# ![](media/image1.png){width="0.25in" height="0.32013888888888886in"}Proven Benefits

The benefits of the School Breakfast Program have been proven through
two different studies: Maryland Meals for Achievement and Minnesota
First Class Learning. These two studies are available in the
*"Resources"* section.

Other studies and reports are available to share with school boards,,
superintendents, principals and teachers. Some of these are highlighted
below in order of benefits.

## Policy/Program 

*Center on Hunger, Poverty and Nutrition Policy. **Statement on the Link
Between Nutrition and Cognitive Development in Children.** Center on
Hunger, Poverty and Nutrition Policy, 1998. Tufts University, Medford
MA.*

This report summarizes research data on the effects of nutrition and the
environmental factors associated with poverty on cognitive functions.
The report highlights public programs that support poor families. The
benefits of child nutrition programs such as WIC, School Breakfast,
School Lunch, Summer Food Service, Food Stamps and the Child and Adult
Care Food Programs, based on scientific research, are also described.

*California Department of Education, **Eat Well, Learn Well.**
California Department of Education, 1995, Sacramento, CA.*

This document highlights the importance nutrition plays in preparing
children to learn. It provides a conceptual model for the nutrition
services component of a comprehensive school health system. It provides
practical ideas and helpful resources for achieving program goals.

*Doris, Derelian. **Better Breakfast, Better Learning.** California
Department of Education and Washington State Office of Superintendent of
Public Instruction. 1994. California Department of Education,
Sacramento, CA.*

This report summarizes the relationship of hunger and classroom
performance. As the time between meals increases, concentration suffers.
School breakfast energizes students to do their best academically. An
action plan for school personnel to support School Breakfast Programs is
included.

*Marcotte, LP. **A Guide to Universal Free School Breakfast Programs.**
Center on Hunger and Poverty, 1999. Tufts University, Medford MA.*

This report summarizes the benefits of school breakfast, and focuses on
universal school breakfast programs as a specific method of increasing
participation and improving academic performance. Guidance is provided
for school administrators who are interested in starting such a program;
options, including USDA provisions, are described; and suggestions for
promotional activities are included.

*Pollitt E and Matthews R. **Breakfast and Cognition: An Integrative
Summary.** American Journal of Clinical Nutrition,
1998;(67)(4)(Suppl):804S-813S.*

The papers presented at the International Symposium on Breakfast and
Performance in Napa, CA in 1995 are summarized and integrated with data
published since that time. The pooled data suggest that omitting
breakfast interferes with cognition and learning, an effect that is more
pronounced in nutritionally at-risk children than in well-nourished
children. At the very least, breakfast consumption improves school
attendance and enhances the quality of students' diets.

## Research Outcomes

### Cognitive Function

*Benton D and Parker PY. **Breakfast, Blood and Cognition.** American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1998;67(4)(Suppl):772S-778S.*

The findings of three studies that explored the role of increased blood
glucose in improving memory function for subjects to who ate breakfast
were examined. Morning fasting was found to adversely affect the ability
to recall a word list and a story read aloud, as well as recall items
while counting backwards. It was concluded that breakfast consumption
preferentially influences tasks requiring aspects of memory.

*Pollitt E and Matthews R. **Breakfast and Cognition: An Integrative
Summary.** American Journal of Clinical Nutrition,
1998;(67)(4)(Suppl):804S-813S.*

The papers presented at the International Symposium on Breakfast and
Performance in Napa, CA in 1995 are summarized and integrated with data
published since that time. The pooled data suggest that omitting
breakfast interferes with cognition and learning, an effect that is more
pronounced in nutritionally at-risk children than in well-nourished
children. At the very least, breakfast consumption improves school
attendance and enhances the quality of students' diets.

