**Rural Transportation:**

**An Annotated Bibliography**

Dennis M. Brown

and

Oliver L. Flake

Economic Research Service

U.S. Department of Agriculture

This paper was prepared under an interagency reimbursable agreement

(98-IA-1844-AAC) with the U.S. Department of Transportation

March 1999

**Contents**

**Introduction** 1

**Rural Transportation: Availability, Demand, and Condition**

A. Roads and Bridges 7

B. Railroads/Rail Network 11

C. Air and Water Transportation 13

D. General Transportation (All Modes) 15

**Transportation and Rural Development**

A. Roads and Bridges 18

B. Rail Service 22

C. Airports 24

D. Passenger Transportation 26

E. General Studies on Infrastructure. 28

**Federal and Local Governmental Issues**

A. Financing/Funding 32

B. Planning and Management. 38

C. Regulatory Issues 43

**Other Issues**

A. Social Services Transportation 44

B. Safety 48

C. Environmental Issues. 50

**Additional Resources** 51

**Other Studies**

A. Rural Transportation: Availability, Demand, and Condition 53

> B. Transportation and Rural Development 56

C. Federal and Local Governmental Issues 57

D. Other Issues 59

E. Additional Resources 61

**Index** 62

[Introduction]{.underline}

Transportation serves an important role in rural America. By offering
mobility and access for rural residents to jobs and services and
enhancing the movement of agricultural products, transportation
functions as an essential cornerstone of rural development (Rubel,
1990). However, evidence suggests that the transportation network in
nonmetro America has fallen into a state of disrepair in many areas
(U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1991). Not only are portions of the
physical infrastructure in need of overhaul, but the system requires
many technological changes to be brought up-to-date.

The literature on rural transportation is wide-ranging. Much attention
is given to the status and condition of roads and bridges, with a major
theme being the inadequate condition of the infrastructure. According to
the U.S. Department of Transportation (1994), nearly 40 percent of the
Nation's 3.2 million miles of rural roads, out of a total National
network of 3.9 million highway miles, are inadequate for current travel
patterns. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (1991) reports that over 40
percent of the Nation's 470,000 bridges (those that are at least 20 feet
in length) are either structurally or functionally deficient**.** At the
local level, according to Walzer and Deller (1996a), nearly one half of
the roads (by mileage) maintained by counties, towns, and townships in
rural areas are considered less than adequate under normal maintenance
procedures.

Rural rail abandonment is another issue given attention in the rural
transportation literature. This topic is generally examined in terms of
rural development, with an emphasis on ways in which communities can
prevent abandonments. For example, Babcock, Prater, Morrill, and Russell
(1993) examine a popular alternative to rural rail abandonment, short
line railroads, and identify factors that determine their success and
failure. A good resource for communities facing abandonment is the study
by Batson and Norton (1988) that looks at the rail abandonment process.

Much less has been written about rural air and water transportation.
Bayer, Mitenko, and O'Hara (1994) examine rural intrastate air service,
with the purpose of gaining a better understanding of when it makes
economic sense to use air transportation compared to ground-based
transportation. Fruin and Halbach (1995) look at the importance of rural
water transportation, specifically, barge transportation, with an
emphasis on various implications for agriculture.

Another area of the literature deals with rural development. In general,
studies focusing on transportation's impact on rural communities can be
divided into those dealing with freight issues and those dealing with
the transportation of passengers (intercity passenger rail service,
intercity bus service, and public transportation). A good example of a
freight-oriented study is Russell and Babcock (1995), which looks at the
public cost associated with rural rail abandonment in terms of its
effects on farmers, shippers, and rural communities. Among those studies
dealing with passenger transportation issues, such as Burkhardt,
Hedrick, and McGavock (1998), common themes include inadequate funding
(Isaacs, 1993), lack of coordination among providers (Bogren, 1991), and
specific transportation modes, such as passenger rail, and their
importance for rural residents (Brown, 1997b). Relatively few "rural
development" studies deal with air transportation; those that do tend to
focus on the developmental benefits of rural airports. For example,
Cooper (1990) finds that airports are important in attracting
high-technology industries in rural areas.

A small number of studies deal with the general effects of
infrastructure, with specific mention of transportation. An example is
Crane and Leatham (1993), which examines the impact of transportation
spending on rural development and concludes that transportation
expenditures have a positive economic impact on nonfarm and farm incomes
and on employment in rural areas. Munnell (1990) looks at the effects of
State investments in infrastructure and concludes that those States with
large investments experienced greater output, more private investment,
and more employment growth.

Another category of studies focuses on what can be termed, "governmental
involvement," at the Federal and local levels. This class of studies
refers to a broad range of rural transportation concerns, including
financing, planning and management, and regulatory issues. Many studies
support the conclusion that local funding is inadequate for rural
transportation. For example, Walzer and Deller (1996b) found that nearly
70 percent of local respondents in a county-based survey agreed that
current funding is inadequate for maintaining the local road and bridge
network. However, recent articles have noted the large transportation
funding increases under the new Federal highway legislation, TEA-21 (the
Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century). According to Bogren and
Zeilinger (1998), rural areas and rural transit agencies should directly
benefit from large funding increases under TEA-21, which also
encompasses a greater share of rural public transportation formula
funds.

In terms of planning and management issues, Brown (1996b) notes that
some of the difficulties associated with rural transportation planning
stem from the fact that many nonmetro transportation projects serve
scattered and isolated populations and have high per capita costs. Rural
transportation planning, therefore, requires input at the local level,
but until ISTEA (the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of
1991) Federal legislation had not required local participation in the
planning process outside of metropolitan areas. The involvement of local
rural officials should improve under TEA-21, which further strengthened
provisions that require consultation between local officials and States
in the State transportation planning process (Wohlbruck, 1998b).

A comprehensive treatment of regulatory issues during the 1980\'s is
provided by Due, Allen, Kihl, and Crum (1990), which examines impacts
resulting from changes following deregulation in the airline, trucking,
bus, and rail industries. The authors develop several global, intermodal
policies and strategies for maintaining adequate transportation service
for both passengers and freight to small rural communities. Batson,
Bearer, and Norton (1997) focus exclusively on the effects of
deregulation in the rail industry in terms of the effects on rural
communities. They conclude that while deregulation may have brought
benefits, such as lower costs, to the rail industry, some rural
businesses, including agriculture, have been negatively affected, at
least in the short run.

A final section of this bibliography deals with a broad range of studies
not easily classifiable into one of the previous categories. These
include studies that look at such issues as social services
transportation, safety concerns, and various environmental issues.

Social services transportation studies deal with a broad range of
mobility issues, focusing mainly on the use of public transportation by
specific demographic groups, such as older Americans, women and
children, and Native Americans. Kihl (1990) looks at the transportation
needs of the rural elderly in southern Iowa and argues that public
transportation serves a vital role in small communities, with few
transportation alternatives existing for elderly transit users. A study
by Moorehead and Holden (1996) examines various public transportation
problems encountered by Native Americans, concluding that inadequate
transit services negatively affect tribal economic development efforts.

Rural transportation safety studies generally agree that rural roads
are, on average, more dangerous than urban roads, with the number and
severity of accidents tending to be greater in rural areas. Wilson and
French (1992) advocate the need for posting current road and travel
conditions to prevent wintertime traffic accidents. Jernigan and Lynn
(1991) argue that higher speeds associated with the 65-mph interstate
highway speed limit in rural Virginia contributes to an increased number
of traffic fatalities.

A common theme among environmental studies is the effect of
environmental regulations, often referred to as "enhancements," on
transportation programs. Some have argued that problems arise when
environmental regulations have been too stringently applied, diverting
limited resources away from the primary goal of providing transportation
spending (Beachy and Eck, 1995). Others have been less concerned with
specific environmental regulations, but have argued for improved
standards in road building and maintenance activities to minimize
negative environmental impacts (Alexander, 1992; Moll, 1993).

This annotated bibliography is intended to provide an overview of
different aspects of transportation in rural America. Emphasis is on
those studies published within the last 10 years, but some earlier
citations are also included. Citations are organized into five
categories. Studies dealing with the availability, demand, and condition
of rural infrastructure are described first. Second, studies dealing
with the importance of transportation for rural development are
examined. Third, studies dealing with Federal and local governmental
issues are identified, including financing, planning, and regulatory
issues. Fourth, studies not fitting into one of the previous groupings,
covering topics such as social services transportation, safety issues,
and environmental concerns, are discussed. A fifth section highlights
miscellaneous references, such as maps, atlases, and bibliographies.
Finally, a non-annotated bibliography of additional studies on rural
transportation is included.

**Rural Transportation: Availability, Demand, and Condition**

Studies that focus on the overall state of rural transportation deal
with a variety of topics, including the demand for and condition of
roads and bridges, railroad performance and abandonments, the quality of
existing air and water infrastructure, and the importance of maintaining
adequate public transportation services to meet the needs and demands of
rural residents. A good example of this type of study is the report by
Fruin and Baumel (1992), which looks at rural America's need for
investments in transportation infrastructure and examines the
deterioration of inland waterway systems as well as deficiencies in the
rural rail infrastructure.

**A. Roads and Bridges**

Crane, Laurence M., Nat Pinnoi, and Stephen W. Fuller. 1994. "Estimating
Demand for Public Rural Roads in Texas," *Review of Regional Studies* 24
(2), pp. 195-209.

> Estimates private demand functions, at the county level, for public
> rural roads in Texas. Identifies the effect of different income levels
> and tax rates on the expected demand for rural roads over time.
> Concludes that demand for roads has become more inelastic, while
> income had a moderating influence on demand for roads.

Daniels, Bob. 1991. *Modern Timber Bridges: An Alternative for
Mississippi*. Mississippi State University, Cooperative Extension
Service, publication no. 1783.

> Looks at the condition of rural bridges, with special emphasis on
> those that are structurally and functionally deficient. Identifies
> various advantages of modern timber bridges for Mississippi. Suggests
> that solving the problems associated with rural bridges will involve a
> combination of efforts by legislators, engineers, and local officials,
> in association with the research community.

Fruin, Jerry E., and Dan Halbach. 1993. "Does Minnesota Have Too Many
Rural Roads?" *Minnesota Agricultural Economist* 673 (Summer), pp. 1-5.

> Discusses the need for the elimination of some rural roads due to
> technological changes in transportation, agriculture, and related
> industries. Addresses the issues of road improvement, bridge
> replacement versus abandonment, and the effects of intensive crop
> production on rural roads.

Gillis, William R., ed. 1989. *Profitability and Mobility in Rural
America: Successful Approaches to Tackling Rural Transportation
Problems.* University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.

> Provides an overview of emerging rural transportation issues and the
> educational challenges associated with those concerns. Addresses
> critical transportation problems faced by rural areas from the
> perspective of educational and technical assistance providers.
> Documents successful approaches that have been used by State and local
> government and various rural enterprises in dealing with rural
> transportation problems.

Hamlett, Cathy A., Sherry Brennan, and C. Phillip Baumel. 1989. "Local
Rural Roads: A Policy Analysis," *Journal of the Transportation Research
Forum* 30 (1), pp. 1-8.

> Uses a traffic simulation model to investigate several policy options
> for the rural road system. Policies discussed include abandonment,
> conversion of low-volume roads to low-maintenance, returning public
> roads to private ownership, and reconstructing bridges. Suggests that
> optimal restructuring of the system will require multiple investment
> and disinvestment policies and will vary at both the interstate and
> intrastate levels.

Hough, Jill A., Ayman G. Smadi, and Gene Griffin. 1996. *An Assessment
of Road User Needs in a Rural Environment*. Mountain-Plains Consortium
Report No. 96-58. Fargo: North Dakota State University, Upper Great
Plains Transportation Institute.

> Addresses various differences in the perception of rural road needs
> among users and providers of transportation services. Concludes that
> differences in perceptions with regard to wintertime road maintenance
> issues suggest the need for better communication between user groups.

Lamberton, Charles E. 1992. *South Dakota's Rural Roads*. Economic
Research Report 91-10. Brookings: South Dakota State University,
Department of Economics.

> Discusses the importance of transportation in providing access to
> agricultural areas. Outlines the general condition of South Dakota
> rural roads and bridges. Addresses issues involved in the financing of
> local roads and bridges, with special emphasis on the availability of
> fund sources.

Nice, David C. 1992. "Interstate and Intergovernmental Factors Affecting
the Conditions of Rural Bridges," *Publius* 22 (Fall), pp. 1-13.

> Examines the role of the Federal and local governments in financing
> and maintaining rural bridges. Indicates that the distribution of
> responsibility between local governments and the Federal Government
> affects the condition of the infrastructure. Finds that Federal
> involvement is associated with bridges that tend to be structurally
> and functionally adequate. Local financial responsibility is usually
> associated with bridges that have structural or functional problems.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service. 1991
(April). *Transportation in Rural America: A Policy Backgrounder*.

> Discusses key rural transportation policy issues, with specific
> mention of individual modes. Outlines the condition of the rural
> transportation network, identifies issues of concern to transportation
> providers and users, and details various policy options. Notes that
> the relative share of rehabilitation and replacement costs borne by
> the public sector versus the private sector remains a critical issue
> with regard to rural roads and bridges, as well as rail
> transportation. Concludes that public and private institutions need to
> develop a more integrated transportation system and that priorities
> for agriculture and rural America must be more firmly established.

