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**Mineral Deposit Models for Northeast Asia**

# By Alexander A. Obolenskiy[^1^]{.smallcaps}, Sergei M. Rodionov[^2^]{.smallcaps}, Sodov Ariunbileg[^3^]{.smallcaps}, 

# Gunchin Dejidmaa[^4^]{.smallcaps}, Elimir G. Distanov[^1^]{.smallcaps}, Dangindorjiin Dorjgotov[^5^]{.smallcaps},

# Ochir Gerel[^6^]{.smallcaps}, Duk Hwan Hwang[^7^]{.smallcaps}, Fengyue Sun[^8^]{.smallcaps}, Ayurzana Gotovsuren[^9^]{.smallcaps},

# Sergei N. Letunov[^10^]{.smallcaps}, Xujun Li[^8^]{.smallcaps}, Warren J Nokleberg[^11^]{.smallcaps},

# Masatsugu Ogasawara[^12^]{.smallcaps}, Zhan V. Seminsky[^13^]{.smallcaps}, Akexander P. Smelov[^14^]{.smallcaps},

# Vitaly I. Sotnikov[^1^]{.smallcaps}, Alexander A. Spiridonov[^10^]{.smallcaps}, Lydia V. Zorina[^10^]{.smallcaps}, 

# and Hongquan Yan[^8^]{.smallcaps}

[^1^]{.smallcaps} Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk

[^2^]{.smallcaps} Russian Academy of Sciences, Khabarovsk

[^3^]{.smallcaps} Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar

[^4^]{.smallcaps} Mineral Resources Authority of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar

[^5^]{.smallcaps} Mongolian National University, Ulaanbaatar

[^6^]{.smallcaps} Mongolian University of Science and Technology,
Ulaanbaatar

[^7^]{.smallcaps} Korea Institute of Geology, Mining, and Materials,
Taejon

[^8^]{.smallcaps} Jilin University, Changchun, China

[^9^]{.smallcaps} Mongolia Ministry of Industry and Commerce,
Ulaanbaatar

[^10^]{.smallcaps} Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk

[^11^]{.smallcaps} U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park

[^12^]{.smallcaps} Geological Survey of Japan/AIST, Tsukuba

[^13^]{.smallcaps} Irkutsk State Technical University, Irkutsk

[^14^]{.smallcaps} Russian Academy of Sciences, Yakutsk

# Introduction and Companion Studies

Metalliferous and selected non-metalliferous lode and placer deposits
for Northeast Asia are classified into various models or types described
below. The mineral deposit types used in this report are based on both
descriptive and genetic information that is systematically arranged to
describe the essential properties of a class of mineral deposits. Some
types are descriptive (empirical), in which instance the various
attributes are recognized as essential, even though their relationships
are unknown. An example of a descriptive mineral deposit type is the
basaltic Cu type in which the empirical datum of a geologic association
of Cu sulfide minerals with relatively Cu-rich metabasalt or greenstone
is the essential attribute. Other types are genetic (theoretical), in
which case the attributes are related through some fundamental concept.
An example is the W skarn deposit type in which case the genetic process
of contact metasomatism is the genetic attribute. For additional
information on the methodology of mineral deposit types, the reader is
referred to discussions by Eckstrand (1984) and Cox and Singer (1986).
For each deposit type, the principal references are listed in
parentheses.

This article is prepared by a large group of Russian, Chinese,
Mongolian, South Korean, Japanese, and USA geologists who are members of
the joint international project on *Major Mineral Deposits,
Metallogenesis, and Tectonics of the Northeast Asia*. This project is
being conducted by the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Mongolian
Academy of Sciences, Mongolian National University, Mongolian Technical
University, the Mineral Resources Authority of Mongolia, Geological
Research Institute, Jilin University, China Geological Survey, Korea
Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources, the Geological Survey of
Japan, and the U.S. Geological Survey. Information about major goals and
pubications for this project is available at the USGS Internet/Web site
at

http://minerals.usgs.gov/west/projects/minres.html

Several companion studies, that are part of the study of NE Asia, are
closely related to this paper. These companion studies are: a detailed
geodynamics map of Northeast Asia (Parfenov and others, in press); a
database of significant lode mineral deposits and placer districts
(Ariunbileg and others, in press); a series of metallogenic belt maps
(Obolenskiy and others, 2001).

# Classification of Mineral Deposits

The following three main principles are the basis for the following
classification of mineral deposits for this study. (1) Ore forming
processes are close related to rock forming processes (Obruchev, 1928)
and mineral deposits originate as the result of mineral mass
differentiation under their constant circulation in sedimentary,
magmatic, and metamorphic cycles of formation of rocks and geological
structures (Smirnov, 1969). (2) The classification must be as more
comfortable and understandable for appropriate user as possible. And (3)
the classification must be open so that new types of the deposits can be
added in the future (Cox and Singer, 1986).

The below classification is constructed as further development of
mineral deposit classification of Smirnov (1969), and on the mineral
deposit types of Eckstrand (1984), Cox and Singer (1986), Nokleberg and
others (1997), cited references for specific models, and available data
on the problem. In the classification of Smirnov (1969), the mineral
deposits are grouped into six hierarchic levels of metallogenic taxons
according to such their stable features as: (a) environment of formation
of host and genetically-related rocks, (b) genetic features of the
deposit, and (c) mineral and (or) elemental composition of the ore. The
six hierarchial levels are as follows.

Group of deposits

Class of deposits

Clan of deposits

Deposit types (models)

Table 1 provides a hierarchial ranking of mineral deposit models
according to these levels. For simplicity, the classification in this
table does not employ the family and genus levels.

The deposit models are subdivided into the following four large groups
according to major geological rock-forming processes: (1) deposits
related to magmatic processes; (2) deposits related to
hydrothermal-sedimentary processes; (3) deposits related to metamorphic
processes; and (4) deposits related to surficial processes. A separate
group of exotic ore-forming processes is also defined. Each group
includes several classes. For example, the group of deposits related to
magmatic processes includes two classes: (1) those related to intrusive
rocks; and (2) those related to extrusive rocks. Each class includes
several clans, and so on. The most detailed subdivisions are for
magmatic-related deposits because they are the most abundant in the
project area. In the below classification, lode deposit types models
that share a similar origin, such as magnesian and (or) calcic skarns,
or porphyry deposits, are grouped together under a single genus with
several types (or species) within the genus.

Some of the below deposit models differ from cited descriptions. For
example, the Bayan Obo type was described previously as a
carbonatite-related deposit. However, modern isotopic, mineralogical,
and geological data recently obtained by Chinese geologists have
resulted in a new interpretation of the deposit origin. These new data
indicate that the deposit consists of deposit minerals that formed
during Mesoproterozoic sedimentary-exhalative process, and along with
coeval metasomatic activity, sedimentary diagenesis of dolomite, and
alteration. The sedimentary-exhalative process consisted of both
sedimentation and metasomatism. Later deformation, especially during the
Caledonian orogeny, further enriched the ore. Consequently, the Bayan
Obo deposit type is herein described as related to
sedimentary-exhalative processes, not to magmatic processes. However,
magmatic processes also played an important role in deposit formation.
Consequently, this deposit model is part of the family of polygenetic
carbonate-hosted deposits. Similar revisions are made for
carbonate-hosted Hg-Sb and other deposit models.

# Deposits Related to Intrusive Magmatic Rocks

## I. Deposits Related to Mafic and Ultramafic Intrusions. 

## A. Deposits Associated with Rift-related Differentiated Mafic-Ultramafic Complexes

### Mafic-Ultramafic-Related Cu-Ni-PGE (Eckstrand, 1984; Page, 1986c; Dyuzhikov, and others, 1988)

This deposit type consists of magmatic sulfide Cu-Ni deposits in
differentiated layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions. Layered intrusions
generally occur in a cratonic setting, in many cases associated with
intracontinental rifts and flood basalts. Mafic and ultramafic phases of
layered intrusive complexes include peridotite, pyroxenite, gabbro,
norite, picrite, troctolite and gabbro-diabase. The deposits may occur
either in the footwall below the main intrusion, or near the bottom of
the intrusion. Conformable layers or lenses commonly occur in a local
depression or embayment, at or near the base of the host intrusion.
Deposit minerals consist of massive sulfide minerals, sulfide-matrix
breccias, interstitial sulfide networks, and disseminated sulfide
minerals. In well-preserved deposits, the rich areas of deposit minerals
occur close to the base, and are overlain by sparse disseminated sulfide
minerals. Sulfide veins and dissemination commonly penetrate footwall
rocks. The deposit minerals are complex and contain Ni and Cu along with
PGE, Co, Se, Te, and Au. Deposit minerals include pentlandite,
chalcopyrite, cubanite, millerite, pyrrhotite, various PGE minerals,
pyrite, sphalerite, and marcasite. They are associated with plagioclase,
hypersthene, augite, olivine, hornblende, biotite, quartz and a variety
of alteration minerals. The main deposit minerals are syngenetic with
the host intrusions. The depositional environment is emplacement of
multiple ore-bearing mafic magmas (probably mantle-derived) in upper
crustal levels in tensional environments associated with rifting.
Contamination of the magma was an important factor for sulfur saturation
and formation of a sulfide phase. Examples of the deposit type are at
Hongqiling, Jilin Province, China, Kalatongke, Xinjiang, China, Norilsk
I and II, Russia, and Talnakh, Russia.

### Mafic-Ultramafic Related Ti-Fe (+V) (Lee and others, 1965; G.A. Gross and E.R. Rose, in Eckstrand, 1984; Page, 1986a; Sinyakov, 1988; S.M. Rodionov, this study)

This deposit type consists of layers and lenses, and disseminated
titanomagnetite or vanadium-magnetite, with minor amount of ilmenite and
chromite, in differentiated gabbroic intrusions. The host rocks are
mainly norite, gabbro-norite, dunite, harzburgite, peridotite,
pyroxenite, troctolite, anorthosite, gabbro, and diabase. Deposit
minerals occur near tops of intrusions as stratiform or irregular bodies
consisting of disseminated and interstitial Fe-Ti-V oxide minerals.
Pipes and ilmenite-rich veins may cut layers. Massive ore is generally
more important economically than disseminated ore. The principal ore
mineral is titanomagnetite and (or) V-magnetite. Associated minerals are
ilmenite, hematite, spinel, and sulfide minerals (pyrite, pyrrhotite,
chalcopyrite). Rock-forming minerals are plagioclase, olivine, pyroxene,
apatite, and sphene. Also occurring are Fe and Ti-oxide phases that
formed during by crystal settling or filter pressing during
crystallization of anorthosite or gabbro magmas, thereby forming
syngenetic layers and segregations, as well as massive oxide
autointrusions in partly solidified gabbro and genetically related host
rocks. The depositional environment consists of intrusions of
gabbro-anorthosite, dunite-pyroxenite-gabbroic and gabbro-diabasic
magmatic associations with magmatic layering of host intrusions.
Mafic-ultramafic rocks often intrude into granitic gneiss or into
volcanic-sedimentary units. An association exists between the
ore-bearing layered plutons and deep-fault zones. Age of the deposits is
generally Precambrian, but may be as young as Tertiary. Locally,
Precambrian deposits may be highly metamorphosed with occurrence of
deposits in hornblende schist as at the Soyonpyong deposit on the Korean
Peninsula. The depositional environment consists of stratiform to
irregular mafic to ultramafic plutons in continental margins or island
arcs. Examples of the deposit type are at Damiao, Hebei Province, China,
Kavakta, Russia, and Lysanskoye, Russia.