*Pollitt E, Jacoby E and Cueto S. **School Breakfast and Cognition Among
Nutritionally At-risk Children in the Peruvian Andes.** Nutrition
Reviews. 1996;54(4):S22-S26.*

In 1993, the government of Peru launched a School Breakfast Program in
five Andean departments. Two studies were done to assess the educational
and nutritional impact of the School Breakfast Program. The first tested
the effects of breakfast on cognition among 54 elementary schoolchildren
(ages 9-11 years) who were either well nourished or nutritionally at
risk. The second study was a field evaluation of the feeding program in
10 rural schools. Based on the evidence presented in both the
experimental study and the field evaluation of the National School
Breakfast Program in Peru, it was concluded that the brain is sensitive
to drops in the short-term availability of nutrients, and that an
overnight and morning fast produces a psychological state accompanied by
change in brain function, particularly working memory. This is
particularly true among nutritionally at-risk children.

*Vaisman N, Voet H, Akivis A and Vakil E. **Effect of Breakfast on the
Cognitive Functions of Elementary School Students.** Archives of
Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine. 1996;150:1089-1092.*

The effects of breakfast timing on selected cognitive functions of 569
elementary school students were examined. Routinely eating breakfast two
hours prior to being tested does not improve cognitive functions in
11-13 year-old elementary school students, but food supplementation 30
minutes prior to taking a test notably improved scoring.

### Test Scores

*Marcotte, LP. **A Guide to Universal Free School Breakfast Programs.**
Center on Hunger and Poverty, 1999. Tufts University, Medford MA.*

This report summarizes the benefits of school breakfast, and focuses on
universal school breakfast programs as a specific method of increasing
participation and improving academic performance. Guidance is provided
for school administrators who are interested in starting such a program;
options, including USDA provisions, are described; and suggestions for
promotional activities are included.

![](media/image1.png){width="0.25in" height="0.32013888888888886in"}

*Minnesota Department of Children, Families and Learning. **School
Breakfast Programs Energizing the Classroom.** Minnesota Department of
Children, Families and Learning, 1998, Roseville, MN.*

The outcomes of a three-year Universal School Breakfast Program pilot
study, which took place in six Minnesota elementary schools, are
summarized in this report. This pilot program demonstrated the
cognitive, behavioral and general health benefits of serving breakfast
to all students as part of the education day. When breakfast was offered
at no charge to all students as part of the educational day,
participation rates increased significantly. The program appears to play
a role in student achievement with a demonstrated general increase in
composite math and reading scores. The study showed that providing
universal breakfast as part of the school day improved student behavior,
reduced morning trips to the nurse, and increased student attendance and
test scores. These effects earned the support of teachers, school nurses
and school administrators.

*Meyers AF, Sampson AE, Weitzman M, Rogers BL and Kayne H. **School
Breakfast Program and School Performance.** American Journal of Diseases
of Children. 1989;143:1234-39.*

This landmark study examined the effects of school breakfast on academic
performance among 1,023 low-income third through fifth grade students.
Compared to children who did not have access to the School Breakfast
Program, children who participated in the program had significantly
greater gains on overall standardized test scores and showed
improvements in math, reading, and vocabulary scores. In addition, rates
of absences and tardiness were reduced among participants. These
findings suggest that the SBP is positively associated with significant
improvements in academic performance.

*Murphy JM, Pagano ME, Nachmani J, Sperling P, Kane S and Kleinman RE.
**The Relationship of School Breakfast to Psychosocial and Academic
Functioning.** Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine.
1998;152:899-907.*

The effects of a Universal School Breakfast Program on school breakfast
participation, child behavior, school attendance and punctuality, and
academic performance were evaluated in three schools in Baltimore and
Philadelphia school districts. Evaluations were made prior to, and four
months after implementation of the universal programs. Based on 133
students with pre and post data available, those who increased
participation (42%) had significant improvements in math grades and
lower rates of absence and tardiness. Among the 85 students with
psychosocial rating before and after the start of the Universal School
Breakfast Program, teachers noted a decrease in problems by students who
frequently participated in school breakfast. The results suggest that
greater participation in the School Breakfast Program is associated with
improved academic performance and behavior.

