**The Importance of Multi- and Inter-disciplinary Research on**

**Disasters and for Emergency Management**

David A. McEntire

Emergency Administration and Planning

Department of Public Administration

University of North Texas

P.O. Box 310617

Denton, Texas 76203-0617

\(940\) 565-2996

mcentire@unt.edu

**Abstract**

This introductory chapter discusses the emerging consensus among
scholars and practitioners for multi- and inter-disciplinary approaches
to disasters and emergency management. It explains why such this
strategy is deemed necessary and highlights the benefits of moving
beyond explanations emanating from single or separate fields of study.
The chapter then outlines what the reader can expect from the book and
concludes with a discussion about barriers inhibiting disciplinary
convergence and how they might be overcome.

**Introduction**

In any given emergency or disaster, numerous actors from the public,
private and non-profit sectors arrive at the affected area to protect
life, minimize human suffering, overcome social disruption, deal with
the destruction of property and clean up a degraded environment. This
convergence, as it is widely known, is not limited to post-disaster
activities or the profession of emergency management. Disaster
scholarship is increasingly multi- and inter-disciplinary.[^1]
Researchers from various disciplines study natural, technological and
civil/conflict hazards, and explore their interaction with the causes
and consequences of vulnerability. The following edited volume discusses
research findings and issues important to each discipline in the hope of
finding points of intersection as well as gaps in the literature. In so
doing, the contributing authors also generate recommendations to more
effectively reduce the impact of disasters.

This introductory chapter discusses a growing consensus among scholars
and practitioners for multi- and inter-disciplinary approaches to
disasters and emergency management. It explains why this strategy is
deemed necessary and highlights the benefits of moving beyond
explanations emanating from single or separate fields of study. The
chapter then outlines what the reader can expect from the book and
concludes with a discussion about barriers inhibiting disciplinary
convergence and how they might be overcome.

**A Growing Consensus**

There appears to be much agreement that multi- and inter-disciplinary
approaches are needed to understand and effectively deal with the
complex problems of our day. This is the case in academia in general but
practitioners also appear to value inclusiveness of divergent
viewpoints. Edward O. Wilson's book, *Conscilience: The Unity of
Knowledge* (1999), is a great example of this trend in scholarship.
Writing from the perspective of a Scientific Materialist who is
interested in environmental conservation, Wilson believes that we will
be unable to resolve the problems we are faced with if we do not
integrate knowledge from the natural and social sciences. We accordingly
must rely on "conscilience," or the jumping together or blending of
facts and theory from several disciplines. He states, "as we cross \[the
boundaries of several disciplines\] . . . we find ourselves in an
increasingly unstable and disorienting region. The ring closest to the
intersection \[of various disciplines\], where most real-world problems
exist, is the one in which fundamental analysis is most needed" (Wilson
1999, p. 10). Wilson therefore believes multi-disciplinary perspectives
take into account reality and are most apt to generate solutions for
complicated challenges. His research is typical of many efforts among
scholars to span conceptual issues and diverse fields of study (e.g.,
information sciences, environmental studies, bio-engineering and
chemistry, etc.).

Practitioners in a variety of professions also share an affinity in
synthesizing knowledge and bridging gaps across functional areas. For
instance, those working in Public administration must have an
understanding of politics, economics, and management as well as the
issues pertaining to transportation, public health, human resources and
urban development, among other things. The current concern about
terrorism also involves several areas of expertise. According to Richard
A. Falkenrath:

> Men and women from dozens of different disciplines -- regional
> experts, terrorism analysts, law enforcement officials, intelligence
> officers, privacy specialists, diplomats, military officers,
> immigration specialists, customs inspectors, specific industry
> experts, regulatory lawyers, doctors and epidemiologists, research
> scientists, chemists, nuclear physicists, information technologists,
> emergency managers, firefighters, communications specialists, and
> politicians, to name a few -- are currently involved in homeland
> security (in Damien 2006, xxvi).

Many careers now require employees to be ever-learning, willing to seek
out valuable information about subjects and topics previously believed
to be foreign or irrelevant. And more individuals are finding it in
their benefit to do so. It is reported that Wayne Hale, an engineer and
Deputy Space Shuttle Program Manager at NASA's Space Center in Houston,
said, "you laugh, but when you talk about culture and how people
subconsciously deal with hierarchy and where they fit in within an
organization and whether they feel comfortable in bringing things up . .
. . I'm wishing I'd taken more sociology courses in college." Knowledge
bases that were once held sacrosanct and sufficient are now believed to
be isolated and incomplete.

Such views about the importance of integrated research activities are
especially prevalent in disaster studies and emergency management.
Several decades ago Gilbert White and Eugene Haas recognized that
"little attempt had been made to tap the social sciences to better
understand the economic, social, and political ramifications of extreme
natural events" (cited by Mileti 1999, 1). However, today, Ehren Ngo
asserts "ideally, disaster research is multidisciplinary, and
understanding the impact of disasters . . . requires a synthesis of
various disciplines" (2001, 81). For instance, Mileti observes that
"hazards research now encompasses disciplines such as climatology,
economics, engineering, geography, geology, law, meteorology, planning,
seismology, and sociology" (1999, 2), and his book, *Disasters by
Design*, is a notable example of combining diverse knowledge sets from
an eclectic group of well-known scholars. Britton also states "disaster
research and its close companions (hazard research and risk research)
and their application in the emergency management context is becoming
more multidisciplinary" (1999, 229). Cutter and her colleagues agree
that the study of disaster "is an interdisciplinary endeavor and spans
the divide between the social, natural, engineering and health sciences"
(2003, 7).