### Zoned Mafic-Ultramafic Cr-PGE (Page and Gray, 1986; Kosygin and Prikhod'ko, 1994; Malich, 1999)

This deposit type consists of zoned ultramafic to mafic plutons with Cr
and PGE minerals. The central part of the pluton is generally composed
of dunite and the peripheral part consists of pyroxenite, koswite, and
rare gabbro. The zoned plutons are often intruded by sills and dikes of
gabbro, diorite, monzonite, and various alkaline rocks. The mafic and
ultramafic rocks comprising the pluton, as well as host metamorphosed
sedimentary-calcareous rocks may be locally altered into
feldspar-pyroxene metasomatite and skarn. Deposit minerals in the zoned
plutons are chromite, native PGE, various PGE minerals and alloys, and
Ti-V magnetite, and accessory local pentlandite, pyrrhotite, bornite,
and chalcopyrite. Deposit minerals generally occur in dunite in the
top-central part of the pluton. Large (up to 3 kg and more) to small
nuggets of platinum may occur in peripheral placer deposits. The
depositional environment consists of zoned mafic to ultramafic plutons
that form the lower parts of island-arc or continental margin arc
systems.

## I. Deposits Related to Mafic and Ultramafic Intrusions.

## B. Deposits Associated with Ophiolitic Complexes

### Podiform Chromite (J.M. Duke in Eckstrand, 1984; Albers, 1986)

This deposit type consists of pods or lenses of chromite in the
ultramafic parts of ophiolite complexes (alpine peridotites) that may be
locally intensely faulted and dismembered. Host rocks are mainly dunite
and harzburgite that are commonly serpentinized, and local troctolite in
some few areas. The principal ore mineral is chromite. Associated
minerals are olivine, pyroxene, serpentine, magnetite, clinopyroxene,
and plagioclase. Deposits generally consists of lenticular bodies of
massive to heavily disseminated chromite. Tabular, rod-shaped and
irregular bodies may also occur. Nodular textures, and foliation and
banding are common. A specific deposit may consist of a number of
individual pods that tend to occur in linear zones, in some cases, in an
echelon fashion. The depositional environment consists of magmatic
cumulates in elongate magma pockets along oceanic ridges or the basal
parts of island arcs. Associated minerals are magnetite and PGE-minerals
and alloys. Examples of the deposit type are at Ganbi, Japan, Hegenshan
3756, Inner Mongolia, China, Khalzan uul, Mongolia, and Sulinheer group,
Mongolia.

### Serpentinite-Hosted Asbestos (Cho and others, 1970; Zolojev, 1975; J.M. Duke in Eckstrand, 1984; Page, 1986b)

This deposit type consists of chrysotile asbestos developed in
stockworks in serpentinized olivine-rich ultramafic rocks that consist
mainly of harzburgite, dunite, wehrlite, and pyroxenite. Serpentinized
ultramafic rock may be locally intruded by pegmatite dikes (as in the
central Korean Peninsula). Associated minerals are magnetite, brucite,
talc, and tremolite. The major deposits occur in allochtonous bodies of
serpentinized ophiolitic or alpine ultramafic rocks in Phanerozoic
orogenic belts. The depositional environment consists of ultramafic
rocks that form the basal part of ophiolite sequences that are obducted
onto a continental margin, or form part of an accretionary wedge or
subduction zone complex. Examples of the deposit type are at Ikh nart,
Mongolia, Molodezhnoye, Russia, and Sayanskoye, Russia.

## I. Deposits Related to Mafic and Ultramafic Intrusions. 

## C. Deposits Associated with Anorthosite Complexes

### Anorthosite Apatite-Ti-P (Sang and Shin, 1981; Kosygin and Kulish, 1984; Force, 1986a; Jeong and others, 1998)

This deposit type occurs in anorthosite plutons composed of andesine and
andesine-labradorite. The anorthosite plutons are highly alkalic and are
associated with gabbro, ferrodiorite, syenite, alkalic granite, and
sometimes mangerite. The plutons generally intrude granulite-facies
country rocks. Principal deposit minerals are apatite, titanomagnetite,
and ilmenite that occur either as: (1) disseminations near melanocratic
gabbro, pyroxenite, and dunite along the margins of the anorthosite
plutons; or (2) rich apatite (nelsonite) veins that occur in
tectonically weak zones. Associated minerals are lesser ilmenite and
magnetite. The depositional environment is intrusion into the basal part
of continental crust or craton under hot, dry conditions. Examples of
the deposit type are at Gayumskoe, Maimakanskoe, and Dzhaninskoe,
Russia.

## I. Deposits Related to Mafic and Ultramafic Intrusions. 

## D. Deposits Associated with Kimberlite.

### Diamond-Bearing Kimberlite (Khar'kiv and others, 1997; Zhang and Xu, 1995)

This deposit type consists of pipes and dikes made of kimberlite
breccia. The deposits occur mostly near secondary branches of giant,
deep, long, extension faults in stable craton (e.g., the Tanlu Fault
Belt in eastern North China Platform). The pipes have rounded or
elongated shapes with diameters of few hundred meters. In the North
Asian Craton in the study area, kimberlite pipes range in age from
Devonian through early Tertiary. Within a few hundred meters of the
surface, the pipe is usually funnel-shaped, at deeper depths (down to
about 1,500 m), is cylindrical, and at greater depths may have the shape
of a feeder dike. The kimberlite dikes generally range from 0.3 to 0.7 m
to 20 m wide, are 100 to 800 m long and several hundred meters long down
dip. Kimberlites usually are concentrated in kimberlite fields generally
less than 1 hectare in area, and from several kilometers to 20
kilometers apart. The kimberlite breccia consists of fragments of
sedimentary cover rocks, including limestone, sandstone, shale, schist,
granulite, and gneiss that from parts of Precambrian cratonal basement,
as well as dunite, garnet lherzolite, garnet saxonite, picotite
lherzolite, phlogopite, diamond--bearing ultramafic rocks eclogite,
spinel and spinel--free ultramafic rock, and pyroxenite. The ultramafic
and associated rocks are interpreted as mantle-derived. Inclusions of
Phanerozoic sedimentary cover and craton basement rocks are abundant at
margins of kimberlite pipes and dikes. Pipes and dikes usually also
contain inclusions of mantle-derived minerals that range from 1 to 10
cm, including Cr pyrope and picotite. The breccia is cemented by tuff
with xenocrysts of altered olivine (group I), pyrope, picroilmenite, Cr
spinel, Cr diopside, and rare large (up to 2 cm) grains of gem-quality
zircon. The minerals are embedded in a carbonate-serpentine matrix
including olivine II, picroilmenite II, Cr spinel II, phlogopite, and
perovskite. Secondary minerals, such as serpentine, carbonate, and
chlorite, comprise the bulk of the kimberlite in both the upper and
deeper parts of the pipe. Rare minerals are Cr diopside, picrotanite,
morssanite, rutile, oysanite, and zircon. Kimberlite is intruded in
hypabyssal conditions as indicated by typical massive structures and
pseudomorph of coarse olivine crystals that are scattered in
fine-grained matrix of phlogopite, serpentine, calcite, and perovskite.
Only part of kimberlite pipes and dikes contain industrial diamond.
Indicator minerals for diamond in kimberlite are Cr diopside and
picotite, and associated diamond placer deposits. The depositional
environment consists of kimberlite magma as forming during deep-level
subduction of oceanic crust and mantle metasomatism in cratonal regions.
The kimberlite magmas are erupted along various shear-fault systems to
near-surface levels during uplift of craton. Subsequent younger uplift
resulted in the erosion of the kimberlite and exposure of root systems,
including pipes and dikes. Examples of the deposit type are at
Ingashinskoye, Mir, and Yubileinaya, Russia.

## II. Deposits Related to Intermediate and Felsic Intrusions. A. Pegmatite.

### Muscovite Pegmatite (Sokolov, 1970; Chesnokov, 1975; Vasil'eva, 1983; Hongquan Yan, this study)

This deposit type consists of pegmatite veins, containing high-quality
foliated muscovite that occurs in schist that is metamorphosed to
amphibolite facies. Pegmatite veins are generally concentrated in apical
parts of large granite-migmatite domes and are mainly confined to
horizons of aluminum silicate rocks (e.g., biotite-muscovite granite
gneiss, two-mica schist). Groups or fields of pegmatite veins may be
hosted in hinge areas of anticlines and flexures in schist that are
multiply deformed. The shape of deposits is diverse, and cross-cutting
dikes with numerous tongues are dominant. The pegmatite minerals are
plagioclase (oligoclase, oligoclase-andesine), microcline-perthite,
quartz, biotite, muscovite, tourmaline, and rare beryl and almandine
garnet. Veins with plagioclase, plagioclase-microcline, and microcline
mineral types are dominant. High-grade muscovite is typical in quartz
masses that contain corroded feldspar crystals. The depositional
environment consists of pegmatite fields in regional metamorphic and
granitic belts that occur along the periphery of ancient cratons. A
large number of muscovite pegmatite fields, some with REE, occur in some
pegmatite belts and may extend for several hundred kilometers. Examples
of the deposit type are at Chuyskoye, Lugovka, and Vitimskoye, Russia.

### REE-Li Pegmatite (Lee, 1959; Kovalenko and Koval, 1984; Rundqvist, 1986; Kim, and Park, 1986; Zagorskiy and others, 1997; Lin and others, 1994a; S.M. Rodionov, this study; Ochir Gerel, this study; Hongquan Yan, this study)

This deposit type consists of two subtypes.

\(1\) The first subtype consists of REE spodumene granite pegmatite that
is associated mainly with two-mica granite. Pegmatite deposits generally
occur exocontact zones of granite intrusions, generally within 1 to 3 km
of contacts and intrude metamorphosed carbonaceous and clastic rocks.
Pegmatite bodies often clustered in elongated belts that occur along
regional faults. Pegmatite veins often occur along feather joints. Two
morphological types of pegmatite bodies are distinguished: (a) elongated
and persistent veins and vein systems that occur at depth; and (b)
single and small vein-shaped bodies. Major minerals are albite,
oligoclase, spodumene, quartz, microcline, muscovite, beryl, helvite,
columbite-tantalite, fluorite, tourmaline, cassiterite, and zircon.
Lesser minerals are various sulfide minerals, including pyrite,
molybdenite, galena, and others. The principal ore element is Li along
with associated Ta, Nb, Sn, Be, Mo, and W. Mineral zonation is typical
in large pegmatite bodies. The Keketuohai pegmatite No. 3 (Xinjiang,
China) consists of a large cupola-like body that is about 250 m long,
150 m thick, and 250 m high. From an outer graphic pegmatite to a
central massive microcline-quartz pegmatite, the temperature of
formation gradually decreased.