*Wyon D, Abrahamsson L, Jartelius M and Fletcher R. **An Experimental
Study of the Effects of Energy Intake at Breakfast on the Test
Performance of 10 Year-old Children in School.** International Journal
of Food Science and Nutrition. 1997;48(1):5-12.*

The research involved 166 ten year-old school children who were randomly
assigned to eat a high or low energy breakfast at home on different
days. Those who ate the complete cereal breakfast made fewer mistakes
and worked faster in addition and number checking tests. Significant
improvements were also observed in the children's creativity and
voluntary physical endurance.

![](media/image1.png){width="0.25in" height="0.32013888888888886in"}

### Attendance/Tardiness

*Cook JT, Ohri-Vachaspati P, Kelly GL. **Evaluation of a
Universally-Free School Breakfast Program Demonstration Project, Central
Falls, Rhode Island.** Center on Hunger, Poverty, and Nutrition Policy,
1996, Tufts University, Medford, MA.*

This study assesses the impact of a Universally-Free School Breakfast
Program, implemented in Central Falls, Rhode Island, on four key
areas: 1) school breakfast participation; 2) overall breakfast
consumption; 3) nutritional intakes at breakfast; and 4) school absence
and tardy rates. Compared to Pre-K through sixth grade students in the
control schools, the Universally-Free program led to a significant
increase in school breakfast participation, especially among at-risk
children, and reduced the number of children who started school without
breakfast. Children who participated had lower rates of absence and
tardiness, and had greater nutrient intakes. These results suggest that
a Universally-Free School Breakfast Program is an effective method for
increasing school breakfast participation, thus improving the
nutritional well-being and educational readiness of school-age children.

*Minnesota Department of Children, Families and Learning. **School
Breakfast Programs Energizing the Classroom.** Minnesota Department of
Children, Families and Learning, 1998, Roseville, MN.*

The outcomes of a three-year Universal School Breakfast Program pilot
study, which took place in six Minnesota elementary schools, are
summarized in this report. This pilot program demonstrated the
cognitive, behavioral and general health benefits of serving breakfast
to all students as part of the education day. When breakfast was offered
at no charge to all students as part of the educational day,
participation rates increased significantly. The program appears to play
a role in student achievement with a demonstrated general increase in
composite math and reading scores. The study showed that providing
universal breakfast as part of the school day improved student behavior,
reduced morning trips to the nurse, and increased student attendance and
test scores. These effects earned the support of teachers, school nurses
and school administrators.

*Meyers AF, Sampson AE, Weitzman M, Rogers BL and Kayne H. **School
Breakfast Program and School Performance.** American Journal of Diseases
of Children. 1989;143:1234-39.*

This landmark study examined the effects of school breakfast on academic
performance among 1,023 low-income third through fifth grade students.
Compared to children who did not have access to the School Breakfast
Program, children who participated in the program had significantly
greater gains on overall standardized test scores and showed
improvements in math, reading, and vocabulary scores. In addition, rates
of absences and tardiness were reduced among participants. These
findings suggest that the SBP is positively associated with significant
improvements in academic performance.

*Murphy JM, Pagano ME, Nachmani J, Sperling P, Kane S and Kleinman RE.
**The Relationship of School Breakfast to Psychosocial and Academic
Functioning.** Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine.
1998;152:899-907.*

The effects of a Universal School Breakfast Program on school breakfast
participation, child behavior, school attendance and punctuality, and
academic performance were evaluated in three schools in Baltimore and
Philadelphia school districts. Evaluations were made prior to, and four
months after implementation of the universal programs. Based on 133
students with pre and post data available, those who increased
participation (42%) had significant improvements in math grades and
lower rates of absence and tardiness. Among the 85 students with
psychosocial rating before and after the start of the Universal School
Breakfast Program, teachers noted a decrease in problems by students who
frequently participated in school breakfast. The results suggest that
greater participation in the School Breakfast Program is associated with
improved academic performance and behavior.

