***[Federal communications commission]{.underline}***

***Media Ownership Working Group***

Consumer Substitution

Among Media

By Joel Waldfogel

September 2002

# Consumer Substitution among Media

Joel Waldfogel

The Wharton School

University of Pennsylvania

# This research has been supported by the FCC and has been conducted by the author in his capacity as a consultant to the Commission's Media Ownership Working Group. I thank Lisa George and Felix Oberholzer-Gee for the use of resources developed for other joint work on related projects, and I received helpful comments from Paul Gallant and Jon Levy on an earlier draft. The work with Oberholzer-Gee was supported by the Ford Foundation. All errors are my own. 

# **Consumer Substitution among Media: Executive Summary**

The past decade has seen a number of major changes in the availability
and use of information through media channels. The use of some media --
cable television, the Internet, and weekly newspapers -- has grown,
while the use of others -- radio, broadcast television, and daily
newspapers -- has declined. Our question is whether the changes in
availability or use of some media have brought about changes in the
availability or consumers' use of other media, or whether different
media serve as substitutes for one another for information consumers.

This question is important because FCC media ownership policies are
predicated to varying degrees on the extent of substitutability of media
for various purposes - news, entertainment, etc. This study examines the
extent of substitutability across media for both of these purposes using
a variety of demand and supply measures.

The specific tasks of this study are twofold. First, we survey the media
landscape since the mid 1990s. To accomplish this we have assembled
aggregate data on both the availability of media outlets and their use
over time, as measured by listening, viewing, circulation, etc. across
US local media markets. We then turn to our main task, documenting the
extent of consumer substitution across media. In Part I we do this with
aggregate data, by examining the relationship between changes in the
availability and use across various media. For example, has broadcast TV
use declined more in the markets where Internet use has increased most
quickly?

In Part II, we reexamine this question using a large cross sectional
data based with information on individuals' use of various different
media. These data allow us to observe whether a person using one medium
also uses another, for news and other purposes. We explore substitution
with these data by asking, for example, whether individuals using daily
newspapers more use television less.

What do we find? Standing back, there is clearest evidence of
substitution between Internet and broadcast TV, both overall and for
news; between daily and weekly newspapers; and between daily newspapers
and broadcast TV news. There is also evidence of substitution between
cable and daily newspapers, both overall and for news consumption;
between radio and broadcast TV for news consumption; and between the
Internet and daily newspapers for news consumption. There is little or
no evidence of substitution between weekly newspapers and broadcast TV,
or between radio and either Internet or cable. There is also some
indirect evidence of substitution in the greater use of national media
by groups less targeted by local media.

This study leads to several conclusions. First, we can reject the view
that various media are entirely distinct. As noted above, certain media
appear to compete with each other for consumers' attention. Second, the
study provides evidence of substitution by consumers between and among
certain media outlets. It cannot completely answer the question of
whether substitution is sufficiently effective that all media should be
considered substitutes for news and information purposes. Existing
research, however, may provide useful clues. While entertainment
provided through media channels is an end in itself, news makes it
easier for citizens to know what is at stake in electoral contests and,
in turn, can make them more likely to vote. If substitution were
complete, then the decline of local daily newspapers would be offset by
increased use of other media. The civic behaviors affected by media
consumption would also be unaffected by changes in availability or use
of any particular medium. Yet, existing research on media consumption
and voting -- reviewed in the study conclusion -- suggests that, even if
substitution operates, it is not complete in this sense.

**Part I: Evidence from Aggregate Data**

The past decade has seen a number of major changes in the availability
and use of information through media channels. The use of some media has
grown, for example cable television, the Internet, and weekly
newspapers. The use of other media, including radio, broadcast
television, and daily newspapers, has declined. An important question
that we seek to address in this study is whether the changes in
availability or use of one medium bring about changes in the
availability or use of other media. In short, we are interested in
whether different media serve as substitutes for one another. This is
relevant to FCC policies which are predicated to varying degrees on the
extent of substitutability across media for various purposes -- news,
entertainment, etc. This study examines the extent of substitutability
across media both for both of these purposes using a variety of both
demand and supply measures.

The specific tasks of this study are twofold. First, we will survey the
media landscape since the mid 1990s. To accomplish this we have
assembled aggregate data on both the "supply" of media outlets and the
"demand" for the content provided through these outlets, as measured by
listening, viewing, circulation, etc. across US local media markets. We
begin by simply documenting levels and trends within each medium. Are
television viewing, radio listening, and newspaper circulation rising or
falling?

We will then turn to our second broad task, to document the extent of
consumer substitution across media. We will address this question with
two different sorts of data. First, in Part I of the study we will
examine aggregate data on media outlets and use over time. In Part II we
will turn to a large individual cross sectional data set on media use.

We would ideally like to know the answers to a number of questions:
First, how does the supply of outlets in each medium respond to supply
of outlets in other media? Second, how does the demand for information
through each medium respond to the availability of outlets in other
media? Finally, how does the use of each outlet relate to the use of
other outlets?

These are difficult questions to answer, in particular to draw tight
causal inferences. It would strain credulity, for example, to draw
substitution inferences from the cross sectional relationship among
markets' outlets in different media. For example, larger markets tend to
have more outlets in all media; and this is not because these outlets
are complements. Rather, it is because larger markets make more outlets
viable in all media. An alternative strategy for drawing substitution
inferences is to use the time-series variation in outlets to ask, for
example, whether there is greater decrease in television viewing in
markets with larger increases in Internet use.

This strategy has substantial strengths. To the extent that outlets, or
use, of different media in each market are driven by fixed unobservable
factors, examining changes allows these factors to be "differenced out."
This, in turn, makes it possible to infer causal relationships among the
use or availability of outlets in different media. At the same time,
however, this strategy does not overcome all obstacles. If consumers in
a place experience a change in their level of interest in information,
this may bring about a change in their use of multiple media. In
particular, this will tend to bring about a positive relationship among
the changes in supply and demand for different media, as well as in
their levels. This sort of effects makes it appear that different media
are complementary. That is, this induces a bias away from detecting
substitution among media, if that substitution operates. As a practical
matter, then, this approach is conservative, and the true extent of
substitution may be greater than any we can document.

Bearing in mind the limitations of the approach, the relationships are
still quite interesting to examine. In fact, we know very little about
how consumers substitute among different media. Our ignorance is due to
two factors. First, as discussed above, inferring causality is
difficult. Second, the question has received little study. Researchers
and policy makers have devoted significant attention to whether
advertising in one medium is a substitute for advertising in another,
but there little research (to my knowledge) on whether information
provided through one medium serves as a substitute for information
provided through another.[^1] The question is important. If consumers
substitute information across media, then the market for information may
extend across media, raising questions about regulation of outlets
within media. The importance of the question, in conjunction with our
general ignorance about the answer, amply justify the adoption of
sensible approaches to studying the question. This is the spirit in
which we proceed.

## II. Theoretical Background

## Consumers seek information (news and weather, etc) and entertainment from media products. Suppose there are five relevant media (television, radio, newspapers, etc.), and each can be divided into news and entertainment components. Then there are ten products to examine. The usual economic way to conceive of this problem is through consumer theory: each consumer's demand for each of the ten products depends (negatively) on the price of the own product and, if the other products are substitutes, negatively on the other products' prices. While this characterization is very helpful for organizing ideas, it is not literally useful in our context. Content is unpriced (free) on radio, broadcast television, and (for the most part) on the Internet. And while newspapers have subscriber prices, these prices vary little across markets, largely because newspapers rely primarily on advertising rather than subscriptions for revenue.

In this context the more useful variation is in availability of outlets
within a medium rather than in the price that consumers pay for content.
It is well known that larger markets have more local media outlets
within each medium than small markets (see Berry and Waldfogel, 1999a;
Waldfogel, 1999, 2001; George and Waldfogel, 2000). There are also
changes over time in the numbers of outlets (see Berry and Waldfogel,
2001 for evidence about radio following deregulation). Conceptually, the
change from having no outlets in a medium to having one is a price
reduction from infinite levels to some (perhaps unmeasured) finite
amount. Changes among positive numbers of outlets, from say one to two
in a medium and a market, are similar in spirit. Such changes enhance
the attractiveness of each consumer's most attractive alternative and in
that sense can be viewed, metaphorically at least, as reducing the
"price" of consumption in that medium. Given our context, then, we
propose to study substitution chiefly by examining the relationship
between use in one medium and availability of outlets in other media. If
two media are substitutes, then greater availability of outlets in one
medium will reduce the use of the other medium.

While this question is not much studied, there is some evidence in
existing research on aspects of substitution. Berry and Waldfogel
(1999a) provide a study documenting high levels of substitutability
across outlets within the commercial radio medium. Additional outlets
draw most of their listeners from other stations, suggesting that
stations are rather close substitutes for one another. Berry and
Waldfogel (1999b) examine the extent of substitutability of public and
commercial radio broadcasting news, classical music, and jazz. Although
that study, too, is within medium, it is relevant here both because it
documents substitutability and also because its approaches are adopted
here. That study infers substitutability of public and commercial radio
stations from a) the relationship between public and commercial radio
outlets and b) the relationship between commercial listening and the
numbers of commercial and public radio stations in the format. The study
documents that markets with more commercial classical stations have
greater commercial classical tendencies, while commercial classical
listening is lower in markets with more public classical stations, all
else constant. The latter result suggests that listeners view public and
commercial classical radio stations as substitutes.

Other existing work provides evidence of substitutability of different
types of media outlets. George and Waldfogel (2002) document that
readers view national newspapers (the *New York Times*) as a substitute
for local daily newspapers. In markets with greater increases in *Times*
circulation, there is a larger decrease in local paper circulation in
zipcodes containing educated persons targeted by the *Times*. This
indicates that national papers are substitutes for local ones.

Finally, there is some indirect evidence of cross-medium substitution.
It is well documented in a variety of studies that there are more local
media outlets (and programming) in larger markets. Moreover, isolated
groups face more outlets or programming of interest as they are in
markets with more persons sharing their preferences (see Waldfogel,
1999, 2001; Siegelman and Waldfogel, 2001; George and Waldfogel, 2000).
In light of this, if consumers can use nonlocal media to substitutes for
the relative paucity of local media, then we would see greater use of
nonlocal media (such as the Internet or cable television) in markets
where consumers were more isolated. Sinai and Waldfogel (2001) documents
that in spite of their lower tendency to connect to the Internet
overall, blacks are more likely to connect as they are more isolated in
markets with proportionately few blacks. This suggests that isolated
information consumers substitute nonlocal media for local ones.

Finally, there is evidence elsewhere to support the supposition that
media matter for civic participation. Oberholzer-Gee and Waldfogel
(2001) document that the presence of group-targeted media outlets (radio
stations and weekly newspapers) affect the tendency for blacks to vote.
George and Waldfogel (2002) find that in markets with greater
distribution of the New York *Times*, not only do the targeted
(educated) consumers purchase local papers less. They also come to vote
less in local elections as *Times* penetration grows.

## III. Data 

Our basic data set in this part of the study is a panel with repeated
observations on the number of outlets in each medium in each market, as
well as measures of the use of each medium. Our data come from five
sources (BIA's Media Access Pro, Duncan's American Radio, the Current
Population Survey's Computer and Internet Use Supplements, Burrelle's
Media Directory, and the U.S. Census) that collect data in different
ways. Still, we ultimately have multiple years of use data, by market,
for broadcast television, cable, radio, daily newspapers, weekly
newspapers, and the Internet. We have multiple years of outlet
availability data for broadcast TV, radio, and daily and weekly
newspapers. We describe these data in detail, and by medium, below.

*1. Television*

The television data are from BIA Media Access Pro. BIA provides supply
data, the total number of stations in each market, by type (UHF vs. VHF,
network vs. independent vs. public). BIA also provides market aggregate
television viewing, derived from Nielsen data, for each of 210 DMAs.
Aggregate HUT (households using television) is provided by year,
1994-2000. BIA also provides daypart specific viewing data (based both
on HUT and total viewing) for a recent window of more frequent
observations (quarterly, November 1999 to July 2001).

*2. Daily and Weekly Newspapers*

We document the number of daily newspapers available in each DMA using
Burrelle's Media Directory for 1993 and 1999. Burrelle's also provides a
measure of total circulation for each daily. We aggregate across
products in each DMA to arrive at total circulation for dailies and
weeklies in each market.

*3. Radio*

We have data on the number of radio stations, and their programming
formats, in each of roughly 250 Arbitron markets, in 1993 and 1997.
These data are derived from Duncan's American Radio (1994, 1998), based
on Arbitron listening data as well as Duncan's classification of
programming formats. Notably for our purpose, we can distinguish news
stations ("News" and "News/Talk") from other sorts of stations.

Duncan also provides AQH listening data, both for individual stations,
as well as for entire markets. We employ the data based on the Arbitron
Spring surveys in the respective year. Arbitron markets do not map
neatly into DMAs, so we have undertaken effort to create a mapping that
allows the radio data to be linked with data at the DMA level.

*4. Internet Use*

In 1997, 1998, and 2000 the Current Population Survey includes questions
about Internet use. We focus on the following five questions, available
in all three of these surveys: 1) whether the individual has Internet
access at home, 2) whether the individual has Internet access at work,
3) use of the Internet for news, 4) use of the Internet for information,
and 5) use of the Internet for email.

For this medium we cannot clearly distinguish availability of outlets
from use of the medium. Thus, we really have only a "demand" measure for
this medium. Moreover, the geographic identifier in these data is the
MSA. We have created a mapping that allows CPS data to be linked to DMA
data.

*5. Cable Takeup*

BIA reports the percent of households with cable, by year, 1994-2000, at
the DMA level of geography.

*6. Demographics*

We obtain demographic data from various sources, derived from the 1990
US Census.

## IV. Trends within each Medium

In this section we document trends in media supply and use in each
medium. Following that, we examine the comovements in media supply and
use in our attempt to learn about substitution among media. The latter
exercise requires linking data on outlets and use of various media.
While simple in principle, this task is quite complicated in practice
because the data on various media are collected for different levels of
geography. For example, the BIA television and cable data, as well as
the Burrelle's newspaper data, are reported by DMA. The CPS data on
Internet use are individual-level data, and the individual records
include MSA identifiers. The Arbitron radio data reported in Duncan's
American Radio, are reported by Arbitron metro area. These are similar,
but not identical, to MSAs. We have had to construct mappings linking
MSAs and Arbitron metro areas to DMAs.

The linked multi-media dataset covers a subset of geographic areas for
which linking is feasible (roughly 140 of 210 DMAs). To address concerns
about whether this sample is representative, we compare the trends in
each medium's use in the linking sample against the measures for the
medium's full sample.