\(2\) The second subtype consists of REE pegmatite that is associated
mainly with calc-alkaline, Li-F leucocratic granite. Three varieties of
REE pegmatite are defined: (a) Li-mica pegmatite; (b) muscovite
(muscovite-albite) pegmatite; and (c) muscovite-microcline pegmatite.
The first two varieties are Ta-bearing, and the last contains
cassiterite and wolframite. Li-mica pegmatite contains Ta-Nb minerals,
cassiterite, Li-mica, quartz, albite, microcline, apatite, tourmaline,
topaz, beryl, and other minerals. Muscovite-albite pegmatite contains
columbite, tantalite, quartz, albite, microcline, and muscovite.
Muscovite-microcline pegmatite includes cassiterite, wolframite, quartz,
microcline, and muscovite. REE pegmatite deposits form dike-like or
lenticular bodies that range from few meters to hundreds of meters long,
and from 1 to 10 meters wide. Associated Li-Sn-Be pegmatite contains
Li-mica, Ta and Sn-W minerals. The depositional environment is REE-Li
pegmatite and associated granitic intrusions in post-accretionary
intrusions that postdate the peak of batholith emplacement. Associated
granite is mainly calc-alkaline and Li-F leucogranite and related,
coeval volcanic and subvolcanic units. Examples of the deposit type are
at Kelumute, Xinjiang, China, Keketuohai, Xinjiang, China, and
Vishnyakovskoye, Russia.

## II. Deposits Related to Intermediate and Felsic Intrusions. B. Greisen and Quartz Vein.

### Fluorite Greisen (Govorov, 1977)

This deposit type consists of fine-grained, dark-violet rock composed of
fluorite (from 63 to 66%) and micaceous minerals, mainly muscovite (25
to 35%), along with lesser ephesite and phlogopite. Subordinate minerals
are (in decreasing order) tourmaline, sellaite, cassiterite, topaz,
sulfide minerals, and quartz. Deposits generally occur in veins in
gneiss (as on the Korean Peninsular) or in limestone or marble (as in
the Khanka area, Russian Southeast). In the latter case, veins occur
concordant to limestone layers, and form lenticular and flame-shaped
bodies of apocarbonate greisen that occurs in limestone intruded by
Li-F, S-type granite. Metasomatic rock replacing limestone occurs at,
and above contacts with granitic intrusions. Muscovite-quartz pegmatite
veins with molybdenite-cassiterite-diopside, vesuvianite- diopside
-andradite, and scapolite skarn also occur near intrusive contacts, and
are interpreted as having formed prior to formation of fluorite-mica
greisen. Boron isotopic composition of tourmaline indicate a primary
evaporite source (V.V. Ratkin, written commun., 1994), suggesting that
deep-seated evaporites in zones of granitic magma generation were the
source of fluorine. Alternatively, some fluorine may be derived from the
volatile phase of granitic magma. Scarce quartz and absence of
paragenetic calcite suggest an extremely high activity of fluorine in
silica-poor solutions. The depositional environment is thick clastic
limestone sequences or carbonate gneiss in cratonal or continental
margin terranes that are intruded by continental margin arc plutonic
rocks. Examples of the deposit type are at Preobrazhenovskoye and
Voznesenka-II, Russia.

### Sn-W Greisen, Stockwork, and Quartz Vein (Rodionov and others, 1984; Reed, 1986b)

This deposit type consists of disseminated cassiterite, cassiterite- and
wolframite-bearing veinlets in stockworks, lenses, pipes, and breccia in
granite that is altered to greisen. The granite is mainly biotite and
(or) muscovite leucogranite emplaced in mesozonal to epizonal
environments. Deposits usually associated with cupolas and domes of
silicic and ultra-silicic, F-enriched rocks of late-stage, fractionated
granitic magmas. Deposits usually consist of simple to complex
quartz-cassiterite±wolframite and rare sulfide minerals fissure fillings
or replacement lodes that occur in, or near felsic plutonic rocks. The
veins are associated with mineralized greisen zones. Main deposit
minerals are cassiterite, wolframite, arsenopyrite, sheelite, rare
molybdenite, beryl, and pyrite. Associated minerals are chalcopyrite,
various Bi-minerals, and rare galena, stannite, and sphalerite.
Mineralogical and metal zonation may occur on a small scale (within
single veins or vein systems) and (or) on a larger scale (within the ore
districts). An inner zone of cassiterite±wolframite is usually bordered
by Pb, Zn, Cu, and Ag sulfide minerals. The depositional environment
generally consists of mesozonal to epizonal (hypabyssal) silicic plutons
that contain felsic dike swarms. Typical tectonic environment consists
of zones of accreted terranes that are intruded late- to post-orogenic
granitoids that ascended from deep-seated magmatic chambers. Examples of
the deposit type are at Deputatskoye, Russia, and Mungon-Ondur and
Tugalgatain nuruu, Mongolia.

### W-Mo-Be Greisen, Stockwork, and Quartz Vein (Kim and Koh, 1963; Malinovskiy, 1965; Kuznetsov and others, 1966; Sotnikov and Nikitina, 1971; Park and others, 1980; Cox and Bagby, 1986; Kolonin, 1992)

This deposit type consists of veins and stockworks of W, Mo-W and
Be-Mo-W deposit minerals that occur within endo- and exocontact zones of
multistage granitoid intrusions. Deposits generally occur in cupolas and
domes of silicic and ultra-silicic granitic rocks. Deposits consist of
elongated quartz veins and vein systems, stockworks, and greisen
cupolas. Quartz-sheelite stockworks are common in exocontact zones.
Disseminated wolframite and molybdenite occur in greisen, quartz veins,
and veinlets. Other deposit minerals are bismuthinite, pyrite,
pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, bornite, chalcopyrite, scheelite, cassiterite,
beryl, galena, sphalerite, and various Bi-minerals. Gangue minerals are
quartz, muscovite, K-feldspar, fluorite, lepidolite, and rare
tourmaline. Veins occur at the upper level apices of granitic plutons,
including alaskite, and in peripheral zones of contact-metamorphosed
sandstone and shale. Associated hydrothermal alteration includes greisen
with albite, and rare chlorite and tourmaline with Li, Nb, and Ta
minerals. The deposit type is sometimes associated with Sn-W vein and Sn
greisen deposits. The depositional environment consists of tensional
fractures in epizonal granitoid plutons that intrude sedimentary or
metasedimentary rocks. Typical tectonic setting consists of anatectic
granitic plutonic belts related to collisional zones and (or) interplate
strike-slip-fault zones. Examples of the deposit type are at
Lednikovy-Sarmaka, Ondortsagan, Mongolia, and Okunevskoye, Russia, and
Tsunkheg, Mongolia.

## II. Deposits related to intermediate and felsic intrusions. C. Alkaline metasomatite.

### Ta-Nb-REE Alkaline Metasomatite (Solodov and others, 1987)

This deposit type consists of Ta-, Nb-, and REE-bearing alkaline
metasomatite that replaces multistage alkali REE granites and host-rocks
that are generally composed of marble, gneiss, or amphibolite. Deposits
are composed of fine- and medium-grained quartz-albite-microcline rock.
Ta-Ni minerals (e.g., columbite and pyrochlore), zircon, and thorite are
widespread along with REE minerals. Columbite and zircon are of
practical significance. REE minerals include gagarinite, yttrofluorite,
monazite, bastnasite, and xenotime and are important as accessories.
Mineral zonation of metasomatic bodies is characteristic. Complex
multistage metasomatic processes, that occur in the apical part of the
granite massive and rocks within shear zones, consist of microcline,
albite, muscovite, and silica alterations. Relatively rich deposits
occur in columns and lens-shaped planar bodies that extend to depths of
hundreds of meters. This deposit type is a unique resource containing
Ta, Ni, Zr, Hf, and Th along with Li, REE, and U. The depositional
environment consists of deposit-hosting intrusions and metasomatic
deposits that occur along major shear zones connected with intraplate
and continental-marginal rift and strike-slip faults. Examples of the
deposit type are at Katuginskoye, Russia, Khalzanburegtei, Mongolia, and
Zashikhinskoe, Russia.

## II. Deposits Related to Intermediate and felsic Intrusions. D. Skarn (Contact Metasomatic).

### Au Skarn (Hwang and Kim, 1963; Vachrushev, 1972; Theodore and Hammarstrom, 1991)

This deposit type consists of veinlet-disseminated and bunches of
gold-sulfide deposit minerals that are superimposed on
hydrothermally-altered calc-silicate and magnesium-silicate skarn. The
various skarns replace carbonate rocks and coeval volcanic rocks along
intrusive contacts with andesite stocks, diorite, granodiorite, granite,
and granite porphyry. Deposits are usually small and irregular, but may
persist at the depth. Deposit minerals are garnet, pyroxene,
wollastonite, vesuvianite, magnetite, epidote, actinolite, quartz,
pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, sphalerite, and native gold. Gold forms
simultaneously or after deposition of sulfide minerals, sometimes in
association with hydrothermal alteration that consists of epidote,
chlorite, and silica. The depositional environment consists of contacts
of calcareous-volcanic sequences intruded by gabbro-diorite-granitic
complexes in continental margin or island-arc systems. Examples of the
deposit type are at Boltoro, Mongolia, and Andryushkinskoe and
Sinyukhinskoye, Russia.

### Boron (Datolite) Skarn (Nosenko and others, 1990; Ratkin and others, 1992; Ratkin and Watson, 1993)

This deposit type consists of danburite and datolite skarn associated
with garnet-hedenbergite-wollastonite skarn. The B skarn is interpreted
as having formed during successive metasomatic replacement of limestone
by wollastonite, grossularite-andradite, and hedenbergite, and by
danburite, datolite, axinite, quartz, and calcite. The deposit is
characterized by thin-banded wollastonite that forms kidney-shaped
aggregates of pyroxene and datolite in walls of paleohydrothermal
cavities in marble. The hydrothermal cavities occur to depths of 500 m
from the paleosurface, above a metasomatic zone of wollastonite and
grossularite. The central part of these cavities (0.5 to 50 m across) is
filled with danburite druse. Danburite formed after a second, boron
metasomatism, and boron was redeposited at higher paleogypsometric
levels in datolite associated with garnet-hedenbergite skarn. Genesis of
neighboring Pb-Zn deposits is associated with formation of the later
skarn. B isotopic data suggest that the source of B solutions was a
deep-seated granitoid intrusion. The depositional environment consists
of early formation of grossular-wollastonite skarn, followed by
formation of thin-banded wollastonite aggregates with datolite, and
danburite that occurred simultaneously with eruption of a
postaccretionary ignimbrite sequence that overlies an accretionary wedge
complex. The complex contains large limestone xenoliths with lateral
dimensions of 0.5 by 2.0 km and a highly-deformed siltstone and
sandstone matrix. The one example of this deposit type is the large
Dalnegorsk boron mine in the Russia Southeast that constitutes the main
source of boron in Russia.