Conference panels, including one comprised of Earnest Paylor, Dennis
Wenger and David Applegate, have been devoted to "A Holistic Assessment
of Hazards" (see the 2004 *Natural Hazards Workshop*). In that session,
Havidán Rodriguez examined the "role, contributions and complexities of
interdisciplinary research" (2004). Others have likewise tried to take
an interdisciplinary approach in their research, albeit with a slightly
different focus. McEntire gives priority to the concept of vulnerability
along with its attendant components, and he has illustrated their unique
relation to several hazards, phases, actors, functions, and variables
that influence the impact of disasters[^2] (2004; 2003; 2002; 2002) (see
table 1). His work also illustrates a close relation to several
disciplines (see table 2). Acknowledging the presence of
interdisciplinary research in the field, Brenda Phillips (2003) asks an
interesting question to which there may be no clear or definitive
answer: "is emergency management a discipline or a multi-disciplinary
endeavor?" Gruntfest and Weber seem to agree with the latter view - that
"emergency managers are of no one particular discipline; likewise, the
information they need is not limited to the purview of any one
scientific discipline" (1998, 59).

Those working in the disaster field share sentiments similar to
scholars. In response to the tragic Tsunami in Southeast Asia, the
Public Entity Risk Institute held a conference for risk managers in
2005. It was entitled "Early Warning Systems: Interdisciplinary
Observations and Policies from a Local Government Perspective." Business
continuity planners also appear to value the varied activities of their
disaster partners. The theme for the 2005 *Contingency Planning and
Management Conference* in Las Vegas was "The Future is Convergence:
Discover the Synergy among Business Continuity, Emergency Management and
Security." Emergency managers, too, share interest in expanding the
number of agencies participating in disaster reduction and response.

The need for multi- and inter-disciplinary research is not limited to
scholars and practitioners in the United States. An edited book by Mario
Garza Salinas and Daniel Rodríguez (1998) bears the title *The Disasters
of Mexico: A Multi-disciplinary Perspective*. At the 2003 *FEMA Higher
Education Conference*, Neil Britton, a scholar and practitioner
respected around the Pacific Rim, declared "theory has to transcend
disciplines." Empirical studies from around the world also suggest a
growing interest in collective research methodologies. Ronan et. al.
(2000) assert that "dialogue needs to involve members of the
volcanological community and its multidisciplinary team colleagues."
Moving beyond single discipline approaches is undoubtedly gaining global
acceptance.

As a result of this agreement, there is a concomitant realization that
we must utilize multi-and inter- disciplinary approaches in emergency
management education. Bob Reed (one of the first faculty members in the
Emergency Administration and Planning Program at the University of North
Texas) is reported to have said virtually every discipline is related to
disasters, perhaps with the exception of modern dance[^3] (Neal 2000,
429). Mileti believes "education in hazard mitigation and preparedness
should therefore expand to include interdisciplinary and holistic degree
programs" (1999, 13). He continues, "interdisciplinary problem-focused
degree programs would provide professionals with the tools needed to
access new knowledge from those educated in more traditional ways and
would facilitate the application of interdisciplinary solutions to
tomorrow's problems" (1999, 259). Many academic programs in emergency
management have heeded or preceded this counsel (see one example in
table 3).

**The Need for Multi- or Inter-disciplinary Research**

Studying disasters from the perspective of different disciplines and
assimilating their findings should not be viewed as an end unto itself.
Instead, multi- and inter-disciplinary research should be regarded as
the means to better understand disasters and more effectively formulate
and implement disaster policies. There are a number of reasons why this
is the case.

First, scholars and practitioners are increasingly aware that we are
experiencing more hazards today in terms of number and diversity. There
are a number of natural hazards that may affect us including, but
certainly not limited to, earthquakes, tsunamis, tornadoes, hurricanes,
floods, droughts, wild fires, landslides, avalanches and other events
triggered above, on, or below the earth. There is also the possibility
of more anthropogenic-related incidents such as computer disasters,
infrastructure failures (blackout), hazmat releases, industrial
explosions, railroad derailments, and intentional disasters such as
plane hijackings, anthrax attacks or suicide bombings. Beyond these
hazards, humans may be faced with biological threats such as SARS, Avian
Flu, West Nile, AIDS, Hoof and Mouth disease, etc. With this in mind,
Thomas and Mileti assert that the "hazards managers of the future will
require an understanding of a wider variety of hazards. Few will have
the option of only considering a single hazard, but instead must be more
broadly trained to consider the full range of hazards that exist in a
given area, including natural, technological and terrorist hazards"
(2003, 18). Of course, we must take into account the fact that hazards
are not isolated and they often interact one with another. For instance,
an earthquake may cause a landslide or the breach of a dam. A wildfire
may threaten a nuclear power plant or an industrial facility. A
terrorist attack may include the sabotage of infrastructure, or the use
of chemical or biological weapons. Future emergency managers must have
an appreciation for complex, compound or cascading disasters.