![](media/image1.png){width="0.25in" height="0.32013888888888886in"}

### Program Participation

*Cook JT, Ohri-Vachaspati P, Kelly GL. **Evaluation of a
Universally-Free School Breakfast Program Demonstration Project, Central
Falls, Rhode Island.** Center on Hunger, Poverty, and Nutrition Policy,
1996, Tufts University, Medford, MA.*

This study assesses the impact of a Universally-Free School Breakfast
Program, implemented in Central Falls, Rhode Island, on four key
areas: 1) school breakfast participation; 2) overall breakfast
consumption; 3) nutritional intakes at breakfast; and 4) school absence
and tardy rates. Compared to Pre-K through sixth grade students in the
control schools, the Universally-Free program led to a significant
increase in school breakfast participation, especially among at-risk
children, and reduced the number of children who started school without
breakfast. Children who participated had lower rates of absence and
tardiness, and had greater nutrient intakes. These results suggest that
a Universally-Free School Breakfast Program is an effective method for
increasing school breakfast participation, thus improving the
nutritional well-being and educational readiness of school-age children.

*Minnesota Department of Children, Families and Learning. **School
Breakfast Programs Energizing the Classroom.** Minnesota Department of
Children, Families and Learning, 1998, Roseville, MN.*

The outcomes of a three-year Universal School Breakfast Program pilot
study, which took place in six Minnesota elementary schools, are
summarized in this report. This pilot program demonstrated the
cognitive, behavioral and general health benefits of serving breakfast
to all students as part of the education day. When breakfast was offered
at no charge to all students as part of the educational day,
participation rates increased significantly. The program appears to play
a role in student achievement with a demonstrated general increase in
composite math and reading scores. The study showed that providing
universal breakfast as part of the school day improved student behavior,
reduced morning trips to the nurse, and increased student attendance and
test scores. These effects earned the support of teachers, school nurses
and school administrators.

*Meyers AF, Sampson AE, Weitzman M, Rogers BL and Kayne H. **School
Breakfast Program and School Performance.** American Journal of Diseases
of Children. 1989;143:1234-39.*

This landmark study examined the effects of school breakfast on academic
performance among 1,023 low-income third through fifth grade students.
Compared to children who did not have access to the School Breakfast
Program, children who participated in the program had significantly
greater gains on overall standardized test scores and showed
improvements in math, reading, and vocabulary scores. In addition, rates
of absences and tardiness were reduced among participants. These
findings suggest that the SBP is positively associated with significant
improvements in academic performance.

### Nurse Visits

*Minnesota Department of Children, Families and Learning. **School
Breakfast Programs Energizing the Classroom.** Minnesota Department of
Children, Families and Learning, 1998, Roseville, MN.*

![](media/image1.png){width="0.25in" height="0.32013888888888886in"} The
outcomes of a three-year Universal School Breakfast Program pilot study,
which took place in six Minnesota elementary schools, are summarized in
this report. This pilot program demonstrated the cognitive, behavioral
and general health benefits of serving breakfast to all students as part
of the education day. When breakfast was offered at no charge to all
students as part of the educational day, participation rates increased
significantly. The program appears to play a role in student achievement
with a demonstrated general increase in composite math and reading
scores. The study showed that providing universal breakfast as part of
the school day improved student behavior, reduced morning trips to the
nurse, and increased student attendance and test scores. These effects
earned the support of teachers, school nurses and school administrators.

### Behavior related to SBP

*Grantham-McGregor S, Chang S, Walker S. **Evaluation of School Feeding
Programs: Some Jamaican Examples.** American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition. 1998;67:(4)785S-789S.*

Two Jamaican studies showed that providing breakfast to students at
school improved some cognitive functions, particularly in undernourished
children. However, changes in classroom behavior depended upon the
quality of the school. Children in better organized schools were able to
concentrate more than those in poorly organized schools. Well-designed,
randomized, controlled, long-term trials are essential for determining
public policy on the implementation of school feeding programs.