### Carbonate-Hosted Asbestos (Wrucke and Shride, 1986; Xujun Li, this study)

This deposit type occurs along contacts between mafic dikes and sills
that intrude silicified carbonate rocks. The major rock types are
serpentinite, diabase, gabbro, chert-bearing dolomite, and marl. The
deposits are usually stratiform, lensoid, or irregular in shape and are
concordant to host carbonate rocks. The industrial minerals are
serpentine asbestos, massive serpentine, calcite, and dolomite. Varied
and distinct metasomatic structures occur. Major alteration minerals are
serpentinite, talc, tremolite, diopside, and carbonate. Alteration
zoning is not apparent. The deposition environment is metasomatism
associated with intrusion of mafic intrusions into impure carbonate
rocks. The deposits may be of any age, but in the study area, the main
deposit age is Mesoproterozoic. The tectonic environment is mafic
plutons that form part of continental-margin arcs. The best example of
the deposit type is at Chaoyang, Liaoning Province, China.

### Co Skarn (Nekrasov and Gamyanin, 1962; Bakharev and others, 1988; Lebedev, 1986)

This deposit type forms along the contacts between siltstone and
limestone during contact metamorphism associated with intrusion of
granodiorite, syenite-diorite, and granite plutons, and small intrusions
(stocks and dikes) of alkali gabbro. The skarn typically consists of
pyroxene and grossularite-andradite garnet, and lesser axinite and
scapolite. The deposits consist of small masses of Co-pyrite,
sulfoarsenides, and arsenides along with gersdorffite, arsenopyrite,
lollingite, and cobaltite. Native gold occurs in association with Bi-
and Te-minerals, including native bismuth, joseite, hedlyite, and
bismuthine. Examples of the deposit type are at Karagem and
Vladimirovskoye, Russia.

### Cu (±Fe, Au, Ag, Mo) Skarn (Cox and Theodore 1986; Nokleberg, W.J. and others, 1997)

This deposit type consists of chalcopyrite, magnetite and pyrrhotite in
calc-silicate skarn that replace carbonate rocks along intrusive
contacts with plutons ranging in composition from quartz diorite to
granite, and from diorite to syenite. Zn-Pb-rich skarn tends to occur
farther from the intrusion whereas Cu- and Au-rich skarn tends to occur
closer to the intrusion. Major minerals are pyrite, hematite, galena,
molybdenite, sphalerite, and scheelite. Mineralization is multistage.
The deposit type is commonly associated with porphyry Cu-Mo deposits.
The depositional environment is mainly calcareous sedimentary sequences
intruded by felsic to intermediate granitic plutons that form part of
continental-margin arcs. Examples of the deposit type are at Boltoro,
Russia, Kamaishi, Japan, Khokhbulgiin khondii, Mongolia, Kuma, Russia,
and Muromets, Russia.

### Fe Skarn (Mazurov, 1985; Cox, 1986d; Sinyakov, 1988)

This deposit type consists of dispersed magnetite in calc-silicate or
magnesium-silicate skarn that replaces carbonate, tuffaceous-carbonate,
or calcareous clastic rock near the contact of intrusive rocks that vary
from gabbro and diorite to granodiorite and granite. Coeval volcanic
rocks occur locally. Associated minerals are relatively rare
chalcopyrite, pyrite, and pyrrhotite. Metasomatic replacements consist
of a wide variety of calc-silicate and related minerals. The main skarn
minerals are magnesium-silicates, calc-silicates, albite, scapolite,
chlorite, and amphibole. The depositional environment is metavolcanic
and metasedimentary rock sequences including dolomite, dolostone, and
rare limestone that are intruded by gabbro to granite in island arcs,
continental marginal arcs, or rifted continental margins. Examples of
the deposit type are at Abakanskoye, Beloretskoye, Inskoye,
Lavrenovskoye, Tabratskoye, and Timofeevskoe, Russia, and Tomortei,
Mongolia.

### Fe-Zn Skarn (Bakhteev and Chizhova 1984; Podlessky and others, 1984, 1988)

This deposit type consists of sphalerite and associated minerals in
calcic skarn that typically occurs along the pre-intrusive
tectonic-lithologic contacts between uplifted blocks of metamorphosed
calcareous sedimentary rocks that are intruded by granitoids. The
intrusive rocks are mainly K-subalkaline granite and leucogranite. The
skarn occurs in lenses or in layers, and range from tens to hundreds of
meters in thickness and several hundreds meters along strike. The
intrusives display little or no alteration. Major deposit minerals are
sphalerite and magnetite with lesser chalcopyrite, hematite,
bismuthinite, molybdenite, pyrite, and galena. Gangue minerals are
andradite-grossularite garnet, hedenbergite, magnetite, epidote, and
feldspar. Typical and frequently-developed zonation consists of
epidote-feldspar, epidote-andradite, andradite-magnetite,
andradite-pyroxene-magnetite, and pyroxene-magnetite. Typical retrograde
minerals are actinolite, quartz, calcite, and chlorite. Fe- and
Zn-mineral distribution is irregular, and occurs mostly in garnet and
garnet-pyroxene skarn. Pb/Zn/Cu ratios are about 0.2/4.5/0.1. Deposit
typically exhibits four stages of mineralization: garnet- pyroxene
skarn, andradite-magnetite aposkarn, sulfide, and quartz-carbonate. The
depositional environment consists of metamorphosed calcareous rock
sequences including dolomite, dolostone, and rare limestone that are
intruded by granitoids in island or continental marginal arcs. Examples
of the deposit type are at Khol khudag, Mongolia, Jinling, Shandong
Province, China, Tumurte, Mongolia, and Tumurtiin-Ovoo, Mongolia.

### Sn Skarn (Reed, 1986c; Nokleberg, and others, 1997)

This deposit type consists of Sn-, W-, and Be-minerals in skarn, vein,
stockwork, and greisen near intrusive contacts between generally
epizonal(?) granitic plutons and limestone. Deposit minerals include
cassiterite, and local scheelite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite,
magnetite, and fluorite. Alteration consists of greisen near granite
margins, and metasomatic andradite, idocrase, amphibole, chlorite,
chrysoberyl, and mica in skarn. The depositional environment consists of
epizonal granitoid plutons that intrude calcareous sedimentary or
metasedimentary rocks. Typical tectonic setting is back-arc granitoids
forming in continental-margin arcs, or anatectic granitoids forming in
collisional zones and (or) interplate strike-slip-fault zones. Examples
of the deposit type are at Haobugao and Huanggan, Inner Mongolia, China.

### Sn-B (Fe) Skarn (Ludwigite Type) (Lisitsin, 1984; V.I. Shpikerman in Nokleberg and others, 1997)

This deposit type consists of metasomatic replacement of dolomite by
mainly ludwigite and magnetite adjacent to granitoids. Ludwigite forms
up to 80 percent of the deposit, and Sn occurs as an isomorphic
admixture in ludwigite. Other minerals are magnetite, suanite
(Mg~2~B~5~O), ascharite, kotoite, datolite, harkerite, monticellite,
fluroborite, clinohumite, calcite, periclase, forsterite, diopside,
vesuvianite, brucite, garnet, axinite, phlogopite, serpentine, spinel,
and talc. The deposit consists of limestone that is metasomatically
replaced by pyroxene-garnet-calcite skarn that is commonly altered to
greisen to form Sn skarn. Magnesium and associated calcic skarn
generally form near highly-irregular (convoluted) contacts of granite
plutons, and in large xenoliths of carbonate rocks. The depositional
environment consists of epizonal granitoid plutons that intrude
calcareous sedimentary or metasedimentary rocks. Typical tectonic
setting consists of back-arc granitoids forming in continental-margin
arcs, or anatectic granitoids forming in collisional zones and (or)
interplate strike-slip-fault zones. No noteable examples of this deposit
type occur in the region.

### W±Mo±Be Skarn (Beus, 1960; Kuznetsov and others, 1966; Cox, 1986j; S.M. Rodionov, this study)

This deposit type consists of scheelite and (or) sheelite-helvite in
pure or altered (greisen or silica alteration) calc-silicate skarn that
replaces carbonate rocks or calcareous sedimentary rocks, along or near
intrusive contacts with quartz diorite to granite plutons. Skarn forms
irregular and vein-shaped bodies and layers. Associated minerals are
molybdenite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, bornite, pyrite, and magnetite. Two
mineralogical varieties of skarn exist: (1) sheelite skarn containing
disseminated W minerals; (2) sheelite-helvite skarn with disseminated W
and Be minerals. Skarn typically contains garnet, vesuvianite, pyroxene,
epidote, actinolite fluorite, helvite, sheelite, beryl, quartz,
muscovite, and rare sulfide minerals. Replacement of wall rocks consists
of a wide variety of calc-silicate and related metasomatic minerals.
Scheelite also occurs in quartz-topaz and quartz-mica greisen that is
formed by replacement of skarn. The depositional environment is contact
zones along the margins of granitic intrusions in continental-margin or
island arcs, or adjacent to anatectic granitoids intruding into
collisional zones. Examples of the deposit type are at Lermontovsky,
Russia, Sangdong, South Kora, and Vostok-2, Russia.

### Zn-Pb (±Ag, Cu, W) Skarn (Cox, 1986k; K.M. Dawson and D.F. Sangster in Eckstrand, 1984; Nokleberg, and others, 1997)

This deposit type consists of sphalerite and galena in calc-silicate
skarn that replaces carbonate rock or impure calcareous sedimentary rock
along intrusive contacts with plutons varying in composition from quartz
diorite to granite, and from diorite to syenite. Zn-Pb-rich skarns tend
to occur farther from the intrusion relative to Cu-, and Au-rich skarns.
Deposit may occur at considerable distance from source granitic
intrusion. Associated minerals are pyrite, chalcopyrite, hematite,
magnetite, bornite, arsenopyrite, and pyrrhotite. Deposits vary from
stratiform skarn that occurs parallel to limestone bedding near plutonic
contacts to discordant bodies that commonly occur at lithologic and
structural contacts at some distance from pluton and dike contacts.
Deposits are rather narrow, but may extend downdip to 1 km depth. They
may be controlled by ring faults around volcanic-tectonic depressions.
The depositional environment is mainly calcareous sedimentary sequences
intruded by felsic to intermediate granitic plutons in continental
margin arcs. Examples of the deposit type are at Baiyinnuoer, Inner
Mongolia, China, Huanren, Liaonig Province, China, Kamioka Tochibora,
Japan, and Xiaoyingzi, Inner Mongolia, China.