Walzer, Norman, and David L. Chicoine. 1990 (September). *Rural Roads
and Bridges: Where Do We Go from Here?* Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Office of Transportation.

> Reviews the condition of rural roads and examines the status of local
> bridges as a means of better informing policymakers, practitioners,
> and the public about different aspects of rural road and bridge
> finance and administration. Analyzes costs to upgrade roads and
> bridges to acceptable standards for existing traffic. Considers trends
> in financing methods with special emphasis on reliance on Federal and
> State revenues. Summarizes State and local options for providing
> better maintenance of rural roads and bridges.

Walzer, Norman, and Steven C. Deller. 1996a (September). *Rural Roads
and Bridges: Condition and Status of Roads.* Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service.

> Examines the condition of roads maintained by local governments.
> Findings are based on mail questionnaire responses from county
> engineers and town/township road administrators throughout the Nation.
> Discusses changes in road surface type, road conditions, and the
> priorities of local road managers when managing the local
> transportation system. Concludes that obtaining adequate financing for
> roads and bridges will continue to be problematic due to the lagging
> economic base and decreasing populations of many rural areas.

Walzer, Norman, and Claudia McFadden. 1989. *Linking America: The County
Highway System*. Washington, D.C.: National Association of Counties.

> Presents an overview of the county highway system on a State-by-State
> basis. Surveys State highway agencies to better understand major
> issues affecting county and town roads and bridges. Stresses the
> importance of county highway and bridge finance, maintenance concerns,
> and the general condition of the infrastructure.

**B. Railroads/Rail Network**

Babcock, Michael W., Marvin Prater, John Morrill, and Eugene R. Russell.
1995. "Short-Line Railroads' Performance," *Transportation Quarterly* 49
(2), pp. 73-86.

> Examines factors that lead to the formation of short-line railroads.
> Notes that some short-lines can be operated profitably and are
> important for local rural and small community-based shippers, while
> many others remain unprofitable. May be of interest to both
> transportation policymakers engaged in evaluating the feasibility of
> State assistance for short-line railroads and to shippers evaluating
> different modes of transportation.

Babcock, Michael W., Eugene R. Russell, Marvin Prater, and John Morrill.
1993. "State Short Line Railroads and the Rural Economy." Report No.
K-TRAN: KSU-92-2. Kansas State University, Department of Civil
Engineering.

> Examines the issue of short line railroads in the context of rural
> rail abandonments. Identifies key factors that determine short line
> success or failure and develops a profile for a profitable short line
> railroad. Concludes that short line railroads may represent a viable
> transportation alternative for some rural areas, but stresses the
> long-term financial survivability of short line railroads is not
> assured.

Batson, John A., Martha A. Bearer, and Jerry D. Norton. 1997 (January).
*Maintaining Local Rail Freight Service*. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service.

> Provides rural communities with an overview of the rail abandonment
> process. Offers a detailed summary of how and why abandonments occur,
> and includes a discussion of how they can be prevented. Examines
> various alternatives to abandonment and provides additional sources of
> information and assistance for affected rural communities. Represents
> a valuable resource for rural communities facing rail abandonments.

Wolfe, K. Eric. 1989. "Financial and Demographic Conditions Associated
With Local and Regional Railroad Service Failures," *Transportation
Quarterly* 43 (1), pp. 3-28.

> Seeks to determine which quantitative factors have been historically
> related to local and regional railroad success and failure. Examines
> the role of various financial and demographic ratios in assessing the
> viability of rail service. Concludes that no single factor determines
> the success of a railroad, and that other variables are also of
> significance, including macroeconomic conditions, the competitive
> environment, and railroad managerial expertise.

**C. Air and Water Transportation**

Bayer, Curtis K., Graham R. Mitenko, and Michael O'Hara. 1994. "Rural
Intrastate Air Service Systems: A Basic Planning and Evaluation Tool,"
*Regional Science Perspectives* 24 (1), pp. 3-17.

> Provides an analytical approach for comparing costs of air travel
> versus ground travel. Advocates the need for air transportation
> planning tools that can be understood and employed by participants in
> the decision-making process. Introduces a "sensitivity analysis
> platform" that can be used to better understand the economic
> implications of alternative approaches to providing rural intrastate
> air services.

Connin, Larry, and Keith Leggett. 1992. "Demand for Rural Airport
Business Travel: Altoona-Blair County Airport," *Transportation
Quarterly* 46 (3), pp. 447-458.

> Addresses the question of whether continued financial support for
> small, rural airports is justified when applied on a "needs
> assessment" basis. Specific attention is given to the case of the
> Altoona-Blair County Airport, in south-central Pennsylvania. Argues
> that continued rural economic development requires transportation
> planners to develop and design more flexible strategies suited to
> rural air travel needs.

Fruin, Jerry E., and Dan Halbach. 1994. "Barge Movements on the Upper
Mississippi River: Trends and Projections 1963‑2002." Staff Paper
P94-19. University of Minnesota, Department of Agricultural and Applied
Economics.

> Reviews trends and identifies contributing factors related to the
> decline in commodity shipments moved by barge on the Upper Mississippi
> River during the late 1980\'s. Addresses the competitiveness of other
> modes of transportation and discusses various structural changes in
> the economy. Concludes that rail deregulation and other macroeconomic
> changes had little effect on the competitiveness of the barge industry
> for the movement of bulk commodities.

Fruin, Jerry E., and Dan Halbach. 1995. "The Mississippi River Ties
Minnesota Agriculture to the World," *Minnesota Agricultural Economist*
680, pp. 1-4.

> Summarizes the importance of barge transportation for U.S.
> agriculture. Specifically examines the role of the inland waterway
> system in moving Upper Midwest grain to ocean ports. Asserts that vast
> distances between the U.S. heartland and ocean ports would prove
> problematic for American agriculture if the shallow draft barge
> system, with its low costs and efficiencies, were not available.

**D. General Transportation (All Modes)**

Bearer, Martha A., Ruth T. McWilliams, and Eileen S. Stommes. 1989
(January). "Beyond Isolation: The Future of Rural Transportation as
Described at the Transportation 2020 Forums." *Transportation Facts*.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of
Transportation.

> Provides an overview of major rural transportation issues in the late
> 1980\'s. Describes structural changes occurring within rural America
> and examines how the transportation sector is likely to be affected.
> Establishes priorities for policy development by local, State, and
> national transportation leaders.

Bogren, Scott. 1998. "Rural Transit: You Can Get There From Here,"
*Community Transportation* 16 (3), pp. 10-13.

> Discusses the history of rural public transportation, with an emphasis
> on funding changes. Identifies various benefits of the Section 5311
> (rural public transportation) program for rural communities.
> Highlights several major challenges faced by rural public
> transportation providers, including growing demand and insufficient
> resources.

Brown, Dennis M. 1996a. "The State of Transportation in Rural America,"
*Small Town* 27 (3), pp. 12-19.

> Discusses the need for an overhaul of rural America's transportation
> infrastructure. Addresses specific issues dealing with rural roads and
> bridges, rural passenger transportation, air service, intercity bus
> service, local public transit, rural rail freight, and inland
> waterways. Reviews recent changes in Federal transportation policy and
> concludes with a discussion of various transportation policy options.

Due, John F., Benjamin J. Allen, Mary R. Kihl, and Michael R. Crum.
1990. *Transportation Service to Small Rural Communities: Effects of
Deregulation.* Ames: Iowa State University Press*.*

> Examines the impacts of changing governmental policy on transportation
> service to small rural communities. Focuses on the impacts resulting
> from changes in the economic regulatory environment. Addresses the
> effects of regulatory reform in the airline, trucking, bus, and rail
> industries. Develops global, intermodal policies and strategies for
> maintaining adequate transportation service for both passengers and
> freight to small rural communities in a time of deregulation.

Fruin, Jerry E. and C. Phillip Baumel. 1992. "How Much Transportation
Infrastructure Does Rural America Need?" Staff Paper No. P92‑8.
Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics, University of
Minnesota.

> Discusses rural America's need for large investments in transportation
> infrastructure. Addresses the need for investments in new rail
> technology and adequate loading facilities in rural areas. Examines
> the deterioration of inland waterway systems and rural rail
> infrastructure. Argues that future rural transportation infrastructure
> investments will depend on the needs of agriculture and other rural
> interests.

Gildemeister, Morris, and Fred P. Tanzer. 1991. "Multimodal
Transportation Approaches in Minnesota," *Transportation Research
Record* 1305, pp. 264-268.

> Discusses multimodal and intermodal approaches aimed at reducing
> transportation costs and providing effective rural access. Suggests
> that present transportation challenges can best be met if interested
> parties support multimodal transportation alternatives and intermodal
> connections.

Rubel, Tom. 1990. "Future of Rural Transportation," in *Proceedings of
the 76th Annual Road School* (Held at Purdue University, March 6‑8),
161, pp. 55-60.

> Discusses individual modes of rural transportation, including roads
> and bridges, passenger transportation, and rail service, in the
> context of public and private sector involvement. Specific topics
> examined include the mobility and access of rural residents to jobs
> and services and the movement of agricultural products. Suggests the
> need for better cooperation between the public and private sectors and
> enhanced intergovernmental cooperation.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Transportation. 1988. "Rural
Intercity Passenger Transportation: Report on the Eastern Regional
Symposium." *Transportation Facts*.

> Identifies key components necessary for a national strategy on rural
> transportation. Outlines a variety of demographic and economic factors
> thought to impact the provision of transportation services in rural
> areas. Examines the impact of transportation deregulation on rural
> passenger transportation. Includes an annotated bibliography on rural
> intercity passenger transportation.

**Transportation and Rural Development**

Studies addressing the importance of transportation for rural
development look at the effect of roads and bridges, rail service,
airports, and passenger transportation on rural communities. The
importance of infrastructure for attracting business and providing
employment is examined, as are the economic impacts resulting from loss
of transportation services. A good example is the study by Forkenbrock
and Foster (1996), which examines the degree to which investments in
high-capacity highways are likely to influence business location
decisions. A second representative study is that by Cooper (1990), which
looks at the relationship between airports and the location decisions of
high-technology firms.

**A. Roads and Bridges**

Baldwin, Fred D. 1996. "Appalachian Highways: Almost Home but a Long Way
to Go," *Appalachia* 29 (2), pp. 4-13.

> Examines the important role of Appalachian highways for many local
> communities, with an emphasis on the economic impacts that highways
> have on rural areas. Describes the effect of the Appalachian
> Development Highway System (ADHS) in attracting manufacturing plants
> along highway corridors. Advocates the need for investment in
> low-volume rural roads.

Broder, Josef M., Teresa D. Taylor, and Kevin T. McNamara. 1992.
"Quasi‑Experimental Designs for Measuring Impacts of Developmental
Highways in Rural Areas," *Southern Journal of Agricultural Economics*
24 (1), pp. 199‑207.

> Uses regression‑discontinuity analysis to compare economic changes in
> counties with "developmental" highways to those in adjacent and
> non‑adjacent control counties for the period 1975‑81. Results show
> statistically significant changes in population, per capita income,
> and taxable sales related to highway development. Most counties
> benefited from developmental highways, although some were unaffected,
> and a few even experienced economic decline. Results also indicate
> that adjacent county control models may have understated
> highway‑related impacts, while non‑adjacent county models may have
> overstated these impacts.

Forkenbrock, David J., and Norman S. J. Foster. 1996. "Highways and
Business Location Decisions," *Economic Development Quarterly* 10 (3),
pp. 239‑248.

> Examines the degree to which investments in high‑capacity highways are
> likely to influence business location decisions. Through case studies,
> concludes that access to highways generally has become a less
> important factor in location decisions than was the case previously.
> State‑level highway investment policies that emphasize proper
> maintenance and relatively minor improvements are likely to be more
> cost‑effective strategies for economic development than expensive
> highway construction projects.

Fruin, Jerry E., and Dan Halbach. 1992. "Rural Roads, Investment and
Disinvestment in a Minnesota County." Staff Paper No. P92‑25. University
of Minnesota, Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics.

> Examines the importance of the local road system for rural residents
> and businesses in Polk County, Minnesota. Methodology consists of
> evaluating different strategies for maintaining and improving roads
> with limited resources. Concludes that up to 40 percent of rural roads
> and bridges in the study area could be abandoned with little impact on
> local economic development.

Isserman, Andrew M., Terance J. Rephann, and David J. Sorenson. 1989.
"Highways and Rural Economic Development: Results from the
Quasi‑Experimental Approaches." Paper presented at the Seminar on
Transportation Networks and Regional Development, Leningrad, U.S.S.R.,
May 23‑26.

> Investigates the effect of highways on smaller communities and rural
> areas by examining income growth rates, by employment sector, for the
> period 1969‑84. Findings indicate that rural counties with highways
> did not grow significantly faster than those without highways. Rural
> towns with more than one highway link did not grow more rapidly than
> those rural communities with just one link.

Kusmin, Lorin D., John M. Redman, and David W. Sears. 1996 (September).
*Factors Associated with Rural Economic Growth: Lessons from the
1980\'s*. Technical Bulletin No. 1850. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

> Identifies characteristics of rural areas conducive to economic growth
> for the period 1979‑89. Explains growth in total real earnings by
> place of work for nonmetro U.S. counties from 1979‑89 using multiple
> regression analysis. Finds that access to interstate highway
> interchanges contributed to earnings growth in rural areas, although
> the relationship is not among the most important factors in the
> analysis. Each interchange was associated with approximately 0.42
> percent in additional income growth during the period.