*Minnesota Department of Children, Families and Learning. **School
Breakfast Programs Energizing the Classroom.** Minnesota Department of
Children, Families and Learning, 1998, Roseville, MN.*

The outcomes of a three-year Universal School Breakfast Program pilot
study, which took place in six Minnesota elementary schools, are
summarized in this report. This pilot program demonstrated the
cognitive, behavioral and general health benefits of serving breakfast
to all students as part of the education day. When breakfast was offered
at no charge to all students as part of the educational day,
participation rates increased significantly. The program appears to play
a role in student achievement with a demonstrated general increase in
composite math and reading scores. The study showed that providing
universal breakfast as part of the school day improved student behavior,
reduced morning trips to the nurse, and increased student attendance and
test scores. These effects earned the support of teachers, school nurses
and school administrators.

*Murphy JM, Pagano ME, Nachmani J, Sperling P, Kane S and Kleinman RE.
**The Relationship of School Breakfast to Psychosocial and Academic
Functioning.** Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine.
1998;152:899-907.*

The effects of a Universal School Breakfast Program on school breakfast
participation, child behavior, school attendance and punctuality, and
academic performance were evaluated in three schools in Baltimore and
Philadelphia school districts. Evaluations were made prior to, and four
months after implementation of the universal programs. Based on 133
students with pre and post data available, those who increased
participation (42%) had significant improvements in math grades and
lower rates of absence and tardiness. Among the 85 students with
psychosocial rating before and after the start of the Universal School
Breakfast Program, teachers noted a decrease in problems by students who
frequently participated in school breakfast. The results suggest that
greater participation in the School Breakfast Program is associated with
improved academic performance and behavior.

### Behavior related to hunger

*Grantham-McGregor S, Chang S, Walker S. **Evaluation of School Feeding
Programs: Some Jamaican Examples.** American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition. 1998;67:(4)785S-789S.*

Two Jamaican studies showed that providing breakfast to students at
school improved some cognitive functions, particularly in undernourished
children. However, changes in classroom behavior depended upon the
quality of the school. Children in better organized schools were able to
concentrate more than those in poorly organized schools. Well-designed,
randomized, controlled, long-term trials are essential for determining
public policy on the implementation of school feeding programs.

*Kleinman RE, Murphy JM, Little M, Pagano M, Wehler CA, Regal K and
Jellnick MS. **Hunger in Children in the United States: Potential
Behavioral and Emotional Correlates.** Pediatrics. 1998;101(1):E3.*

![](media/image1.png){width="0.25in" height="0.32013888888888886in"}

Based on the results from the Community Childhood Hunger Identification
Project (CCHIP), an estimated four million American children experience
prolonged periodic food insufficiency and hunger each year. This study
examined the relationship between hunger and psychosocial functions
among low-income, school-aged children. A total of 328 parents and
children from one CCHIP location completed a Pediatric Symptom
Checklist, along with 8 food-insufficiency questions which were used to
classify children as hungry, at-risk for hunger, or not hungry. Analysis
showed that virtually all behavioral, emotional and academic problems
were more prevalent in hungry children. Aggression and anxiety had the
strongest degree of association with hunger. Greater awareness of the
role of food insufficiency and hunger on psychosocial dysfunction in
children is needed.

### Nutrient Intakes

*Cook JT, Ohri-Vachaspati P, Kelly GL. **Evaluation of a
Universally-Free School Breakfast Program Demonstration Project, Central
Falls, Rhode Island.** Center on Hunger, Poverty, and Nutrition Policy,
1996, Tufts University, Medford, MA.*

This study assesses the impact of a Universally-Free School Breakfast
Program, implemented in Central Falls, Rhode Island, on four key
areas: 1) school breakfast participation; 2) overall breakfast
consumption; 3) nutritional intakes at breakfast; and 4) school absence
and tardy rates. Compared to Pre-K through sixth grade students in the
control schools, the Universally-Free program led to a significant
increase in school breakfast participation, especially among at-risk
children, and reduced the number of children who started school without
breakfast. Children who participated had lower rates of absence and
tardiness, and had greater nutrient intakes. These results suggest that
a Universally-Free School Breakfast Program is an effective method for
increasing school breakfast participation, thus improving the
nutritional well-being and educational readiness of school-age children.