## II. Deposits Related to Intermediate and Felsic Intrusions. E. Porphyry and Granite Pluton-Hosted Deposits.

### Cassiterite-Sulfide-Silicate Vein and Stockwork (Kim and Shin, 1966; Ontoyev, 1974; Lugov and others, 1972; Seminsky, 1980; Togashi, 1986; S.M. Rodionov, this study)

This deposit type consists of linear zones, veins, and stockworks with
cassiterite, wolframite, sheelite, and various sulfide minerals in a
gangue of quartz with siderophyllite, tourmaline, sericite, and
chlorite. Deposit occurs in, or adjacent to hypabyssal multistage
intrusive massifs (stocks and laccoliths), subvolcanic bodies that
intrude sedimentary, volcanic or metamorphic rocks. Composition of
associated intrusive rock varies from gabbro to diorite to granodiorite
to granite. Deposit typically contains abundant simple and complicated
veins and zones that are controlled by large crosscutting faults, or
occur in various elements of concentric or radial faults surrounding
volcanic-plutonic complexes. Stock with greisen is relatively older and
scarce. Deposit often contains stockwork minerals with the same
composition as veins and zones. Deposit minerals are cassiterite,
arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, pyrite, pyrrhotite,
sheelite, wolframite, fluorite, native bismuth, argentite, native gold,
bismuthine, and complex sulfosalt. Gangue minerals are quartz,
tourmaline, sericite, and chlorite, and rare muscovite and feldspar.
Typical alteration assemblages are quartz-tourmaline,
quartz-siderophillite, quartz-sericite, and quartz-chlorite.
High-sulfide deposits (cassiterite-sulfide) and low-sulfide
(cassiterite-silicate) deposits may occur. Several stages of
mineralization may occur along with horizontal zonation. The
depositional environment consists of back-arc zones of
continental-margin arcs. Examples of the deposit type are at
Sherlovogorskoye and Ulakhan-Egelyakh, Russia.

### Felsic Plutonic U-REE (Nokleberg and others, 1997)

This deposit type consists of disseminated uranium minerals, thorium
minerals, and REE-minerals in fissure veins and alkalic granite dikes in
or along the margins of alkalic and peralkalic granitic plutons, or in
granitic plutons, including granite, alkalic granite, granodiorite,
syenite, and monzonite. Deposit minerals include allanite, thorite,
uraninite, bastnaesite, monazite, uranothorianite, and xenotime,
sometimes with galena and fluorite. The depositional environment is
mainly the margins of epizonal to mesozonal granitic plutons in back-arc
zones of continental-margin arcs. Examples of the deposit type are at
Chergilen, Diturskoe, and Neozhidannoye, Russia.

### Granitoid-Related Au Vein (R.I. Thorpe, and J.M. Franklin in Eckstrand, 1984; Firsov, 1985; Cherezov and others, 1992)

This deposit type consists of fissure veins and veinlet-stockwork zones
with disseminated gold and and sometimes sulfide minerals that occur
generally in small, complex, granitic intrusions. Plutonic rocks consist
mainly of calc-alkalic and sub-alkalic diorite, granodiorite, and
granite. Deposits may consist of dissemination gold that occurs at
apices of plutons, or in contact metamorphic aureoles. Deposit minerals
are native gold, Au-bearing telluride and sulfide minerals, and
associated quartz, tourmaline, muscovite, sericite, chlorite, feldspar,
carbonate minerals, and fluorite. Disseminated sulfide minerals in wall
rocks, especially arsenopyrite, are commonly enriched in Au and Ag.
Alteration to berizite-listvenite is common with formation of quartz,
sericite, tourmaline, and chlorite. The depositional environment is
interpreted as epizonal plutons that intrude miogeoclinal sedimentary
rocks that in some cases were regionally metamorphosed and deformed
before intrusion. The plutons commonly occur in the back arc of a
continental-margin arc. Deposits display a similar mineralogy and
chemical environment and are often associated with polymetallic vein
deposits containing disseminated Au-bearing sulfide minerals. Examples
of the deposit type are at Boroo, Mongolia, Linglong, Shandong Province,
China, Sanshandao, Shandong Province, China, Xincheng, Shandong
Province, China, Tuanjiegou, and Heilongjiang Province, China.

### Polymetallic Pb-Zn ± Cu (±Ag, Au) Vein and Stockwork (Hwang and Kim, 1962; Moon, 1966; Cox, 1986e; Wang, 1989; Mironov and others, 1989; Tian and Shao, 1991)

This deposit type consists of quartz-carbonate veins with base metal
sulfide minerals and associated Ag-minerals and gold. Deposits are
related to hypabyssal bodies that intrude volcanic, sedimentary, and
metamorphic rock, including interbedded calcic siltstone, siliceous
marble, and rhyolite. Intrusions range in composition from calc-alkaline
to alkaline diorite to granodiorite, and monzonite to monzogranite, and
occur in small plutons and dike swarms. Some deposits are controlled by
faults along contacts between host rocks and felsic intrusions, and vary
in form from stratiform or vein to lensoid. Deposits are locally very
large and are concordant to the bedding of host rocks (e.g., Au-Ag
polymetallic vein deposits in Jilin Province, China). Gold vein deposits
are usually sulphide-poor (total sulphide content less than 5%), and
generally occur in masses, disseminations, or veinlets. Deposit minerals
are native silver, galena, sphalerite, pyrite, chalcopyrite,
tetrahedrite, arsenopyrite, argentite, Ag-sulfosalt minerals, native
gold, and Cu- and Sn- sulfide minerals. Vein minerals are quartz,
carbonate, barite, and fluorite. Metallic zoning is very common and
consists of Pb, Zn (Au and Ag) at depth, Au, Ag (Pb and Zn) at middle
horizons, and Ag (Au) at upper levels. Similar metallic zoning patterns
also occur horizontally. Alteration consists of wide propylitic zones,
and narrow sericite and argillite zones. For Au vein deposits, the most
intense host rock alterations are silica and beresite
(pyrite+sericite+carbonate) alterations. Silica alteration usually
occurs adjacent to deposit minerals, and successive outward are are
sericite and propylite alterations. Width of alteration zones ranges up
to several tens to 100 meters. The depositional environment consists of
zones of local domal uplift in continental margin arc and island-arc
volcanic-plutonic belts. Examples of the deposit type are at Khartolgoi,
Mongolia, Kuolanda, Russia, Lianhuashan, Inner Mongolia, China,
Meng\'entaolegai, Inner Mongolia, China, and Prognoz, Russia.

### Porphyry Au (Fogelman, 1964, 1965; R.I. Thorpe and J.M. Franklin in Eckstrand, 1984; Gamyanin and Goryachev, 1990, 1991; Sillitoe, 1993b; Dejidmaa, 1996)

This deposit type consists of stockwork zones and disseminated gold and
with local sulfide minerals that generally occur in simple to complex
granitic intrusions, or in breccia pipes that are associated with
volcanic-plutonic complexes. Related intrusive rocks are calc-alkalic
and sub-alkalic granodiorite or granite. Breccia, if present, contains
fragments of host rocks (flows, tuffs, granitoids, and sedimentary
rocks), igneous breccias, and other hypabyssal and subvolcanic rocks.
Deposit minerals are native gold, Au-bearing tellurides, and sulfide
minerals. Accessory minerals are quartz, tourmaline, muscovite,
sericite, chlorite, feldspar, carbonate minerals, and fluorite. Two
mineralogical subtypes exist: (1) a low-sulfide subtype with chalcedony
veins; and (2) a high-sulfide subtype with abundant disseminated sulfide
minerals. Within breccia pipes, gold generally occurs in the cement
(matrix) as disseminations or stringer-disseminations, along with
disseminated sulfide minerals (pyrite, sphalerite, galena, arsenopyrite,
and chalcopyrite). Disseminated sulfide minerals in wall rocks,
especially arsenopyrite, are commonly enriched in Au and Ag. Host rocks
exhibit chlorite, argillite, and quartz alteration. Advanced argillic
alteration is widespread in shallow parts of deposits. Sericite
alteration is typically minor. Stock and associated volcanic rock range
in composition from low-K calc-alkalic through high-K calc-alkalic to
K-alkalic. The deposit type is often associated with polymetallic vein
Au, Au-Ag epithermal vein, and porphyry Cu deposits. The depositional
environment consists of subduction-related continental margin or island
arc with composite epizonal porphyry stocks that intrude coeval volcanic
piles and adjacent passive continental-margin sedimentary rocks that in
some cases were regionally metamorphosed and deformed before intrusion.
Examples of the deposit type are at Ara-Ilinskoe, Russia, Delmachik,
Russia, and Naozhi, Jilin Province, China.

### Porphyry Cu (± Au) (Cox, 1986g; Sukhov and Rodionov, 1986; Evstrakhin, 1988; S.M. Rodionov, this study)

This deposit type consists of stockwork veinlets and rare veins of
chalcopyrite, bornite, and magnetite in porphyry intrusions and coeval
volcanic rocks. The host intrusive rocks vary in composition from
tonalite and monzogranite to syenite and monzonite. Coeval volcanic
rocks consist of dacite and andesite flows and tuffs. High-K, low-Ti
volcanic rocks (shoshonite) may also be common. Chalcopyrite and bornite
are the main deposit minerals, and associated minerals are magnetite,
pyrite, rare native gold, electrum, sylvanite, and hessite. Rare PGE
minerals may also occur. Gangue minerals are quartz, K-feldspar,
biotite, sericite, and chlorite, and rare actinolite, anhydrite,
calcite, and clay minerals. A general, systematic alteration consists
of: (1) an inner zone of quartz, biotite, rare K-feldspar, chlorite,
actinolite, and anhydrite; (2) an outer alteration zone of propylitic
minerals; and (3) late-stage quartz-pyrite-white mica-clay minerals that
overprint early feldspar alteration. Deposit mineral veinlets and
mineralized fractures are closely spaced. Deposit generally exhibits a
cylindrical or bell-shape that is centered on the volcanic-intrusive
center. Highest-grade ore commonly occurs at the level where stock
divides into branches. The depositional environment consists of
subduction-related continental margin or island arc with porphyry
stocks, dikes, and large-scale breccia intruding coeval volcanic rocks
nearby volcanic center and adjacent passive continental-margin
sedimentary rocks. Granitoids hosting deposit type tend to intrude in
waning stage of volcanic cycle. Examples of the deposit type are at
Khongoot, Mongolia, Oyu Tolgoi, Mongolia, and Xiaoxinancha, Jilin
Province, China.

### Porphyry Cu-Mo (± Au, Ag) (Sotnikov and others, 1977, 1985; Cox, 1986h; Sukhov, and Rodionov, 1986; Nokleberg and others, 1997; S.M. Rodionov, this study)

This deposit type consists of stockwork veinlets and veins of quartz,
chalcopyrite, and molybdenite in, or near porphyritic intrusions. The
host igneous rocks are felsic and calc-alkalic, predominantly tonalite
to monzogranite plutons occurring mainly in stocks that intrude
granitic, volcanic, or sedimentary rocks. Breccia pipes (including
pebble breccia) and dikes are common. Veinlets and veins contain mainly
quartz and carbonate minerals. The deposit minerals are chalcopyrite,
molybdenite, pyrite, sphalerite, Ag-rich galena, and gold. Alteration
minerals are quartz, K-feldspar, sericite, and biotite or chlorite.
Anhydrite occurs on deep levels of deposits. Most deposits exhibit
varying amounts of hypogene alteration, including sodic, potassic, and
phyllic alteration. Alteration zones, from inner to outward, are
sodic-calcic, potassic, phyllic, and argillic to propylitic. Widespread,
episodic development of abundant joints in intrusions and wall rocks is
typical. The depositional environment is shallow, porphyry intrusions
that are contemporaneous with abundant dikes, faults, and breccia pipes
associated with andesite stratovolcanoes in back-arc regions of
subduction-related continental-margin or island arcs. The granitoids are
mainly moderately to strongly alkalic plutons. Examples of the deposit
type are at Duobaoshan, Heilongjiang Province, China, Erdenetiin Ovoo,
Mongolia, Tsagaan Suvarga, Mongolia, and Wunugetushan, Inner Mongolia,
China.