Moon, Henry E., Jr. 1988. "Interstate Highway Interchanges as
Instigators of Nonmetropolitan Development," *Transportation Research
Record* 1125, pp. 8‑14.

> Looks at the nonurban impact of the Interstate Highway System by
> examining 65 nonmetropolitan interchanges in Kentucky in 1985.
> Analyzes the cyclic pattern of evolution of nonmetropolitan
> interchanges and discusses possible effects for this set of previously
> remote and isolated interchange sites. Finds that nonmetropolitan
> interstate interchanges often vary according to different functions
> that they perform, with some acting as "interchange villages,"
> performing the role of central places in their respective regions.
> Fills a void in the literature by providing an in‑depth nonurban
> analysis based on a significantly large number of observations.

Porterfield, Shirley L. 1990. "Producer Services: A Viable Option for
Rural Economic Development?" Paper presented at the 29th Annual Meeting
of the Southern Regional Science Association, Washington, D.C., March.

> Measures employment growth by industrial sector for manufacturing and
> producer services in rural areas for the period 1981‑86. Separate
> models are estimated for metropolitan counties, nonmetropolitan
> counties adjacent to metro areas, and remote nonmetropolitan counties.
> Finds that access to interstate highways may be a significant factor
> for job growth in producer services, but proximity to an interstate
> highway was negatively related to employment growth in the
> manufacturing sector.

Rephann, Terance J. 1993. "Highway Investment and Regional Economic
Development: Decision Methods and Empirical Foundations," *Urban
Studies* 30 (2), pp. 437‑450.

> Reviews Federal and State highway programs in the context of regional
> development theory. Factors identified in determining where highways
> are routed include socioeconomic, spatial, resource, and institutional
> "triggering forces." Advocates the need for further research to assess
> the impact of regional development theories on local highway planning
> practices.

Rephann, Terance J. 1997. "Highways and Regional Economic Development:
What Can We Learn from Regional Economics Theory and Models?" Discussion
Paper. Cumberland, Maryland: Allegany College of Maryland.

> Reviews and evaluates theories and models that describe highway
> economic impacts. Argues that regional economic theory is a useful
> construct for answering questions about the relationship between
> highways and economic development. Effects of different regional
> economic policies are thought to be conditioned by various regional
> and extra‑regional characteristics, thereby influencing highway
> economic impacts.

Rephann, Terance J., and Andrew M. Isserman. 1994. "New Highways as
Economic Development Tools: An Evaluation Using Quasi‑Experimental
Matching Methods," *Regional Science and Urban Economics* 24 (6), pp.
723‑751.

> Examines the effectiveness of highway investment as an economic
> development tool. Uses a quasi‑experimental matching method to examine
> the effects of interstate highways on counties that obtained
> interstate links during the period 1963‑75. Results show that economic
> growth of counties with interstate highways is greatest for those in
> close proximity to large cities or those with some degree of prior
> urbanization. "Interstate counties" that are isolated or rural are
> shown to have few benefits.

Wilson, Eugene M., Khaled Ksaibati, Donald Warder, and Gene Bryan. 1994.
*Determining Economic Effects of Wyoming's Loop Tours*. Mountain-Plains
Consortium Report No. 94-29A. Fargo: North Dakota State University.

> Discusses various models used to determine the economic benefits
> associated with two "scenic loop tours" in Wyoming. Argues that
> positive economic benefits are associated with these roads. Advocates
> the need for better marketing of Wyoming's scenic roads, arguing that
> local communities would benefit from increased tourism revenues.

**B. Rail Service**

Babcock, Michael W., Eugene R. Russell, and Robert E. Burns. 1992.
"Economic Development and Transportation Impacts of Railroad Branchline
Abandonment in South Central Kansas." Report No. K-TRAN: KSU-91-2.
Kansas State University: Department of Civil Engineering.

> Measures the potential impacts resulting from a rail abandonment in a
> ten county region in south-central Kansas. Identifies lost economic
> development potential for communities that lost rail service, and
> assesses indirect effects on the social structure of affected
> communities. Argues that one alternative for communities facing a rail
> abandonment is to provide public assistance for "truck only"
> transportation.

Brown, Dennis M. 1997a. "The Effects of Consolidation in the Rail
Freight Industry on Rural America," *Small Town* 28 (1), pp. 12-17.

> Explores consolidations in the rail freight industry and their impacts
> on rural America. Provides a historical overview of the Nation's rail
> network. Discusses various strategies for dealing with cutbacks in
> rail service. Concludes with a statement of how future consolidations
> may affect rural areas.

Fruin, Jerry E. 1992. "A Summary of Research Studies on the Community
Impacts of Rail Abandonment in the Midwest." Staff Paper P92-16.
University of Minnesota, Department of Agricultural and Applied
Economics.

> Reviews the results of studies dealing with the impacts of rail
> abandonment in rural communities in the Midwest. Details different
> categories of rail abandonment community impact studies. Provides a
> comprehensive list of references.

Honeyman, Joel S. 1995. *A Method for Assessing the Impact of Railroad
Abandonment on Rural Communities.* Mountain-Plains Consortium Report No.
95-48. Fargo: North Dakota State University, Upper Great Plains
Transportation Institute.

> Develops a method for measuring the impacts of rail deregulation on
> rural communities. Quantifies results using the case of rail
> abandonment. Proposes a practical method for communities to evaluate
> whether additional local investment can help prevent the loss of rail
> service.

Klindworth, Keith A., and John A. Batson. 1991 (July). *Economic Impact
of Proposed Kansas Rail Abandonments.* Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service.

> Assesses direct economic impacts associated with rail line
> abandonments in rural communities in Kansas. Highlights the importance
> of rail service for agriculturally-dependent communities. Estimates
> specific economic impacts of proposed abandonments on grain firms,
> local communities, and State and local governments.

Nevel, Bonnie, and Peter Harnik. 1990. *Railroads Recycled: How Local
Initiative and Federal Support Launched the Rails-to-Trails Movement,
1965-1990.* Washington, D.C.: Rails-to-Trails Conservancy.

> Provides a history of the Rails-to-Trails movement, with reference to
> specific trails. Identifies various economic impacts of the program,
> including increased tourism revenue for small towns and a rise in
> property values along some rail corridors. Lists other benefits, such
> as "railbanking" (the preservation of the rail corridor network for
> potential future reconversion to rail use).

Russell, Eugene R., and Michael W. Babcock. 1995. "Study of Impact of
Rail Abandonment on Local Roads and Streets." Paper presented at the
Sixth International Conference on Low-Volume Roads (Volume 1),
Minneapolis, Minn., June 25-29. Washington, D.C.: National Academy
Press, Transportation Research Board.

> Examines various negative effects associated with railroad abandonment
> in Kansas. Measures the public costs of rail abandonment in terms of
> the effect on farmers, shippers, and rural communities. Finds that
> rail abandonment resulted in only a negligible increase in trucking
> activity, but such activity led to a significant increase in road
> damage costs. Advocates the use of motor carrier user fees to provide
> for road maintenance costs.

**C. Airports**

Aziz, Riaz. 1998. *North Dakota Airport and Fixed-Base Operator Study.*
Upper Great Plains Transportation Institute Report No. 121. Fargo: North
Dakota State University.

> Examines the relationship between Fixed-Base Operators (FBOs), which
> are responsible for day-to-day operations at airports, and local
> Economic Development Agencies. Addresses the impact that regulations
> have had on FBOs, the cause of decline in aviation-related businesses
> at airports, and economic impacts on an airport and its local economy
> resulting from closure of an FBO. Concludes that the closure of an FBO
> often results in economic loss to a community.

Aziz, Riaz, and Doug Benson. 1995. *Survey of Aviation Activity at
Airports in North Dakota.* Upper Great Plains Transportation Institute
Report No. 109. Fargo: North Dakota State University.

> Identifies issues critical to the aviation community in North Dakota.
> Survey methods reveal that airport managers are most concerned about
> maintaining profitability and continuing to receive financial support
> from State and local agencies. Results also indicate that airport
> managers may need help in learning how to more effectively participate
> in State and regional economic development programs.

Cooper, Ronald. 1990. "Airports and Economic Development: An Overview,"
*Transportation Research Record* 1274, pp. 125-133.

> Reviews the literature on airports and economic development. Finds
> that air transport usually has strong connections to local businesses.
> Reports that access to air transportation frequently plays an
> important role in allowing high-technology industries to compete. Also
> finds that the location of airport facilities often influences the
> location of high-tech industries.

Norris, Bahar B., and Richard Golaszewski. 1990. "Economic Development
Impact of Airports: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Consumer Surplus,"
*Transportation Research Record* 1274, pp. 82-88.

> Examines the community economic impacts associated with airport
> construction. Develops a methodology for using consumer surplus as a
> proxy for the net economic development benefits derived from the
> construction of a regional airport. Emphasizes the importance of the
> industry mix, the diversity of the economy, regional transportation
> infrastructure, and the employment status of the local economy in
> determining the size of the impact from an airport.

Reeder, Richard J., and Cory Wanek. 1995. "The Importance of Local
Airports to Rural Businesses," in *Rural Development Strategies*, David
W. Sears and J. Norman Reid, eds. Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers, pp.
162-186.

> Reviews recent research on the importance of airports for businesses,
> with an emphasis on small towns and rural areas. Examines the
> literature on business location decisions using surveys of
> businesspeople. Looks at the empirical literature identifying
> statistical relationships between airports and rural economic
> development. Finds that high-tech industries rank access to air
> service among the most important locational factors and that
> improvements to some general aviation airports are needed.

Weisbrod, Glen. 1990. "Economic Impacts of Improving General Aviation
Airports," *Transportation Research Record* 1274, pp. 134-143.

> Examines State and local economic impacts of general aviation
> airports. Presents a model for evaluating the benefits arising from
> improvements to these airports. Finds that benefits include those
> derived by local and regional businesses, as well as other, less
> quantifiable impacts, such as quality-of-life issues.

**D. Passenger Transportation**

Bogren, Scott. 1991. "Small Towns Reap Economic Benefits from Transit,"
*Community Transportation Reporter* 9 (8), pp. 8-9.

> Discusses the role public transportation plays in rural economic
> development. Presents examples of transit-spurred economic growth
> resulting from the Community Transportation Association of America
> (CTTA) Rural Passenger Transportation Technical Assistance Program.
> Specifically mentions benefits such as business attraction and quality
> of life issues.

Brown, Dennis M. 1997b. "When Rural Communities Lose Passenger Rail
Service," *Rural Development Perspectives* 12 (2), pp. 13-18.

> Explores various issues surrounding the provision of passenger rail
> service to nonmetro communities and discusses some of the options
> available to these communities. Notes that Amtrak's recent financial
> difficulties have put parts of the national network in jeopardy,
> affecting some rural areas. Concludes that while the loss of rural
> passenger rail service will not usually, by itself, threaten a
> community's economic survival, it may have adverse effects that can be
> offset by public policy.

Burkhardt, Jon E., James L. Hedrick, and Adam T. McGavock. 1998.
*Assessment of the Economic Impacts of Rural Public Transportation*.
Report 34. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, Transportation
Research Board.

> Identifies and quantifies the economic impacts of rural public
> transportation services at both local and national levels. Uses case
> studies to develop and present an economic impact methodology for
> evaluating the importance of public transportation. May be of interest
> to State and local transportation planners, analysts, and
> decisionmakers involved in introducing or expanding rural public
> transportation services.

Butler, Darlene P., and Tracy Maxwell. 1997. *Assessment of Arkansas
Economic Impacts of Rural Public Transportation.* Report MBTC FR-1062.
University of Arkansas, Mack-Blackwell National Rural Transportation
Study Center.

> Documents the linkages existing between public transportation and
> economic activities in rural Arkansas. Develops a methodology for
> estimating impacts of public transportation on rural development. Uses
> the developed methodology to address quantitative deficiencies that
> currently exist in many rural public transportation systems.

Isaacs, Randy. 1993 (September). *Intercity Bus Transportation: New
Opportunities for Rural America*. Technical Assistance Brief No. 11.
Washington, D.C.: Community Transportation Association of America, Rural
Transit Assistance Program.

> Provides a brief overview of the history of intercity bus
> transportation. Discusses developments in financial support of bus
> transportation, including congressional efforts and State assistance
> programs. Describes regulatory issues affecting the provision of
> intercity bus services. Examines new funding opportunities in the
> context of the Section 18 (rural transportation) program.

**E. General Studies on Infrastructure**

Crane, Laurence M., and David J. Leatham. 1993. "Distributed Lag Effects
of Transportation Expenditures on Rural Income and Employment," *Review
of Regional Studies* 23 (2), pp. 163-181.

> Examines the relationship between transportation expenditures and
> economic growth for rural and urban areas in Texas. Uses polynomial
> distributed lags to estimate income and employment growth arising from
> transportation investment. Results indicate that transportation
> expenditures have a positive economic impact on nonfarm and farm
> incomes and on employment in rural areas.

Eberts, Randall W. 1990. "Public Infrastructure and Regional Economic
Development," *Economic Review* (Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland) 26
(1), pp. 15‑27.

> Summarizes recent work on the effect of public infrastructure on
> economic activity at State and local levels. Identifies the
> significant role that transportation systems play in determining
> regional economic output. Sees transportation as a necessary, but not
> sufficient, condition for economic growth.