1.  *Television*

BIA reports two measures of the number of stations available in a DMA,
the total number of stations and the number of rated stations. Neither
variable is reported historically. BIA also provides two breakdowns of
the number of stations: UHF/VHF and network/independent/public. The sums
of each of these two breakdowns yield approximately the number of rated
stations. Even though they do not yield precisely the current number of
rated stations, we still view the change in the total number of UHF and
VHF stations, and the change in (network + independent + public)
stations over time as reasonable reflections of the time pattern of
local broadcast TV station availability. Table 1 reports trends in the
average numbers of stations of each type in each DMA. The top panel
includes the full sample[^2] while the bottom panel includes only the
DMAs in the linked sample. Trends in both are quite similar: the total
number of stations has increased slightly, from 8.4 in 1995 to 9.7 in
2000 (network + indep. + public measure in the linked sample). UHF
stations have increased more quickly than VHF. The number of
network-affiliated stations has increased as networks outside the
traditional three majors have increased their reach. Almost by
construction, this decreases the number of independents. The number of
public stations has held steady. These trends are clearly visible in
both samples.

Table 2 reports patterns of television and cable use. The percent of
households with cable has increased steadily, from 63 percent in 1994 to
68 percent in 2000 (linked sample). We have an overall annual measure of
television viewing (excluding cable) since 1994. The measure is
"households using television." We also have quarterly measures of
television viewing by daypart, from November 1999 to July 2001. See
Table 3.

Television viewing (not including cable channels) has declined steadily
over the same period, from 37.3 percent in 1994 to 36.8 percent in 2000.
The quarterly measures, in Table 3, indicate both a strong seasonal
pattern -- higher use in November and February, lower in May and July --
and the same secular decline as the annual HUT figures. This decline
appears both for the dayparts associated with news as well as all
others. Because these rating figures do not include time spent watching
cable networks, they do not capture overall viewing behavior.

2.  *Radio*

As with television, the mid 1990s saw an increase in the number of
outlets, as well as increase in the number of distinct programming
formats on the air across 230 US markets. There were an average of 21.7
stations available in each market in 1993 and 24.8 in 1997. Of these,
15.0 broadcast from inside the metro area in 1993 and 16.6 in 1997.

Table 4 shows the distributions of programming formats in 1993 and 1997.
The average number of formats available in each market grew from 11.6 in
1993 to 15.0 in 1997 (see Berry and Waldfogel, 2001). AQH listening
declined steadily from 16.8 percent in 1993 to 15.7 percent in 1998.

We can separately document the evolution of commercial news radio[^3].
As Table 5 shows, the average number of inside (total) news stations was
0.46 (0.78) in 1993 and 0.55 (0.94) in 1997 (using the overall
sample).[^4] Perhaps more important than how many is the question of
inside news station presence. Among the 230 markets, the number of
markets without an inside news station declined from 142 in 1993 to 135
in 1997. Interestingly, 28 markets went from having no inside news
stations in 1993 to having one or more in 1997, while 21 markets went
from having one in 1993 to having none in 1997.

Table 5 also shows how the number of formats available in each market
increased from 11.6 in 1993 to 15.0 in 1997, consistent with Table 4.

*3. Newspapers*

The average numbers of daily newspapers per DMA declined from 8.05 in
1993 to 7.85 in 1999, while over the same period the number of weekly
newspaper outlets grew from 44.18 to 46.21. Average daily circulation
fell from 309,579 in 1993 to 295,950 in 1999. Weekly newspaper
circulation, on the other hand, grew from 531,693 in 1993 to 728,804 in
1999. Similar patterns appear in the linked sample. See Table 6.

4.  *Internet*

We lack data on the availability of the Internet, either on the
availability of ISPs or, more important, on the number of local and
national sites of interest to users. On the first question, since we are
examining metropolitan areas, we assume that connection services are
available everywhere in the sample by 1997 (see Downes and Greenstein,
2002). We have Internet connection data for 1997, 1998, and 2000. The
Internet was virtually nonexistent prior to 1994, so we can document the
entire history 1994-2000.

As Table 7 shows, Internet use has grown rapidly, to 15.1 percent of
households with home access in 1997 to 30.3 percent in 1998, and to 45.9
in 2000. The Table also shows the fraction of individuals using the
Internet for email, news, and information, the latter two representing
ways in which Internet use might substitute for the use of traditional
media. Patterns are virtually identical in the linked sample of markets.

*5. Summary*

The mid 1990s has been a period with a shifting media landscape. Use of
radio, daily newspapers, and traditional television have declined, while
the use and availability of other media have increased. Cable television
use has grown, as has the availability and use of weekly newspapers and
the Internet. These comovements may reflect substitution, but the
separate trends in each media cannot answer this. The question,
addressed in the next section, is whether one medium grows in the places
where others decline.

## V. Substitution across Media

1.  *Availablity of Media Outlets*

It is well documented that larger markets offer more local media
products. This relationship holds for radio, television, daily
newspapers, and even to some extent for the websites on the
Internet.[^5] These relationships are clearly visible in our data as
well. Figure 1 shows the relationship between the numbers of media
outlets in a DMA and population for radio, television, daily newspapers,
and weekly newspapers. The figure, on a log scale for ease of
interpretation, clearly shows positive relationships between market size
and the number of local outlets in each medium. In this figure we use
radio and television outlets in 1997 and newspaper outlets in 1999. The
cross sectional relationships for other years are nearly identical.

2.  *Use of Media and Availability of Media Outlets*

Our data allow us to examine the relationships between outlet
availability and medium use in two ways. First, we can examine the cross
sectional relationships directly. Table 8 presents regressions of our
use measures on outlets for the four media with outlet data (radio,
television, and daily and weekly newspapers). Coefficients are positive
and significant for all media. These regressions are vulnerable to the
concern that the number of outlets is endogenous, or that more outlets
enter in markets with greater tastes for the outlet in question. There
are two obvious solutions to this problem, instrumental variables (IV)
and panel data. First, the IV solution to this problem is an instrument
determining the tendency for outlets to enter but that has no direct
effect on the tendency to join the audience. Market size, measured by
population, is a natural choice for local media and one that has been
employed elsewhere in media entry studies. The latter half of Table 8
reports regressions of use on available for the four media, now
instrumenting outlets with a population measure. The coefficients of
interest are again positive, indicating that additional outlets within a
medium attract persons to their audiences.

For Internet and cable we have no direct measure of local outlets.
Still, we can examine the relationship between use and market size.
Table 9 shows the relationship between medium use and market size for
all of the media. Interestingly, while the local media have positive and
significant relationships, cable and Internet use have essentially no
relationship with market size. For these media, which do not originate
locally, market size has a different natural interpretation. Rather than
proxying the amount of content available locally within the medium,
market size here measures the availability of content in *other* media.

The difference between the relationship between medium use and market
size in local and nonlocal media thus provides our first piece of
evidence, albeit indirect, about substitution. While the tendency to use
local media *increases* in market size, the tendency to use the national
media, relative to the tendency to use local media, is larger as markets
are *smaller*. This suggests that in smaller markets, Internet and cable
serve as substitutes for newspapers, local television, and radio. One
obtains similar but even stronger relationships if one examines Internet
use relative to television use. Define ∆~I_TV~ as the Internet use --
broadcast TV use in a market. Then a regression of ∆~I_TV~ on log
population yields a negative and significant coefficient.

We can also approach the question of whether outlets affect use
employing the within-market variation in the number of outlets over
time. Table 10 presents market fixed effects regressions of use on
outlets, including year dummies as well as market fixed effects. We
obtain positive and significant coefficients on outlets in the
television and daily newspaper regressions. Coefficients are
insignificant in the other regressions. One should not infer the absence
of relationships from the absence of results here. There simply is not a
great deal of variation across markets in the change in the number of
outlets over time, making it difficult to infer the relationships in
question.

We take the weight of evidence in this subsection to indicate that
additional outlets in a medium attract more of the population into the
medium's local audience. In addition, the difference between the
relationship between market size and medium use for national and local
media suggests substitution.

3.  *Evidence on Substitution across Media from Cross-Media
    Relationships*

We seek to measure whether different media are substitutes for one
another using an approach related to our approach (above) to whether
outlets attract use within media. Here, by contrast, the question is
whether the availability of outlets in other media *reduces* the use of
this medium. There are a variety of approaches one might adopt for this
question in principle. For example, one might examine the cross section
of markets at a point in time, asking whether markets with more, say,
daily newspapers, have lower use of some other media. The endogeneity
problems mentioned above are severe here. Larger markets are going to
have more outlets in all media, giving rise to positive correlations
among media outlet availability as well as use. Indeed, Table 11 reports
the cross sectional correlations significant at the 10 percent level or
higher among use and outlet measures, and they are all positive (and
most are significant at the 5 percent level).

In principle one could address this problem with instruments. This
approach requires an exogenous source of variation in the supply of each
medium's outlets. Note that population, while it works for each
individual medium, cannot simultaneously be employed for multiple media.
Since we lack instruments for each medium, this approach is not
available.

We do have longitudinal data, however. While the number of outlets in
each medium is endogenous to market size, the change in the number of
outlets is not so clearly endogenous. Thus, we propose to draw
inferences about substitution from the correlations between the changes
in the availability and use of outlets in various media. This approach
is in principle vulnerable to analogous endogeneity concerns (i.e. the
kind of market with a growing number of TV stations is likely to be
growing in other dimensions as well that simultaneously lead to growth
in outlets in other media). Fortunately, we can ascertain the direction
of likely bias: these concerns lead to positive relationships. Hence,
any evidence of negative correlations is more strongly suggestive of
substitution.

Table 12 reports the statistically significant correlations among
changes in supply and use of outlets in various media. A striking
feature of the Table, in contrast to the correlations among levels, is
the presence of negative -- as well as positive -- correlations. The
following correlations are negative and significant at the 10 percent
level or higher:

Radio outlets and cable use,

Radio news outlets and: Internet use, overall and for news,

Daily paper outlets and: weekly paper outlets and cable use, and

Daily paper use and: and cable use.

The largest and most significant negative relationships in the Table are
between daily and weekly newspapers.

One shortcoming of the direct correlations is that they cannot
simultaneously account for changes in multiple media. For example, if
the numbers of outlets in both radio and television are changing
similarly, then their correlations with, say, newspaper use will both
reflect the effects of both the change in radio and the change in
television. One way around this problem, in principle, is to employ a
multiple regression. That is, we can regress, say, the change in daily
newspaper use on the changes in the numbers of outlets of each other
medium. The coefficient on each variable shows the relationship between
that variable and the dependent variable, holding other variables
constant.

While appealing in principle, this approach has a shortcoming that
merits discussion: if the explanatory variables are highly correlated,
then it is difficult to isolate the effect of each variable separately.
This said, we proceed with three sorts of regressions. First, we present
regressions of changes in the numbers of outlets in each medium on
changes in the numbers of outlets in each of the other media ("outlets
on outlets"). This regression can pick up substitution in the sense that
if one medium expands in an area sufficiently to not only draw audience
from another but cause exit (or forestall additional entry) in another,
then we can detect substitution as a negative effect. Second, we run
regressions of the change in the share of population using each medium
on the changes in the numbers if outlets in each medium ("use on
outlets"). This regression can pick up substitutability short of cross
effects that induce exit and is, *a priori*, the most appealing
approach. However, recall that we do not have outlets measures for all
media. For cable and Internet we have only use measures; and we would
like to use the change in these media as explanatory variables. Third,
we run regressions of the change in the share of population using each
medium on the changes in the share of population using each other medium
("use on "use").

Bearing all of our concerns in mind, we proceed to Tables 13-15. Table
13 presents regressions of the changes in number of outlets in each
medium on changes in the numbers of outlets in other media (for which
outlet data are available). The only consistent relationship to emerge
from this table is the relationship between daily and weekly newspapers.
Both coefficients are statistically significant. A one-paper decrease in
dailies is associated with an eight-paper increase in weeklies. The
reverse relationship is not entirely symmetric: a one-paper decrease in
weeklies is accompanied by a 0.02 paper reduction in dailies. For each
regression we report a test of the hypothesis that all cross effects are
zero. We reject this hypothesis only for dailies and weeklies.

Table 14 proceeds to the relationship between the change in use of each
medium and the change in the number of outlets in the medium as well as
other media. The own-effects are fairly consistently positive. The only
negative cross-effect significant at the 5 percent level is the
coefficient on radio stations in the cable use regression (column 6). If
one adopts a more liberal cutoff (a negative coefficient with a
t-statistic exceeding 1 in absolute value), the relationships suggesting
substitution are:

TV stations and: cable use, Internet news use

Radio stations and: TV viewing, daily and paper circulation, cable use;

Radio news stations and Internet news use;

Daily papers and: radio listening, cable use;

Weekly papers and radio listening.

Based on results in Table 14, there is some reason to doubt the no
substitution view. Formally, however, we reject the zero cross effects
hypothesis only for the cable and Internet news use regressions.

Table 15 reports the use on use regressions. The only negative
coefficients that are significant by conventional standards are the
coefficient on the change in cable use in the daily paper regression and
its inverse (the coefficient on the change in daily paper use in the
cable use regression). Other coefficients are suggestive of
substitution. Using the liberal cutoff of 1 (in absolute value) for
t-statistics, one can see suggestive evidence of substitution in the
following relationships:

Cable use and weekly papers,

Radio news use and TV use,

Radio news use and Internet news use,

Cable use and weekly paper use, and

Internet news use and TV use.

In spite of these suggestions of substitution, we formally reject the
hypothesis of zero cross effects for cable use only.

## 

## VI. Conclusion to Part I

We conclude our analysis of the aggregate data with the observation that
there is some evidence of consumer substitution across media. This
raises questions about whether media are sensibly viewed in isolation
for policy purposes. We delve deeper into this question with our
analysis of individual data on media use in Part II.

**Part II: Evidence from Individual Data and Study Conclusion**

Do consumers view different media as substitutes for one another? This
study examines this question using a large cross sectional data based
with information on individuals' use of various different media. This
study is a companion to the aggregate data study in Part I.

The advantage of these micro data is that they literally allow us to
observe whether a person using one medium also uses another. The dataset
is large (nearly 180,000 observations) and detailed, containing
information about both overall use and use for news in particular. These
data therefore allow us to explore substitution by asking whether, for
example, individuals using the newspapers more use television less. Or
whether individuals using more radio news watch less television news,
etc. Despite the substantial appeal of these data, consumption data have
the drawback that individuals who use one medium heavily may also use
others heavily. Indeed, in the companion study the cross sectional
relationship among the uses of different media (across markets) revealed
strong positive correlations masking possible substitution.

Our strategies for overcoming these problems are threefold: First, we
will control for individual characteristics. Second, we will examine not
only the use of each medium (and the use for news vs. other motivations)
but also the use of each medium for news relative to its use for other
purposes. Third, we will also employ an indirect approach to testing for
substitution that avoids these problems: In particular we will ask
whether persons facing little local media content of interest turn
instead to national media (cable and Internet).

We proceed as follows. First, we describe the data. Then we descibe
patterns of use of each medium. Third, we examine substitution. Then we
will summarize in a way that synthesizes results from the companion
study using aggregate data.