Second, emergency management includes various functions across many
phases. Activities in this profession include: hazard and vulnerability
assessments, land-use planning, structural mitigation, the passing of
laws and ordinances, code enforcement, education of politicians and
citizens, planning, training, exercises, warning, evacuation,
sheltering, debris management, and donations management. Other measures
to be taken are continuity of government, volunteer management, traffic
control, fire suppression, damage assessment, disaster declaration, mass
fatality management, emergency medical care, public information,
individual assistance, public assistance, decontamination, WMD
detection, environmental restoration, etc. Such steps are integral to
emergency management, although finding the proper balance among
mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery activities is difficult
to obtain (Thomas and Mileti 2003, 17).

A third reason why it is important to take a multi- or
inter-disciplinary approach is because there are so many actors involved
in emergency management. At the *Designing Educational Opportunities for
Emergency Managers Workshop* in Denver in 2003, Ellis Stanley, the
Emergency Manager of Los Angeles, stated that in his city departments
from Aging to the Zoo have an important role in preventing or responding
to disasters. Emergency managers are undoubtedly not the only
participants in emergency management, although they do play a central
role. Additional actors include politicians, flood plain managers, fire
and police officials, building code inspectors, meteorologists,
representatives of the American Red Cross, business continuity planners,
and volunteers of religious organizations. There are numerous others in
state and federal government. In many ways, the lines and boundaries
among the levels of government and all departments, agencies and
organizations in the public, private and non-profit sectors are blurring
(e.g., homeland security needs the support and involvement of local
jurisdictions and businesses to be effective). Expertise and experience
in any given sector is not enough due to the current disaster setting.

These points suggest that the traditional disciplines involved in
emergency management may not be able to address -- in spite of their
long history of excellent contributions to the field -- every issue or
answer question relating to disasters. Furthermore, the traditional
approach to the study of emergency management is incomplete or does not
work. It is incorrect to assume that we can study hazards and problems
of vulnerability, develop alternative policy options concerning what
functions and phases to address, choose one route to pursue, and move on
to the next concern (Mileti 1999, 27). In most cases, challenges are
interrelated and complex, and solutions are multi-faceted with both
advantages and disadvantages. "Buy in" and collaboration among all
participants are also vital for success.

**The Merit of Diverse and Integrated Findings**

The advantages of multi- and inter-disciplinary studies are noteworthy.
Collective research projects have the distinct benefit of recognizing
the unique and evolving world of disasters. Thomas and Mileti declare:

> Emergency management is different than it was a decade ago, and not
> yet what it will be in the future. It is more complex and includes
> many more topics than it did just a few years ago. Emergency/hazards
> management includes mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery.
> It demands knowledge and skills in the natural and physical sciences,
> the social and behavioral sciences, aspects of engineering, and
> technology. Emergency/hazards management is, without question,
> interdisciplinary in nature, since it requires drawing on knowledge
> now housed in various disciplines. And still, some continue to even
> debate the question of whether or not emergency/hazards management is
> a discipline at all. Some consider it to be an activity that lives in
> the cracks between several 'real' disciplines, similar to programs
> such as environmental or women's studies. Others analogize
> emergency/hazards management today to the experience of urban and
> regional planning over the last several decades. Regardless of one's
> perspective, those who work in emergency/hazards management today must
> break down traditional academic and professional boundaries (2003,
> 17).

Multi- and inter-disciplinary research also helps to fill in the gaps in
academia. Although there remains much to be learned in any given area of
focus, the major holes in disaster studies today exist across
disciplines and not necessarily within them. Larry Brandt, a Program
Manager at the National Science Foundation, commented during a meeting
to review disaster-related grants that Congress is becoming more
interested in funding cross-disciplinary studies. Such projects are able
to move beyond simplistic descriptions of phenomena, provide
explanations that are rarely self-evident, and span and show
applicability to multiple fields of knowledge as well as different
groups of practitioners.

Utilizing the unique methods and analysis from different disciplines
also allows flexibility in approach. In *Geographical Dimensions of
Terrorism*, Cutter, Richardson and Wilbanks declare " . . . the prime
requisite is versatility and the ability to think without allowing
oneself to be constrained by disciplinary boundaries" (2003, 14). In
other words, it is more appropriate to find suitable methods to answer
inquiries instead of the other way around. This may be another argument
why interdisciplinary research is often regarded as cutting-edge (Mileti
1999, 241).

Integrating the research of scholars from several disciplines also
permits a holistic understanding of the unique and multi-faceted
disaster problems we are facing today. Mileti notes that "researchers
have called for a broader view of the disaster problem" (1999, 35).
Havidan Rodriguez likewise believes "an interdisciplinary approach is
extremely important and necessary in order to generate a comprehensive .
. . understanding of disasters. . . . Consequently, we will be able to
generate scientific knowledge with 'better value and use' to our
society" (2004).