Fendley, Kim, and Will Miller. 1995. "Community Impact of Regional
Transportation Infrastructure Growth." Report No. MBTC FR-1017.
University of Arkansas, Mack-Blackwell National Rural Transportation
Study Center.

> Uses a mail survey of voters in Northwest Arkansas to explore
> attitudes of local citizens toward improved transportation
> infrastructure (regional airport, highway expansion) and continued
> growth. Concludes that local voters want the benefits associated with
> growth in the form of improved transportation and higher quality jobs,
> while preserving quality of life issues, including environmental
> factors.

Forkenbrock, David J. 1990. "Putting Transportation and Economic
Development in Perspective," *Transportation Research Record* 1274, pp.
3‑11.

> Discusses the relationship between transportation and economic
> development. Six standards are identified for the types of trade‑offs
> that local development practitioners must make when choosing among
> different projects with limited resources. Presents a series of
> "decision screens" to provide a practical basis for applying the
> principles discussed.

Forkenbrock, David J., Thomas F. Pogue, David J. Finnegan, and Norman S.
J. Foster. 1990 (November). "Transportation Investment to Promote
Economic Development," in *Infrastructure Investment and Economic
Development: Rural Strategies for the 1990's*. Report No. AGES‑9069.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research
Service.

> Examines different modes of transportation in the context of rural
> development. Argues that "highways are necessary but not sufficient
> for economic growth and development." Provides a good overview of the
> literature, including a discussion of empirical studies, and
> summarizes some of the major costs and benefits associated with
> highway investment.

Haynes, Kingsley E. 1997. "Labor Markets and Regional Transportation
Improvements: The Case of High‑Speed Trains," *Annals of Regional
Science* 31 (1), pp. 57‑76.

> Reviews labor market issues in terms of mobility and policy resulting
> from transportation improvements. Examines empirical evidence of the
> impact of high-speed rail on labor markets and their structure.
> Outlines a spatial interaction approach for assessing changes in
> regional access and regional industrial mix.

Henry, Mark, and Johnson, Thomas G. 1993. "The Contribution of
Transportation to Rural Economic Development." *Southern Rural
Development Center* (Mississippi State University) 171, pp. 35-46.

> Provides an overview of the literature on highways and rural economic
> development. Finds that most studies support the conclusion that a
> positive association exists between highways and economic growth, but
> individual studies vary in methodologies. Offers a number of
> recommendations for improving the analysis of the effects of highways.

Hough, Jill A., Frank Dooley, and Gary Otto. 1991. *Transportation and
Rural Economic Development: A Comparative Analysis of Important Location
Factors*. Mountain-Plains Consortium Report No. 94-1. Fargo: North
Dakota State University, Upper Great Plains Transportation Institute.

> Seeks to develop a better understanding of the relationship between
> transportation and rural economic development. Compares the
> perceptions of economic development specialists and manufacturers
> about various business location factors, including transportation.

Huddleston, Jack R., and Prem P. Pangotra. 1990. "Regional and Local
Economic Impacts of Transportation Investments," *Transportation
Quarterly* 44 (4), pp. 579‑594.

> Presents an "impact assessment" framework for the regional economic
> analysis of transportation investments. Describes the types of stimuli
> that transportation represents for regional economies. Identifies a
> broad array of local economic variables likely to be impacted by
> transportation investments.

Johnson, Thomas G. 1989. *New Alliances for Rural America: State Rural
Transportation Programs in an Era of Contraction.* Washington, D.C.:
National Governors' Association.

> Focuses on the role of transportation infrastructure and services in
> rural economic development. Examines methods of investing in
> transportation infrastructure in an era of fiscal austerity and
> economic decline in many rural areas. Reviews State experiences with
> transportation investment strategies and considers innovative
> strategies.

Johnson, Thomas G. 1996. "The Economic Impacts of Infrastructure
Development," in *Rural Development Research: A Foundation For Policy*,
pp. 85-101. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.

> Examines the relationship between physical infrastructure development
> and rural quality of life issues, with an emphasis on the associated
> economic effects. Reviews issues related to the empirical estimation
> of economic impacts of investing in infrastructure. Considers the
> empirical evidence related to such investments, especially the
> differential impacts of alternative strategies involved in providing
> infrastructure.

Munnell, Alicia H. 1990. "How Does Public Infrastructure Affect Regional
Economic Performance?" *New England Economic Review* (Federal Reserve
Bank of Boston) September/October, pp. 11-33.

> Explores the effect of public capital on economic activity at the
> State and regional levels for the period 1970‑86. Concludes that those
> States that have invested in infrastructure, including transportation,
> have greater output, more private investment, and more employment
> growth. Highways have the greatest effect on regional output in the
> South.

**Federal and Local Governmental Issues**

Studies examining Federal and local governmental issues focus on the
financing, planning, and management of rural transportation systems, and
regulatory issues affecting intercity bus, rail freight, and passenger
air services. An example of a study focusing on financing issues is
Deller and Halstead (1991), which examines the condition and financing
of the local road network in three New England States, with special
attention on managerial practices in maintaining the local road network.
Walzer and Deller's (1996b) article focuses on the impact of ISTEA (the
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991) on local road
management practices. Regulatory issues are examined by Oster (1988),
which tries to determine whether small towns have been hurt by
deregulation in the transportation industry.

**A. Financing/Funding**

Baumel, C. Phillip, Sherry B. Miller, Gregory Pautsch, and Cathy A.
Hamlett. 1989. *The Local Rural Road System: Alternative Investment
Strategies*. CARD Technical Report No. 89-TR6. Ames: Iowa State
University.

> Employs a cost-benefit analysis, using three case study areas in Iowa,
> to study the effects of alternative investment strategies on local
> rural road systems. Develops guidelines for local supervisors and
> engineers in evaluating investment or disinvestment proposals.
> Provides information to State legislatures for developing local rural
> road and bridge policies.

Baumhover, Stephen B., Marty J. McVey, Michael Lipsman, and C. Phillip
Baumel. 1990. "Investment Strategies for the Rural Road and Branch Rail
Line Systems," *Journal of the Transportation Research Forum* 31 (1),
pp. 167-179.

> Discusses the need for substantial reinvestment in the Nation's
> railroads and highways. Develops a methodology for addressing the
> problems of rural transportation systems that function as integrated
> units. Identifies policy implications for the redirection of public
> investment to rural surface transportation infrastructure.

Bogren, Scott, and Chris Zeilinger. 1998. "TEA-21: A Significant Victory
for Community Transportation," *Community Transportation* 16 (5), pp.
9-12.

> Describes funding issues under TEA-21 (the Transportation Equity Act
> for the 21st Century). Provides a general overview of the legislation,
> with special attention to rural areas. Discusses rural public
> transportation funding increases, both in absolute and proportional
> terms, and lists possible impacts of the legislation for rural transit
> agencies.

Brown, Dennis M. 1998. "The Federal Highway Funding Formula and Rural
America." Paper presented at the 94th annual meeting of the Association
of American Geographers, Boston, March 26-29.

> Examines Federal highway funding in the context of rural
> transportation needs and Federal transportation policy. Discusses the
> importance of highways for rural development and provides an overview
> of the highway funding formula under ISTEA (the Intermodal Surface
> Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991). Highlights various limitations
> of the formula and describes spatial patterns of funding. Concludes
> with a statement of how changes in the funding formula may affect
> rural areas.

Deller, Steven C., and Rodney L. Clouser. 1993 (June). "Changes in the
State and Local Public Sector," in *Rural Infrastructure Issues: State
and Local Financing, Transportation, Health, and Solid Waste*.
Publication No. 171, pp. 1‑34. Mississippi State University, Southern
Rural Development Center.

> Discusses the types of expenditures historically undertaken by State
> and local governments in the Southeast to identify shifts in
> governmental focus. Pays special attention to capital expenditures as
> they relate to infrastructure investments. Examines the ability of
> rural governments to develop sufficient revenue sources while
> populations are declining.

Deller, Steven C., and John M. Halstead. 1991 (October). *Financing
Rural Roads and Bridges in the Northern New England States*. Bulletin
No. 836. University of Maine, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station.

> Examines the condition and financing of the local road system in three
> New England States (Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont). Focuses on
> local transportation management practices in an attempt to improve
> upon current institutional arrangements. Provides recommendations for
> improving the delivery of transportation services.

Deller, Steven C., and Norman Walzer. 1995. "Structural Shifts in the
Treatment of Intergovernmental Aid: The Case of Rural Roads," *Journal
Of Agricultural and Applied Economics* 27 (2), pp. 522-535.

> Evaluates the effects of structural shifts in the treatment of
> intergovernmental aid during the 1980\'s by using a sample of rural
> counties with local road responsibilities. Employs a model to test the
> hypothesis that local officials treated intergovernmental aid
> differently after the Reagan/Bush policy of fiscal federalism was
> implemented. Finds that Federal aid was more stimulative at the end of
> the decade than in earlier years, but the effects of State aid was
> unchanged throughout the 1980s. Attributes these differences to a
> perception that Federal aid is seen as being less permanent than State
> financing.

Fitzpatrick, Kay, Karen Kuenzer, Torsten Lienau, and Tom Urbanik II.
1993. "Intercity Bus Industry in Texas." Research Report No. 1337-1F.
Texas A&M University, Texas Transportation Institute.

> Examines use of Section 18 (rural public transportation) funds by
> nonmetro Texas communities. Uses survey methods to determine opinions
> and demographic characteristics of both the general public and
> intercity bus riders. Survey results reveal a variety of
> recommendations aimed at making the Texas intercity bus industry more
> efficient and user-friendly.

Hough, Jill A., Ayman G. Smadi, and John D. Bitzan. 1997. *Innovative
Financing Methods for Local Roads in the Midwest and Mountain-Plains
States*. Mountain-Plains Consortium Report No. 97-74. Fargo: North
Dakota State University, Upper Great Plains Transportation Institute.

> Examines the need for counties to explore alternative financing
> methods that increase revenue and/or decrease costs. Describes a
> number of innovative financing methods for local governments that face
> challenges in maintaining their road networks, including the creation
> of rural improvement districts and cost sharing road maintenance
> equipment. Discusses advantages and disadvantages of each of these
> strategies.

Johnson, Thomas G. 1990. "Strategies in Transportation Financing." Paper
presented at the regional conference, "Community Strategies for
Tomorrow\'s Local Infrastructure," Birmingham, Alabama, May 1-3.
Publication No. 135. Mississippi State University, Southern Rural
Development Center.

> Addresses the dilemma faced by many rural jurisdictions of increasing
> transportation needs in an era of declining financial resources.
> Identifies a general framework for better understanding different
> categories of solutions for funding shortfalls. Discusses five
> specific solutions: new or diverted sources of revenue, targeting of
> funds to economically strategic projects, strategic disinvestment in
> infrastructure, greater efficiency in service provision, and greater
> reliance on the public sector.

Leistritz, F. Larry, and Steve H. Murdock. 1988. "Financing
Infrastructure in Rapid Growth Communities: The North Dakota
Experience," in *Local Infrastructure Investment in Rural America*, pp.
141-154. Thomas G. Johnson, Brady J. Deaton, and Eduardo Segarra, eds.
Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

> Examines the experience of North Dakota in assisting rapidly growing
> communities with financing needed infrastructure and services. Focuses
> on the nature of fiscal problems in developing areas within the State
> and discusses the context of rapid, energy-related growth. Describes
> different approaches for dealing with these issues, including various
> taxation measures and other fiscal programs implemented to address the
> financial requirements for local government services.

Walzer, Norman, and Steven C. Deller. 1993. "Federal Aid and Rural
County Highway Spending: A Review of the 1980s," *Policy Studies
Journal* 21 (2), pp. 309-324.

> Examines the effect of Federal and State aid on county highway
> spending throughout the Nation. Notes that some studies have shown
> that Federal aid has a stimulative effect on spending for
> infrastructure, while others report that Federal aid substitutes for
> local resources. Reports that Federal aid was stimulative in 1987, but
> State aid was not, revealing that Federal aid may have a stronger
> relationship with local highway spending.

Walzer, Norman, and Steven C. Deller. 1997 (January). *Rural Roads and
Bridges: Financing Local Roads and Bridges in Rural Areas.* Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service.

> Examines the mechanisms used by counties and towns throughout the
> Nation to finance local roads and bridges and compares current
> patterns with those recorded during the 1980\'s. Discusses reliance on
> different revenue sources. Looks at change in expenditures compared to
> the rate of inflation and examines the perceptions of local road
> administrators regarding the adequacy of expected future funding.

Walzer, Norman, Steven C. Deller, Nicholas Marathon, and Lori York. 1996
(September). *Rural Roads and Bridges: Condition and Financing of Local
Bridges.* Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural
Marketing Service.

> Examines the current condition of the Nation's rural county and town
> bridges, with special attention to whether conditions have improved or
> worsened since 1989. Discusses the adequacy of funds available for
> bridges in order to determine whether local administrators can
> maintain current structures and/or meet expansion needs. Investigates
> management practices used for maintaining bridges and discusses
> potential changes that may be needed in these practices.

Welton, Richard D. 1995. "What Did ISTEA Do To Our Rural Roads?" *Better
Roads* 65 (9), pp. 21-22.