# **I. Data**

Data for this part of the study are drawn from Scarborough Research. The
version of the Scarborough Prime Next dataset employed in the study has
information on the media and product consumption patterns for each of
178,784 individuals surveyed in the latter half of 1999 and the first
half of 2000 in 66 large US markets (see
<http://www.scarborough.com/primenext/>). The Primenext dataset has
information at the individual level on the use of multiple media.

The Scarborough data set contains a large number of questions about
media use. Here we describe the available measures, by medium.

1.  [Newspapers]{.underline}. We have a binary variable indicating
    whether a person reads any daily newspaper. In addition respondents
    report which newspaper section they regularly read (news, business,
    classifieds, comics, entertainment, food, sports, TV or radio
    listings).

2.  [Television]{.underline}. Respondents report which half hours of
    television they watched on each of 11 networks during one week
    during the 1999-2000 television season.[^6] We aggregate these half
    hours in various ways, including to total half hours. In addition,
    by linking the Scarborough data with local television schedules for
    the markets, we are able to construct measures of local and national
    news viewing (between 4 and 12 PM) for individuals in the
    sample.[^7]

3.  [Cable and Satellite]{.underline}. Respondents report whether they
    have cable. If they have cable, they report what sort of service
    they have (basic, expanded basic, premium). In addition, respondents
    indicate whether they have satellite service. Respondents also
    report which cable channels they regularly watch. We calculate the
    number of cable channels regularly viewed by sample individuals as a
    crude measure of the intensity of cable use. Because some of these
    are dedicated news channels (CNN, Fox News, MSNBC, CNBC), we can
    also calculate intensity of cable use for news as the number of
    dedicated news channels regularly viewed.

4.  [Radio]{.underline}. Respondents report which of the radio formats
    they listen to. The formats, which are listed in Table 4, include
    three news-related categories ("all news," "news/talk/information,"
    and "business"). We calculate a measure of radio use for news as the
    number of news formats regularly used.

5.  [Internet]{.underline}. Respondents report whether they have
    Internet at home and whether at work. In addition, they report how
    they use the Internet at home and at work (whether they use it for
    each of the use categories in Table 6). A number of these uses are
    news-related ("local information," "news," "newspaper site," "other
    newspaper site," and "read a newspaper"). This allows us to
    calculate the number of news-related Internet uses for each
    individual along with the total number of uses. Finally, respondents
    indicate how many hours they spend on the Internet per week (using a
    categoric varable that takes values of none, 0-1 hour, 1-5 hours,
    5-10, 10-20, and 20+, with which we assign cell midpoints and 20 for
    "20+") .

In sum, we have separate measure of overall use and news use for
television, radio, Internet, and cable.

# **II. Media Use**

*1. Univariate Characterizations*

*a. Newspapers*

Table 1 reports that 53 percent of the sample reports reading a daily
newspaper. Of those reading a paper, 91 percent report reading the news
section. Newspapers are clearly and important medium for the
communication of news, as opposed to the delivery of entertainment.
Other popular sections include entertainment (69 percent), business
(62), comics (61), and sports (61). Respondents not buying a paper also
report the sections they regularly read, and their tendencies to read
each section are lower.

*b. Television*

The average number of weekly half hours of television viewed on the
networks is 35.5. Of these, 5.3 half hours are broadcast news (viewed
between 4 and 12PM). 73 percent of households have some sort of cable
television (23 percent have basic, 29 percent have extended basic, and
22 percent have premium service). 14 percent of households have
satellite TV. 80 percent have either cable or satellite. Individuals
(including those without cable) watch an average of 8.4 cable channels
regularly. Of these, 0.8 are news channels.

*c. Radio*

In the sample 89 percent of persons report listening to at least one
radio format regularly. Persons in the sample reports listening to an
average of 2.3 radio formats. See Table 3. The 54 formats available are
listed in Table 4. The most popular among these formats are
news/talk/information (23 percent of persons listen), country (21),
adult contemporary (18), oldies (15) contemporary hit radio (14), album
oriented rock (12), and classic rock (11). Two formats that attract
listeners in the sample are oriented toward news: news (5.4 percent) and
news/talk/information. Roughly a quarter of persons get some news from
radio. Average persons listen to 0.28 radio news formats.

*d. Internet*

As Table 5 indicates, just over half of people in the sample (55
percent) have Internet access at home. Roughly a third (32 percent) have
access at work. Almost all of the persons with access at work also have
access at home, so 56 percent have access either at home or at work.
Because they are not connected, 45 percent of people spend no time on
the Internet each week; 10 percent spend an hour or less; 22 percent
spend 1 to 5 hours; 12 percent spend 5 to 10 hours, 7 percent spend 10
to 20 hours, and 5 percent spend over 20 hours. If we apply approximate
values to each of the intervals[^8], we can develop a measure of average
time spend online each week. Calculated this way, the average time
online is 3.5 hours per week. Among online persons, the average is 6.4
hours.

Table 6 shows how people report using the Internet at work and at home.
Some of the most popular uses include email (79 percent of home users),
shopping (39), and news (31).[^9] These data are important because they
raise the possibility that the Internet provides a substitute for other
media. If we sum together the number of uses for each individual
(treating home and work uses separately), the average person (including
nonusers) reports 3.97 uses, 0.64 of them news-related.

Table 8 summarizes the main measures of media use, overall and for news,
that we employ below to study substitution with individual data. It is
worth noting that some of these measures are more conventional than
others as indicators of media use. For broadcast television and the
Internet we have time spent with the medium per week. For newspapers, by
contrast, we have only a binary measure of whether or not a person reads
a daily paper. For radio and cable (as well as for the Internet) we have
the number of distinct purposes for which the individual uses the
medium. While at first blush an odd measure of usage, it is actually a
slightly enhanced version of a binary "whether I use" measure, where
users of the medium who use more than one type of service are coded with
values above one. (Individuals using *N* types of Internet sites are
coded with *N*; nonusers are coded 0). In the Internet context, where we
have both a measure of time spent and our unconventional number of uses
measure, we can validate the latter. Their correlation is 0.65, lending
support to the use of this sort of measure. One should bear in mind that
the virtue of this data source is its inclusion of some measure of
individuals' use of a variety of media.

*2. Determinants of Media Use*

The use of each medium varies across persons with their characteristics,
including age, education, gender, and race/Hispanic status. Table 7
characterizes the use of the media with regressions of various measures
of media use on age dummies, education dummies, a gender dummy,
race/Hispanic status dummies. The excluded age category is 18-20; the
excluded education category is 8^th^ grade or less, and the excluded
race/Hispanic category is whites. The ten dependent variables are:
broadcast TV half hours, TV news half hours, number of radio formats
used, the number of radio news formats used, weekly Internet hours,
number of Internet uses, number of Internet news uses, whether a person
reads a daily newspaper, the number of cable channels used, and the
number of cable news channels used.

The use of TV, overall and for news, rises with age and declines with
education, although the decline with education is slight for news. Use
of the radio overall declines with age and rises in education, while the
use of radio for news in particular rises in both age and education. All
measures of Internet use fall in age and rise in education. Daily
newspaper use, like use of radio for news, rises in both age and
education. Use of cable channels overall declines in age and education,
while use of cable news channels rises in both age and education. With
the exception of TV (and cable overall for blacks), blacks and Hispanics
use these media less than whites. With the exception of TV, men use
these media more than women.

# **III. Substitution**

*1. Direct Evidence*

The Scarborough data are unusual in that they allow examination of how
users of one medium also use other media. That is, they allow
researchers to make statements of the form, "people who watch a lot of
television use the Internet more (or less)." These are potentially
interesting descriptive facts, and they are suggestive about consumer
substitution across media. An important caveat is in order, however. It
is possible that people differ in their interest in information, and
this difference may manifest itself in a positive correlation among all
sorts of media. That is, "media junkies" may read newspapers more, watch
more television, and use the Internet more. One cannot draw firm
inferences about substitutability from these data directly without
additional assumptions. Still, because data of this sort have typically
been absent in policy discusions, they merit a look before we turn to
other attempts to infer substitutability.

The first approach one might use for studying substitution is examining
correlation of use measures across media. The correlation of TV viewing
and time spent on the Internet, for example, reveals whether persons who
watch more television also spend more time online. Table 9 reports the
correlations among our basic measures of media use across persons in the
Scarborough data.

Broadcast TV use is negatively correlated with our measures of radio,
Internet, and cable use. All other correlations in Table 9 are positive.
The preponderance of positive correlations indicates that persons using
more of one medium also use other media more. In spite of this, the
significant negative correlations with TV use suggest some avenues of
substitution.

Table 10 reports the correlations of measures of the use of each medium
for news. All of these correlations, except the Internet-TV
relationship, are positive. Again, excepting Internet-TV, this indicates
that persons who use more news through one medium also consume more news
though other media.

Because we have separate measures of news and other ("entertainment")
uses of multiple media, we can pose the substitution question a
different way. We can calculate how much people use each medium for
news, relative to their use of the medium for other purposes. Term this
"relative news use" for each medium. Then we can ask how relative news
use is correlated across medium. Do people who use television relatively
more for news use other media relatively less for news? Table 11 reports
the correlations that answer this question. The estimated correlations
are negative and significant for\
TV & Internet, TV & radio, TV & cable, TV & newspapers, and cable &
newspapers. These negative correlations are consistent with substitution
among media.

A shortcoming of this empirical approach, however, is that it examines
only two media at a time. In addition, the approach does not account for
any of the characteristics of the individuals in the sample. To address
these concerns, we run three sets of regressions that correspond to the
three correlation tables above.

First, Table 12 reports regressions of individuals' overall use of each
medium on their overall use of the other media, as well as a battery of
individual characteristics (age, gender, race, income). For example, the
first column reports a regression with overall broadcast TV viewing as
the dependent variable and radio, Internet, newspaper, and cable use as
independent variables. The only negative coefficients in the entire
table are two coefficients reflecting the relationship between
television and Internet use.

Table 13 performs an exercise analogous to the exercise in Table 12,
except that the measures are the use of each medium for news rather than
overall. We use the same measure of newspaper use as above. In this
table, as well, the only negative coefficients are the TV-Internet
coefficients.

Table 14 revisits these regressions using the relative use of each
medium for news. In this table there are a number of negative and
significant coefficients, indicating that persons making relatively
greater use of, say, the Internet for news make relatively less use of
television for news. The following relationships are negative and
significant:

Internet & TV, newspapers & TV, newspapers & radio, newspapers &
Internet, cable & newspapers. In all cases, both coefficients
corresponding to the relationship in question are negative and
significant. Putting these results into words, newspapers seem to serve
as substitutes for TV news on broadcast and cable, radio news, and news
on the Internet. In addition, the news on the Internet appears to serve
as a substitute for news on broadcast television.

*2. Indirect Evidence of Substitution*

Existing research documents a strong positive relationship between the
size of local population(s) and the availability of local media (see
Waldfogel, 1999; George and Waldfogel, 2000; Waldfogel, 2001). Larger
markets have more radio stations, more television stations, and more
(and more extensive) daily newspapers. Existing studies document a
greater overall tendency for persons to consume each of these local
media in larger media markets.

Even stronger than the overall relationship is the relationship between
particular groups' tendencies to consume local media and their absolute
or relative size in the local population. When particular groups of the
local population share preferences for media content with each other,
but not with the remainder of the population, those groups tend to
listen to more radio, watch more television, and be more likely to
purchase newspapers in markets where the group in question makes up a
larger portion of local population. These results suggest that the
supply of local media appealing to particular groups increase in the
size of local group population. We can use this variation to see whether
the group's media consumers are more likely to consume nonlocal media
when, from small local group population, we can infer paucity of local
group-targeted media supply.

Along these lines we propose to examine how use of local and nonlocal
media among preference minorities vary with the size of their local
populations. If nonlocal media (the Internet and cable television) are a
substitute for local media, then we should see: (a) the group tendency
to consume local media should increase in the size of the local group
population (as has been documented elsewhere); and (b) the group
tendency to consume nonlocal media should decline in the size of the
local group population. This approach is also employed by Sinai and
Waldfogel (2001), which documents this relationship for blacks' Internet
use with the Current Population Survey data.

The next question is what groups to examine. Testing these hypotheses
requires two conditions. First, preferences must differ across groups.
Existing research shows that preferences in media products differ
sharply by gender, age, race (black vs. non-black) and Hispanic
status.[^10] Second, the relative numbers of persons in the different
groups must differ across local markets. The percent black and Hispanic
vary substantially across markets. The percent in each age category and
gender vary substantially less. Consequently, even if these effects
operate by age, they will be difficult to detect statistically by age or
gender. Our strategy here is to examine these relationships along a
number of dimensions (age, race, Hispanic status) to see whether we can
detect the operation of the effects.

Tables 15-17 examine these relationships by age, race, and Hispanic
status. In each table we regress our measures of media use on CMSA fixed
effects, a group dummy, and the group dummy interacted with the CMSA
percent in the group, with the last variable generating the coefficient
of interest. Here we identify the effect from the relationship between
the group percent in the CMSA and the gap between the group and
non-group tendencies to use the medium examined in the regression.
Essentially, these regressions ask whether the gap between, say, young
and old persons' use of each medium is larger or smaller in markets with
proportionally more young people. For media with local content, we
expect young persons' use of media content (relative to older persons)
to increase in the share of local population that is young. To the
extent that young persons have different preferences from older persons,
we expect their use of nonlocal media to be higher in places where young
persons make up a small share of local population. This would provide
evidence, at least indirectly, that nonlocal media provide a substitute
for local media.

Three of the media have an important local component (radio, television,
and newspapers). Since the supply of content in these media targeted
each group grows in the size of the local group population, we expect
the group use tendency to increase in the group's share of local
population. For radio and television, this is what we find. We find no
relationship for newspapers. For the media that are predominantly
nonlocal (Internet and cable-or-satellite connection) we expect use to
increase in the group's local isolation. This is what we find for both
Internet and cable television use.

What do these estimates mean? A natural interpretation is that the local
population distribution determines the supply of local media products;
hence the positive relationships between local group share and the
group's tendencies to consume local media. The negative relationships
between local group share and the tendency to use nonlocal media is
naturally interpreted as substitution of nonlocal for local media.

## IV. Concluding Discussion

We have now examined consumer substitution among media using a variety
of data sets and a variety of different approaches. To help sort out the
results, we summarize them using a table. Essentially, we have examined
the relationship among the use and numbers of outlets in multiple media.
Measures of the following variables have appeared at various points in
the studies:

1.  TV use overall

2.  TV outlets overall

3.  TV news use

4.  Radio use overall

5.  Radio outlets overall

6.  Radio use for news

7.  Radio outlets for news

8.  Daily newspaper use

9.  Daily outlets

10. Weekly newspaper use

11. Weekly newspaper outlets

12. Internet use overall

13. Internet use for news

14. Cable use overall

15. Cable use for news.

Substitution is reflected by negative relationships among these 15
variables across media. Table 18 is a 15 x 15 matrix, partitioned by
medium, summarizing the relationships we have documented from approaches
geared to yield information about substitution.