### Porphyry Mo (± W, Sn, Bi) (Sotnikov and others, 1977, 1985; Theodore, 1986; Pokalov, 1992; Ludington, 1986; Nokleberg, and others, 1997; S.M. Rodionov, this study)

This deposit type consists of quartz-molybdenite stockwork in felsic
porphyries and adjacent country rock. The porphyries range in
composition from granite-rhyolite, with \>75% SiO~2~, to tonalite,
granodiorite, and monzogranite. Radial silicic dikes and small breccia
pipes are common. Associated deposit minerals are pyrite, scheelite, and
chalcopyrite, and rare cassiterite, wolframite, and tetrahedrite. Gangue
minerals are quartz, K-feldspar, biotite, calcite, and white mica. Some
deposits are high-F and have larger tonnages and higher average grades
than the low-F deposits hosted in quartz monzonite. Alteration consists
of potassic grading outward to propylitic, sometimes with phyllic and
argillic overprints. Intense quartz and quartz-feldspar veins are
typical for F-rich deposits. Minor greisen veins may occur below the ore
body. Accordingly deposit mineralogy and tectonic setting, the deposit
type is subdivided into two subtypes: (1) high-grade, rift-related
deposits with multistage F-rich, highly evolved granite to rhyolite
stocks that constitute a high-silica, alkalic, rhyolite suite; and (2)
low-grade, continental-margin arc-related deposits hosted in F-poor,
calc-alkalic stocks or plutons that form a differentiated monzogranite
suite. High-grade, F-rich deposits are also associated with intraplate
alkaline igneous rocks. The depositional environment is shallow,
epizonal porphyry intrusions in the back-arc regions of
subduction-related, continental-margin arcs that are built on a thick
continental crust. Examples of the deposit type are at Birandzha,
Russia, Daheishan 2, Jilin Province, china, Melginskoye, Russia,
Metrekskoye, Russia, Lanjiagou, Liaoning Province, China, and
Zhirekenskoye, Russia.

### Porphyry Sn (Reed, 1986a; Rodionov, 1990; Nokleberg and others, 1997)

This deposit type consists of mainly cassiterite and associated minerals
in stockworks, veinlets, and disseminations that occur in complex,
subvolcanic, multiphase granitic plutons, granitic porphyry or quartz
porphyry stocks, subvolcanic and volcanic rhyolite breccias, and also in
coeval volcanic rocks and surrounding clastic rocks. The composition of
the subvolcanic host rocks varies from intermediate to silicic
(quartz-latite, dacite, rhyodacite). Cogenetic volcanic rocks consist of
calc-alkaline pyroclastic rock and lava (quartz-latite to rhyodacite).
Closely-related intrusions are mainly strongly-altered and brecciated
quartz porphyry. Magmatic-hydrothermal breccia, and extensive
metasomatic propylitic and phyllic alterations are typical. The
alterations are accompanied by quartz, tourmaline, sulfide minerals, and
sericite. Deposit minerals are cassiterite, quartz, pyrrhotite, pyrite,
arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, stannite, wolframite,
muscovite, sericite, chlorite, albite, adularia, siderite,
rhodochrosite, calcite, topaz, fluorite, and sulfostannates, and Ag- and
Bi-minerals. Alteration zones, from interior to periphery, are
tourmaline (±adularia), phyllic, propylitic, and argillic. Some deposits
exhibit a quartz-tourmaline core with a peripheral zone of sericite.
Deposit type is often associated with Sn- and Ag-bearing polymetallic
veins. The depositional environment is mainly shallow, subvolcanic
stocks emplaced from 1 to 3 km beneath, or within vents of
stratovolcanoes in the back-arc region of subduction-related
continental-margin arcs. Examples of the deposit type are at Mokhovoye,
Mopau, Surkho, Yantarnoe, and Zvezdnoe, Russia.

## III. Deposits Related to Alkaline Intrusions. A. Carbonatite-Related Deposits.

### Apatite Carbonatite (Smirnov, 1982; Entin and others, 1991)

This deposit type consists of apatite-carbonate,
apatite-quartz-carbonate, martite-apatite-quartz-carbo-nate assemblages,
martite-apatite-carbonate, and apatite-carbonate-quartz assemblages in
asymmetric, early- and late-stage stocks. Early-stage carbonatites form
veins, vein zones, and stockworks in a mafic complex intruded into
crystalline basement. Thickness of the veins varies from a few
centimeters to 30-40 m, and the length varies from a few meters to 500
m, rarely up to 1.5 km. Early-stage, apatite carbonatite contains
apatite, carbonate (calcite, dolomite), K-feldspar, phlogopite, martite,
and serpentine. Apatite occurs as large (up to 20 cm) acicular crystals
with coarse cracks filled with breakdown products, including mica,
serpentine, and martite. Intergrowths of martite, serpentine, and
phlogopite; serpentine and martite that rim apatite grains are common.
Apatite may also contain microcrystals of monazite. Late-stage
carbonatite occurs as dikes and stocks intruding the early-stage
carbonatites, and consist of dolomite, anhydrite, apatite, quartz,
chlorite, minor barite and martite, and rare tourmaline, fluorite,
sulfate-apatite. Typical are intergrowths of apatite and hematite,
visually resembling jaspilite, that are replaced by apatite, martite,
and carbonate. Apatite in late-stage carbonatite occurs as subparallel
acicular crystals in a carbonate matrix, lacks coarse cracks, and
intergrowths of martite, serpentine, phlogopite. Carbonate inclusions
are insignificant. The depositional environment is interpreted as
generation of alkalic mafic magmas during rifting of craton or cratonal
terranes. An example of the deposit type is at Seligdar, Russia.

### Fe-REE Carbonatite (Kim and others, 1965; Sinyakov, 1988; Nevskiy and others, 1972; Park and Hwang, 1995)

This type of deposit consists of magnetite, calcite, hematite, limonite,
chalcopyrite, pyrite, siderite, rhodochrosite, apatite, REE minerals,
fluorite, barite, and siderite. The deposit occurs in complicated
feather joint systems associated with large faults. Host rocks are
alkali mafic magmas that intrude mainly gneiss-schist complexes and
clastic sedimentary rocks. Hornblendite dikes occur locally (e.g.,
Hongcheon mine, Korean Peninsula). Deposit minerals are siderite,
barite, fluorite, hematite, magnetite, bastnaesite, parisite, REE
minerals, and sulfide minerals. REE minerals also occur in siderite,
barite, and fluorite. Extensive hydrothermal alteration consists of
ankerite-calcite-siderite metasomatite. Ore-bearing breccia zones form
steeply dipping columns. Deposit minerals form complex mixtures of
magnetite, monazite, apatite, and strontianite that occur in carbonate
rock mostly composed of Fe-rich dolomite, ankerite, and siderite that
contain anomalous P, Sr, Nb, La, Ce, Nd, Sm, and Ba. Apatite is
associated with magnetite, dolomite, strontianite, and barite. Also
occurring is REE monazite that forms myrmekitic intergrowths with
dolomite and strontianite. Minor chalcopyrite and molybdenite occur as
disseminations in ore and carbonate host rock. Magnetite and monazite
are often fractured by cataclastic deformation. Pyrite is a common
sulfide in alteration zones. Deposit structures vary from breccia to
massive to locally banded. High Fe deposit minerals are interpreted as
forming during hydrothermal replacement of argillaceous sedimentary
rock. The depositional environment is interpreted as generation of
alkalic mafic magmas during rifting of craton or cratonal terranes.
Examples of the deposit type are at Karasugskoye and Ulatayskoye,
Russia.

### Fe-Ti (±Ta, Nb, Fe, Cu, Apatite) Carbonatite (A.A. Frolov in Pokalov, 1984; Singer, 1986a)

This deposit type consists of ferrous carbonatite that is spatially and
genetically related to circular alkali-ultramafic plutons. The plutons
tend to occur adjacent to or near deep fault zones. Zoned plutons are
characteristic and consist of dunite, pyroxenite, jacupirangite,
melteigite, ijolite, urtite, nepheline syenite, and carbonatite. Two
types of deposits occur: (1) perovskite-titanomagnetite deposits; and
(2) apatite-magnetite deposits. Perovskite-tanomagnetite deposits
consist of pyroxenite and dunite with disseminations, branches, lenses,
and veinlets of deposit minerals. The main deposit minerals are
titanomagnetite, perovskite, olivine, and pyroxene. Apatite-magnetite
deposits consists of magnetite, apatite, baddeleite, pyrochlore,
forsterite, calcite, dolomite, phlogopite, clinohumite, zircon, and
Cu-Ni sulfide minerals. The deposits often occur in linear or
ring-shaped veins, pipe-like bodies, and stockworks that are located in
both the central and in peripheral parts of plutons. The depositional
environment is interpreted as generation of alkalic mafic-ultramafic
magmas during rifting of craton or cratonal terranes. Examples of the
deposit type are at Esseiy 1, Gulinskoye 1, Iriaas 1, and Kugda 1,
Russia.

### Phlogopite Carbonatite (K.R. Dawson and K.L. Currie in Eckstrand, 1984; Epstein, 1994)

This deposit type consists of phlogopite bodies and disseminations
hosted in alkalic ultramafic plutons. Phlogopite occurs in carbonatite
in association with autoreactional skarns. Both endo- and exoskarns
occur. Endoskarn consists of metasomatic ijolite and nepheline-pyroxene
rock. Exoskarn consists of melonite-pyroxene, calcite-diopside,
diopside-wollastonite-calcite, and calcite-magnetitem pegmatite masses.
Phlogopite also occurs in: (1) veins and lenses of garnet, nepheline,
and pyroxene; (2) disseminations in carbonate-diopside rock; and (3)
veins in dunite. Deposits are zoned with: (1) a peripheral zone composed
of garnet-pyroxene-nepheline pegmatoid rock; (2) a core vein zone
composed of apatite-pyroxene and calcite-phlogopite rock. Phlogopite
distribution is irregular. The depositional environment is a
carbonatite-alkali-ultramafic complex that intrudes along major faults
during intra-craton rifting. The deposit type is associated with Fe-Ti
carbonatite and REE-Ta-Nb carbonatite deposits. Examples of the deposit
type are at Gulinskoye 3 and Odikhincha 1, Russia.