> Suggests that ISTEA (the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency
> Act of 1991) created competition for funds available to local
> governments. Reports that criteria for receiving funds under ISTEA
> favor urban areas over rural areas and do not recognize differences in
> urban and rural transportation systems. Argues that funding for
> preservation and capacity improvements should both be high priorities
> under ISTEA. Concludes that competition for funds and processing
> procedures should be reduced or eliminated.

Wheeler, Linda M., Joseph Voccia, and William Lenski. 1989. "Financial
Resource Needs of Public Transportation Systems," *Transportation
Quarterly* 43, pp. 527-548.

> Analyzes the differences between estimated capital investment costs
> and projected
>
> available capital funding for three transportation system categories:
> systems serving urbanized areas, those serving small urban areas, and
> rural transit systems. Concludes that, given current funding patterns,
> the condition of the Nation's public transportation facilities,
> equipment, and rolling stock will significantly deteriorate.

**B. Planning and Management**

Benhart, John E., and William Welsh. 1992. "The Interstate 81 Corridor
of South-Central Pennsylvania: Land Use in Nonmetropolitan America,"
*Small Town* 22 (4), pp. 12-18.

> Examines the Interstate 81 corridor in southern Pennsylvania to
> illustrate a growing rural nonmetropolitan region experiencing a
> variety of land use problems. Specific development-related issues
> cited include water quality concerns, solid waste disposal issues,
> preservation of agricultural land, and traffic congestion. Suggests
> that lack of planning is responsible for these problems. Basic land
> use controls, such as zoning laws and subdivision and land development
> ordinances, are recommended as possible tools available to
> decisionmakers.

Bitzan, John D., and Jill A. Hough. 1994. *An Evaluation Guidebook for
Rural and Small Urban Transportation Systems in the Mountain-Plains
Region*. Mountain-Plains Consortium Report No. 94-36. Fargo: North
Dakota State University, Upper Great Plains Transportation Institute.

> Discusses the lack of evaluation tools for rural and small urban
> transit operators. Provides one such tool available for transit
> operators for evaluating performance in comparison to similar transit
> systems. Provides objective criteria for converting raw data elements
> into these performance measures. Concludes with various proposals
> aimed at dealing more effectively with poor performance.

Chicoine, David L., Steven C. Deller, and Norman Walzer. 1989. "The Size
Efficiency of Rural Governments: The Case of Low‑Volume, Rural Roads."
*Publius* 19 (Winter), pp. 127-138.

> Examines low-volume rural roads in order to investigate size
> efficiency in local government. Uses a sample of Midwest townships in
> Illinois, Minnesota, and Ohio to develop a simple decision model based
> on a long-run average cost curve. Finds that substantial size
> inefficiencies exist and suggests that cost reductions might be
> realized through the restructuring of the production of rural roads.
> Recommends contractual agreements between smaller jurisdictions and
> larger units of government.

Deller, Steven C., David L. Chicoine, and Norman Walzer. 1988.
"Economies of Size and Scope in Rural Low‑Volume Roads," *Review of
Economics and Statistics* 70 (3), pp. 459-465.

> Explores technical efficiencies in producing local government
> services. Examines economies of size and suggests that cost savings
> may be realized from reorganizing low-volume rural township road
> systems into larger units. Economies of scope suggest that joint use
> of inputs will produce lower overall costs rather than having
> townships specialize in providing certain types of roads.

Deller, Steven C., and John M. Halstead. 1994. "Efficiency in the
Production of Rural Road Services: The Case of New England Towns," *Land
Economics* 70 (2), pp. 247-259.

> Analyzes the size and managerial efficiency of northern New England
> towns in the production of rural road services. Provides evidence on
> economies of size in the production of road service and notes that
> size inefficiencies are present. Results suggest that managerial
> inefficiencies, or input use inefficiencies, are operating and costs
> may be 40 percent higher than necessary. Argues that small town
> governments may be matching local demand with services, but only at a
> high cost.

Deller, Steven C., and Carl H. Nelson. 1991. "Measuring the Economic
Efficiency of Producing Rural Road Services," *American Journal of
Agricultural Economics* 73 (1), pp. 194-201.

> Examines the ability of various Midwest township officials to produce
> low‑volume rural road services in an economically efficient manner.
> Survey results suggest that over 50 percent of costs may be
> unnecessary because of input use inefficiencies and that larger
> jurisdictions may be more efficient than smaller jurisdictions.
> Estimates that nearly 85 percent of townships sampled exhibit
> technology characterized by increasing returns to scale. Argues that
> jurisdictional consolidation of production‑related responsibilities
> may yield substantial cost savings.

Ford, Jack J. 1994. "Managing Growth Along a Rural Highway Corridor: The
Role of Zoning on a Pennsylvania Highway," *Small Town* 25 (1), pp.
26-29.

> Examines the changing role of rural highways as adjacent land evolves
> from agricultural to nonagricultural uses. Chronicles historic land
> use changes that have occurred along a rural highway in south-central
> Pennsylvania. Describes policy changes that could be implemented to
> manage growth along rural corridors.

Goble, Robert T. 1995. "Planning Intermodal and Operations Facilities
for Rural and Small Urban Transit Systems: Workshop Manual." 12th
National Conference: Rural Public and Intercity Bus Transportation, Des
Moines, Iowa, October 22-25. Washington, D.C.: United States Department
of Transportation.

> Explores the possibility of developing an intermodal passenger
> facility in a rural or developing area. Discusses various advantages
> of such facilities, including improving commuting conditions,
> increasing mobility of the elderly and disabled, increasing the
> attractiveness of transit services, and becoming a support factor for
> growth. Describes how facilities can be developed to suit the scale
> and conditions of rural and small urban areas. Reviews a sequence of
> steps and methods and provides technical analysis used for rural
> intermodal passenger facility development.

Greenstein, J. 1995. "Issues Related to Planning and Administration of
Low-Volume Roads," *Transportation Research Circular* 446, pp. 7-8.

> Comments on several issues involved in rural road planning. Addresses
> optimization of expenditures on road improvement, the use of
> knowledge-based expert systems, the applications of environmental
> procedures in the administration of low-volume roads, and the use of
> the pavement condition index (PCI) and the International Roughness
> Index (IRI) to describe road surface conditions.

Hamlett, Cathy A., and C. Phillip Baumel. 1990. "Rural Road Abandonment:
Policy Criteria and Empirical Analysis," *American Journal of
Agricultural Economics* 72 (1), pp. 114-120.

> Discusses the changing use patterns of the rural road system and
> considers various policy options for local government officials.
> Discusses abandonment of some low‑volume, rural roads as one possible
> option. Develops a model, using utility maximization and
> Pareto‑optimal criteria, that allows for identification of policy
> criteria for abandonment.

Sorensen, Paul C., Eric Irelan, Brian Winningham, and Thomas A. Noyes.
1997. "Skagit Countywide Air, Rail, Water, and Port Transportation
System Study," *Transportation Research Record* 1602, pp. 4-13.

> Examines the movement of freight for different modes of transportation
> (road, rail, water, air, and pipeline). Presents a methodology for
> estimating existing freight traffic flows by mode and by location, and
> forecasts future flows. Develops a methodology for determining future
> transportation system plan priorities of small urban and rural
> communities.

Stommes, Eileen S., Steve Miller, and Cindy Johnson. 1992 (January).
"Multicommunity Collaboration Addresses Rural Transportation," *Rural
Development News* 16 (1), pp. 24-26.

> Summarizes some of the current issues involving transportation in
> rural America and identifies emerging trends. Gives examples of rural
> communities providing cost-effective transportation infrastructure.
> Highlights the advantages of collaboration among local communities in
> providing transportation services.

U.S. Department of Transportation. 1990. *Guidebook for Planning Small
Urban and Rural Transportation Programs*. Vols. 1 and 2. Prepared for
the New Mexico State Highway and Transportation Department,
Transportation Programs Division.

> Assists small urban and rural communities in New Mexico in assessing
> their public transportation needs and programs. Examines various
> issues of importance for providers of local public transportation
> services, including public transportation needs in small communities
> and rural areas, the role of alternative transportation systems,
> funding and finance issues, generating community involvement, and
> program monitoring.

Wallace, Charles E., Andrew K. Kilpatrick, and Keith R. Schneider. 1996
(April). "Rural Applications of Intelligent Transportation Systems."
Knoxville: University of Tennessee, Transportation Center.

> Addresses the needs of rural transportation users and looks at
> potential benefits that Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) can
> deliver. Compares ITS user requirements to perceived rural traveler
> needs. Summarizes the results of several specialty conferences on
> rural ITS and describes a number of related projects. Recommends a
> plan for increasing the awareness of ITS needs in rural areas.

Walther, Erskine S. 1990 (June). *Coordination of Rural Public
Transportation Services in Three Southeastern States*. Report No.
DOT-T-90-17. Washington, D.C.: Urban Mass Transportation Administration,
Office of Technical Assistance and Safety, University Research and
Training Program.

> Examines the Federal Section 18 (rural public transportation) program
> in the context of transit providers in the Southeast. Documents the
> historical development and current practices of coordinated systems.
> Discusses the benefits of coordination, which include quality of
> service delivery issues and financial concerns.

Walzer, Norman and Steven C. Deller. 1996b (September). *Rural Roads and
Bridges: Management Issues Facing Local Highway Officials.* Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service.

> Documents management practices used by, and issues facing, local
> transportation administrators. Addresses the impact of ISTEA (the
> Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991) on local
> road management. Proposes a shift in how local road officials view
> intergovernmental aid in management decisions. Concludes with a
> discussion of policy changes for improving local resource management
> in road and bridge administration.

**C. Regulatory Issues**

Astrop, Angela. 1993. *The Trend in Rural Bus Services Since
Deregulation.* Project Report 21. Crowthorne, Berkshire (U.K.): Traffic
and Transport Resource Centre, Transport Research Laboratory.

> Examines the effects of deregulation on rural bus service in Britain
> under the Transport Act of 1985. Discusses the continued provision of
> rural bus service through a sampling of small communities. Highlights
> parallels between the British and U.S. intercity bus industries in
> terms of the difficulties of maintaining service to rural communities
> in an environment of deregulation.

Kihl, Mary R. 1988. "The Impacts of Deregulation on Passenger
Transportation in Small Towns," *Transportation Quarterly* 42 (2), pp.
243-268.

> Examines various options in providing small town intercity passenger
> service, with a focus on developing a broad systems approach to
> service provision. Assesses the impact of scheduling, service levels,
> and pricing on air and bus service to small communities. Advocates the
> establishment of coordinated intermodal linkages to deal more
> effectively with the effects of deregulation.

Oster, Clinton V., Jr. 1988. "Is Deregulation Cutting Small Communities'
Transportation Links?" *Rural Development Perspectives* 4 (3), pp.
13-16.

> Discusses various changes in the provision of rural bus and airline
> service following deregulation and examines geographical variations in
> the loss of service. Notes that many bus lines had abandoned rural
> routes prior to deregulation, and that most airline abandonments
> occurred as a result of market inefficiencies. Argues that cuts in bus
> service often have serious negative rural effects because patrons have
> few available transportation options.

**Other Issues in Rural Transportation**

Studies not easily classifiable into previous groupings are categorized
as "other." This group includes studies dealing with a variety of
issues, including social services transportation, rural transportation
safety concerns, and rural transportation issues affecting the
environment. Social services studies focus primarily on transportation
of the elderly, Native Americans, and women. A good example is Kihl's
(1992) study, which addresses the underutilization of rural
transportation systems by older residents. Studies on safety often deal
with programs and policies designed to improve rural roadways. Kamerud's
(1988) study addresses the benefits and costs of speed limits in
improving safety. Beachy and Eck's (1995) article, which represents an
environmental study, analyzes environmental considerations in highway
construction projects.

**A. Social Services Transportation**

Anding, Thomas L., and R. Evan Fulton. 1993. *Assessing Transportation
Needs on Indian Reservations*. Mountain-Plains Consortium Report No.
93-21. Fargo: North Dakota State University, Upper Great Plains
Transportation Institute.

> Summarizes major transportation concerns for members of various Native
> American tribes in Minnesota. Concludes that substandard quality and
> lack of availability of personal transportation on rural reservations
> is of chief concern to residents. Suggests several ways to improve
> transportation services on rural reservations.

Bogren, Scott. 1998. "The Secret Passage," *Community Transportation* 16
(3), pp. 17-19.

> Describes the condition of transportation infrastructure on the Zuni
> Nation Reservation in New Mexico. Examines the efforts of Zuni
> Entrepreneurial Enterprises (ZEE) in providing public transportation
> services to the reservation. Reviews the growth and success of the
> program in providing reservation residents with access to jobs,
> education, and public services.

Damiano, Peter C., Elizabeth T. Momany, Norman S. J. Foster, and Hermine
T. McLeran. 1994. *Transportation of Rural Elders and Access to Health
Care*. Ames: University of Iowa, Public Policy Center.

> Discusses the use of public transportation services by elderly Iowa
> residents in rural areas. Assesses their needs and the capacity for
> Iowa's public transit system to provide an adequate level of service.
> Discusses several issues of importance for rural elderly residents,
> such as access to health care services.

Foster, Norman S. J., Peter C. Damiano, Elizabeth T. Momany, and Hermine
T. McLeran. 1996. "Rural Public Transportation: Perceptions of Transit
Managers, Directors of Area Agencies on Aging, and Elders,"
*Transportation Research Record* 1557, pp. 58-63.

