOE, which
identifies the performance criteria, consistent with applicable
technical targets, to be demonstrated.

Applications must also include a discussion of the lifecycle efficiency
and cost of the proposed storage system. This analysis should consider
the total life of the proposed hydrogen storage system including: raw
material requirements, manufacturing and fabrication processes,
integration of the system into the vehicle or off-board configuration,
useful service life, removal and disposal processes including recycling.
Storage efficiency is defined as the ratio of the hydrogen energy
stored, based on the lower heating value (LHV), on a per fill basis,
that is actually available to the fuel cell power system to the total
energy content of hydrogen loaded into the storage system plus any
energy that is required by the storage system in uptake and/or release
processes, including heat management, on a per fill basis. Cycle life
efficiency is defined as the ratio of the hydrogen energy stored, based
on the lower heating value (LHV), on a per fill basis, that is actually
available as fuel to the fuel cell power system to the total energy
requirements of the storage system, on a per fill basis, over the
lifetime of the system including fabrication, installation, operation,
disposal and/or recycling. Quantitative values should be provided for
the storage efficiency; a qualitative accounting of the energy
requirements is required for the cycle life efficiency. The cost
analysis should identify any high value cost factors associated with
materials and/or processes required to fabricate, install, use and
dispose or remove the storage system from service. Any projected cost
credits that could be realized in the disposal and/or recycling
processes should also be noted. Designs for storage systems that are
totally recyclable are strongly encouraged. Approaches to improving the
efficiency and reducing the cost to meet target values should be
provided.

**BASIC RESEARCH NEEDS FOR HYDROGEN STORAGE MATERIALS**

The DOE Hydrogen, Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies Program has
worked closely with the DOE Office of Basic Energy Sciences to define
the basic research needs for hydrogen storage materials.

There are presently three generic routes known for the storage of
hydrogen in materials:

-   adsorption, e.g. carbon and zeolite materials

-   absorption, e.g. simple metal hydrides

-   chemical reaction, e.g. complex metal hydrides and chemical hydrides

Adsorption may be subdivided into physisorption and chemisorption, based
on the energetics of the adsorption mechanism. Physisorbed hydrogen is
more weakly energetically bound to the material than is chemisorbed
hydrogen. Sorptive processes typically require highly porous materials
to maximize the surface area available for hydrogen sorption to occur,
and to allow for easy uptake and release of hydrogen from the material.
Basic research is needed on size effects of adsorptive processes,
particularly at the nanoscale. Some of the questions that need to be
addressed are:

-   Do sorption mechanisms change as materials decrease in size from the
    microscale to the nanoscale? What is the nature of such changes and
    what are the key factors involved?

-   How can hydrogen chemisorptive processes be enhanced, particularly
    at the nanoscale?

-   Is hydrogen adsorbed molecularly or atomically and what is the
    nature of the bonding to the adsorbant material?

-   What are the hydrogen adsorption sites and what are the activation
    barriers for hydrogen desorption?

-   Are there electronic effects associated with sorptive hydrogen
    mechanisms?

-   How can hydrogen storage be promoted in nanoforms with high surface
    area and what are the effects of nanoform shape?

-   How does hydrogen adsorption influence the properties of the
    absorbent material?

In absorptive hydrogen storage, hydrogen is absorbed directly into the
bulk of the material. In simple crystalline metal hydrides, this
absorption occurs by the incorporation of atomic hydrogen into
interstitial sites in the crystallographic lattice structure. Basic
research is needed on the fundamental mechanisms of hydrogen absorption
in simple metal hydride materials, in particular:

-   How does molecular hydrogen dissociate on the surfaces of materials?

-   Is hydrogen present in the crystal lattice as an atom or as an ion?

-   How do crystallographic defects such as vacancies and dislocations
    influence hydrogen absorption and hydrogen diffusion in a
    crystalline material?

-   What is the effect of grain boundaries, particularly at the
    nanostructural level?

-   What are the mechanisms of hydrogen absorption in amorphous
    materials?

The chemical reaction route for hydrogen storage involves displacive
chemical reactions for both hydrogen generation and hydrogen storage.
For reversible chemical reactions, both hydrogen generation and hydrogen
storage take place by a simple reversal of the chemical reaction as a
result of modest changes in temperature and pressure. Sodium
alanate-based complex metal hydrides are an example. For irreversible
chemical reactions, the hydrogen generation reaction is not reversible
under modest temperature/pressure changes, so that storage requires
larger temperature/pressure changes or alternative chemical reaction
routes. Sodium borohydride is an example. Basic research is needed on
mechanisms that can accelerate the kinetics of both reversible and
irreversible hydrogen storage processes. In particular:

-   What are the mechanisms by which catalysts or dopants accelerate
    kinetics?

-   How does particle size and shape influence kinetics, particularly at
    the nanoscale?

-   What are the influences of grain boundaries and crystallographic
    defects on kinetics?

-   What are the basic mechanisms by which mechanochemical processes,
    e.g. ball-milling, accelerate the kinetics of hydrogen uptake and
    release in some materials?

-   Can irradiative processes be employed to increase kinetics?