This brings up a final benefit of multi- and inter-disciplinary research
to be discussed here: findings from many fields of study may help to
generate and implement better policies for practitioners. A common view
in the past was that disaster problems could be resolved in isolation
from one another or the broader impact of societal activity (Mileti
1999). For example, new laws pertaining to land use were regarded to be
the solution for rising flood losses, preparedness was regarded as a
function of creating plans and holding exercises, advanced warning
systems were seen as the means to keep people safe in time of disaster,
modern technology was believed to overcome communications difficulties
during response operations, and insurance was seen as the way to promote
recovery. However, it is becoming common knowledge that:

-   new laws require enforcement and a change in political culture;

-   being ready to deal with disaster entails building capabilities and
    not just going through planning motions or drills with no
    follow-through on evaluations;

-   warning systems are useless unless they are based on sound
    principles of human behavior;

-   inter-organizational rivalry is often a greater problem than
    communications equipment that fails;

-   and some cannot afford insurance premiums so their resilience in the
    aftermath of disasters is limited.

In regards to the challenge of terrorism, Falkenrath reminds us that:

> the tendency to organize around disciplines, to adopt "stovepiped"
> approaches to problems, and to optimize solutions for part but not all
> of the problem is too strong among loose collections of unadulterated
> specialists. Only a team of individuals with genuine crosscutting
> knowledge and experience will be able to understand the complexity of
> any particular homeland security challenge, devise an efficient and
> viable strategy for dealing with the problem, and implement this
> strategy effectively" (in Damien 2006, xxvi).

Summarizing many of these points, Britton declares that
multidisciplinary research is a major step forward and he points out
that "there is now a greater likelihood that research and practice can
better capture the reality of relevant issues and their particular
social contexts. The field is gaining confidence that is can identify
relevant universals pertaining to disaster as a phenomenon and, with it,
developing more appropriate methods for managing them" (1999, 229).

Thus, we can no longer accept simplistic views of disasters because they
do not correspond to reality. Emergency managers, if they are to truly
be effective, must have a sound understanding of the "science" of
several disciplines. But, because disasters are often and incorrectly
viewed as uncommon events that are separated from daily human
activities, emergency managers should also gain skills in the "art" of
their craft as well (e.g., sales, marketing, inter-personal
communication, persuasion, argument, public speaking, networking,
political posturing, cajoling, societal mobilization, etc.). Therefore,
multi-faceted disaster problems require intricate assessments and
inter-related solutions promoted by professionals who are respected for
their wide-range of knowledge, skills and abilities.

**A Preview of This Volume**

If the necessity for and advantages of multi-and inter-disciplinary
disaster research are warranted as argued above, there can be much
justification for this edited volume entitled *Disciplines, Disasters
and Emergency Management: The Convergence and Divergence of Concepts,
Issues and Trends from the Research Literature*. The book includes
contributions from a number of scholars who bring their knowledge to
bear on the study of disasters and profession of emergency management.
Many of the authors have long-standing interest in these subjects and
are well known for their work in this area. Others have become
interested in disasters and emergency management recently, but are
nonetheless experts in their respective fields. Disciplines represented
in this book are numerous and include those from both the hard and soft
sciences. Many of these disciplines have been fundamental in the
development of knowledge about disasters, while others are only
beginning to explore their relationship with emergency management.

Although the scope of this book is broad, the edited collection of
chapters should not be construed as a complete discussion of the topics
and issues subsumed under the heading of multi- or inter-disciplinary
approaches to the study of disasters and emergency management. Difficult
choices had to be made about the scope of the project before it began
and as it proceeded. Geography, for instance, is comprised of several
sub-disciplines (including geology, volcanology, hydrology, climatology,
etc.) that could have had their own dedicated chapter. There are also
different types of engineering (e.g., civil, structural, chemical, etc.)
that had to be integrated in a single chapter on the built environment
and other engineering/technological applications. The discipline of
history could have also been incorporated into the book, but there is
already an excellent review of this discipline by Bankoff (2004).
Constraints on space therefore made it difficult permit the inclusion of
these and other areas of specialization. In other cases, the call for
experts to write a chapter about computer science went unheeded. There
were also discussions during the 2005 *FEMA Higher Education Conference*
about what constitutes an academic "discipline," and so some subjects
like social marketing or safety had to be omitted because they were not
viewed as a widely recognized discipline or because regarded to be more
vocational in nature. The decisions made could at times be conceived as
haphazard in that criminal justice was included but not fire science
(even though criminal justice is more common on college campuses and
fire science plays an integral role in emergency management). In spite
of these weaknesses, the book may complement important multi- and
inter-disciplinary research today and provide a road map of issues that
need to be addressed in the future.

In an attempt to bring order to the discussion, the authors in this
volume were asked to respond to several important questions. These
included:

1.  What is the history of your discipline as it relates to disasters?

2.  How does your discipline view or define disasters, hazards,
    vulnerability and emergency management?

3.  What disaster-related issues and concerns are prevalent in your
    field of study?

4.  What contributions does your discipline make to the knowledge base
    of these disruptive and destructive events? (e.g., methods).