*Freidman BJ and Hurd-Crixell SL. **Nutrient Intake of Children Eating
School Breakfast.** Journal of the American Dietetic Association.
1999;99:(2):219-221.*

This study evaluated the nutrient intake of children eating school
breakfast by assessing actual breakfast consumption of 306 students,
aged 5 to 12 years, over a 8-day period. The results found that actual
intake varied significantly from that which was offered. Energy intakes
fell below the USDA requirements while saturated fat intakes exceeded
the recommendations. Children were able to meet the recommended levels
of iron and vitamin C, but fell short for calcium and vitamin A. This
analysis suggests that continued evaluation and redesign of school menus
are required to help children meet the USDA dietary guidelines.

*Gordon AR and McKinney P. **Sources of Nutrients in Students' Diets.**
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1995;61(1S):232S-240S.*

This study describes food consumed and nutrients derived from specific
foods by participants and non-participants in the National School Lunch
Program (NSLP) and the School Breakfast program. Data were derived from
24-hour dietary recalls of 3,350 children in grades 1-12, collected as
part of the School Nutrition Dietary Assessment Study. SBP participants
were more likely than non-participants to consume milk and fruit juice,
leading to higher intakes of calcium and magnesium, and they were three
times more likely to eat meat, leading to high intakes of fat and
sodium. Results suggest that the school meals can improve a child's
nutrient intakes, but that care must be taken to prepare meals that do
not exceed the dietary guidelines for fat and sodium.

*Nicklas TA, Weihang B, Webber LS and Berenson GS. **Breakfast
Consumption Affects Adequacy of Total Daily Intake to Children.**
Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 1993;93:886-891.*

![](media/image1.png){width="0.25in" height="0.32013888888888886in"}
Breakfast consumption patterns were assessed for 467 ten year-old
children who were interviewed in the 1984-1985 or 1987-1988 school year.
Consumption patterns were then related to average daily nutrient intake
patterns. More white children and girls ate breakfast at home, whereas,
more black children and boys ate breakfast at school. Results indicated
that 16 percent of all children skipped breakfast. Breakfast consumption
made a significant contribution to the child's average daily nutrient
intake. The average total energy intake was significantly lower for
children who either skipped breakfast or who consumed breakfast at home,
than for children who ate at school. Children who did not eat breakfast
were not able to make up for the lack of nutrients at other meals. These
results confirm the importance of breakfast to overall diet quality and
adequacy in school-age children.

*Nicklas TA, O'Neil CE and Berenson GS. **Nutrient Contribution of
Breakfast, Secular Trends, and the Role of Ready-to-Eat Cereals: a
Review of the Data from the Bogalusa Heart Study.** American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition. 1998;67(4)(Suppl):757S-763S.*

The Bogalusa Heart Study is an ongoing study of the cardiovascular risk
factors among children and young adults in Bogalusa, LA. This evaluation
studied 1,254 ten year-old children over a 15-year period (1973-1998).
Nutrient intake was assessed by 24-hour dietary recalls. During the
first six years of the study, the number of children skipping breakfast
increased; but this number was reduced after a school breakfast program
started. Children eating breakfast had greater intakes of energy,
protein, and carbohydrate, while the percentage of dietary allowance for
vitamins A and D, riboflavin, thiamin, calcium, magnesium and zinc than
the children who ate breakfast at home. Nutrient intakes also improved
with the consumption of ready-to-eat cereals, which subsequently
improved milk intakes. This evaluation supports the important role of
the SBP on the nutritional status of school-aged children.

*Pollitt E, Jacoby E and Cueto S. **School Breakfast and Cognition Among
Nutritionally At-risk Children in the Peruvian Andes.** Nutrition
Reviews. 1996;54(4):S22-S26.*

In 1993, the government of Peru launched a School Breakfast Program in
five Andean departments. Two studies were done to assess the educational
and nutritional impact of the School Breakfast Program. The first tested
the effects of breakfast on cognition among 54 elementary schoolchildren
(ages 9-11 years) who were either well nourished or nutritionally at
risk. The second study was a field evaluation of the feeding program in
10 rural schools. Based on the evidence presented in both the
experimental study and the field evaluation of the National School
Breakfast Program in Peru, it was concluded that the brain is sensitive
to drops in the short-term availability of nutrients, and that an
overnight and morning fast produces a psychological state accompanied by
change in brain function, particularly working memory. This is
particularly true among nutritionally at-risk children.