> Uses survey methods to determine the opinions of transit managers,
> area agency on aging (AAA) directors, and rural elders concerning the
> quality and availability of public transportation services for rural
> residents in Iowa. Survey results show that an unmet transportation
> need exists in the study area and that lack of information is a
> primary cause. Results also indicate that among rural elderly
> residents, those who use public transportation services generally have
> the highest opinions of transit.

Howard, David M. 1990. *A Handbook on Rural Elderly Transportation
Services: A Practical Introduction to Operating and Evaluating a Rural
Elderly Transportation System*. University of Missouri - Kansas City,
National Resource Center for Rural Elderly.

> Presents practical information in a handbook format for initiating,
> financing, and operating transportation systems that primarily serve
> rural elders. Offers various suggestions on how best to provide
> service to rural elderly residents. Provides criteria for effectively
> evaluating rural elderly transportation services.

Howard, David M., and C. Neil Bull. 1989. *Rural Elderly Transportation
Services: A Self‑Evaluation Checklist*. University of Missouri - Kansas
City, National Resource Center for Rural Elderly.

> Presents transit operators and policymakers with a checklist for
> evaluating rural elderly transportation operations. Highlights ways to
> improve transit service for rural elderly residents. Provides
> information on technical assistance for transit operators and lists
> additional resources.

Kihl, Mary R. 1990. *The Need for Transportation Alternatives for the
Rural Elderly.* Ames, Iowa: Midwest Transportation Center.

> Documents transportation patterns of the rural elderly in six counties
> in southern Iowa and identifies the potential need for alternative
> services. Concludes that although there are relatively few elderly
> transit patrons, not many transportation alternatives exist for this
> population. Argues that others might be encouraged to use public
> transportation if the system better met their needs.

Kihl, Mary R. 1992. "Marketing Rural Transit Among Senior Populations,"
*Transportation Research Record* 1338, pp. 60-64.

> Examines underutilization of rural transportation systems by older
> residents. Proposes developing responsive rural transportation systems
> and targeting them to senior residents. Reviews strategies developed
> by marketing analysts and provides various perspectives of
> gerontologists. Suggests several innovative approaches for better
> meeting the transportation needs of the rural senior population.

Moorehead, Paul, and Robert I. Holden. 1996 (March). *National Indian
Tribal Transit Report*. Project No. DC-26-7022. Washington, D.C.: United
States Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration.

> Addresses problems faced by American Indian and Alaska Native tribal
> governments with regard to transit and related issues. Discusses the
> importance of transit systems for tribal economies and their
> communities. Views inadequate transit services as negatively affecting
> tribal efforts in attracting and maintaining outside investment in
> infrastructure development (transportation services, water systems,
> waste disposal plants) and job creation. Argues that tribal
> governments should be assisted by the Federal Government in
> development policy efforts.

Peters, Alan H., and Heather I. MacDonald. 1994. "The Worktrips of Rural
Non‑Metropolitan Women in Iowa," *Growth and Change* 25 (3), pp.
335‑351.

> Presents a model of worktrip length for rural nonmetropolitan women.
> Finds that some factors important in constraining the length of urban
> women\'s commute, such as linking worktrips with household‑related
> trips, are less relevant in a rural setting. Concludes that those
> women who either work in nontraditional occupations, receive
> employer‑provided health benefits, and/or have access to better
> transportation resources, tend to have longer worktrips.

Ramsbottom-Lucier, Mary, Kim Emmett, Eugene C. Rich, and John F. Wilson.
1996. "Hills, Ridges, Mountains, and Roads: Geographical Factors and
Access to Care in Rural Kentucky," *Journal of Rural Health* 12 (5), pp.
386-394.

> Investigates the relationship between road quality, county elevation,
> and access to health care for individuals in rural and urban areas of
> Kentucky. Examines the demographic characteristics of rural and urban
> residents, and notes that rural residents are generally poorer and
> older. Finds that poor road conditions, as measured by a road
> "rideability" index, resulted in longer times to reach medical care.

Shawn, Kelly. 1994. *American Indian Transportation: Issues and
Successful Models*. Technical Assistance Brief No. 14. Washington, D.C.:
Community Transportation Association of America, Rural Transit
Assistance Program.

> Addresses transportation-related issues faced by American Indians,
> such as sovereignty, funding, coordination, economic growth, and
> computerization. Provides examples of ongoing efforts to provide
> transportation services to Native Americans in isolated rural areas of
> Mississippi, Arizona, Wyoming, and Oklahoma. Provides information on
> additional resources.

Stunkel, Edith. 1997. "Rural Public Transportation and the Mobility of
Older Persons: Paradigms for Policy," *Journal of Aging and Social
Policy* 9 (3), pp. 67-86.

> Develops a comprehensive literature review of Federal public
> transportation policy in rural areas. Suggests three alternative
> paradigms for guiding future policy: addressing social issues,
> focusing on economic concerns, and emphasizing sustainability.
> Provides specific recommendations within each paradigm.

**B. Safety**

Caldwell, R. Craig, and Eugene M. Wilson. 1997. *A Safety Improvement
Program for Rural Unpaved Roads.* Mountain-Plains Consortium Report No.
97-70. University of Wyoming, Department of Civil and Architectural
Engineering.

> Presents a prototype safety improvement program (SIP) developed for
> unpaved roads. Argues that the SIP is economically and procedurally
> appropriate for local road agencies. Provides a systematic means of
> prioritizing road sections for safety analysis and identifying safety
> improvement needs, and includes results of case studies to validate
> the procedure.

Clarke, David B, Arun Chatterjee, Stephen M. Rutner, and Harry L. Sink.
1996. "Intermodal Freight Transportation and Highway Safety,"
*Transportation Quarterly* 50 (2), pp. 97-110.

> Identifies a number of highway safety implications of intermodal
> transportation. Quantifies the effect on highway safety of switching
> some freight traffic to railroads. Discusses overall truck traffic
> reduction, shifts from rural to urban roads, terminal location and
> access, and other related issues.

Jernigan, J. D., and C. W. Lynn. 1991. "Impact of 65-MPH Speed Limit on
Virginia's Rural Interstate Highways Through 1989," *Transportation
Research Record* 1318, pp. 14-21.

> Reviews the 1987 Surface Transportation and Uniform Relocation
> Assistance Act, which permitted States to raise their maximum speed
> limit on rural interstate highways. Finds that fatal crashes and
> fatalities increased more in Virginia, on average, than in other
> States that raised their maximum speed limits. Suggests that the
> increased speed limit may have been a contributing factor for the
> increased number of accidents in Virginia.

Kamerud, Dana B. 1988. "Benefits and Costs of the 55 mph Speed Limit:
New Estimates and Their Implications," *Journal of Policy Analysis and
Management* 7 (2), pp. 341-352.

> Summarizes costs and benefits of the national 55 mile-per-hour speed
> limit for rural interstates compared to all other roads. Estimates the
> cost of saving a life by reducing speed limits is significantly higher
> on rural interstates compared to other roads. Suggests that these
> findings support increasing speed limits on rural interstates.

Martz, Eston. 1994. "Beware of Rural Roads," *Traffic Safety* 94 (5),
pp. 16-19.

> Provides data on rural road accidents in Canada. Discusses various
> hazards associated with rural roads, including higher speeds and
> poorer road conditions. Suggests several ways for drivers to reduce
> risks associated with nonmetro roads.

Schwartz, David J., James A. Bonneson, and Patrick T. McCoy. 1994.
*Analysis of Policies for Safety Improvements on Low-Volume Rural
Roadways.* Lincoln: University of Nebraska, Department of Civil
Engineering.

> Compares highway safety policies of Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and
> Nebraska. Pays special attention to low-volume rural roadways.
> Provides recommendations for reducing hazardous conditions on these
> roads.

Wilson, Eugene M., and Kevin A. French. 1992. *Evaluating the Potential
of Remote Sensing Rural Road and Travel Conditions*. Mountain-Plains
Consortium Report No. 92-10. University of Wyoming, Department of Civil
Engineering.

> Examines the issue of safety on rural roads. Advocates the need for
> posting current road and travel conditions as a means of reducing the
> number of wintertime accidents in rural mountain States. Evaluates the
> use of real-time remote weather information for updating road and
> travel conditions.

**C. Environmental Issues**

Alexander, Susan V. 1992. *Rural Roads: Pollution Prevention and Control
Measures.* Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

> Argues that changes made by local governments in routine maintenance
> and road upgrade activities can provide protection for an area's
> streams, rivers, lakes, and wetlands. Presents a fact sheet that lists
> various roadway changes that can be easily implemented. Identifies a
> set of specific sites where such practices may prove beneficial.

Beachy, Kevin T., and Ronald W. Eck. 1995. "Environmental Dilemma of
Administering and Maintaining Low-Volume Roads." *Sixth International
Conference on Low-Volume Roads*, Volume 1. Minneapolis, June 25-29.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, Transportation Research Board.

> Provides an overview of various environmental regulations and
> restrictions covering maintenance, rehabilitation, and reconstruction
> activities on low-volume rural roads in western Maryland. Analyzes
> environmental considerations concerning the feasibility, design, and
> construction phases of highway projects in conjunction with
> construction costs. Offers several recommendations designed to assist
> public officials to deal more effectively with environmental
> constraints.

Moll, Jeffry E. 1993. "Reducing Low-Volume Road Impacts on the
Environment: Success in the United States Department of Agriculture
Forest Service," *Transportation Research Record* 1426, pp. 10-14.

> Discusses how low-impact roads can effectively mitigate various
> negative environmental consequences associated with road construction
> activities. Identifies the reduction of sediment in road maintenance
> as a positive strategy for the environment. Advocates the need for
> comprehensive planning prior to construction activities.

**Additional Resources**

The following citations are miscellaneous rural transportation
references. They include an assortment of summaries, status reports,
guides, maps, atlases, and bibliographies.

*Atlas of Public Transportation in Rural America*. 1995. Washington,
D.C.: National Transit Resource Center, Community Transportation
Association of America.

> Provides a visual documentation of the nature of rural public transit
> services on a regional, State, and intrastate basis. Indicates that 41
> percent of rural residents live in counties without any public
> transportation services, while another 25 percent live in areas with
> inadequate transit.

Batson, John A., and Jerry D. Norton. 1988 (November). *Maintaining
Local Rail Service.* Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Office of Transportation.

> Describes how shippers and rural communities can retain local rail
> service. Gives a brief summary of rail regulation as it applies to
> railroad abandonment and discusses the abandonment process. Identifies
> available assistance programs for communities faced with an
> abandonment, including those from the U.S. Department of Agriculture's
> Office of Transportation.

Rucker, George. 1994. *Status Report on Public Transportation in Rural
America.* Washington, D.C.: National Transit Resource Center, Community
Transportation Association of America.

> Reports findings from a nationwide study of transit systems. Provides
> a demographic profile of rural transit patrons, and discusses
> characteristics of the services provided. Identifies the number and
> selected attributes of local rural transit agencies. Assesses the
> transit needs of rural residents who are underserved by public
> transportation services.

Stommes, Eileen S., and Martha A. Bearer. 1988 (August). "Annotated
Bibliography on Rural Intercity Passenger Transportation."
*Transportation Facts*. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Office of Transportation.

> Summarizes State-level studies on rural intercity passenger
> transportation. Provides background information on studies conducted
> and reports written during the 1980\'s. Emphasizes those studies
> completed since passage of the Bus Regulatory Reform Act of 1982.

Transportation Research Board. 1991. "Rural and Specialized
Transportation Abstracts," Prepared for the 10th National Conference on
Rural Public Transportation, Asheville, North Carolina, October 13-16.

> Provides references available through the Urban Mass Transportation
> Research Information Service database. Citations include report
> availability statements, which provide detailed bibliographic
> information.

**Other Studies (Unannotated)**

**A. Rural Transportation: Availability, Demand, and Condition**

American Society of Civil Engineers. 1992. *Local Low-Volume Roads and
Streets*. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration.

Attaluri, P., P. N. Seneviratne, and M. Javid. 1997. "Modeling Demand
for Public Transit Services in Rural Areas," *Journal of Transportation
Engineering* 123 (3), pp. 216-222.

Beadle, Charles R., and Sheldon M. Edner. 1988. "*The Eighth National
Conference on Rural Public Transportation: Final Report*. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Department of Transportation: Technology Sharing Program.

Black, W. R. 1993. "Development of an Ideal Model For Identification of
Rural Public Transit Needs," *Transportation Research Record* 1402, pp.
107-109.

Botha, Jan L. 1990. *The Role of Transit and Paratransit in Rural
Communities in Alaska.* Seattle, WA: Transportation Northwest,
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Washington.

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. 1992. "Rural Public Transportation in Alaska: Present
and Future Options," *Transportation Research Record* 1338, pp. 37-45.

Botha, Jan L., Edward C. Sullivan, and Xiaohong Zeng. 1992. *Level of
Service of Two-Lane Rural Highways with Design Speeds Less Than 60 MPH*.
Sacramento: California Department of Transportation.

Brown, Dennis M. 1996b. "Rural America's Transportation Network: Issues
for the 1990\'s," *Rural Development Perspectives* 11 (2), pp. 10-17.

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. 1997. "Consolidations in the Rail Freight Industry and
Rural America," Paper presented at the 93rd annual meeting of the
Association of American Geographers, Fort Worth, April 1-5.

Burton, Mark L. 1995. "Rail Rates and the Availability of Water
Transportation: The Missouri Valley Region," *Review of Regional
Studies* 25 (1), pp. 79-95.