5.  How do the findings from your discipline overlap with those of other
    disciplines?

6.  What are the gaps in knowledge in your discipline?

7.  What suggestions does your discipline offer to improve emergency
    management?

8.  What recommendations do you have for your discipline and others in
    the future?

Each author took discretion in answering these questions, and some
chapters cover them more fully and in a direct manner than others. But
the information regarding each discipline and its relation to others and
disasters is impressive and helps to generate new knowledge, identify
gaps in the literature, and provide recommendations for emergency
management.

The book starts off with several disciplines that have laid the
foundational concepts, theory and principles in emergency management.
Jim Kendra discusses the positive impact geography has had on the study
of disasters but points out that scholars in this area need to ensure
that their findings are integrated into policies that impact human
activity. Kendra also keenly observes an interesting tension between the
hazards and vulnerability concepts that must be discussed in further
research. Writing about meteorology, Kent McGregor discusses various
weather related hazards, and provides the state of knowledge regarding
hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, droughts, heat waves and ice storms. His
summative research suggests that prediction models will become more
important in the future and that practitioners must give more attention
to global warming and the transfer of early warning technology to
developing nations. Ana Maria Cruz has a chapter covering the
contributions of engineering to emergency management. She states that
engineering has helped set standards and build safer structures, and she
astutely points out that we must look at the interface of the natural
environment and infrastructure. Thomas Drabek traces the long history of
sociology in emergency management and acknowledges that we still do not
have a widely accepted definition of disaster. His excellent review of
the literature summarizes many findings pertaining to social behavior,
the applicability of different methodologies, and the need to apply
lessons that have been uncovered in many disasters.

After the discussion of these founding disciplines, the book shifts
attention to those disciplines that have become more important over
time. Joe Scanlon explores the relation of journalism to emergency
management, and he utilizes his unique experience in this area to
encourage special attention to the vital and somewhat troubling role of
the media in disasters. He argues that the media should avoid
perpetuating myths and take its role in communications more seriously.
Margaret Gibbs, coming from the discipline of psychology, looks at the
emotional impact of disasters. She provides a great overview of the
nature of psychopathology and vulnerability, and highlights different
types of interventions and their relative merit. An anthropologist, Doug
Henry, delves into the human causes of disasters, and examines those who
are most likely to be adversely affected. Henry's research focuses on
disasters outside of the United States, and his research appropriately
questions top-down approaches to recovery assistance. Michael Zakour is
the author of a chapter on social work. He notes that scholars in this
area are highly concerned about coordination efforts among relief
organizations and he exposes the structural relations that create social
vulnerability. Zakour integrates several studies about his discipline in
an in-depth manner, and his work has many notable parallels to that of
Gibbs and Henry. Rick Sylves and Bill Waugh have chapters on political
science and public administration respectively. Sylves relies on his
extensive research background to uncover the political dimensions of
disasters. He points out that homeland security policies are inherently
political and that emergency managers cannot afford to ignore this fact.
Bill Waugh admits that scholars in his discipline have been slow to
address disasters, but he is no doubt correct to point out that
emergency management is the quintessential government function. Waugh's
chapter covers several topics, but he provides some very discussion
about the tensions between homeland security and emergency management.

At this point, the book turns attention to various disciplines that have
not received adequate recognition in the disaster literature. David
McEntire illustrates that international relations has close ties to the
birth of emergency management and that its findings have relevance to
the security dilemma owing to global terrorism. His chapter reiterates
that we must learn more about radical Islamic fundamentalists, and
explains that his field of study can help promote better responses to
disasters because of the lessons gleaned regarding decision making.
McEntire also includes a chapter on comparative politics with a UNT
graduate student, Sarah Mathis, arguing that scholars have failed to
value the benefit of research that contrasts emergency management in
different societies. He also notes the different types of disasters and
impacts in developing and developed nations, and asserts that more must
be done to help the poorer countries of the world. John Pine, a
respected scholar at Louisiana State University, writes about the field
of management -- a discipline that is ironically under-represented in
emergency management. His chapter helps practitioners understand the
parts of the emergency management system, and he advocates more
strategic planning in the field. Kathy Dreyer is an expert in
gerontology. She explores the unrecognized links between her discipline
and disasters. Her research stresses the vulnerability of older adults,
and suggests that more attention needs to be given to disaster planning
of nursing facilities.