Finally, a quest for new hydrogen storage materials is needed. Examples
may be conducting polymers and synthetic organic-inorganic materials.
This may be accomplished through the use of combinatorial experimental
approaches that are guided by theoretical insights. Integrated ab
initio, atomistic, and mesoscopic modeling can provide a framework for
the prediction of trends in hydrogen storage behavior as material
chemistry is modified and as the local atomic environment is altered by
the presence of crystallographic defects. It is particularly important
for understanding hydrogen storage effects at the nanoscale.

**ADDITIONAL GUIDANCE FOR APPLICANTS**

In order to identify the research and development needs for hydrogen
storage technologies, DOE held a series of workshops with the technical
community, including researchers from universities, national
laboratories, and industry. The recommendations of those workshops are
summarized below to provide the applicant with additional information.
This information is meant to describe some of the thinking of the
scientific community and to educate those who may not be familiar with
hydrogen storage approaches and issues. The information is not meant to
limit or to constrain proposed work in any way. Additional resources for
applicants are the Hydrogen, Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies
Research, Development and Demonstration Plan and the FreedomCAR Target
Explanations. These documents or links to them, and the full reports of
the workshops, can be found on the program website
http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/

**1. Hydrogen Storage Materials Workshop**

This workshop began by addressing the targets and technology status for
hydrogen storage systems. Figure 1 presents a comparison of the
performance targets shown in Table 1 and the status of current hydrogen
storage technologies. Three of the primary performance targets are shown
-- specific energy (kWh/kg), energy density (kWh/liter) and storage
system cost (\$/kWh). The target values for 2010 and 2015 are shown on
the left of the figure, and the current status is shown on the right for
5,000- and 10,000-psi compressed hydrogen tanks, liquid hydrogen tanks,
complex metal hydride storage systems, and chemical hydride storage
systems. Representative costs were not available for 10,000-psi tanks
and chemical hydride storage systems. As indicated in the figure, none
of the current hydrogen storage technologies meet the 2010 or 2015
targets.

Figure 1. Comparison of key DOE 2010 and 2015 Hydrogen Storage Targets

versus Current Technology Status

![](media/image1.wmf)

> The focus of this particular workshop was on hydrogen storage
> materials. The conclusions and recommendations of the workshop
> participants are summarized below:

###### 

######  **Complex Metal Hydrides**

-   Continue fundamental studies on NaAlH~4~ as a model system.

-   Identify other hydride materials that have a greater storage
    capacity.

**[Chemical Hydrides]{.underline}**

-   Identify improved/new process chemistry for regeneration.

-   Complete full lifecycle analysis of NaBH~4~.

**[Carbon]{.underline}**

-   Conduct definitive experiments to reproduce and to understand
    storage in nanotubes.

-   Better understand the science to engineer carbon for hydrogen
    storage.

**[Advanced Concepts]{.underline}**

-   Discuss advanced storage concepts further to identify promising new
    materials, and their associated storage systems.

# 

# 2. Compressed and Liquid Hydrogen Storage Workshop

The Compressed and Liquid Hydrogen Workshop recommended research and
development in the following areas:

-   Approaches to reduce materials and manufacturing cost

-   Advanced concepts, e.g. conformable tank structures

######## 

######## Other areas suggested will be covered under the program's Safety activity, e.g. understanding tank failure modes and developing sensors for hydrogen leak detection and sensors to detect tank health, i.e. "smart tanks."

**3. Hydrogen Storage "Think Tank" Meeting**

The goal of the "Think Tank" meeting was to identify new and promising
hydrogen storage technologies, and to obtain \"out-of-the-box\" ideas
from a group of award-winning scientists who did not conduct research in
hydrogen storage. Participants included four Nobel Laureates and seven
elite scientists recognized by the American Chemical Society, the
American Physical Society, and the Presidential Young Investigator
Awards. The group recommended that DOE issue a "Grand Challenge" to
educate the scientific community, create integrated teams (virtual
centers), and explore novel materials and concepts through single
investigator projects.

The group also recommended that hydrogen storage materials research
should include the following:

-   Nano-materials

-   Hgh surface area materials, including carbons

-   Synthetic metals

-   Chemical and metal hydrides, clathrates

**4.** **Basic Energy Science (BES) Workshop on Basic Research for
Hydrogen Production, Storage and Use**

The Hydrogen Storage panel of the workshop focused on identifying
fundamental research needs and opportunities for hydrogen
storage/distribution in both transportation and stationary applications.
The panel discussions were centered on the following four areas: Key
Issues, Metal and Complex Hydrides, Nanoscale and Other Novel Materials,
and Theory and Simulation. The following aspects of the workshop
findings are the focus of this solicitation. The basic research needs
identified at the workshop included:

-   Understanding of the effect of surface and interface on the
    capacity, energetics, kinetics, and thermodynamics of hydrogen
    storage in nanostructured or nano-porous materials.

-   Utilization of computational methods in predicting trends, guiding
    experiments, and identifying new, promising materials for hydrogen
    storage.

A more detailed description of the basic research is provided earlier in
the document.