Casto, James. 1993. "Aerospace: Takeoff in West Virginia," *Journal of
the Appalachian Regional Commission* 26 (2), pp. 1-6.

Deller, Steven C., and Norman Walzer. 1997 (September). *Rural Roads and
Bridges: A Comprehensive Analysis*. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service.

Eusebio, Victor E. 1992. "Rail Abandonments and Road Damage: A
Comparison of Alternative Strategies to Preserve the Kansas Road
System," *Kansas Business Review* 15/16 (4/1), pp. 9-17.

Fravel, Frederic D. 1988. *Comprehensive Study of Intercity Bus Service
in Nebraska: Final Report*. Washington, D.C.: Technology Sharing
Program, U.S. Department of Transportation.

Gonzalez-Ayala, Salvador. 1996 (March). *Historic Trends and Future
Consequences of Projected Traffic Along Rural Interstate 35.* Research
Report No. 1326-1. University of Texas, Center for Transportation
Research.

Hansen, Christian O. 1987 (September). *Rural Public Transport in North
America: Planning and Technology*. Research Report No. 87-6. Berkeley:
Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California.

Hough, Jill A., and Gene Griffin. 1997. *An Evaluation of Regionalizing
Rural Transit Systems in North Dakota.* Mountain-Plains Consortium
Report No. 97-77. Fargo: North Dakota State University, Upper Great
Plains Transportation Institute.

Jones, Warren, ed. 1990. *Research in Rural Issues: An Annotated
Bibliography.* Macomb, IL: Western Illinois University, Illinois
Institute for Rural Affairs.

La Caille, John, and Patricia Comp. 1989. *Transportation Services in
Rural Areas. January 1979 - December 1988. Quick Bibliography Series*.
U.S. Department of Agriculture: National Agricultural Library, Public
Services Division.

Marathon, Nicholas. 1989. *Rural Bridges: An Assessment Based Upon the
National Bridge Inventory*. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Office of Transportation.

McIntyre, Robert J. 1986. "*Rural Public Transportation Demand:
Characteristics and Estimation Methodology*" Technical Study Report No.
1080-1F. University of Texas, Center for Transportation Research.

Norton, Jerry D. 1995 (September). *Assessing the Impact of Railcar
Availability on Grain Prices*. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service.

Rosenbloom, Sandra. 1996. *Service Routes, Route Deviation, and General
Public Paratransit in Urban, Suburban, and Rural Transit Systems.*
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit
Administration, Office of Technical Assistance and Safety.

Rozic, P. 1992. "Capacity of Two-Lane, Two-Way Rural Highways: The New
Approach," *Transportation Research Record* 1365, pp. 19-29.

Sheftick, Daniel E. 1991 (June). *Recycling and Rehabilitating
Low-Volume Roads: Performance Report, SR 2015, Bradford County*.
Research Project 84-14. Pennsylvania Department of Transportation,
Bureau of Bridge and Roadway Technology.

Smith, Jean. 1997. "Rural Transit Raising the Standards," *Community
Transportation* 15 (8), pp. 12-14.

Stommes, Eileen S. 1989 (July). *Reconnecting Rural America: Report on
Rural Intercity Passenger Transportation*. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Office of Transportation.

Transportation Research Board. 1996. "Public Transportation 1996: Bus,
Rural and Intercity, and Paratransit," *Transportation Research Record*
1557.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Transportation. 1988.
*Reconnecting Rural America: National Strategy for Reconnecting Rural
America*.

Walzer, Norman, David L. Chicoine, and Ruth T. McWilliams. 1987.
"Rebuilding Rural Roads and Bridges," *Rural Development Perspectives* 3
(2), pp. 15-20.

Weissman, J., and R. Harrison. 1991. "Impact of Turnpike Double and
Triple 28\'s on the Rural Interstate Bridge Network," *Transportation
Research Record* 1319, pp. 32-42.

Welby, Ellen M., and Brian M. McGregor. 1993 (February). *Agricultural
Export Transportation Workbook*. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service.

Wilson, Eugene M., Khaled Ksaibati, Donald Warder, and Gene Bryan. 1994
(March). *Evaluating Criteria for Scenic Loop Tours*. Mountain-Plains
Consortium Report No. 94- 29. Fargo: North Dakota State University.

**B. Transportation and Rural Development**

Andersen, S. J., H. S. Mahmassani, R. Helaakoski, M. A. Euritt, C. M.
Walton, and R. Harrison. 1993. "Economic Impact of Highway Bypasses,"
*Transportation Research Record* 1395, pp. 144-152.

Babcock, Michael W. 1991. "Transportation and Great Plains Agriculture,"
in *Proceedings of Great Plains Agricultural Council* (Wichita, June
4-6), pp. 178-189.

Babcock, Michael W., Marvin Prater, John Morrill, and Eugene R. Russell.
1995. "Competitiveness of Short Line Railroads," *Journal of the
Transportation Research Forum* 34 (2), pp. 13-25.

Batson, John A. 1989. *Importance of Small Railroads to Agriculture and
Rural America.* Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office
of Transportation.

Calvo, Christina M. 1998. *Options for Managing and Financing Rural
Transport Infrastructure.* Technical Paper 411. Washington, D.C.: World
Bank.

Crane, Laurence M. 1989. *Economic Effects of Transportation
Expenditures on Employment and Income Levels Within Highway Districts*.
College Station: Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University.

Dempsey, Steven P. 1989. *The Social and Economic Consequences of
Deregulation: The Transportation Industry in Transition.* Westport,
Conn.: Greenwood Press.

Fruin, Jerry E.. 1995. "The Importance of Barge Transportation for Rural
America." Staff Paper No. 95-4, Department of Agricultural and Applied
Economics, University of Minnesota.

Hartgen, D. T., J. E. O'Callaghan, W. A. Walcott, and J. Opgenorth.
1992. "Growth at Rural Interchanges: What, Where, Why?" *Transportation
Research Record* 1359, pp. 141-150.

Jensen, Ric. 1995. "Texas Water Transportation System: Ports and GIWW
Are a Major Economic Force, But is There an Environmental Cost?" *Texas
Water Resources* 21 (1), pp. 1-8.

Kihl, Mary R., Mark Yontz, and David McFarland. 1994 (September).
*Intercity Bus Study: Final Report.* Ames: Iowa State University.

Klaassen, L. H. 1985. "The Accessibility of Rural Areas," *International
Journal of Transport Economics* 12 (2), pp. 157-163.

McCracken, C., K. Casavant, and D. Branch. *Methodology for Estimating
Impact of Transportation Infrastructure on Business Location in Rural
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McGranahan, David A. 1998 (March). *Local Problems Facing Manufacturers:
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Economic Research Service.

Sullivan, Edward C. 1992. "Transportation and Economic Development of
Coastal Areas in the Pacific Northwest," *Transportation Research
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Transportation Research Board. 1996. "Effects of Highway Bypasses on
Rural Communities and Small Urban Areas," *NCHRP Research Results
Digest* 210.

Vachal, Kimberly, John D. Bitzan, and Denver Tolliver. 1996 (February).
*Transportation as an Input to the North Dakota Agricultural Marketing
Process*. Fargo: North Dakota State University, Upper Great Plains
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Wohlbruck, Aliceann, ed. 1998a (January). "Transportation in Rural
America: How Are We Doing?" *Economic Development Digest* 9 (3), pp.
1-8.

**C. Federal and Local Governmental Issues**

Baumel, C. Phillip. 1986. *The Economics of Reducing the County Road
System: Three Case Studies in Iowa.* Ames: Iowa Department of
Transportation.

Berndt, Ernst R., Ann F. Friedlaender, Judy Shaw-Er Wang Chiang, and
Christopher A. Vellturo. 1993 (June). "Mergers, Deregulation and Cost
Savings in the U.S. Rail Industry," *Journal of Productivity Analysis*
4, pp. 127-145.

Bitzan, John D. 1997 (August). *The Impacts of Deregulation on Railroad
Labor*. Mountain- Plains Consortium Report No. 97-78. Fargo: North
Dakota State University.

Botha, Jan L., Edward C. Sullivan, and Xiaohong Zeng. 1994. "Level of
Service of Two-Lane Rural Highways with Low Design Speeds,"
*Transportation Research Record* 1457, pp. 17-25.

Chicoine, David L., and Norman Walzer, eds. 1986. *Financing Local
Infrastructure in Nonmetropolitan Areas.* New York: Greenwood Press.

Felton, Richard J., and Dale G. Anderson, eds. 1989. *Regulation and
Deregulation of the Motor Carrier Industry*. Ames: Iowa State University
Press.

Fitzsimmons, Edward L. 1991. "Factors Associated with Intramodal
Competition Reported by Small Railroads," *Logistics and Transportation
Review* 27 (1), pp. 73-87.

Gaines, David. 1997. "The Tribulation of Tribal Transit: Navajo Transit
System in Profile," *Bus World* 20 (2), pp. 11-13.

Gittings, G. L., L. A. Zangwill, J. C. Spychalski, and J. K. Stover.
1995. *Strategic Options to Enhance Rail Transport Service in Rural
Pennsylvania*. State College: Pennsylvania State University,
Pennsylvania Transportation Institute.

Grimm, Curtis M., and Harry J. Sapienza. 1993. "Determinants of
Shortline Railroad Performance," *Transportation Journal* 32 (3), pp.
5-13.

Helfrich, Kathleen M. 1996. *The Economics of Road Maintenance by Local
Governments in New York State*. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Ph.D.
Dissertation.

Jordan, Constance W. 1987 (February). *Developing Local Support and
Funding for Transportation Service in Rural Alabama*. Report No.
AL-11-0003. Washington, D.C.: Urban Mass Transportation Administration,
University Research and Training Program.

MacDonald, James M. 1988. *Effects of Railroad Deregulation on Grain
Transportation*. Technical Bulletin No. 1759. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

Mazur, G. D., W. Sarasua, and J. Daniel. 1996. "Multimodal
Transportation Planning Tool for Rural Areas in Georgia,"
*Transportation Research Record* 1552, pp. 48-56.

McDermott, K. P., and E. W. Hauser. 1991. "Communicating Change to Local
Roads Officials," *Transportation Research Record* 1291, pp. 163-170.

Morral, J. F., and W. M. Abdelwahab. 1993. "Estimating Traffic Delays
and the Economic Cost of Recurrent Road Closures on Rural Highways,"
*Logistics and Transportation Review* 29 (2), pp. 159-177.

North, D. 1992. "Rural Transport: Time for a Return to the Policy
Agenda?" *Local Transport Today* 10/01 (91), pp. 10-11.

Nutley, Stephen D. 1996. "Rural Transport Problems and Non-Car
Populations in the USA: A UK Perspective," *Journal of Transport
Geography* 4 (2), pp. 93-106.

Sheftick, Daniel E. 1991 (June). *Recycling and Rehabilitating
Low-Volume Roads: Performance Report, SR 2015, Bradford County*.
Research Project 84-14. Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Department of
Transportation, Bureau of Bridge and Roadway Technology.

Tye, W. B. 1991. *The Transition to Deregulation: Developing Economic
Standards for Public Policies*. New York: Quorum Books.

Walzer, Norman, and David L. Chicoine. 1989. *Rural Roads and Bridges: A
Dilemma for Local Officials.* Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Office of Transportation.

Wang, J., and Eugene M. Wilson. 1997. "Using Traffic Counts in Rural
Statewide Transportation Planning," *Transportation Research Record*
1593, pp. 17-22.

Wohlbruck, Aliceann, ed. 1998b. "Congress Approves ISTEA Conference
Report with Strengthened Rural Role. *NADO News* 19 (20), May 29, p. 1.

**D. Other Issues**

Agent, Kenneth R. 1986. *Traffic Control and Accidents at Rural,
High-Speed Intersections*. Report No. 87-6. Lexington: Kentucky
Transportation Research Program, College of Engineering, University of
Kentucky.

Al-Masaeid, H. R., K. C. Sinha, and T. Kuczek. 1993. "Evaluation of
Safety Impact of Highway Projects," *Transportation Research Record*
1401, pp. 9-16.

Alexander, M. David. 1990. "Public School Pupil Transportation: Rural
Schools," *Journal of Education Finance* 16 (Fall), pp. 226-246.

Benekohal, R. F., and A. M. Hashmi. 1990 (June). *Accident Savings from
Roadside Improvements on Two-Lane Rural Highways*. Illinois Department
of Transportation, Springfield.

Benekohal, R. F., and M. H. Lee. 1991. "Comparison of Safety Effects of
Roadside Versus Road Improvements on Two-Lane Rural Highways,"
*Transportation Research Record* 1303, pp. 92-102.

Bitzan, John D. 1992. *Rural Transit Research Needs in the Mountain
Plains Region.*

Mountain-Plains Consortium Report No. 92-16. Fargo: North Dakota State
University, Upper Great Plains Transportation Institute.

Bonneson, James A., and Patrick T. McCoy. 1993. "Estimation of Safety at
Two-Way Stop- Controlled Intersections on Rural Highways,"
*Transportation Research Record* 1401, pp. 83-89.

Boyce, D. E. 1989. *Cost-Effective 3R Roadside Safety Policy for
Two-Lane Rural Highways: Final Report to Illinois Department of
Transportation.* Chicago: Illinois Universities Transportation Research
Consortium.