An "A" in the table indicates a negative correlation among changes in
aggregate measures of outlets or use across media (Table 12 in the
aggregate study); "B", "C," and "D" indicates a negative coefficients
from the aggregate changes on changes regressions with t-statistics
above 1 in absolute value; they are rendered bold if significant at the
5 percent level (see Tables 13-15 in the aggregate study). An "E"
indicates a significant negative correlation from Table 9 of this study;
"F" and "G" indicate a significant negative correlation from Tables10
and 11; finally, "H," "I," and "J" indicate significant negative
coefficients in the regressions in Table 12-14. Note that the
correlations are treated as symmetric, so that a significant negative
correlation results in two table entries symmetric about the main
diagonal. For regression coefficients we treat the column as the
independent variable and the row as the dependent variable.

Standing back, there is clearest evidence of substitution between
Internet and broadcast TV, both overall and for news; between daily and
weekly newspapers; and between daily newspapers and TV news. There is
also evidence of substitution between cable and daily newspapers, both
overall and for news consumption; between radio and broadcast TV for
news consumption; and between the Internet and daily newspapers for news
consumption. There is little or no evidence of substitution between
weekly newspapers and TV, or between radio and either Internet or cable.
There is also some indirect evidence of substitution in the greater use
of national media by groups less targeted by local media.

*1. What does the Evidence Mean?*

What do the results in this study say about the questions posed at the
outset of the study? Do consumers treat different media as substitutes
for one another? If there were no relationships among use or outlets
across media, then one could conclude that there is no evidence for
substitution. Instead we find negative relationships between a number of
media. This at least suggests some degree of substitution.

Entertainment is an end product in itself, and while some persons ("news
junkies") find news entertaining, one might also view the demand for
news as a derived demand for the information that allows citizens to
carry out their lives. Weather information helps parents dress their
children -- and themselves -- appropriately in the morning. Political
information makes it easier for citizens to know what is at stake in
electoral contests and, in turn, can make them more likely to vote.

If substitution is complete, then the decline of local daily newspapers
will be offset by increased use of other media. We can define another
sense in which substitution can be complete or incomplete. With complete
substitution, the civic behaviors affected by media consumption will
also be unaffected by changes in availability or use of any particular
medium. One might term this the "behavioral neutrality" implication of
complete substitution.

Existing research on media consumption and voting suggests that, even if
substitution operates, it is not complete in the latter sense. Changes
in availability of black-targeted radio stations and weekly newspapers,
1994-1998, affect the tendency for blacks to vote (see Oberholzer-Gee
and Waldfogel, 2001). There would be no effect on voting if changes in
use of other media offset the effects of changes in availability of
black-targeted radio stations and weeklies. Although there is evidence
(above, and Sinai and Waldfogel, 2001) that small groups substitute
nonlocal media (such as cable and Internet) for local media where local
products are unavailable, this substitution does not generate behavioral
neutrality.

In another context there is additional evidence against behavioral
neutrality. National newspapers serve as substitutes for local ones, in
the sense that markets with faster growth in a major national paper's
circulation experience greater decline in local daily paper circulation
among readers targeted by the national paper (see George and Waldfogel,
2002). Behavioral neutrality fails in the sense that in markets with
greater increase in the national paper's circulation, there is a greater
decline in the tendency for the targeted audience to vote in local
(non-presidential) elections. Here again, although consumers view the
products are substitutes, they do not have the same effect on civic
behavior.

The conception of each medium as entirely distinct would be unduly
restrictive because there is evidence (here and elsewhere) that
consumers substitute across media. At the same time, however,
substitution is not apparently so complete that the effects of changes
in one medium are offset by changes in another to leave civic behavior
unchanged. It is conventional and trite to conclude a study with a call
for more research. Nonetheless, some of these questions will only be
answered with additional research.

**References**

BIA, *BIA Media Access Pro* -- TV, 2001. http://www.bia.com/mediapro.asp

Berry Steven T. and Joel Waldfogel. \"Free Entry and Social Inefficiency
in Radio Broadcasting.\" *RAND Journal of Economics* 30, 3
(1999a):397-420.

Berry Steven T. and Joel Waldfogel. \"Public Radio in the United States:
Does it Correct Market Failure or Cannibalize Commercial Stations?\"
*Journal of Public Economics* 71 (1999b): 189-211.

Berry Steven T. and Joel Waldfogel. "Mergers, Station Entry, and
Programming Variety in Radio Broadcasting." *Quarterly Journal of
Economics*, 2001.

Burrelle's Media Services. *Burrelle's Media Directory*, 1993 and 1999.
http://www.burrelles.com/indexmd.html

Downes, Tom; Greenstein, Shane. "Universal Access and Local Internet
Markets in the US." *Research Policy. Vol. 31 (7). p 1035-52. September
2002.*

Duncan, James. Duncan's American Radio, Spring 1993 and Spring 1997
Issues. http://www.duncanradio.com/AmericanRadio.html

Lisa George and Joel Waldfogel. "Who Benefits Whom in Daily Newspaper
Markets? NBER Working Paper 7944, October 2000. Accessible at
http://rider.wharton.upenn.edu/\~waldfogj/workpap.html

Lisa George and Joel Waldfogel. "Does the New York Times Spread
Ignorance and Apathy?" The Wharton School, revised June 2002. Accessible
at http://rider.wharton.upenn.edu/\~waldfogj/workpap.html

Felix Oberholzer Gee and Joel Waldfogel. "Electoral Acceleration: The
Effect of Minority Population on Minority Voter Turnout", NBER Working
Paper 8252, April 2001. Accessible at
http://rider.wharton.upenn.edu/\~waldfogj/workpap.html

Scarborough Research, *Primenext Multimarket Data*, 1999-2000.
http://www.scarborough.com/prime/index.html

Peter Siegelman and Joel Waldfogel. "Race and Radio: Preference
Externalities, Minority Ownership, and the Provision of Programming to
Minorities." *Advances in Applied Microeconomics*, volume 10, 2001.

Todd Sinai and Joel Waldfogel. "Geography and the Internet: Is the
Internet a Substitute or a Complement for Cities?" Mimeo, The Wharton
School

Accessible at http://rider.wharton.upenn.edu/\~waldfogj/workpap.html

U.S. Department of Commerce. Current Population Surveys, (Computer and
Internet Use Supplements 1997, 1998, 2000).
http://www.bls.census.gov/cps/cpsmain.htm

Joel Waldfogel. "Who Benefits Whom in Local Television Markets?", mimeo,
The Wharton School, December 2001. Accessible at
http://rider.wharton.upenn.edu/\~waldfogj/workpap.html

Joel Waldfogel. "Preference Externalities: An Empirical Study of Who
Benefits Whom in Differentiated Product Markets" NBER Working Paper
7391, October 1999

Accessible at http://rider.wharton.upenn.edu/\~waldfogj/workpap.html

TABLES (AND FIGURE) FOR PART I

# Figure 1: Media Outlets and Market Size

![](media/image1.wmf){width="5.988888888888889in"
height="3.9923611111111112in"}

Notes: Log scales for population on the horizontal axis and the number
of outlets in each medium on the vertical axis. See text for
explanation.

Table 1: Television Outlets, 1994-2000

  ------ ----- ------ ------ --------- --------- -------- -------- ---------------
  year   N     uhf    vhf    uhf+vhf   network   indep.   public   net+ind+pub

  1994   207          2.29             2.63      2.46              

  1995   207   2.96   2.29   5.25      2.72      2.52     1.71     6.96

  1996   207   3.09   2.34   5.43      4.20      1.23     1.71     7.14

  1997   207   3.19   2.35   5.54      4.29      1.25     1.71     7.25

  1998   207   3.37   2.37   5.74      4.74      1.40     1.72     7.87

  1999   207   3.54   2.37   5.91      4.94      1.46              

  2000   207   3.65   2.39   6.04      5.02      1.57     1.73     8.32

                                                                   

                             linked                                
                             sample                                

  year   N     uhf    vhf    uhf+vhf   network   indep.   public   net+ind+pub

  1994                2.64             2.88      3.33              

  1995   143   3.76   2.63   6.38      3.01      3.37     2.04     8.42

  1996   143   3.88   2.68   6.56      4.85      1.71     2.03     8.59

  1997   143   3.98   2.69   6.67      4.95      1.72     2.03     8.71

  1998   143   4.19   2.71   6.90      5.26      1.90     2.05     9.21

  1999   143   4.40   2.71   7.11      5.43      1.99              

  2000   143   4.55   2.73   7.28      5.52      2.13     2.07     9.72
  ------ ----- ------ ------ --------- --------- -------- -------- ---------------

Table 2: Cable and Television Use, 1994-2000

  -------- ------ ---------- ------------- ------ ---------- --------------
                  All                             Linked     
                  Markets                         Sample     

  Year     N      hut %      cable %       N      hut %      cable %

  1994     207    36.47      63.19         143    37.29      62.96

  1995     207    36.41      63.88         143    37.18      63.93

  1996     207    36.69      66.30         143    37.47      66.41

  1997     207    36.04      67.05         143    36.85      67.21

  1998     207    35.88      67.28         143    36.82      67.53

  1999     207    35.66      66.90         143    36.86      67.43

  2000     207    35.47      67.08         143    36.80      67.76
  -------- ------ ---------- ------------- ------ ---------- --------------

Table 3: Quarterly Use of Television, Overall and News, 1999-2001

  ---------- ----- ----------- ------------- ------------- -----------------
                   hut                                     

  date             total day   prime time    Eve. News     Nightly News

  Nov-99     207   36.11       56.41         50.44         41.79

  Feb-00     207   36.67       57.57         52.24         43.55

  May-00     207   33.74       54.44         46.36         43.33

  Jul-00     207   33.42       48.60         44.97         42.07

  Nov-00     207   37.55       57.06         51.81         43.31

  Feb-01     207   37.22       57.58         52.89         43.52

  May-01     207   33.66       54.07         46.03         43.39

  Jul-01     207   33.67       48.47         44.79         42.38

                   linked                                  
                   sample                                  

  date             total day   prime time    Eve. News     Nightly News

  Nov-99     143   37.46       57.81         51.36         43.31

  Feb-00     143   37.85       58.81         52.92         44.80

  May-00     143   35.07       55.98         47.22         44.90

  Jul-00     143   34.83       50.21         45.79         43.43

  Nov-00     143   38.95       58.47         52.76         44.78

  Feb-01     143   38.53       58.98         53.69         44.87

  May-01     143   35.15       55.80         47.09         44.94

  Jul-01     143   35.06       50.03         45.77         43.72

                                                           

                                                           

                   total share                             

                   total day   prime time    Eve. News     Nightly News

  Nov-99     207   56.72       60.36         65.49         68.57

  Feb-00     207   55.87       61.14         65.50         69.01

  May-00     207   54.76       60.21         63.46         66.68

  Jul-00     207   48.92                     62.60         61.60

  Nov-00     207   52.40       57.12         61.35         64.89

  Feb-01     207   52.88       58.27         62.78         66.00

  May-01     207   52.30       57.15         60.76         64.00

  Jul-01     207   46.48       46.06         59.65         

                                                           

                   Linked                                  
                   sample                                  

  date             total day   prime time    Eve. News     Nightly News

  Nov-99     143   60.10       64.54         68.30         70.81

  Feb-00     143   59.14       65.36         68.19         70.97

  May-00     143   57.96       64.25         65.97         68.84

  Jul-00     143   51.71                     64.34         63.11

  Nov-00     143   55.78       61.30         63.90         66.82

  Feb-01     143   56.22       62.51         65.35         68.20

  May-01     143   55.45       61.21         63.15         66.17

  Jul-01     143   49.06       49.57         61.41         
  ---------- ----- ----------- ------------- ------------- -----------------

Table 4: Radio Formats, 1993 & 1997

  ------------------------------- ------ ------- ---- ----------- ------ -------
                                  1993                            1997   

                                  N      \%                       N      \%

  Adult Contemp (AC)              462    8.44         AC          418    6.62

  AC/Album Oriented Rock (AOR)    8      0.15         AC/AOR      4      0.06

  AC/ Contemp. Hit Radio (CHR)    10     0.18         AC/CHR      128    2.03

  AC/Full Service (FS)            1      0.02         AC/NR       42     0.67

  AC/Oldies (O)                   5      0.09         AC/SAC      8      0.13

  AOR                             565    10.32        AOR         375    5.94

  AOR/AC                          5      0.09         AOR/AC      3      0.05

  Black (B)                       281    5.13         AOR/NR      200    3.17

  B/AC                            13     0.24         AOR/P       80     1.27

  B/Gospel (G)                    4      0.07         B           236    3.74

  B/O                             3      0.05         B/AC        107    1.69

  B/Talk (T)                      4      0.07         B/G         32     0.51

  Big Band/Nostalgia (BB)         213    3.89         B/O         26     0.41

  BB/EZ                           7      0.13         B/T         6      0.1

  BB/FS                           5      0.09         BB          315    4.99

  BB/O                            1      0.02         BB/EZ       3      0.05

  Country (C)                     772    14.1         BB/REL      1      0.02

  C/FS                            20     0.37         BB/T        1      0.02

  CHR                             488    8.91         C           904    14.32

  CHR/AC                          15     0.27         C/FS        14     0.22

  CHR/Spanish (SP)                3      0.05         CHR         410    6.49

  CHR/Urban (U)                   9      0.16         CHR/AC      51     0.81

  Classical (CL)                  67     1.22         CHR/NR      9      0.14

  Classic AOR(CL AOR)             151    2.76         CHR/U       56     0.89

  Ethnic (E)                      16     0.29         CL          70     1.11

  Easy Listening (EZ)             2      0.04         CL AOR      284    4.5

  EZ/New Age Contemp. (NAC)       1      0.02         CL HITS     83     1.31

  EZ/SAC                          3      0.05         E           14     0.22

  FS                              202    3.69         EZ          13     0.21

  FS/T                            41     0.75         EZ/SAC      1      0.02

  G                               55     1            FS          96     1.52

  G/B                             1      0.02         FS/T        81     1.28

  Jazz (J)                        59     1.08         G           62     0.98

  News (N)                        37     0.68         J           118    1.87

  News/Talk (N/T)                 161    2.94         KIDS        1      0.02

  NAC/AOR                         2      0.04         N           75     1.19

  O                               352    6.43         N/T         170    2.69

  Religious (REL)                 200    3.65         O           394    6.24

  Soft Adult Contemp. (SAC)       379    6.92         REL         276    4.37

  SP                              172    3.14         SAC         253    4.01

  Sports (SPRTS)                  70     1.28         SP          296    4.69

  Talk                            247    4.51         SPRTS       172    2.72

  T/O                             4      0.07         T           408    6.46

  Unknown                         360    6.57         T/CL AOR    7      0.11

                                                      T/J         5      0.08

                                                      UNK         6      0.1

                                                                         