The penultimate section of the book covers several disciplines that are
becoming much more important than they were in the past. Rick Bissell
and Robert Louden provide chapters that have direct relation to the
terrorist attacks on 9/11. Bissell identifies some issues pertinent to
emergency medical care, but spends most of his time discussing public
health and diseases. His valuable study reiterates the complexity of
health issues in disasters, and recommends that emergency managers spend
more time interacting with public health officials. Louden, a scholar of
criminal justice, notes the vital role of the police in disasters in
terms of traffic control, and the investigation and prosecution of
terrorists. He also concludes that more emphasis needs to be given to
emergency management planning for correctional institutions. Terry
Clower, an applied economist, identifies how economics can help
practitioners with damage assessment, disaster declarations and
insurance policies. Besides covering methods in detail, Clower notes
that rising disaster losses may not always be as bad as advertised
because of the continual growth of the national economy. Clower is aware
disasters produce winners and losers though. Bill Nicholson, a national
expert in disaster law, relates the history of emergency management as a
function of congressional legislation. He points out that emergency
managers must develop stronger ties to the legal counsel in their
communities, and find ways to implement "litigation mitigation" -- an
effort to reduce liability in the community. Coming from environmental
management, John Labadie compares the nexus between emergency management
and the environment. His research, undoubtedly vital in light of ongoing
degradation, concludes that more attention needs to be given to slow
onset disasters and the concept of sustainable development. Brian
Richardson and Lori Byers, two knowledgeable students of communication
studies, trace the history of this field and identify its relation to
emergency management. They reveal that research needs to focus more on
"sensemaking" while practitioners must employ persuasion strategies and
be aware of the impact of communication on disaster victims/survivors.
Drawing from his insightful instructor guide on business continuity
(published by the Federal Emergency Management Agency), Greg Shaw shows
why being prepared should be important to those in the private sector.
He defines what business continuity means, shares concerns about the
concept of risk management, and advocates compliance with NFPA 1600.
Tisha Slagle Pipes, a budding scholar finishing up her Ph.D. in
information sciences, notes the complex relation among technology, data
storage and communications. Her research indicates an increased
potential for computer-related disasters, and encourages emergency
managers to pay more attention to information as a way to promote
disaster reduction and improve emergency responses.

The concluding chapter is written by David McEntire and Sarah Smith,
another graduate student at the University of North Texas. It summarizes
the content of the book, paying special attention to the points of
intersection across different fields of study as well as gaps in
interdisciplinary knowledge. Several lessons for practitioners are also
highlighted, and recommendations for future research and practical
application are identified.

**Barriers to Implementation**

Before continuing on with this text, one final comment is in order.
There are certainly significant barriers inhibiting multi- and
inter-disciplinary research and drawbacks are equally possible. Scholars
from different disciplines do not speak the same language, which poses
substantial communication challenges. For instance, sociologists study
"emergent phenomena" while engineers explore "linear elastic analysis."
In addition, values also complicate the sharing of knowledge and the
application of information across different disciplines (e.g., some
scholars want to foster land-use planning while others want to improve
warning system effectiveness). There is likewise a difference of opinion
regarding the domain boundaries of different fields of study. David
Neal's review of emergency management education (2000) includes an
important, perplexing, and perhaps controversial question about where to
house such programs in academia. Should emergency management degrees be
placed in the traditional departments (e.g., geography or sociology)
only? The prestige of certain (and perhaps all) disciplines likewise
limits the interaction of scholars from various backgrounds. Regarding
this statement, Neal Britton notes that some engineers were reluctant to
share findings with those from other disciplines in one
multi-disciplinary endeavor (2004). Even the reward structure for tenure
complicates multi- and inter-disciplinary research, although many
universities are now seeking such studies of their faculty members.[^4]
Summarizing these and other problems, Mileti comments:

> The academic community recognizes individuals but is hard pressed to
> do the same for interdisciplinary groups; promotion committees have
> difficulty ascertaining the relative contributions in multi-authored
> publications; the overhead structures of many institutions discourage
> cross-institutional research teams; and graduate students are
> restricted to the department and university in which they are enrolled
> (1999, 260).

These challenges are undoubtedly formidable and may even be impossible
to overcome.

Quarantelli and Dynes also remind us that:

> The past history of interdisciplinary research, including efforts in
> the disaster area, is not supportive of the ideas that better research
> results are obtained or that applications of findings are more easily
> accomplished by taking an interdisciplinary stance. In such an
> approach, contributions of different disciplines are often reduced to
> the lowest common denominator, which is sometimes only slightly, if at
> all, a common-sense level (as cited by Phillips 2003, 18).

Thus, multi- and inter-disciplinary research may not adequately capture
all knowledge pertaining to disasters, and there is always the chance
that findings will be regarded as irrelevant, incomplete, erroneous, or
even offensive to some because of different epistemological assumptions.

At the same time, Drabek makes some interesting observations about the
inescapable breadth of emergency management research:

> Today, emergency management studies are conducted by research with
> various specialties, including the physical and natural sciences as
> well as sociology, psychology, anthropology, geography, economics,
> political science, and public administration. The study topics reflect
> the particular disciplines of the researchers. A psychologist might
> ask how well victims are sleeping after a tornado; a geographer might
> map the rebuilt environment and ask whether the new spatial patterns
> will place the community at greater risk; a political scientist might
> explore the process by which a community makes mitigation decisions
> (1991, 21).

He also reiterates the need to integrate studies in that:

> Emergency management requires research of many types. Some research
> should reflect the strengths of the theories and methods of single
> disciplines; other investigations will require more interdisciplinary
> approaches. Although research based on single disciplines will
> continue to enrich the understanding of emergency managers, they must
> become increasingly skilled at making cross-disciplinary syntheses and
> applications (Drabek 1991, 21).

In conclusion, the editor and contributing authors of this book are
aware that they are exploring uncharted waters, and that there are
undoubtedly stormy seas, misty views, and jagged rocks posing a threat
to the multi- or inter-disciplinary vessel. Havidán Rodriquez reports
that "the path to interdisciplinary research is complex and often
difficult to navigate" (2004). However, successfully searching the
increasingly coveted harbor of increased knowledge and reduced disasters
through collective research projects will be more likely if we will
follow Britton's admonition to find consensus about goals and
collaborate with others (2004). It is hoped that this book may, in some
small way, encourage such joint approaches by requesting "all hands on
deck." Reaching the promised land of understanding and reducing disaster
through multi- and inter-disciplinary research may not necessarily be
guaranteed, but the embarkation may be worth the exploration
nonetheless.