Cavinato, Joseph L., and Martha L. Cuckovich. 1992. "Transportation and
Tourism for the Disabled: An Assessment," *Transportation Journal* 31
(3), pp. 46-53.

Cook, Cynthia C. 1991. "Social Analysis in Rural Road Projects," in
*Putting People First: Sociological Variables in Rural Development*.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Flad, H. K., and S. G. Long. 1997. "County Clutter: Visual Pollution and
the Rural Roadscape," *The Annals* 553, pp. 117-129.

Fox, Michael. 1995. "Rural School Transportation as a Daily Constraint
in Students' Lives," *The Rural Educator* 17 (2), p. 22.

Hall, J. W. and O. J. Pendleton. 1990. "Rural Accident Rate Variations
with Traffic Volume," *Transportation Research Record* 1281, pp. 62-70.

Hauser, E. W., D. Terry, and M. S. Griffith. 1994. "Effect of
Resurfacing on Safety of Two- Lane Rural Roads in New York State,"
*Transportation Research Record* 1467, pp. 30-37.

Ivey, Don L., and Lindsay I. Griffen. 1992 (February). *Safety
Improvements for Low-Volume Rural Roads*. Texas Transportation
Institute, Texas A&M University.

James, June. 1985 (July). *A Study of Elderly and Handicapped
Perceptions of a Transit Rider Program in Rural to Urban Communities in
Northern Mississippi.* Report No. MS-11- 0002. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Transportation, Urban Mass Transportation Administration.

Leinbach, Thomas R., John F. Watkins, and Nikiforos Stamatiadis. 1994.
*Transportation Services, Utilization and Needs of the Elderly in
Non-Urban Kentucky.* Washington, D.C.: Federal Transit Administration,
Office of Technical Assistance and Safety.

Miller, Jennine. 1997. "Welfare Reform in Rural Areas," *Community
Transportation* 15 (7), pp. 36-44.

O'Neill, Wende A., K. Ullah, and M. Wang. 1993 (September). *IVHS and
Rural Road Safety: A Prototype ATIS*. Mountain-Plains Consortium Report
No. 93-23. Fargo: North Dakota State University.

*Report on Speed Limits and Safety for Iowa Highways*. 1996. Ames: Iowa
Department of Transportation, Safety Management System Task Force on
Speed Limits.

St. John, A. D., and D. W. Harwood. 1991. "Safety Considerations for
Truck Climbing Lanes on Rural Highways," *Transportation Research
Record* 1303, pp. 74-82.

Transportation Research Board. 1993. *Low-Volume Roads: Environmental
Planning and Assessment, Modern Timber Bridges, and Other Issues.*
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Zegeer, C. V., R. Stewart, F. Council, and T. R. Neuman. 1994. "Accident
Relationships of Roadway Width on Low-Volume Roads," *Transportation
Research Record* 1445, pp. 160-168.

**E. Additional Resources**

Jones, Warren, ed. 1990. *Research in Rural Issues: An Annotated
Bibliography*. Macomb, Illinois: Western Illinois University, Illinois
Institute for Rural Affairs.

Sieber, Niklas. 1997. *An Annotated Bibliography on Rural Transport*.
London: The International Forum for Rural Transport and Development.

U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics.
1994. *Transportation Statistics: Annual Report*.

U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration. 1993.
"Rural Public and Intercity Bus Transportation: A Bibliography with
Abstracts," Prepared for the 11th National Conference on Rural Public
and Intercity Bus Transportation, Park City, Utah, September 26-29.

**Index**

Abdelwahab, W. M., 58

Agent, Kenneth R., 59

Al-Masaeid, H. R., 59

Alexander, M. David, 59

Alexander, Susan V., 50

Allen, Benjamin J., 16

American Society of Civil Engineers, 53

Anderson, Dale G., 58

Andersen, S. J., 56

Anding, Thomas L., 44

Astrop, Angela, 43

*Atlas of Public Transportation in Rural America*, 51

Attaluri, P., 53

Aziz, Riaz, 24

Babcock, Michael W., 11, 22, 23, 56

Baldwin, Fred D., 18

Batson, John A., 11, 23, 51, 56

Baumel, C. Phillip, 8, 16, 32, 40, 57

Baumhover, Stephen B., 32

Bayer, Curtis K., 13

Beachy, Kevin T., 50

Beadle, Charles R., 53

Bearer, Martha A., 11, 15, 52

Benekohal, R. F., 59

Benhart, John E., 38

Benson, Doug, 24

Berndt, Ernst R., 57

Bitzan, John D., 35, 38, 57, 59

Black, W. R., 53

Bogren, Scott, 15, 26, 33, 44

Bonneson, James A., 49, 60

Botha, Jan L., 53, 57

Boyce, D. E., 60

Branch, D., 57

Brennan, Sherry, 8

Broder, Josef M., 18

Brown, Dennis M., 15, 22, 26, 33, 53

Bryan, Gene, 21, 55

Bull, C. Neil, 45

Burkhardt, Jon E., 26

Burns, Robert E., 22

Burton, Mark L., 53

Butler, Darlene P., 27

Caldwell, R. Craig, 48

Calvo, Christina M., 56

Casavant, K., 57

Casto, James, 53

Cavinato, Joseph L., 60

Chatterjee, Arun, 48

Chiang, Judy Shaw-Er Wang, 57

Chicoine, David L., 9, 38, 39, 55, 57, 59

Clarke, David B., 48

Clouser, Rodney L., 33

Comp, Patricia, 54

Connin, Larry, 13

Cook, Cynthia C., 60

Cooper, Ronald, 24

Council, F., 61

Crane, Laurence M., 7, 28, 56

Crum, Michael R., 16

Cuckovich, Martha L., 60

Damiano, Peter C., 45

Daniel, J., 58

Daniels, Bob, 7

Deaton, Brady J., 35

Deller, Steven C., 10, 33, 34, 36, 38, 39, 42, 54

Dempsey, Steven P., 56

Dooley, Frank, 30

Due, John F., 16

Eberts, Randall W., 28

Eck, Ronald W., 50

Edner, Sheldon M., 53

Emmett, Kim, 47

Euritt, M. A., 56

Eusebio, Victor E., 54

Felton, Richard J., 58

Fendley, Kim, 28

Finnegan, David J., 29

Fitzpatrick, Kay, 34

Fitzsimmons, Edward L., 58

Flad, H. K., 60

Ford, Jack J., 39

Forkenbrock, David J., 19, 29

Foster, Norman S. J., 19, 29, 45

Fox, Michael, 60

Fravel, Frederic D., 54

French, Kevin A., 49

Friedlaender, Ann F., 57

Fruin, Jerry E., 7, 13, 14, 16, 19, 22, 56

Fuller, Stephen W., 7

Fulton, R. Evan, 44

Gaines, David, 58

Gildemeister, Morris, 16

Gillis, William R., 8

Gittings, G. L., 58

Goble, Robert T., 40

Golaszewski, Richard, 25

Gonzalez-Ayala, Salvador, 54

Greenstein, J., 40

Griffen, Lindsay I., 60

Griffin, Gene, 8, 54

Griffith, M. S., 60

Grimm, Curtis M., 58

Halbach, Dan, 7, 13, 14, 19

Hall, J. W., 60

Halstead, John M., 34, 39

Hamlett, Cathy A., 8, 32, 40

Hansen, Christian O., 54

Harnik, Peter, 23

Harrison, R., 55, 56

Hartgen, D. T., 56

Harwood, D. W., 61

Hashmi, A. M., 59

Hauser, E. W., 58, 60

Haynes, Kingsley E., 29

Hedrick, James L., 26

Helaakoski, R., 56

Helfrich, Kathleen M., 58

Henry, Mark, 29

Holden, Robert I., 46

Honeyman, Joel S., 22

Hough, Jill A., 8, 30, 35, 38, 54

Howard, David M., 45

Huddleston, Jack R., 30

Irelan, Eric, 41

Isaacs, Randy, 27

Isserman, Andrew M., 19, 21

Ivey, Don L., 60

James, June, 60

Javid, M., 53

Jensen, Ric, 56

Jernigan, J. D., 48

Johnson, Cindy, 41

Johnson, Thomas G., 29, 30, 35

Jones, Warren, 54, 61

Jordan, Constance W., 58

Kamerud, Dana B., 48

Kihl, Mary R., 16, 43, 46, 56

Kilpatrick, Andrew K., 41

Klaassen, L. H., 56

Klindworth, Keith A., 23

Ksaibati, Khaled, 21, 55

Kuczek, T., 59

Kuenzer, Karen, 34

Kusmin, Lorin D., 20

La Caille, John, 54

Lamberton, Charles E., 8

Leatham, David J., 28

Lee, M. H., 59

Leggett, Keith, 13

Leinbach, Thomas R., 60

Leistritz, F. Larry, 35

Lenski, William, 37

Lienau, Torsten, 34

Lipsman, Michael, 32

Long, S. G., 60

Lynn, C. W., 48

MacDonald, Heather I., 47

MacDonald, James M., 58

Mahmassani, H. S., 56

Marathon, Nicholas, 36, 54

Martz, Eston, 49

Maxwell, Tracy, 27

Mazur, G. D., 58

McCoy, Patrick T., 49, 60

McCracken, C., 57

McDermott, K. P., 58

McFadden, Claudia, 10

McFarland, David, 56

McGavock, Adam T., 26

McGranahan, David A., 57

McGregor, Brian M., 55

McIntyre, Robert J., 54

McLeran, Hermine T., 45

McNamara, Kevin T., 18

McVey, Marty J., 32

McWilliams, Ruth T., 15, 55

Miller, Jennine, 60

Miller, Sherry B., 32

Miller, Steve, 41

Miller, Will, 28

Mitenko, Graham R., 13

Moll, Jeffry E., 50

Momany, Elizabeth T., 45

Moon, Henry E., Jr., 20

Moorehead, Paul, 46

Morral, J. F., 58

Morrill, John, 11, 56

Munnell, Alicia H., 31

Murdock, Steve H., 35

Nelson, Carl H., 39

Neuman, T. R., 61

Nevel, Bonnie, 23

Nice, David C., 9

Norris, Bahar B., 25

North, D., 58

Norton, Jerry D., 11, 51, 54

Noyes, Thomas A., 41

Nutley, Stephen D., 58

O'Callaghan, J. E., 56

O'Hara, Michael, 13

O'Neill, Wende A., 61

Opgenorth, J., 56

Oster, Clinton V., Jr., 43

Otto, Gary, 30

Pangotra, Prem P., 30

Pautsch Gregory, 32

Pendleton, O. J., 60

Peters, Alan H., 47

Pinnoi, Nat, 7

Pogue, Thomas F., 29

Porterfield, Shirley L., 20

Prater, Marvin, 11, 56

Ramsbottom-Lucier, Mary, 47

Redman, John M., 20

Reeder, Richard J., 25

Reid, J. Norman, 25

Rephann, Terance J., 19, 21

*Report on Speed Limits and Safety for Iowa Highways*, 60

Rich, Eugene C., 47

Rosenbloom, Sandra, 55

Rozic, P., 55

Rubel, Tom, 17

Rucker, George, 51

Russell, Eugene R., 11, 22, 23, 56

Rutner, Stephen M., 48

St. John, A. D., 61

Sapienza, Harry J., 58

Sarasua, W., 58

Schneider, Keith R., 41

Schwartz, David J., 49

Sears, David W., 20, 25

Segarra, Eduardo, 35

Seneviratne, P. N., 53

Shawn, Kelly, 47

Sheftick, Daniel E., 55, 59

Sieber, Niklas, 61

Sinha, K. C., 59

Sink, Harry L., 48

Smadi, Ayman G., 8, 35

Smith, Jean, 55

Sorenson, David J., 19

Sorensen, Paul C., 41

Spychalski, J. C., 58

Stamatiadis, Nikiforos, 60

Stewart, R., 61

Stommes, Eileen S., 15, 41, 52, 55

Stover, J. K., 58

Stunkel, Edith, 47

Sullivan, Edward C., 53, 57

Tanzer, Fred P., 16

Taylor, Teresa D., 18

Terry, D., 60

Tolliver, Denver, 57

Transportation Research Board, 52, 55, 57, 61

Tye, W. B., 59

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Agricultural Marketing Service, 9

Office of Transportation, 17, 55

U.S. Department of Transportation, 41

Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 61

Federal Transit Administration, 61

Ullah, K., 61

Urbanik, Tom, II, 34

Vachal, Kimberly, 57

Vellturo, Christopher A., 57

Voccia, Joseph, 37

Walcott, W. A., 56

Wallace, Charles E., 41

Walther, Erskine S., 42

Walton, C. M., 56

Walzer, Norman, 9, 10, 34, 36, 38, 39, 42, 54, 55, 57, 59

Wanek, Cory, 25

Wang, J., 59

Wang, M., 61

Warder, Donald, 21, 55

Watkins, John F., 60

Weisbrod, Glen, 25

Weissman, J., 55

Welby, Ellen M., 55

Welsh, William, 38

Welton, Richard D., 37

Wheeler, Linda M., 37

Wilson, Eugene M., 21, 48, 49, 55, 59

Wilson, John F., 47

Winningham, Brian, 41

Wohlbruck, Aliceann, 57, 59

Wolfe, K. Eric, 12

Yontz, Mark, 56

York, Lori, 36

Zangwill, L. A., 58

Zegeer, C. V., 61

Zeilinger, Chris, 33

Zeng, Xiaohong, 53, 57