  Total                           5476   100                      6314   100
  ------------------------------- ------ ------- ---- ----------- ------ -------

Table 5: Radio Outlets and Listening

  -------- ------ ---------------- ---------- ------- ---------- ------ ---------
                  Mean             Stations           News              
                                                      Stations          

  Year     N      AQH List.        Inside     All     Inside     All    Formats

  1993     230    16.83            15.00      21.73   0.46       0.79   11.60

  1994     230    16.48                                                 

  1995     230    16.28                                                 

  1996     230    16.07                                                 

  1997     230    15.83            16.65      24.83   0.55       0.94   14.97

  1998     230    15.65                                                 

                                                                        

                  Linked Sample                                         

                  Mean             Stations           News              
                                                      Stations          

           N      AQH List.        Inside     All     Inside     All    Formats

  1993     142    16.77            22.76      27.83   0.76       1.01   

  1994     137    16.57                                                 

  1995     139    16.33                                                 

  1996     139    16.13                                                 

  1997     143    15.78            24.96      31.43   0.88       1.20   

  1998     139    15.74                                                 

                                                                        

  Note:                                                                 
  N=143                                                                 
  for all                                                               
  but AQH                                                               
  -------- ------ ---------------- ---------- ------- ---------- ------ ---------

Table 6: Newspaper Outlets and Circulation, 1993-1999

  ------- ----- ------------- --------------- ------------- ---------------
                Daily         Daily           Weekly        Weekly

  Year    N     \# Outlets    Circulation     \# Outlets    Circulation

  1993    210   8.05          309580          44.18         531694

  1999    210   7.85          295950          46.21         728804

                                                            

                Linked Sample                               

                Daily         Daily           Weekly        Weekly

  Year    N     \# Outlets    Circulation     \# Outlets    Circulation

  1993    143   10.15         427775          56.98         737695

  1999    143   9.92          409149          60.20         1025342
  ------- ----- ------------- --------------- ------------- ---------------

Table 7: Trends in Internet Use, 1997-2000

  ------- ----- ------------ ----------- ----------- ----------- -----------
                Full Sample                                      

                connection               Use for     Use for     Use for

  Year          home         work        mail        news        info

  1997          15.14%                   11.95%      7.08%       12.08%

  1998          30.25%                   19.82%      12.04%      15.73%

                                                                 

  2000          45.90%                   33.62%      19.59%      23.81%

                                                                 

                Linked                                           
                Sample                                           

                connection               Use for     Use for     Use for

  Year          home         work        mail        news        info

  1997    143   15.64%       12.05%      12.52%      7.47%       12.36%

  1998    143   30.94%       14.13%      20.80%      13.19%      16.89%

                                                                 

  2000    143   46.56%       17.23%      34.65%      20.92%      25.39%

                                                                 
  ------- ----- ------------ ----------- ----------- ----------- -----------

Table 8: Medium Use and Outlets, Cross Sectional Evidence

+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
|           | \    | \    | \    | \    | \    | \    | \    | \    |
|           | (1\) | (2\) | (3\) | (4\) | (5\) | (6\) | (7\) | (8\) |
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
|           | TV   | R    | We   | D    | TV   | R    | We   | D    |
|           |      | adio | ekly | aily |      | adio | ekly | aily |
|           | HUT  |      | N    |      | HUT  |      | N    |      |
|           | %    | AQH  | ewsp | N    | %    | AQH  | ewsp | N    |
|           | \'97 | L    | aper | ewsp | \'97 | L    | aper | ewsp |
|           |      | ist. |      | aper |      | ist. |      | aper |
|           |      | \'97 | C    | C    |      | \'97 | C    | C    |
|           |      |      | irc/ | irc/ |      |      | irc/ | irc/ |
|           |      |      | Pop. | Pop. |      |      | Pop. | Pop. |
|           |      |      | \'99 | \'99 |      |      | \'99 | \'99 |
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
| TV        | 0.   |      |      |      | 1.   |      |      |      |
| Stations  | 7923 |      |      |      | 0346 |      |      |      |
|           |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
| \# uhf &  |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
| vhf       |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
| stations  |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
| \'97      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
|           | (0.1 |      |      |      | (0.1 |      |      |      |
|           | 052) |      |      |      | 278) |      |      |      |
|           | \*\* |      |      |      | \*\* |      |      |      |
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
| Radio     |      | 0.   |      |      |      | 0.   |      |      |
| Stations  |      | 0199 |      |      |      | 0374 |      |      |
|           |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
| \# Rec\'d |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
| \'97      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
|           |      | (0.0 |      |      |      | (0.0 |      |      |
|           |      | 049) |      |      |      | 083) |      |      |
|           |      | \*\* |      |      |      | \*\* |      |      |
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
| N         |      |      | 0.   |      |      |      | 0.   |      |
| ewspapers |      |      | 0827 |      |      |      | 1236 |      |
|           |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
| \#        |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
| Weeklies  |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
| \'99      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
|           |      |      | (0   |      |      |      | (0   |      |
|           |      |      | .035 |      |      |      | .055 |      |
|           |      |      | 7)\* |      |      |      | 3)\* |      |
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
| Newspaper |      |      |      | 0.   |      |      |      | 0.   |
|           |      |      |      | 4121 |      |      |      | 2089 |
| \#        |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
| Dailies   |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
| \'99      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
|           |      |      |      | (0.0 |      |      |      | (0.0 |
|           |      |      |      | 551) |      |      |      | 750) |
|           |      |      |      | \*\* |      |      |      | \*\* |
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
| Constant  | 31.  | 15.  | 31.  | 16.  | 29.  | 14.  | 29.  | 18.  |
|           | 5121 | 2567 | 9608 | 1550 | 8973 | 7054 | 5078 | 1791 |
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
|           | (0.7 | (0.1 | (3.7 | (0.7 | (0.9 | (0.2 | (4.5 | (0.8 |
|           | 706) | 751) | 091) | 280) | 121) | 742) | 009) | 995) |
|           | \*\* | \*\* | \*\* | \*\* | \*\* | \*\* | \*\* | \*\* |
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
| Obs       | 141  | 141  | 141  | 141  | 141  | 141  | 141  | 141  |
| ervations |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
| Method    | OLS  | OLS  | OLS  | OLS  | IV   | IV   | IV   | IV   |
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
| R-squared | 0.29 | 0.11 | 0.04 | 0.29 | 0.26 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.22 |
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+

Notes: Standard errors in parentheses. \* significant at 5%; \*\*
significant at 1%. IV regressions use log population as the instrument
for the number of outlets.

Table 9: Medium Use and Market Size

  -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------
                 \(1\)          \(2\)          \(3\)          \(4\)          \(5\)          \(6\)

                 HUT % \'97     AQH List. \'97 \% Int at home Weekly         Daily          \% Cable \'97
                                               \'98           Circ/Pop. \'99 Circ/Pop. \'99 

  1995 Pop.      0.9505         0.1701         0.3851         2.6237         0.8302         -0.1345
  (000)                                                                                     

                 (0.1418)\*\*   (0.0358)\*\*   (0.3252)       (1.3116)\*     (0.2336)\*\*   (0.2774)

  Constant       35.1828        15.5939        30.2242        32.4655        18.8534        67.3699

                 (0.4075)\*\*   (0.1027)\*\*   (0.9343)\*\*   (3.7686)\*\*   (0.6713)\*\*   (0.7971)\*\*

  Observations   141            141            141            141            141            141

  R-squared      0.24           0.14           0.01           0.03           0.08           0.00
  -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------

Notes: Standard errors in parentheses. \* significant at 5%; \*\*
significant at 1%

Table 10: Outlets and Media Use: Fixed Effects Regressions

  ------------------ -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------
                     \(1\)          \(2\)          \(3\)          \(4\)          \(5\)

                     HUT            AQH List.      AQH News List. Daily Circ. pc Weekly Circ.
                                                                                 pc

  TV Stations        0.3133                                                      

                     (0.1365)\*                                                  

  Radio Stations                    -0.0156                                      

                                    (0.0157)                                     

  Radio News                                       0.2412                        
  Stations                                                                       

                                                   (0.0369)\*\*                  

  \# Weeklies                                                                    0.0518

                                                                                 (0.0364)

  \# Dailes                                                       1.2074         

                                                                  (0.2201)\*\*   

  Year=1995          0.6581                                                      

                     (0.2640)\*                                                  

  Year=1996          0.8933                                                      

                     (0.2537)\*\*                                                

  Year=1997          0.2337         -0.8340        -0.2167                       

                     (0.2481)       (0.1010)\*\*   (0.0373)\*\*                  

  Year=1998          0.1435                                                      

                     (0.2397)                                                    

  Year=1999          0.1172                                       -1.2545        0.0904

                     (0.2348)                                     (0.2608)\*\*   (0.7614)

  Constant           34.4717        17.2034        0.3859         9.4843         33.7189

                     (1.0068)\*\*   (0.4437)\*\*   (0.0451)\*\*   (2.2506)\*\*   (2.1361)\*\*

  Observations       846            281            281            282            282

  Number of DMA \--  141            141            141            141            141
  Nielsen                                                                        

  R-squared          0.03           0.45           0.32           0.32           0.02
  ------------------ -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------

Notes: Standard errors in parentheses. \* significant at 5%; \*\*
significant at 1%

TABLE 11: Correlations among Cross Sectional Measures of Outlets and Use
of Various Media

<table>
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 12%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 6%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
<col style="width: 6%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 6%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
</colgroup>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td>|</td>
<td>TV ‘99</td>
<td><p>Radio</p>
<p>(In) ’97</p></td>
<td><p>Radio News</p>
<p>(In) ‘97</p></td>
<td>Dailies ‘99</td>
<td>Weeklies ‘99</td>
<td>TV ‘98</td>
<td>Radio ‘97</td>
<td>Radio News ‘97</td>
<td><p>Radio News</p>
<p>In ‘97</p></td>
<td>Dailies ‘99</td>
<td>Weeklies ‘99</td>
<td>Internet ‘98</td>
<td>Internet News ‘98</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><u>Outlets:</u></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>TV ‘99</td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Radio (In) ‘97</td>
<td>0.7555*</td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Radio News (In) ‘97</td>
<td>0.4699*</td>
<td>0.5618*</td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Dailies ‘99</td>
<td>0.6505*</td>
<td>0.6661*</td>
<td>0.2919*</td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Weeklies ‘99</td>
<td>0.5342*</td>
<td>0.6449*</td>
<td>0.3391*</td>
<td>0.8096*</td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><u>Use:</u></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>TV ‘98</td>
<td>0.5366*</td>
<td>0.3936*</td>
<td>0.2521*</td>
<td>0.3909*</td>
<td>0.2921*</td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Radio ‘97</td>
<td>0.3569*</td>
<td>0.3395*</td>
<td>0.3175*</td>
<td>0.2356*</td>
<td>0.3144*</td>
<td>0.3338*</td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Radio News ‘97</td>
<td>0.2511*</td>
<td>0.2489*</td>
<td>0.7148*</td>
<td>0.2152*</td>
<td>0.2553*</td>
<td>0.2091*</td>
<td>0.3348*</td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Radio News In ‘97</td>
<td>0.2459*</td>
<td>0.2091*</td>
<td>0.7001*</td>
<td>0.1949*</td>
<td>0.2173*</td>
<td>0.2043*</td>
<td>0.3167*</td>
<td>0.9870*</td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Dailies ‘99</td>
<td></td>
<td>0.2080*</td>
<td></td>
<td>0.5356*</td>
<td>0.3669*</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Weeklies ‘99</td>
<td></td>
<td>0.1573</td>
<td>0.1959*</td>
<td></td>
<td>0.1925*</td>
<td></td>
<td>0.1511</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>0.1428</td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Internet ‘98</td>
<td>0.1415</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Internet News ‘98</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>0.1619</td>
<td>0.1659*</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>0.7804*</td>
<td>1</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Cable ‘98</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>0.2266*</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>0.1543</td>
<td></td>
<td>0.2354*</td>
<td>0.1946*</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

Note: Correlation reported if significant at 10% level; star indicates
5% significance level.

TABLE 12: Correlations among Changes in Measures of Outlets and Use of
Various Media

<table>
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 12%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
<col style="width: 6%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
<col style="width: 4%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
</colgroup>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td></td>
<td>∆outlets</td>
<td>∆outlets</td>
<td>∆outlets</td>
<td>∆outlets</td>
<td>∆outlets</td>
<td>∆use</td>
<td>∆use</td>
<td>∆use</td>
<td>∆use</td>
<td>∆use</td>
<td>∆use</td>
<td>∆use</td>
<td>∆use</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td></td>
<td>TV</td>
<td>Radio</td>
<td>Radio News</td>
<td>Daily Papers</td>
<td>Weekly Papers</td>
<td>TV</td>
<td>Radio</td>
<td><p>Radio</p>
<p>News</p></td>
<td><p>Radio</p>
<p>News (Inside)</p></td>
<td>Daily Papers</td>
<td>Weekly Papers</td>
<td>Internet</td>
<td>Internet News</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><u>Change in Outlets:</u></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>TV</td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Radio</td>
<td>0.1407</td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Radio News</td>
<td></td>
<td>0.2774*</td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Daily Papers</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Weekly Papers</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>-0.4411*</td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><u>Change in Use:</u></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>TV</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Radio</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Radio News</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>0.5306*</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Radio News (Inside)</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>0.5470*</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>0.9610*</td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Daily Papers</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>0.4218*</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Weekly Papers</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Internet</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>-0.1782*</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>1</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Internet News</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>-0.1638</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>0.7991*</td>
<td>1</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Cable</td>
<td></td>
<td>-0.2319*</td>
<td></td>
<td>-0.1727*</td>
<td>0.1559</td>
<td>0.2025*</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>-0.1654*</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

Note: Correlation reported if significant at 10% level; star indicates
5% significance level.