*Siega-Riz AM, Popkin BM and Carson T. **Trends in Breakfast Consumption
for Children in the United States from 1965 to 1991.** Journal of
Clinical Nutrition. 1998;67(4)(Suppl):748S-756S.*

Breakfast consumption patterns and trends between 1965 and 1991 were
examined for children and adolescents in the United States using data
from the nationwide Food Consumption Surveys from 1965 through 1978, and
the Continuing Surveys of Food Intakes by Individuals, 1989 to 1991.
Breakfast consumption had declined, but this does not appear to be
related to socio-demographic patterns. The nutritional quality of
breakfast has improved since 1965, but is offset by the large proportion
of adolescents (30 percent) who skip breakfast. Since obesity is
associated with less frequent breakfast consumption, a renewed emphasis
on the importance of breakfast is warranted.

*Wyon D, Abrahamsson L, Jartelius M and Fletcher R. **An Experimental
Study of the Effects of Energy Intake at Breakfast on the Test
Performance of 10 Year-old Children in School.** International Journal
of Food Science and Nutrition. 1997;48(1):5-12.*

The research involved 166 ten year-old school children who were randomly
assigned to eat a high or low energy breakfast at home on different
days. Those who ate the complete cereal breakfast made fewer mistakes
and worked faster in addition and number checking tests. Significant
improvements were also observed in the children's creativity and
voluntary physical endurance.

![](media/image1.png){width="0.25in" height="0.32013888888888886in"}

## Relationship to Learning

*California Department of Education, **Eat Well, Learn Well.**
California Department of Education, 1995, Sacramento, CA.*

This document highlights the importance nutrition plays in preparing
children to learn. It provides a conceptual model for the nutrition
services component of a comprehensive school health system. It provides
practical ideas and helpful resources for achieving program goals.

*Doris, Derelian. **Better Breakfast, Better Learning.** California
Department of Education and Washington State Office of Superintendent of
Public Instruction. 1994. California Department of Education,
Sacramento, CA.*

This report summarizes the relationship of hunger and classroom
performance. As the time between meals increases, concentration suffers.
School breakfast energizes students to do their best academically. An
action plan for school personnel to support School Breakfast Programs is
included.

*Marcotte, LP. **A Guide to Universal Free School Breakfast Programs.**
Center on Hunger and Poverty, 1999. Tufts University, Medford MA.*

This report summarizes the benefits of school breakfast, and focuses on
universal school breakfast programs as a specific method of increasing
participation and improving academic performance. Guidance is provided
for school administrators who are interested in starting such a program;
options, including USDA provisions, are described; and suggestions for
promotional activities are included.

*Pollitt E and Matthews R. **Breakfast and Cognition: An Integrative
Summary.** American Journal of Clinical Nutrition,
1998;(67)(4)(Suppl):804S-813S.*

The papers presented at the International Symposium on Breakfast and
Performance in Napa, CA in 1995 are summarized and integrated with data
published since that time. The pooled data suggest that omitting
breakfast interferes with cognition and learning, an effect that is more
pronounced in nutritionally at-risk children than in well-nourished
children. At the very least, breakfast consumption improves school
attendance and enhances the quality of students' diets.

*Pollitt E. **Does Breakfast Make a Difference in School?** Journal of
the American Dietetic Association. 1995;95(10):1134-39.*

This review article describes studies published after 1978 that tested
the effects of breakfast on cognitive function and school performance on
well-nourished and nutritionally at-risk children. An overnight and
morning fast had adverse affects on cognition in at-risk children,
particularly limiting the ability to quickly retrieve information in
memory. Contradictions in the different studies present definitive
conclusions on whether or not well-nourished children experience similar
functional deficits. The available data suggest that brain function is
sensitive to short-term variations in the availability of feeding
programs in public schools throughout the academic year increases the
probability that children will eat breakfast and improve their
educational status.