### REE (±Ta, Nb, Fe) Carbonatite (Smirnov, 1969; Nevskiy and others, 1972; Samoilov and Kovalenko, 1983; K.R. Dawson and K.L. Curie, in Eckstrand, 1984; Sinyakov, 1988; Epstein, 1994; Kovalenko and Yarmolyuk, 1995; S.M. Rodionov, this study)

This deposit type consists of variable-size stockworks, metasomatic
veins, breccias, columnar bodies, and lenses containing various REE,
Ta-Nb, and Fe minerals in complexley-zoned alkalic ultramafic
carbonatite complexes. The igneous complexes occur in: (1) zoned
plug-like stocks; (2) lopolith-type conical massifs; (3) circular or
semi-circular structures, and linear dikes occurring in conical and
radial faults; and (4) complexly-shaped intrusions combining the three
previous structures. Igneous complexes tend to cluster near major
faults. The zoned carbonatite complexes and stocks generally contain two
or more of the following rock types: pyroxenite, gabbro, urtite,
ijolite, foyaite, nephelinite, alkaline syenite, carbonatite
melanephelinite, melaleucitite, phonolite, trachyte, eruptive trachyte
breccia with a carbonatite matrix, latite, trachybasalt, or syenite. The
carbonatites generally consist of various assemblages of
augite-diopside-calcite, forsterite-calcite, aegirine-dolomite,
aegirine-ankerite, calcite, ankerite, and other minerals. Zonation
consists of a central zone of carbonatite, a medial zone of ultramafic
rocks, and a peripheral zone of ijolite and nepheline syenite. Zonation
sequence may be locally reversed or complex. Igneous and nearby host
rocks are usually intensively altered such that the distinction between
igneous and country rock is obscure. Alteration assemblages include
combination of pyroxene, feldspar, nepheline, alkaline amphibole,
ankerite, calcite, siderite, magnetite, apatite, and bastnaesite.
Deposit minerals occur in alkaline metasomatic rock and consist of
pyrochlore, baddeleyite, perovskite, knopite, dysanalite, synshisite,
bastnasite, parisite, zircon, monazite, columbite, apatite, yttrialite,
melanocerite, yttrotitanite, hydrothorite, siderite, barite,
strontianite, fluorite, hematite, magnetite, celestine, cerrusite,
apatite, monazite, and sulfide minerals. REE also occur in siderite,
barite, and fluorite. The depositional environment is interpreted as
intrusion of alkalic mafic magma during rifting of craton or cratonal
terrane. Examples of the deposit type are at Beloziminskoye, Gornoye
Ozero, and Gulinskoye 2, Russia, and Mushgai hudag, Mongolia.

## III. Deposits Related to Alkaline Intrusions. B. Alkaline-Silicic Intrusions Related Deposits.

### Alkaline Complex-Hosted Au (Song and others, 1996; Shi and Xie, 1998)

This deposit type occurs in the alkaline igneous complexes and
peripheral country rocks. The deposit type includes three varieties: (1)
most common Au-bearing potassium and silica-altered rock; (2) more
common Au quartz veins associated with potassium alteration envelope;
and (3) less common Au quartz veins. Deposit minerals comprise less than
3 percent of the host rock and are mainly gold and pyrite with lesser
magnetite, chalcopyrite, galena, altaite, and others. Gangue minerals
are mainly quartz and lesser feldspar, sericite, chlorite, epidote, and
others. Gold fineness ranges from 935 to 978. Wallrocks are altered to
K-feldspar, silica, pyrite and sericite. The host alkaline igneous
complex (e.g., Dongping, Hebei Province, China) consists of alkali
feldspar syenite, alkali feldspar quartz syenite,
pyroxene-hornblende-alkali feldspar syenite, pyroxene-hornblende
syenite, and hornblende-alkali-feldspar syenite. Alkaline complexes
occur in elongated zones that typically intrude Archean metamorphic
gneiss along major faults. The depositional environment is interpreted
as intrusion of alkalic mafic magma during rifting or strike-slip
translation of craton or cratonal terrane. Examples of the deposit type
are at Akalakhinskoye, Russia, Dongping, Hebei Province, China, and
Hougou Chicheng, Hebei Province, China.

### Peralkaline Granitoid-Related Nb-Zr-REE (Kovalenko and others, 1985, 1995; Vladykin, 1983)

This deposit type consists of peralkaline granitic rock containing
REE-Zr-Nb minerals. Deposit type generally occurs in apical parts of
cupolas, and is generally associated with highly-fractionated magmatic
phases including peralkaline pegmatite. The host granite is composed of
K-feldspar, quartz, albite, arfvedsonite, aegirine, fluorite, and
various REE minerals such as elpidite, gittincite, zircon, pyrochlore,
monazite, REE fluorcarbonate, polylitionite, and others. Alteration
consists of replacement by epidote, orthoclase, and postmagmatic albite.
Deposits are generally hosted in microcline-albite granite and
metasomatic rocks composed of quartz, albite, pyroxene, and microcline.
Quartz-epidote metasomatite contains zircon, fergusonite, allanite,
chevkinite and titanite in vein-like zones. Also occurring are
fergussonite and zircon with HREE and Y. Accessory minerals are
amphibole, magnetite, zircon, epidote, ilmenite, fluorite, beryl,
chevkinite, pyrite, and galena. Associated with the deposit type are REE
pegmatite and quartz-fluorite veins. The depositional environment is
interpreted as intrusion of peralkaline granitic rock into miogeoclinal
or island arc assemblages. Examples of the deposit type are at Baerzhe,
Inner Mongolia and Ulaantolgoi, Mongolia.

### Albite Syenite-Related REE (Andreev and others, 1994; Kempe and others, 1994 Kovalenko and Yarmolyuk, 1995; Ochir Gerel, this study)

This deposit type occurs in: (1) endocontacts of alkaline plutons
composed of metasomatically-altered alkaline syenite (nordmarkite); and
(2) volcanic peralkaline rock (comendite, pantellerite, peralkaline
trachydacite, trachyrhyolite and trachybasalt) intruded by REE-albite
nepheline syenite. Deposit minerals are various REE-Zr-Nb minerals. An
example of the deposit type is at Maikhan Uul, Mongolia.

### Ta-Li Ongonite (Kovalenko and others, 1971; Kovalenko and Kovalenko, 1986)

This deposit type is subdivided into volcanic and plutonic facies. The
igneous rocks are porphyritic with phenocrysts of albite, quartz,
K-feldspar, topaz, and Li-fengite in a fine-grained matrix of REE
minerals. The main deposit minerals contain Ta with Rb, Nb, Be, Li, and
Sn. Plutonic ongonites is rich in Ta (up to 130 ppm, with average
concentration of 88 ppm), and Li (average concentration of 2,780 ppm),
and Rb (average concentration of 2,380 ppm). Volcanic ongonite (e.g.,
Teg Uul, Mongolia) contains less REE (average concentrations of 37 ppm
Ta, 170 ppm Nb, 1,040 ppm Rb, and 90 ppm Be), and occurs in large
bodies, including volcanic cones, stratified bodies, and sheets. Average
concentrations in igneous rocks are 0.05 to 0.8 Li, 0.5 to 5.0% Zr, and
0.3 to 4.5% REE. High concentrations of Li, Be, Sn and Zn are
characteristic. The Teg Uul occurrence, Mongolia, is large, covers over
1 km^2^, and is composed of a tuff unit that ranges up to 10 to 20 m
thick. Associated rocks are late Mesozoic rhyolite and ongorhyolite that
occur in volcanic necks. Examples of the deposit type are at Ongon
Khairkhan, Mongolia, and Ulkanskoe, Russia.

## III. Deposits Related to Alkaline Intrusions. C. Alkaline-Gabbroic Intrusion-Related Deposits.

### Charoite Metasomatite (Konev and others, 1996)

This deposit type consists of breccia-like, vein-like and stratified
bodies of charoite that are hosted in the Archean and Proterozoic
fenitized gneiss, quartz sandstone, and dolomite. Charoite is
interpreted as forming in the final stage of intrusion of ultrapotassic
alkaline syenite. However, varying interpretations exist about genesis.
One interpretation is a metasomatic origin; the other interpretation is
magmatism that resulted in charoite metasomatic replacement of host
rock. Mineral composition is diverse and ranges from almost monomineral
charoite, to complex mixtures of aegirine, pectolite, K-feldspar,
quartz, tinaksite, fedorite, canasite, calcite, and others minerals. Up
to 50 minerals are known in the type deposit. The rock morphology varies
and consists of dense monoliths with shell-like fractures, pegmatoid,
coarse-crystalline, schistose, and gneiss. Charoite color ranges from
purple to brown, and to colorless. Charoite composition is similar to
canasite and the chemical formula is (Na,
K)~5~Ca\[(OH,F)~3~\]Si~10~O~25~ with Ba and Sr. The only global example
of the deposit type is at Murunskoe, Russia.

### Magmatic and Metasomatic Apatite (Litvinovsky and others, 1998; Arkhangelskaya, 1964)

This deposit type consists of two subtypes: (1) magmatic deposits; and
(2) metasomatic apatite deposits.

\(1\) The magmatic apatite deposit subtype occurs in sheeted plutonic or
stratiform complexes with alternating, conformable lenses, plates, and
dikes that are composed of coarse- and medium-grained alkaline gabbro,
melanocratic alkaline gabbro, or alkaline-feldspar syenite. Apatite is
concentrated in alkaline gabbro (average concentration of 4% P~2~O~5~),
and forms equally-spaced tabular grains, short prisms, needles, discrete
cumulate minerals, poikilitic inclusions in pyroxene and amphibole,
phenocrysts in microgabbro dikes, and in lenses and nests with
hornblende and titanium magnetite. Hornblende-feldspar pegmatite also
occurs with numerous apatite inclusions. Host rocks for the intrusions
are often gneissic granite and gneiss.

\(2\) The metasomatic apatite deposit subtype consists of large
metasomatite zones in zoned plutons of alkaline nepheline syenite and
pseudoleucite syenite with concentrations of up to 19% K~2~O and 23%
Al~2~O~3~. The metasomatite mainly occurs along syenite contacts and in
linear fracture zones. Early stage melanocratic metasomatite consists of
ijolite, fayalite, and micaceous shonkinite. Thickness of melanocratic
metasomatite bodies varies from several meters, to dozens to hundreds of
meters, and the length varies from dozens to hundreds of kilometers.
Melanocratic metasomatite is enriched in Ca, Mg, Fe, P with a high
apatite content of 3 to 10%. Apatite is unevenly distributed. Deposits
rich in apatite consist of pyroxene, biotite, apatite, orthoclase,
nepheline, plagioclase, magnetite (locally up to 10 to 20%), and sphene.
Apatite content ranges from 5 to 10 to 80%. Apatite-rich areas with
dimensions up to several dozens square meters occur in synnyrite that
contains mainly apatite with lesser orthoclase, biotite, pyroxene, and
magnetite. The depositional environment of both subtypes is interpreted
as intrusion of alkaline syenite magma during rifting or strike-slip
translation of craton or cratonal terrane. Examples of the deposit type
are at Fanshan, Hebei Province, China, and Murunskoe, Oshurkovskoye, and
Synnyrskoye, Russia.

### Magmatic Graphite (Lobzova, R.V., 1975; Eremin, N.I., 1991)

This deposit type consists of masses of graphite in alkaline plutonic
rocks, including syenite and nepheline syenite. The graphite occurs in
irregular lenses, stocks, and veins. The host rock limestone that forms
complicated xenoliths in marginal parts of the alkaline plutons. Altered
rock is skarn and fenite that occur in, or adjacent to contact zones.
Banded deposit minerals consist of alternating graphite and
graphite-pyroxene-calcite layers. Associated minerals are feldspar,
apatite, aegirine, and others. Examples of the deposit type are at
Guangyi, Muling, HeilongJiang Province, China, Kureiskoye 2, Russia, and
Yangbishan, Heilongiang Province, China.