Table 13: The Relationship among Changes in Media Outlets

  --------------- ------------ ------------ ------------ ------------ -----------
                  \(1\)        \(2\)        \(3\)        \(4\)        \(5\)

                  Chg. TV      Chg. Daily   Chg. Weekly  Chg. Inside  Chg. Inside
                  Stns.        Papers       Papers       Radio Stns   News Radio
                  \'94-\'00    \'93-\'99    \'93-\'99    \'93-\'97    Stns
                                                                      \'93-\'97

  Chg. Inside     0.0346       0.0211       -0.1113                   
  Radio Stns                                                          
  \'93-\'97                                                           

                  (1.52)       (0.95)       (0.28)                    

  Chg. Daily      0.1354                    -7.9469      0.3099       -0.0367
  Papers                                                              
  \'93-\'99                                                           

                  (1.55)                    (5.76)\*\*   (0.95)       (0.56)

  Chg. Weekly     0.0038       -0.0245                   -0.0050      0.0018
  Papers                                                              
  \'93-\'99                                                           

                  (0.78)       (5.76)\*\*                (0.28)       (0.48)

  Chg. TV Stns.                0.1276       1.1592       0.4787       0.0408
  \'94-\'00                                                           

                               (1.55)       (0.78)       (1.52)       (0.65)

  Constant        0.8435       -0.3134      0.4616       1.8602       0.0843

                  (7.93)\*\*   (2.57)\*     (0.21)       (4.13)\*\*   (0.94)

  H~0~: Cross     (0.16)       (0.00)       (0.00)       (0.23)       (0.73)
  effects=0                                                           
  (p-val)                                                             

  Observations    141          141          141          141          141

  R-squared       0.04         0.22         0.20         0.03         0.01
  --------------- ------------ ------------ ------------ ------------ -----------

Notes: Absolute value of t statistics in parentheses. \* significant at
5%; \*\* significant at 1%

Table 14: Changes in Use and Change in Outlets

  ---------------- ----------- ------------ ----------- ------------- ------------ ------------- ------------- -------------
                   \(1\)       \(2\)        \(3\)       \(4\)         \(5\)        \(6\)         \(7\)         \(8\)

                   Chg. HUT    Chg. Daily   Chg. Weekly Chg. AQH List Chg. AQH     Chg. Cable    Int Use \'00  Int News Use
                   Viewing     Paper Circ.  Paper Circ. \'94-\'98     News List    Use \'94-\'00               \'00
                   \'95-\'00   per cap      per cap                   \'93-\'97                                
                               \'93-\'99    \'93-\'99                                                          

  Chg. TV Stns.    0.6104      -0.0157      0.1023      0.0779        -0.0259      -0.3002       -0.7365       -0.6838
  \'94-\'00                                                                                                    

                   (1.84)      (0.07)       (0.14)      (1.33)        (0.78)       (1.06)        (0.91)        (1.49)

  Chg. Inside      -0.0898     -0.1078      -0.1958     0.0091                     -0.1842       -0.1856       
  Radio Stns                                                                                                   
  \'93-\'97                                                                                                    

                   (1.01)      (1.67)       (1.02)      (0.56)                     (2.43)\*      (0.85)        

  Chg. Daily       -0.2157     1.4125       -0.1983     -0.0929       0.0028       -0.2911       1.3533        0.8029
  Papers \'93-\'99                                                                                             

                   (0.63)      (5.72)\*\*   (0.27)      (1.56)        (0.08)       (1.00)        (1.62)        (1.70)

  Chg. Weekly      0.0075      0.0203       0.0444      -0.0033       0.0024       0.0180        0.0504        0.0198
  Papers \'93-\'99                                                                                             

                   (0.39)      (1.48)       (1.09)      (1.01)        (1.24)       (1.11)        (1.08)        (0.75)

  Chg. Inside News                                                    0.3252                                   -1.1253
  Radio Stns                                                                                                   
  \'93-\'97                                                                                                    

                                                                      (7.25)\*\*                               (1.82)

  Constant         -0.9343     -1.0182      0.4078      -0.9183       -0.1944      5.3499        47.7075       21.7674

                   (1.88)      (2.83)\*\*   (0.38)      (10.05)\*\*   (4.10)\*\*   (12.62)\*\*   (39.01)\*\*   (33.21)\*\*

  H~0~: Cross      (0.53)      (0.17)       (0.76)      (0.28)        (0.50)       (0.01)        (0.41)        (0.09)
  effects=0                                                                                                    
  (p-val)                                                                                                      

  Observations     141         141          141         135           140          141           141           141

  R-squared        0.03        0.21         0.02        0.03          0.29         0.09          0.03          0.06
  ---------------- ----------- ------------ ----------- ------------- ------------ ------------- ------------- -------------

Notes: Absolute value of t statistics in parentheses. \* significant at
5%; \*\* significant at 1%

Table 15: Changes in Use and Changes in Use

  -------------- ------------ ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ------------ ------------- -------------
                 \(1\)        \(2\)       \(3\)       \(4\)       \(5\)       \(6\)        \(7\)         \(8\)

                 Chg. HUT     Chg. Daily  Chg. Weekly Chg. AQH    Chg. AQH    Chg. Cable   Int Use \'00  Int News Use
                 Viewing      Paper Circ. Paper Circ. List        News List   Use                        \'00
                 \'95-\'00    per cap     per cap     \'94-\'98   \'93-\'97   \'94-\'00                  
                              \'93-\'99   \'93-\'99                                                      

  Chg. AQH List  0.3922       0.1176      -0.7387                             -0.2400      -0.8745       
  \'94-\'98                                                                                              

                 (0.78)       (0.29)      (0.68)                              (0.61)       (0.72)        

  Chg. Daily     0.0377                   0.1188      0.0054      0.0065      -0.1676      0.0271        -0.0074
  Paper Circ.                                                                                            
  per cap                                                                                                
  \'93-\'99                                                                                              

                 (0.35)                   (0.51)      (0.29)      (0.51)      (2.01)\*     (0.10)        (0.05)

  Chg. Weekly    0.0083       0.0166                  -0.0048     0.0010      -0.0376      0.1299        0.0619
  Paper Circ.                                                                                            
  per cap                                                                                                
  \'93-\'99                                                                                              

                 (0.21)       (0.51)                  (0.68)      (0.21)      (1.19)       (1.33)        (1.10)

  Chg. Cable Use 0.2905       -0.1809     -0.2903     -0.0119     -0.0017                  0.2656        0.1563
  \'94-\'00                                                                                              

                 (2.66)\*\*   (2.01)\*    (1.19)      (0.61)      (0.13)                   (0.98)        (1.02)

  Int Use \'00   0.0126       0.0030      0.1042      -0.0045                 0.0276                     

                 (0.35)       (0.10)      (1.33)      (0.72)                  (0.98)                     

  Chg. HUT                    0.0251      0.0396      0.0121      -0.0117     0.1794       0.0749        -0.1268
  Viewing                                                                                                
  \'95-\'00                                                                                              

                              (0.35)      (0.21)      (0.78)      (1.14)      (2.66)\*\*   (0.35)        (1.03)

  Int News Use                                                    -0.0073                                
  \'00                                                                                                   

                                                                  (1.01)                                 

  Chg. AQH                                                                                               -0.8342
  Inside News                                                                                            
  List \'93-\'97                                                                                         

                                                                                                         (0.76)

  Constant       -2.0030      -0.7021     -3.6352     -0.5326     -0.0025     3.1950       44.3660       19.8568

                 (1.14)       (0.49)      (0.94)      (1.74)      (0.02)      (2.35)\*     (24.24)\*\*   (21.73)\*\*

  H~0~: Cross    (0.17)       (0.45)      (0.55)      (0.85)      (0.75)      (0.02)       (0.62)        (0.63)
  effects=0                                                                                              
  (p-val)                                                                                                

  Observations   135          135         135         135         140         135          135           140

  R-squared      0.07         0.04        0.03        0.02        0.03        0.10         0.66          0.65
  -------------- ------------ ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ------------ ------------- -------------

Notes: Absolute value of t statistics in parentheses. \* significant at
5%; \*\* significant at 1%

TABLES FOR PART II

Table 1: Newspaper Use

  ----------------------------------- ---------------------- -------------
                                      Read a Daily?          

                                      No                     Yes

  Business pages/section              29.00%                 62.23%

  Classified Advertising              36.72%                 55.76%

  Comics                              33.12%                 60.88%

  Entertainment                       41.52%                 68.73%

  Food                                29.05%                 58.77%

  News                                55.19%                 90.77%

  Sports                              31.61%                 60.77%

  TV or Radio Listings                27.42%                 55.22%

                                                             

  N                                   83224                  95560
  ----------------------------------- ---------------------- -------------

Table 2: Cable and Satellite

  ---------------------------------------------------- ------------------
                                                       percent

  Basic                                                22.76%

  Basic/Extended plus Pay                              21.93%

  None                                                 26.71%

  Extended                                             28.59%

                                                       

  N                                                    178784

                                                       

                                                       percent

  No Satellite                                         86.13%

  Have Satellite                                       13.87%

  DirectTV                                             6.35%

  Dish                                                 3.02%

  Other Provider                                       3.66%

  Primestar                                            0.91%

  USSB                                                 0.47%

                                                       

  N                                                    178784
  ---------------------------------------------------- ------------------

Table 3: Radio Use

  ------------------------------------------------------- ---------------
  Number of Formats Listened to                           percent

  0                                                       11.39%

  1                                                       19.83%

  2                                                       27.68%

  3                                                       21.15%

  4                                                       11.44%

  5                                                       5.25%

  6                                                       2.10%

  7                                                       0.76%

  8                                                       0.30%

  9                                                       0.09%

  10                                                      0.02%

                                                          

                                                          178784
  ------------------------------------------------------- ---------------

Table 4: Radio Format Use

+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Format                                                    | percent  |
|                                                           |          |
|                                                           | l        |
|                                                           | istening |
|                                                           | to       |
|                                                           | format   |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Adult Contemporary                                        | 18.29%   |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Other                                                     | 0.25%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Adult Standards                                           | 4.44%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Album Adult Alternative                                   | 2.52%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Album Oriented Rock                                       | 11.81%   |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| # All News                                                | 5.35%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| All Sports                                                | 5.19%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Alternative                                               | 7.25%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Black                                                     | 0.26%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| # Business                                                | 0.00%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Childrens Radio (Rel.2 Only)                              | 0.40%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Classic Country                                           | 0.79%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Classic Rock                                              | 11.08%   |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Classical                                                 | 7.62%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Contemporary Christian                                    | 2.81%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Contemporary Hit Radio                                    | 14.41%   |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Pop Contemporary Hit Radio                                | 6.03%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Country                                                   | 21.22%   |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Rhythmic Contemporary Hit Radio (Rel. 2 Only)             | 1.74%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Dance                                                     | 0.00%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Easy Listening                                            | 0.72%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Educational (Rel.2 Only)                                  | 0.86%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Ethnic                                                    | 0.39%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Gospel                                                    | 1.40%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Hot AC                                                    | 9.67%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Modern AC                                                 | 3.69%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Jazz                                                      | 1.68%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| New AC/Smooth Jazz                                        | 4.86%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| New Age                                                   | 0.00%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| New Country                                               | 1.43%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| New Rock                                                  | 2.17%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| # News/Talk/Information                                   | 23.02%   |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Nostalgia                                                 | 1.40%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| 70\'s Rock                                                | 0.01%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| 70\'s Oldies/Classic Hits                                 | 2.72%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Oldies                                                    | 15.26%   |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Religious                                                 | 5.97%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Rhythm & Blues                                            | 0.38%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Rhythmic Oldies                                           | 3.27%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Soft Adult Contemporary                                   | 5.81%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Spanish News/Talk (Rel.2 Only)                            | 0.70%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Spanish Contemporary                                      | 2.44%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Spanish Regional                                          | 2.17%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Spanish Language                                          | 0.50%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Spanish Tropical                                          | 0.91%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Southern Gospel                                           | 0.50%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Talk/Personality                                          | 3.91%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Urban AC                                                  | 3.48%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Tejano                                                    | 0.33%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Urban Contemporary                                        | 6.18%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Urban Oldies                                              | 0.67%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Variety                                                   | 3.67%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Spanish label var viety                                   | 0.28%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Format Not Provided                                       | 0.00%    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+

Notes: News-related formats underlined in table.

Table 5: Internet Use

  ----------------------------------------- -----------------------------
  hours/week                                percent

  0                                         45.15%

  0-1                                       9.93%

  1-4                                       21.76%

  5-9                                       11.59%

  10-19                                     6.59%

  20+                                       4.98%

                                            

  None                                      43.96%

  Home Only                                 23.82%

  Work Only                                 1.18%

  Both                                      31.03%

                                            

  N                                         178784
  ----------------------------------------- -----------------------------

+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Table 6: Internet Uses among Home and Work  |            |           |
| Users                                       |            |           |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
|                                             |            |           |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| use                                         | \% using   | \% using  |
|                                             | at         | at        |
|                                             |            |           |
|                                             | home       | work      |
|                                             | for...     | for...    |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Auction site                                | 11.6%      | 4.5%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Automobile information                      | 19.5%      | 8.8%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Cable network site                          | 2.9%       | 1.7%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Chat or community site                      | 16.8%      | 5.8%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Research/education                          | 79.1%      | 84.2%     |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| E-mail                                      | 24.5%      | 20.9%     |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Financial information/services              | 28.6%      | 9.2%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Games                                       | 17.0%      | 13.2%     |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Job/employment search                       | 9.8%       | 6.7%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Local cable system site                     | 1.2%       | 0.5%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| # Local information                         | 22.1%      | 15.2%     |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Local television station site               | 3.7%       | 2.0%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Magazine site                               | 7.0%       | 5.6%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Medical services/information                | 6.3%       | 5.3%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| # News                                      | 18.5%      | 10.0%     |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| # Newspaper site                            | 31.0%      | 31.0%     |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Other use                                   | 7.6%       | 7.1%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| # Other newspaper site                      | 1.0%       | 1.1%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Maintain own home page                      | 17.1%      | 13.3%     |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Purchase item or service                    | 21.4%      | 12.0%     |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Listen to audio programming/radio station   | 7.6%       | 5.3%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Radio station site                          | 5.4%       | 4.2%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Real estate listings                        | 14.6%      | 13.1%     |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Read a magazine                             | 12.0%      | 5.7%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| # Read a newspaper                          | 37.7%      | 37.3%     |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Shopping                                    | 39.0%      | 18.6%     |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Sports scores/updates                       | 18.4%      | 12.4%     |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Television network site                     | 5.7%       | 3.3%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Watch video programming                     | 1.7%       | 1.0%      |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Work-related use                            | 12.5%      | 49.2%     |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
|                                             |            |           |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+
| Users                                       | 98067      | 57592     |
+---------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+

Notes: News-related uses underlined.

Table 7: Who Uses Each Medium?