## Table 1

> **Environments**
>
> Physical Social/Organizational

(including natural, built, bio- (including cultural, psycho- logical,
built, technological) logical, political, economic)

> Liabilities *Risk* *Susceptibility*

#  Environmental 

**Attributes**

> Capabilities *Resistance* *Resilience*
>
> Adapted from ." McEntire, David A. 2001. "Triggering Agents,
> Vulnerabilities and Disaster Reduction: Towards a Holistic
> Paradigm*Disaster Prevention and Management.* 10 (3): 189-196.

## Table 2

  ---------------- --------------------------- -----------------------------
  **Discipline**   **View(s) of                **Recommendation(s)**
                   Vulnerability**             

  Geography        Vulnerability is determined Land-use planning that takes
                   by the use of hazard-prone  into account hazards to
                   areas                       reduce risk

  Meteorology      Vulnerability is due to a   Acquisition, creation and
                   lack of advanced warning of effective use of warning
                   severe weather              systems

  Engineering      Vulnerability occurs when   Design and construction of
                   structures and              buildings and infrastructure
                   infrastructure cannot       that promotes disaster
                   withstand the forces of     resistance
                   hazards                     

  Anthropology     Vulnerability emanates from Alter attitudes to discourage
                   constraining values,        risk-taking practices and
                   attitudes and practices     susceptibility

  Economics        Vulnerability is related to Improve the distribution of
                   poverty and results in an   wealth and purchase insurance
                   inability to prevent,       to minimize losses and
                   prepare for or recover from promote resilience
                   a disaster                  

  Sociology        Vulnerability is a product  Understand behavioral
                   of inaccurate assumptions   patterns in disasters and pay
                   about disaster behavior and attention to needs of special
                   is related to race, gender, populations
                   age, disability, etc.       

  Psychology       Vulnerability is a function Help people to recognize risk
                   of overlooking or           and provide crisis counseling
                   minimizing risk and not     to enable resilience
                   being able to cope          
                   emotionally with stress     
                   and/or loss                 

  Epidemiology     Vulnerability is            Improve provision of public
                   susceptibility to disease   health/emergency medical care
                   or injury and is related to before, during and after
                   malnutrition and other      disasters
                   health factors              

  Environmental    Vulnerability is proneness  Conserve natural resources,
  Science          to environmental            protect green space areas,
                   degradation, which may      and ensure that debris
                   change weather patterns and management is performed in an
                   produce long-term disasters environmentally conscious
                                               manner

  Political        Vulnerability is produced   Alter structure of political
  Science          by the political structure  system and educate
                   and incorrect decision      politicians and legislators
                   making                      about disasters

  Public           Vulnerability results from  Strengthen response and
  Administration   misguided laws, the failure recovery capabilities through
                   to implement policies       preparedness measures,
                   effectively, and an         improved policy
                   inability to enforce        implementation and increased
                   regulations                 code enforcement

  Law              Vulnerability results from  Understand the law, alter
                   negligence, which is a      statutes, and ensure
                   failure to act as reason or compliance to widely accepted
                   legal statutes dictate      ethical practices in
                                               emergency management

  Journalism       Vulnerability is a result   Dispel myths about disasters,
                   of insufficient public      foster increased media
                   awareness about hazards and capabilities, and educate the
                   how to respond to disasters public about hazards

  Emergency        Vulnerability is the lack   Foster public awareness about
  Management       of capacity to perform      disasters and build
                   important functions before  capacities through hazard and
                   and after disaster strikes  vulnerability analyses,
                   (e.g., evacuation, search   resource acquisition,
                   and rescue, public          planning, training and
                   information, etc.)          exercises

  Homeland         Vulnerability is due to     Correct domestic and foreign
  Security         cultural misunderstandings, policy mistakes, enhance
                   permeable borders and       counter-terrorism measures,
                   fragile infrastructure, and protect borders and
                   weak disaster management    infrastructure, and improve
                   institutions                WMD capabilities
  ---------------- --------------------------- -----------------------------

> Adapted from McEntire, David A. 2003 \"Searching for a Holistic
> Paradigm and Policy Guide\" *International Journal of Emergency
> Management* 1 (3): 298-308.