*Pollitt E, Cueto S and Jacoby ER. **Fasting and Cognition in Well- and
Undernourished Schoolchildren: a Review of Three Experimental Studies.**
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1998;67(4)(Suppl):779S-784S.*

This paper reviews three experiments on the effects of an overnight and
morning fast on attention and memory processes among 9 to 11 year-old
children. The consequences of fasting, particularly among children who
were nutritionally at-risk, included slower stimulus discrimination,
increased errors, and slower memory recall. Researchers proposed that
these alterations may result from a state of metabolic stress in which
the body works to maintain blood sugar concentrations.

![](media/image1.png){width="0.25in" height="0.32013888888888886in"}

## Universal Programs

*Cook JT, Ohri-Vachaspati P, Kelly GL. **Evaluation of a
Universally-Free School Breakfast Program Demonstration Project, Central
Falls, Rhode Island.** Center on Hunger, Poverty, and Nutrition Policy,
1996, Tufts University, Medford, MA.*

This study assesses the impact of a Universally-Free School Breakfast
Program, implemented in Central Falls, Rhode Island, on four key
areas: 1) school breakfast participation; 2) overall breakfast
consumption; 3) nutritional intakes at breakfast; and 4) school absence
and tardy rates. Compared to Pre-K through sixth grade students in the
control schools, the Universally-Free program led to a significant
increase in school breakfast participation, especially among at-risk
children, and reduced the number of children who started school without
breakfast. Children who participated had lower rates of absence and
tardiness, and had greater nutrient intakes. These results suggest that
a Universally-Free School Breakfast Program is an effective method for
increasing school breakfast participation, thus improving the
nutritional well-being and educational readiness of school-age children.

*Marcotte, LP. **A Guide to Universal Free School Breakfast Programs.**
Center on Hunger and Poverty, 1999. Tufts University, Medford MA.*

This report summarizes the benefits of school breakfast, and focuses on
universal school breakfast programs as a specific method of increasing
participation and improving academic performance. Guidance is provided
for school administrators who are interested in starting such a program;
options, including USDA provisions, are described; and suggestions for
promotional activities are included.

*Minnesota Department of Children, Families and Learning. **School
Breakfast Programs Energizing the Classroom.** Minnesota Department of
Children, Families and Learning, 1998, Roseville, MN.*

The outcomes of a three-year Universal School Breakfast Program pilot
study, which took place in six Minnesota elementary schools, are
summarized in this report. This pilot program demonstrated the
cognitive, behavioral and general health benefits of serving breakfast
to all students as part of the education day. When breakfast was offered
at no charge to all students as part of the educational day,
participation rates increased significantly. The program appears to play
a role in student achievement with a demonstrated general increase in
composite math and reading scores. The study showed that providing
universal breakfast as part of the school day improved student behavior,
reduced morning trips to the nurse, and increased student attendance and
test scores. These effects earned the support of teachers, school nurses
and school administrators.

*Murphy JM, Pagano ME, Nachmani J, Sperling P, Kane S and Kleinman RE.
**The Relationship of School Breakfast to Psychosocial and Academic
Functioning.** Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine.
1998;152:899-907.*

The effects of a Universal School Breakfast Program on school breakfast
participation, child behavior, school attendance and punctuality, and
academic performance were evaluated in three schools in Baltimore and
Philadelphia school districts. Evaluations were made prior to, and four
months after implementation of the universal programs. Based on 133
students with pre and post data available, those who increased
participation (42%) had significant improvements in math grades and
lower rates of absence and tardiness. Among the 85 students with
psychosocial rating before and after the start of the Universal School
Breakfast Program, teachers noted a decrease in problems by students who
frequently participated in school breakfast. The results suggest that
greater participation in the School Breakfast Program is associated with
improved academic performance and behavior.

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