  -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------
                 \(1\)          \(2\)          \(3\)          \(4\)          \(5\)          \(6\)          \(7\)          \(8\)          \(9\)          \(10\)

                 TV Half Hours  TV News Half   \# Radio       \# Radio News  Weekly         \# Internet    \# Internet    Daily          \# Cable       \# Cable News
                 per Week       Hours (4-12pm) Formats Used   Formats Used   Internet Hours Uses           News Uses      Newspaper      Channels Used  Channels Used

  age 21-20      0.8925         0.0363         -0.2160        -0.0206        -0.2466        -0.2701        0.0258         -0.0663        -0.1293        -0.0383

                 (0.4452)\*     (0.0882)       (0.0211)\*\*   (0.0069)\*\*   (0.0787)\*\*   (0.0725)\*\*   (0.0180)       (0.0070)\*\*   (0.0994)       (0.0159)\*

  age 25-29      2.0167         0.2560         -0.2765        0.0145         -0.4463        -0.4199        0.0157         -0.0740        -0.0644        -0.0300

                 (0.4102)\*\*   (0.0813)\*\*   (0.0194)\*\*   (0.0063)\*     (0.0725)\*\*   (0.0668)\*\*   (0.0166)       (0.0065)\*\*   (0.0916)       (0.0146)\*

  age 30-34      2.1558         0.3457         -0.2838        0.0688         -0.6439        -0.6339        -0.0258        -0.0289        0.0019         0.0034

                 (0.4020)\*\*   (0.0797)\*\*   (0.0190)\*\*   (0.0062)\*\*   (0.0710)\*\*   (0.0654)\*\*   (0.0162)       (0.0063)\*\*   (0.0898)       (0.0143)

  age 35-39      3.7367         0.8860         -0.3352        0.1219         -1.1255        -1.0243        -0.0870        0.0367         -0.2464        0.0702

                 (0.3954)\*\*   (0.0784)\*\*   (0.0187)\*\*   (0.0061)\*\*   (0.0699)\*\*   (0.0644)\*\*   (0.0160)\*\*   (0.0062)\*\*   (0.0883)\*\*   (0.0141)\*\*

  age 40-44      4.3695         1.1062         -0.4043        0.1545         -1.1787        -1.2470        -0.1260        0.0990         -0.4371        0.0797

                 (0.3979)\*\*   (0.0789)\*\*   (0.0188)\*\*   (0.0061)\*\*   (0.0703)\*\*   (0.0648)\*\*   (0.0161)\*\*   (0.0063)\*\*   (0.0889)\*\*   (0.0142)\*\*

  age 45-49      5.7908         1.4608         -0.5088        0.1886         -1.1845        -1.3372        -0.1535        0.1343         -0.3011        0.1193

                 (0.4081)\*\*   (0.0809)\*\*   (0.0193)\*\*   (0.0063)\*\*   (0.0721)\*\*   (0.0664)\*\*   (0.0165)\*\*   (0.0064)\*\*   (0.0911)\*\*   (0.0146)\*\*

  age 50-54      11.6471        3.1224         -0.7699        0.2179         -1.7841        -2.4368        -0.3524        0.1679         -0.6137        0.2417

                 (0.4139)\*\*   (0.0820)\*\*   (0.0196)\*\*   (0.0064)\*\*   (0.0731)\*\*   (0.0674)\*\*   (0.0167)\*\*   (0.0065)\*\*   (0.0924)\*\*   (0.0148)\*\*

  age 55-59      14.4908        3.8996         -1.0045        0.2675         -2.0782        -2.9276        -0.4371        0.2074         -0.8676        0.3164

                 (0.4367)\*\*   (0.0866)\*\*   (0.0207)\*\*   (0.0067)\*\*   (0.0772)\*\*   (0.0711)\*\*   (0.0176)\*\*   (0.0069)\*\*   (0.0975)\*\*   (0.0156)\*\*

  age 60-64      18.0567        4.5624         -1.1911        0.2889         -2.5092        -3.5055        -0.5042        0.2502         -0.9295        0.3856

                 (0.4539)\*\*   (0.0900)\*\*   (0.0215)\*\*   (0.0070)\*\*   (0.0802)\*\*   (0.0739)\*\*   (0.0183)\*\*   (0.0072)\*\*   (0.1014)\*\*   (0.0162)\*\*

  age 65-69      22.3543        5.5710         -1.4182        0.3061         -2.9543        -4.0423        -0.5726        0.2947         -1.0745        0.4448

                 (0.4623)\*\*   (0.0916)\*\*   (0.0219)\*\*   (0.0071)\*\*   (0.0817)\*\*   (0.0752)\*\*   (0.0187)\*\*   (0.0073)\*\*   (0.1032)\*\*   (0.0165)\*\*

  age 70+        26.5446        6.5158         -1.7677        0.2882         -3.5353        -4.5105        -0.6388        0.3131         -1.6902        0.4344

                 (0.3943)\*\*   (0.0782)\*\*   (0.0187)\*\*   (0.0061)\*\*   (0.0697)\*\*   (0.0642)\*\*   (0.0159)\*\*   (0.0062)\*\*   (0.0881)\*\*   (0.0141)\*\*

  some high      2.4028         0.5135         0.3248         0.0450         0.0443         -0.1540        -0.0280        0.1312         0.6736         0.0816

                 (0.4605)\*\*   (0.0913)\*\*   (0.0218)\*\*   (0.0071)\*\*   (0.0814)       (0.0750)\*     (0.0186)       (0.0073)\*\*   (0.1028)\*\*   (0.0164)\*\*

  high           0.7760         0.4254         0.5415         0.1066         0.4578         0.1872         0.0214         0.2388         1.1956         0.2117

                 (0.3919)\*     (0.0777)\*\*   (0.0186)\*\*   (0.0060)\*\*   (0.0692)\*\*   (0.0638)\*\*   (0.0158)       (0.0062)\*\*   (0.0875)\*\*   (0.0140)\*\*

  some coll      -1.2629        0.1224         0.7507         0.1759         1.4572         1.4282         0.2349         0.2952         1.2157         0.3311

                 (0.4052)\*\*   (0.0803)       (0.0192)\*\*   (0.0062)\*\*   (0.0716)\*\*   (0.0659)\*\*   (0.0164)\*\*   (0.0064)\*\*   (0.0905)\*\*   (0.0145)\*\*

  college        -2.7839        -0.0888        0.8960         0.2711         1.9110         2.2537         0.4021         0.3429         0.8698         0.3998

                 (0.4129)\*\*   (0.0818)       (0.0195)\*\*   (0.0064)\*\*   (0.0730)\*\*   (0.0672)\*\*   (0.0167)\*\*   (0.0065)\*\*   (0.0922)\*\*   (0.0147)\*\*

  some grad      -3.5798        -0.2026        1.0047         0.3400         2.3446         2.9443         0.5184         0.3710         0.6776         0.4200

                 (0.5137)\*\*   (0.1018)\*     (0.0243)\*\*   (0.0079)\*\*   (0.0908)\*\*   (0.0836)\*\*   (0.0207)\*\*   (0.0081)\*\*   (0.1147)\*\*   (0.0183)\*\*

  grad schl      -5.1676        -0.3416        0.9257         0.3576         2.5269         3.1556         0.5609         0.3936         0.5327         0.4503

                 (0.4345)\*\*   (0.0861)\*\*   (0.0206)\*\*   (0.0067)\*\*   (0.0768)\*\*   (0.0707)\*\*   (0.0175)\*\*   (0.0069)\*\*   (0.0970)\*\*   (0.0155)\*\*

  Black          9.9758         0.7268         -0.2975        -0.1157        -0.7968        -0.8268        -0.1161        -0.0329        0.8888         -0.0499

                 (0.2393)\*\*   (0.0474)\*\*   (0.0113)\*\*   (0.0037)\*\*   (0.0423)\*\*   (0.0389)\*\*   (0.0097)\*\*   (0.0038)\*\*   (0.0534)\*\*   (0.0085)\*\*

  Asian          -1.5797        -0.2753        -0.7174        -0.0073        1.0704         1.0196         0.2998         -0.0705        -0.9865        0.0418

                 (0.5068)\*\*   (0.1004)\*\*   (0.0240)\*\*   (0.0078)       (0.0895)\*\*   (0.0825)\*\*   (0.0205)\*\*   (0.0080)\*\*   (0.1132)\*\*   (0.0181)\*

  Oth Non-Hisp   0.2576         -0.0468        -0.3040        -0.0452        -0.0221        0.0079         0.0094         -0.0597        0.1378         -0.0144

                 (0.4750)       (0.0941)       (0.0225)\*\*   (0.0073)\*\*   (0.0839)       (0.0773)       (0.0192)       (0.0075)\*\*   (0.1061)       (0.0169)

  Hisp           5.5291         1.1266         -0.1834        -0.0862        -1.1152        -1.1895        -0.1600        -0.0846        -1.2080        -0.1447

                 (0.2541)\*\*   (0.0504)\*\*   (0.0120)\*\*   (0.0039)\*\*   (0.0449)\*\*   (0.0414)\*\*   (0.0103)\*\*   (0.0040)\*\*   (0.0568)\*\*   (0.0091)\*\*

  Male           -6.6350        -0.0570        0.1505         0.0972         1.0631         1.2149         0.2628         0.0656         1.6841         0.2348

                 (0.1445)\*\*   (0.0286)\*     (0.0068)\*\*   (0.0022)\*\*   (0.0255)\*\*   (0.0235)\*\*   (0.0058)\*\*   (0.0023)\*\*   (0.0323)\*\*   (0.0052)\*\*

  Constant       28.6164        2.7419         2.3282         -0.0764        3.5133         4.2392         0.5687         0.1356         7.3119         0.2946

                 (0.5149)\*\*   (0.1021)\*\*   (0.0244)\*\*   (0.0079)\*\*   (0.0910)\*\*   (0.0838)\*\*   (0.0208)\*\*   (0.0081)\*\*   (0.1150)\*\*   (0.0184)\*\*

  Observations   178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784

  R-squared      0.11           0.12           0.16           0.11           0.08           0.16           0.09           0.10           0.03           0.05
  -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------

Notes: Standard errors in parentheses. \* significant at 5%; \*\*
significant at 1%.

  ------------------------------------------------ ----------- ----------
  Table 8: Sample Statistics                                   

                                                   mean        

  TV Half Hours/Week                               35.47       

  News Half Hours (4-12 PM)                        5.31        

                                                               

  Whether Listen to Radio                          88.61%      

  \# Radio Formats Listened to                     2.32        

  \# Radio News Formats Used                       0.28        

                                                               

  Whether Use Internet                             54.85%      

  \# Internet Uses                                 3.97        

  \# Internet News Uses                            0.64        

  Weekly Time Online                               3.50        

                                                               

  Whether Cable or Satellite                       79.81%      

  \# Cable Channels Used                           8.40        

  \# Cable News Channels Used                      0.82        

                                                               

  Whether Daily Newspaper                          53.45%      

                                                               

                                                               
  ------------------------------------------------ ----------- ----------

Table 9: Correlations among Overall Use Measures

  ----------- ------------------- --------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------- --------- -----------
  shortname   Variable            view      radall   dradio   itime    iuses    dint     cab_num   dcabsat   any_daily

  view        Television Half     1                                                                          
              Hours per week                                                                                 

                                                                                                             

  radall      Radio Formats       -0.1149   1                                                                
              Listened to                                                                                    

                                  0                                                                          

  dradio      Whether Listen to   -0.0937   0.5387   1                                                       
              Radio                                                                                          

                                  0         0                                                                

  itime       Weekly Time Online  -0.1044   0.117    0.0808   1                                              

                                  0         0        0                                                       

  iuses       Number of Internet  -0.144    0.1787   0.1148   0.6536   1                                     
              Uses                                                                                           

                                  0         0        0        0                                              

  dint        Whether online      -0.1785   0.2015   0.1516   0.5745   0.6533   1                            

                                  0         0        0        0        0                                     

  cab_num     Number of Cable     -0.015    0.0712   0.0465   0.1196   0.1539   0.0933   1                   
              Channels Used                                                                                  

                                  0         0        0        0        0        0                            

  dcabsat     Whether Use Cable   -0.0684   0.0088   0.0121   0.0584   0.057    0.0806   0.4788    1         
              or Satellite                                                                                   

                                  0         0.0002   0        0        0        0        0                   

  any_daily   Whether Read a      0.0536    0.0299   0.0208   0.0022   0.003    0.0066   0.0393    0.0712    1
              Daily                                                                                          

                                  0         0        0        0.3458   0.2071   0.0052   0         0         
  ----------- ------------------- --------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------- --------- -----------

Note: probability values appear below correlations in table.

Table 10: Correlations among News Use Measures

  ------------ -------------------------- --------- ------------ -------- ---------- -----------
                                          TVnews    inews\_\~s   rnews    cab_news   any_da\~y

  TVnews       TV News Half Hours         1                                          
               (4-12PM)                                                              

                                                                                     

  inews_uses   Number of Internet News    -0.0909   1                                
               Uses                                                                  

                                          0                                          

  rnews        \# of Radio News Formats   0.0513    0.0542       1                   
               Used                                                                  

                                          0         0                                

  cab_news     \# of Cable News Channels  0.0758    0.145        0.0961   1          
               Viewed                                                                

                                          0         0            0                   

  any_daily    Whether Daily Newspaper    0.0909    0.0092       0.1556   0.1182     1

                                          0         0.0001       0        0          
  ------------ -------------------------- --------- ------------ -------- ---------- -----------

Table 11: Correlations among Gap (News-Ent) Measures

  ----------- ----------------------- --------- -------- -------- --------- -----------
                                      TVgap     igap     radgap   cab_gap   any_da\~y

  TVgap       TV: News-Ent            1                                     

                                                                            

  Igap        Internet: News-Ent      -0.108    1                           

                                      0                                     

  Radgap      Radio: News-Ent.        -0.0679   0.1417   1                  

                                      0         0                           

  cab_gap     Cable: News-Ent.        -0.0083   0.1264   0.1119   1         

                                      0.0005    0        0                  

  any_daily   Whether Daily Newspaper -0.0218   0.0021   0.0675   -0.0013   1

                                      0         0.3706   0        0.5748    
  ----------- ----------------------- --------- -------- -------- --------- -----------

Table 12: Do People Using One Medium More Use Other Media Less?

  -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------
                 \(1\)          \(2\)          \(3\)          \(4\)          \(5\)

                 TV Half Hours  \# Radio       Weekly         Daily          \# Cable
                 per Week       Formats Used   Internet Hours Newspaper      Channels Used

  \# Radio       0.0620                        0.0572         0.0271         0.1476
  Formats Used                                                               

                 (0.0501)                      (0.0088)\*\*   (0.0008)\*\*   (0.0111)\*\*

  Weekly         -0.1286        0.0041                        0.0007         0.1208
  Internet Hours                                                             

                 (0.0134)\*\*   (0.0006)\*\*                  (0.0002)\*\*   (0.0030)\*\*

  Daily          1.0543         0.2448         0.0826                        0.6196
  Newspaper                                                                  

                 (0.1505)\*\*   (0.0071)\*\*   (0.0265)\*\*                  (0.0334)\*\*

  \# Cable       0.0937         0.0067         0.0758         0.0031         
  Channels Used                                                              

                 (0.0107)\*\*   (0.0005)\*\*   (0.0019)\*\*   (0.0002)\*\*   

  TV Half Hours                 0.0001         -0.0040        0.0003         0.0046
  per Week                                                                   

                                (0.0001)       (0.0004)\*\*   (0.0000)\*\*   (0.0005)\*\*

  Constant       28.0960        2.2279         2.9283         0.0399         6.3276

                 (0.5341)\*\*   (0.0248)\*\*   (0.0944)\*\*   (0.0085)\*\*   (0.1185)\*\*

  Observations   178784         178784         178784         178784         178784

  R-squared      0.11           0.16           0.09           0.11           0.04
  -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------

Notes: Standard errors in parentheses. \* significant at 5%; \*\*
significant at 1%. Regressions include individual controls for
education, age, race, and gender.