## Table 3

## Curriculum of the EADP Program

+--------------------------------------+-------------------------------+
| **University Core, including:**      | **Electives Outside the       |
|                                      | Major:**                      |
| -   Technical Writing                |                               |
|                                      | -   Public Administration     |
| -   Earth Science, Introduction to   |                               |
|     Physical Geology or              | -   American                  |
|     Environmental Science            |     Intergovernmental         |
|                                      |     Relations                 |
| -   Interpersonal Communications or  |                               |
|     Public Speaking                  | -   Public Policy Analysis    |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Biological Resource       |
|                                      |     Conservation and          |
|                                      |     Management                |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Community and Public      |
|                                      |     Service                   |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Introduction to           |
|                                      |     Philanthropy and          |
|                                      |     Fundraising               |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Social Evolution of       |
|                                      |     Contemporary Fundraising  |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Proposal Writing and      |
|                                      |     Grants Administration     |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Volunteer Management      |
|                                      |     Concepts and Applications |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Community Resource        |
|                                      |     Mapping and Collaboration |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Volunteer Program         |
|                                      |     Planning and Evaluation   |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Cartography and Graphics  |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Medical Geography         |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Map-Air Photo Analysis    |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Meteorology               |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Introduction to           |
|                                      |     Geographic Information    |
|                                      |     Systems                   |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Environmental Geology     |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Risk Management           |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Workplace Health and      |
|                                      |     Safety                    |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Collective Behavior       |
|                                      |                               |
|                                      | -   Sociology of Disaster     |
+--------------------------------------+-------------------------------+
| **Major Core:**                      |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| -   Introduction to Emergency        |                               |
|     Management                       |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| -   Hazard Mitigation and            |                               |
|     Preparedness                     |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| -   Disaster Response and Recovery   |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| -   Leadership and Organizational    |                               |
|     Behavior (or Public Management)  |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| -   Capstone Course in Emergency     |                               |
|     Management                       |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| -   Financial Aspects of Government  |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| -   Internship Preparation           |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| -   Internship Practicum             |                               |
+--------------------------------------+-------------------------------+
| **Electives Within the Major:**      |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| -   Images of Disasters in Film and  |                               |
|     Media                            |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| -   Hazardous Materials Planning and |                               |
|     Management                       |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| -   Private Sector Issues            |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| -   Special Populations and          |                               |
|     Disasters                        |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| -   Technology and Emergency         |                               |
|     Management                       |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| -   Terrorism and Emergency          |                               |
|     Management                       |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| -   The Federal Government and       |                               |
|     Disasters                        |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| -   Flood Plain Management           |                               |
|                                      |                               |
| ```{=html}                           |                               |
| <!-- -->                             |                               |
| ```                                  |                               |
| -   Public Health and Disasters      |                               |
+--------------------------------------+-------------------------------+

**References**

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22 (3): 23-42.

Britton, Neil. 2004. "Multidisciplinary, Multinational Research
Projects: Challenges and Benefits." Paper presented at the *29^th^
Annual* *Natural Hazards Workshop*, July 13, Boulder, Colorado.

Britton, Neil. 1999. "Whither the Emergency Manager?" *International
Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters* 17 (2): 223-235.

Damien, David G. 2006. *The McGraw-Hill Homeland Security Handbook*. New
York: McGraw Hill.

Drabek, Thomas E. 1991. "Evolution of Emergency Management." In Drabek,
Thomas E. and Gerard G. Hoetmer (eds.) *Emergency Management: Principles
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Gruntfest, Eve and Marc Weber. 1998. "Internet and Emergency Management:
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McEntire, David A. (forthcoming). "Revisiting the Meaning of Hazards and
the Importance of Reducing Vulnerability." *Journal of Emergency
Management*.

McEntire, David A. 2004. "Tenets of Vulnerability: An Assessment of a
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McEntire, David A. 2003a. "Causation of Catastrophe." *Journal of
Emergency Management* 1(2): 22-29.

McEntire, David A. 2003b. \"Searching for a Holistic Paradigm and Policy
Guide."

> *International Journal of Emergency Management* 1(3): 298-308.

McEntire, David A. and Christopher Fuller. 2002. "The Need for a
Holistic Theorectical Approach: An Examination from the El Niño
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McEntire, David A., Christopher Fuller, Chad W. Johnston and Richard
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McEntire, David A. 2001. "Triggering Agents, Vulnerabilities and
Disaster Reduction:

> Towards a Holistic Paradigm." *Disaster Prevention and Management.*
> 10(3): 189-196.

Mileti, Dennis S. 1999. *Disasters by Design: A Reassessment of Natural
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Neal, David M. 2000. "Developing Degree Programs in Disaster Management:
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Ngo, Ehren. 2001. "When Disasters and Age Collide: Reviewing
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Phillips, Brenda. 2003. "Disasters by Discipline: Necessary Dialogue for
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*Creating Educational Opportunities for the Hazards Manager of the
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Rodriguez, Havidán. 2004. "The Role, Contributions, and Complexities of
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Ronan, Keven R., Douglas Paton, David M. Johnson and Bruce F. Houghton.
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[^1]: Multi-disciplinary research includes studies from various
    disciplines that are not always synthesized in a holistic and
    unified fashion. Inter-disciplinary research, on the other hand,
    includes findings from diverse fields of study that are integrated
    in a complex but more coherent manner. The first is easier, but
    limited in theoretical and practical rewards; the latter is much
    more difficult, but is most likely to generate new knowledge for the
    solution of problems facing emergency management.

[^2]: McEntire (forthcoming) believes we are able to influence and
    determine our vulnerability to hazards, and not necessarily control
    the hazards themselves.

[^3]: It could even be argued that modern dance is related to disasters,
    because emergency medical care might be needed if one is not
    coordinated!

[^4]: The University of North Texas has included multi- and
    inter-disciplinary studies as part of the strategic plan it adopted
    in 2005.