Table 13: Do People Using News from One Medium More Use News from Other
Media Less?

  ----------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------
                    \(1\)          \(2\)          \(3\)          \(4\)          \(5\)

                    TV News Half   \# Radio News  \# Internet    Daily          \# Cable News
                    Hours (4-12pm) Formats Used   News Uses      Newspaper      Channels Used

  \# Radio News     0.0726                        0.0945         0.0611         0.0479
  Formats Used                                                                  

                    (0.0304)\*                    (0.0061)\*\*   (0.0024)\*\*   (0.0054)\*\*

  \# Internet News  -0.0851        0.0141                        0.0048         0.1316
  Uses                                                                          

                    (0.0117)\*\*   (0.0009)\*\*                  (0.0009)\*\*   (0.0021)\*\*

  Daily Newspaper   0.2909         0.0585         0.0310                        0.1166

                    (0.0298)\*\*   (0.0023)\*\*   (0.0060)\*\*                  (0.0053)\*\*

  \# Cable News     0.2306         0.0092         0.1691         0.0233         
  Channels Used                                                                 

                    (0.0133)\*\*   (0.0010)\*\*   (0.0027)\*\*   (0.0011)\*\*   

  TV News Half                     0.0004         -0.0035        0.0018         0.0073
  Hours (4-12pm)                                                                

                                   (0.0002)\*     (0.0005)\*\*   (0.0002)\*\*   (0.0004)\*\*

  Constant          2.6885         -0.0962        0.5313         0.1256         0.1876

                    (0.1023)\*\*   (0.0080)\*\*   (0.0206)\*\*   (0.0081)\*\*   (0.0182)\*\*

  Observations      178784         178784         178784         178784         178784

  R-squared         0.13           0.12           0.11           0.11           0.07
  ----------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------

Notes: Standard errors in parentheses. \* significant at 5%; \*\*
significant at 1%. Regressions include individual controls for
education, age, race, and gender.

Table 14: The Relationship among News -- Entertainment Gaps across Media

  -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------
                 \(1\)          \(2\)          \(3\)          \(4\)          \(5\)

                 TV: News-Ent.  Radio:         Internet:      Daily          Cable:
                                News-Ent.      News-Ent.      Newspaper      News-Ent.

  Radio:         0.1459                        0.0253         -0.0140        0.1848
  News-Ent.                                                                  

                 (0.0408)\*\*                  (0.0055)\*\*   (0.0008)\*\*   (0.0095)\*\*

  Internet:      -0.1766        0.0046                        -0.0027        0.1586
  News-Ent.                                                                  

                 (0.0175)\*\*   (0.0010)\*\*                  (0.0003)\*\*   (0.0041)\*\*

  Daily          -0.4370        -0.1230        -0.1302                       -0.3693
  Newspaper                                                                  

                 (0.1210)\*\*   (0.0070)\*\*   (0.0164)\*\*                  (0.0282)\*\*

  Cable:         0.1089         0.0114         0.0535         -0.0026        
  News-Ent.                                                                  

                 (0.0101)\*\*   (0.0006)\*\*   (0.0014)\*\*   (0.0002)\*\*   

  TV: News-Ent.                 0.0005         -0.0032        -0.0002        0.0059

                                (0.0001)\*\*   (0.0003)\*\*   (0.0000)\*\*   (0.0006)\*\*

  Constant       -22.5271       -2.3618        -2.7368        0.0710         -5.5855

                 (0.4341)\*\*   (0.0247)\*\*   (0.0588)\*\*   (0.0085)\*\*   (0.1011)\*\*

  Observations   178784         178784         178784         178784         178784

  R-squared      0.07           0.22           0.16           0.11           0.05
  -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------

Notes: Standard errors in parentheses. \* significant at 5%; \*\*
significant at 1%. Regressions include individual controls for
education, age, race, and gender.

Table 15: Media Use and Local Isolation (Youth)

  -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------
                 \(1\)          \(2\)          \(3\)          \(4\)          \(5\)          \(6\)          \(7\)          \(8\)          \(9\)          \(10\)

                 TV Half Hours  TV News Half   \# Radio       \# Radio News  Weekly         \# Internet    \# Internet    Daily          \# Cable       \# Cable News
                 per Week       Hours (4-12pm) Formats Used   Formats Used   Internet Hours Uses           News Uses      Newspaper      Channels Used  Channels Used

  Young Dummy x  17.7282        0.7965         1.4439         0.2378         -5.0205        -4.4882        -0.3347        -0.1909        -4.4077        0.3820
  % Young                                                                                                                                               

                 (7.7469)\*     (1.6857)       (0.6156)\*     (0.3073)       (2.0370)\*     (2.0037)\*     (0.4528)       (0.1195)       (2.1918)\*     (0.3080)

  Young Dummy    -29.0308       -5.7107        0.6771         -0.4433        5.0475         5.8596         0.7056         -0.2223        3.0691         -0.6197

                 (3.5611)\*\*   (0.8013)\*\*   (0.2855)\*     (0.1464)\*\*   (0.9059)\*\*   (0.9139)\*\*   (0.2069)\*\*   (0.0541)\*\*   (0.9692)\*\*   (0.1419)\*\*

  Constant       53.5560        8.7510         0.8253         0.2005         0.1374         -0.1971        -0.0515        0.4057         5.9245         0.6815

                 (0.7917)\*\*   (0.1823)\*\*   (0.0355)\*\*   (0.0107)\*\*   (0.1014)       (0.1033)       (0.0196)\*\*   (0.0089)\*\*   (0.1427)\*\*   (0.0210)\*\*

  Observations   178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784

  R-squared      0.10           0.13           0.16           0.14           0.08           0.16           0.09           0.11           0.04           0.06
  -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------

Notes: Robust standard errors in parentheses -- se's are clustered on
CMSA. \* significant at 5%; \*\* significant at 1%. All specifications
include age dummies, education dummies, and a gender dummy.

Table 16: Media Use and Local Isolation (Blacks)

  -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------
                 \(1\)          \(2\)          \(3\)          \(4\)          \(5\)          \(6\)          \(7\)          \(8\)          \(9\)          \(10\)

                 TV Half Hours  TV News Half   \# Radio       \# Radio News  Weekly         \# Internet    \# Internet    Daily          \# Cable       \# Cable News
                 per Week       Hours (4-12pm) Formats Used   Formats Used   Internet Hours Uses           News Uses      Newspaper      Channels Used  Channels Used

  Black x %      24.4042        0.9195         1.0901         0.0128         -0.4154        -0.9014        -0.2193        -0.0380        -3.0696        -0.3915
  Black in Metro                                                                                                                                        
  Area                                                                                                                                                  

                 (5.0254)\*\*   (0.9571)       (0.2897)\*\*   (0.0752)       (0.7065)       (0.5800)       (0.1472)       (0.0465)       (1.1183)\*\*   (0.1086)\*\*

  Black          4.8300         0.3711         -0.4620        -0.1101        -0.6671        -0.5818        -0.0835        -0.0072        1.3547         0.0057

                 (1.0996)\*\*   (0.1903)       (0.0589)\*\*   (0.0140)\*\*   (0.1558)\*\*   (0.1257)\*\*   (0.0286)\*\*   (0.0110)       (0.2028)\*\*   (0.0238)

  Constant       30.8601        3.3045         2.1940         -0.1175        3.0567         3.7750         0.5251         0.1002         6.8837         0.2454

                 (0.7954)\*\*   (0.1807)\*\*   (0.0436)\*\*   (0.0197)\*\*   (0.1554)\*\*   (0.1498)\*\*   (0.0243)\*\*   (0.0084)\*\*   (0.1744)\*\*   (0.0219)\*\*

  Observations   178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784

  R-squared      0.11           0.13           0.16           0.15           0.08           0.16           0.09           0.11           0.04           0.06
  -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------

Notes: Robust standard errors in parentheses -- se's are clustered on
CMSA. \* significant at 5%; \*\* significant at 1%. All specifications
include age dummies, education dummies, and a gender dummy.

Table 17: Media Use and Local Isolation (Hispanics)

  -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------
                 \(1\)          \(2\)          \(3\)          \(4\)          \(5\)          \(6\)          \(7\)          \(8\)          \(9\)          \(10\)

                 TV Half Hours  TV News Half   \# Radio       \# Radio News  Weekly         \# Internet    \# Internet    Daily          \# Cable       \# Cable News
                 per Week       Hours (4-12pm) Formats Used   Formats Used   Internet Hours Uses           News Uses      Newspaper      Channels Used  Channels Used

  Hisp. Dummy x  4.5915         0.7486         1.5035         -0.1005        -3.1912        -2.6137        -0.3580        0.0805         -4.4903        -0.6898
  % Hisp.                                                                                                                                               

                 (5.6911)       (1.2777)       (0.1913)\*\*   (0.0646)       (0.7296)\*\*   (0.9577)\*\*   (0.1688)\*     (0.0566)       (1.7455)\*     (0.2320)\*\*

  Hispanic       2.7389         0.9868         -0.4575        -0.0700        -0.6133        -0.7520        -0.0787        -0.0845        -0.2282        -0.0054

                 (1.2216)\*     (0.2256)\*\*   (0.0364)\*\*   (0.0213)\*\*   (0.1490)\*\*   (0.1678)\*\*   (0.0324)\*     (0.0091)\*\*   (0.2548)       (0.0368)

  Constant       30.9175        2.9045         2.2312         -0.0971        3.4554         4.1867         0.5670         0.1283         7.4749         0.2913

                 (0.7707)\*\*   (0.1155)\*\*   (0.0436)\*\*   (0.0144)\*\*   (0.1139)\*\*   (0.1146)\*\*   (0.0261)\*\*   (0.0083)\*\*   (0.1372)\*\*   (0.0194)\*\*

  Observations   178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784         178784

  R-squared      0.10           0.13           0.16           0.15           0.09           0.16           0.09           0.12           0.04           0.06
  -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------

Notes: Robust standard errors in parentheses -- se's are clustered on
CMSA. \* significant at 5%; \*\* significant at 1%. All specifications
include age dummies, education dummies, and a gender dummy.

Table 18: Summary of Statistical Results on Substitution

<table>
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 3%" />
<col style="width: 6%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
<col style="width: 6%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
<col style="width: 6%" />
<col style="width: 6%" />
<col style="width: 6%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 6%" />
<col style="width: 6%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
</colgroup>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td></td>
<td>TV all use</td>
<td><p>TV all</p>
<p>outlets</p></td>
<td><p>TV news</p>
<p>use</p></td>
<td>Radio all use</td>
<td>Radio all outlets</td>
<td>Radio news use</td>
<td>Radio news outlets</td>
<td><p>Dailies</p>
<p>use</p></td>
<td><p>Dailies</p>
<p>outlets</p></td>
<td><p>Weeklies</p>
<p>use</p></td>
<td><p>Weeklies</p>
<p>outlets</p></td>
<td><p>Internet</p>
<p>use</p></td>
<td><p>Internet news</p>
<p>use</p></td>
<td>Cable use</td>
<td>Cable news use</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>TV all use</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>E</td>
<td></td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>E H</td>
<td>D</td>
<td>E</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>TV all</p>
<p>Outlets</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>TV news</p>
<p>use</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>G</td>
<td></td>
<td>G J</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>F G I J</td>
<td></td>
<td>G</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Radio all use</td>
<td>E</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Radio all outlets</td>
<td>C</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>C</td>
<td></td>
<td>C</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>A <strong>C</strong></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Radio news use</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>J</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>C</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Radio news outlets</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>G</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>A</td>
<td>A</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Dailies</p>
<p>use</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>J</td>
<td>A <strong>D</strong></td>
<td>G J</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>Dailies</p>
<p>outlets</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>A B</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>A C</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Weeklies</p>
<p>use</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>Weeklies</p>
<p>outlets</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>C</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>A B</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Internet</p>
<p>use</p></td>
<td>E H</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>A</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>Internet news</p>
<p>use</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>F G H I</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>D</td>
<td>A</td>
<td>J</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Cable use</td>
<td>E</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>A</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>A <strong>D</strong></td>
<td>A</td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Cable news use</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>G</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>G J</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

Symbols denote significance at 5% level (except as noted below). We
register the correlation measures (A, E, F, G) symmetrically. For the
measures based on regression coefficients, we treat the column as the
dependent variable and the row as the independent variable.

Key:

A = correlation of changes on changes in aggregate data (see Part I,
Table 12), listed if significant at 5% level

B = regression of N on N in changes (agg data -- see Part I, Table 13),
listed if t-stat\>1, bold if significant at 5% level

C = regression of use on N in changes (agg data -- see Part I, Table
14), listed if t-stat\>1, bold if significant at 5% level

D = regression of use on use in changes (agg data -- see Part I, Table
15), listed if t-stat\>1, bold if significant at 5% level

E = correlation of overall use (micro data -- see Part II, Table 9)

F = correlation of news use (micro data -- see Part II, Table 10)

G = correlation of news-ent gap (micro data -- see Part II, Table 11)

H = micro regression of use on use (overall media use measures -- see
Part II, Table 12)

I = micro regression of use on use (news measure -- see Part II, Table
13)

J = micro regression of use on use (gap measure -- see Part II, Table
14)

[^1]: We discuss related research in part I, section II below.

[^2]: The full sample includes 207 of the 210 DMAs in the US. Three DMAs
    are excluded because of missing data.

[^3]: These data exclude public radio. See Berry and Waldfogel (1999b)
    for information about public and commercial radio in 1993.

[^4]: By "inside" we mean stations broadcasting from inside a metro
    area.

[^5]: See Berry and Waldfogel (1999b) and Waldfogel (1999) for radio
    evidence, Waldfogel (2001) for television evidence, George and
    Waldfogel (2000) for evidence on daily newspapers, and Sinai and
    Waldfogel (2001) for evidence about the Internet.

[^6]: The eleven networks are ABC, CBS, Fox, NBC, PAX, Univision,
    Telemundo, WB, UPN, Independent, and PBS.

[^7]: The schedule collection process is fairly time-consuming. Since
    most news is aired between 4 and 12 PM, our restriction allows us to
    save much effort without losing much information.

[^8]: We assume persons in the 0-1 category spend 1 hour each week, for
    the "1-5" group, we assume 2.5; for the "5-10" group, we assume 7.5;
    for the "10-20" group, we assume 15; and for the "20+" group we
    assume 20.

[^9]: Another 8 percent go to newspaper sites, and 15 percent "read a
    newspaper" when online at home.

[^10]: See, for example, Waldfogel (1999) for evidence that blacks and
    whites, and Hispanics and non-Hispanics, listen to different radio
    stations. The formats attracting two thirds of black listening
    collectively attract less than 5 percent of white listening.
    Waldfogel (2001) documents similar differences between black and
    white preferences in television programming.