### Magmatic Nepheline (A.N. Sucharina in Kuznetsov, 1982)

This deposit type consists of high-grade nepheline minerals hosted in
alkalic gabbro that intrudes orogenic zones and accreted terranes.
Deposits and host intrusives occur along, or adjacent to major fault
zones. Host rock for the ore-bearing intrusives is mainly carbonate and
carbonaceous pyroclastic rock. Deposit minerals are urtite with up to
90% nepheline that occur in dikes and complicated alkalic gabbro
plutons. Associated minerals are titanaugite and lesser apatite,
aegirine-augite, titanomagnetite, and pyrrhotite. Examples of the
deposit type are at Beltesin gol, Mongolia, Dahu-Nurskoye, Russia, and
Kharlinskoye, Russia.

# Deposits Related to Extrusive Rocks

## IV. Deposits Related to Marine Extrusive Rocks. A. Massive Sulfide Deposits.

### Besshi Cu-Zn-Ag Massive Sulfide (Cox, 1986c; Slack, 1993, M. Ogasawara, this study)

This deposit type consists of thin sheets of massive to well-laminated
pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and sphalerite, and sulfide minerals.
Lesser minerals are magnetite, galena, bornite, and tetrahedrite. Gangue
minerals are quartz, carbonates, albite, white mica, and chlorite.
Deposit occurs in thick sequences of clastic sedimentary rock and
intercalated basalt. Basalt is volumetrically subordinate to sedimentary
rock. Thinly laminated chert and black shale occur locally. Wall rocks
may include sericite and chlorite schist, coticule, tourmalinite, and
albitite lenses that commonly form stratabound bodies or envelopes
around massive sulfide minerals, and may extend as much as five to ten
meters into adjacent host rocks. Coticule, tourmalinite, and albitite
lenses may occur as stratiform layers that extend laterally for hundreds
of meters beyond the massive sulfide deposit. Wall rocks exhibit
hydrothermal alteration and (or) chemical sedimentation that is coeval
with deposition of massive sulfide minerals. Alteration is sometimes
difficult to recognize because of subsequent metamorphism. Deposits
typically consist of stratiform lenses and sheetlike accumulations of
semi-massive to massive sulfide minerals. Footwall feeder zones may
occur. Type example is the Besshi deposit in southwest Japan that occurs
in the Sambagawa metamorphic terrane. The depositional environment is
interpreted as submarine hot springs related to the deeper zones of
submarine basaltic volcanism along spreading oceanic ridges or back-arc
spreading centers, possibly in areas where a spreading oceanic ridge
occurs near a continental margin that is supplying clastic detritus.
Examples of the deposit type are at Besshi, Iimori, Kune, Makimine,
Minenosawa, and Shimokawa, Japan.

### Cyprus Cu-Zn Massive Sulfide (Singer, 1986b; J.W. Lidon, J.M. Franklin, and D.F. Sangster in Eckstrand, 1984)

This deposit type consists of massive sulfide minerals in submarine,
predominantly mafic tholeiitic or calc-alkaline volcanic sequences that
occur in ophiolite sequences or greenstone belts. Deposit minerals are
mainly pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and lesser marcasite and
pyrrhotite. Sulfide minerals occur in pillow basalt that is associated
with tectonized dunite, harzburgite, gabbro, sheeted diabase dikes, and
fine-grained sedimentary rocks that form part or all of an ophiolite
assemblage. Locally beneath massive sulfide bodies is a stockwork
composed of pyrite, pyrrhotite, minor chalcopyrite, and sphalerite.
Sulfide minerals are sometimes brecciated and recemented. Alteration in
the stringer zone consists of abundant quartz, chalcedony, chlorite, and
lesser illite and calcite. Some deposits are overlain by Fe-rich and
Mn-poor ochre. The depositional environment consists of submarine hot
springs along an axial graben in oceanic or back-arc spreading ridges,
or hot springs related to submarine volcanoes in seamounts. Examples of
the deposit type are at Mainskoye, Russia, Nergui, Mongolia, and Okuki,
Japan.

### Volcanogenic Cu-Zn Massive Sulfide (Urals type) (Borodaevskaya and others, 1985)

This deposit type consists of massive to disseminated sulfide Zn-Cu
minerals that are hosted in island-arc volcanic belts. The volcanic
rocks consist of bimodal rhyolite and basalt, andesite, dacite, and
rhyolite with subordinate felsic rock. Ore controlling structures are
volcanotectonic depressions, calderas, domes and synvolcanic faults. The
most widespread are lens-shaped deposits that are concordant with
host-rocks. Less abundant deposits are funnel-shaped or *T-*shaped.
Apophyses of massive sulfide minerals in lenses in footwall may grade
downward into discordant stringers. Multilevel deposits are typical.
Deposit minerals are mainly pyrite, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite with
minor galena, tennantite, tetrahedrite, and bornite, and various other
minerals. Gangue minerals are quartz, sericite, chlorite, and carbonate.
Widespread alteration of volcanic and sedimentary host-rocks occurs. The
root-zones consist of sericite-quartz metasomatite grading upward and
outward into quartz-sericite-chlorite and
quartz-carbonate-sericite-chlorite with albite and epidote zones.
Silica, epidote, and hematite alterations are widespread above deposits.
Sulfide minerals are zoned with enrichment in Cu and Zn from footwall to
hanging-wall and from core to periphery. Most deposit minerals are
massive, but locally may be banded or brecciated, or may occur in
stringers on the flanks of deposits. Development of thick gossan in
weathering zones of deposits is typical. The depositional environment is
an ensimatic island-arc constructed on oceanic crust containing
differentiated basalt and other volcanic rock. The deposit type is a
variant of Cyprus Cu-Zn massive sulfide deposit type. Examples of the
deposit type are at Borts Uul, Mongolia, and Khariuzikhinskoye 1,
Russia.

### Volcanogenic Zn-Pb-Cu Massive Sulfide (Kuroko, Altai types) (Jakovlev, 1978; Lambert and Sato, 1974, Jakovlev, 1978; Singer, 1986c; M. Ogasawara, this study)

This deposit type consists of Zn-Pb-Cu massive sulfide minerals hosted
in marine felsic to intermediate volcanic, pyroclastic, and bedded
volcanic and sedimentary rock. The deposit consists typically of massive
stratiform and stockwork parts. The massive stratiform part is typically
oval-shaped in a plan view, and is underlain by a stockwork part. The
stockwork part is typically funnel-shaped, usually occurs in silicified
rhyolite, and is interpreted as a feeder zone for hydrothermal fluid.
From stratigraphic bottom to top, the deposit is characterized by the
following zones: (1) siliceous stockwork ore
(pyrite-chalcopyrite-quartz); (2) yellow ore (stratiform
pyrite-chalcopyrite); (3) black ore (stratiform
sphalerite-galena-chalcopyrite-pyrite-barite); (4) barite ore; and (5)
thin beds of ferruginous chert. Lenticular or irregular masses of gypsum
and (or) anhydrite may also occur. Main deposit minerals are pyrite,
sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite, and lesser tennantite,
tetrahedrite, bornite, electrum, stromeyerite, argentite, native silver,
and enargite. Other minerals are barite, gypsum, anhydrite, calcite,
dolomite, quartz, chlorite, and sericite. The stratigraphic footwall and
locally the stratigraphic hanging wall are hydrothermally altered.
Sericite, montmorillonite, and Mg-chlorite alteration envelops
stratiform deposits. Associated with the stockwork is quartz, sericite,
and Mg chlorite alteration. Kuroko type deposits occur in the Hokuroku
area, northeast Japan and formed in middle Miocene during back-arc
rifting. The depositional environment consists of discharge of solutions
from high temperature submarine hydrothermal systems onto, or near the
sea floor along continental-margin or island arcs or back-arc basins.
Discharge sites are fracture-controlled. An examples of the deposit type
is at Khotoidokh, Russia.

## IV. Deposits Related to Marine Extrusive Rocks. B. Volcanogenic-Sedimentary Deposits.

### Volcanogenic-Hydrothermal-Sedimentary Pb-Zn, (±Cu) (Distanov, 1977; Distanov, Kovalev, Tarasova, and others, 1982; I.W. Lydon, and D.F. Sangster in Eckstrand, 1984)

This deposit type consists of massive to stratiform Pb-Zn sulfide
deposits of hydrothermal-sedimentary origin that are hosted in basinal
assemblages of clastic, volcanic, and carbonate rock that are intruded
by shallow basaltic magmas. Sulfide minerals occur in basins in
rhythmic, multistage sheets or layers that are hosted in tuffaceous,
clastic, carbonate, and black shale. Deposits exhibit lateral and
concentric zoning, massive to layered structures, and little or no wall
rock hydrothermal alteration. The sulfide mineral aggregates are well
laminated and consist of fine-grained quartz and sulfide minerals, or
quartz, siderite, and sulfide minerals. Sulfide composition is
Pb-Zn-rich with little or no Cu. Main deposit minerals are pyrite,
sphalerite, and galena, with minor chalcopyrite arsenopyrite,
tetrahedrite, burnonite, pyrrhotite, and others. Gangue minerals are
quartz, siderite, calcite, and ankerite. Rhythmic layers are typical,
and locally are widespread sedimentary sulfide breccia. Two groups of
deposits occur, slightly metamorphosed (Ozernoje type), and highly
metamorphosed (Kholodninskoje type). Metamorphism results in
recrystallization and partially redistribution of deposit minerals and
changes in textures and structures, but has no significant influence on
scale of deposit. The depositional environments consist of either
continental margin rifting or intra-island-arc basins. Deep-seated
faults are interpreted as forming conduits for mafic magmatism and
hydrothermal systems. Basinal depressions are a deposit control and also
result in burial of deposits. Examples of the deposit type are at
Kholodninskoye, Russia, Ozernoye 2, Russia, and Xiaoxilin, Heilongjiang
Province, China.

### Volcanogenic-Sedimentary Fe (G.A. Gross in Eckstrand, 1984; Sinyakov, 1988)

This deposits type consists of sheeted magnetite-hematite accumulations
in volcanogenic and sedimentary sequences. Deposits are stratiform, and
beds of iron formation are interlayered with volcanic rock, greywacke,
and shale. Deposits occur from near to far from extrusive centers in
submarine volcanic belts associated with deep fault systems and rift
zones. The volcanic rock is mainly siliceous with lesser mafic rock,
including rhyolite, siliceous porphyry, trachyrhyolite, trachyandesite,
and basalt that are interlayered with pyroclastic, sedimentary, and
siliceous exhalative rock and metamorphic analogs. The main deposit
minerals are magnetite, hematite, siderite, Mn siderite, pyrite, and
pyrrhotite. Associated minerals are chert, quartz, Fe-silicates,
Fe-carbonates, chlorite, amphibole, biotite, feldspar, and chalcopyrite.
Deposit minerals distribution is a function of primary sedimentary
facies. Oxide, silicate, carbonate, and sulfide facies commonly consist
of thin, alternating layers or beds of silica and Fe-rich minerals, and
are interbedded with clastic sedimentary and volcanic strata. Two groups
of deposits are distinguished: (1) unmetamorphosed hematite-magnetite;
and (2) metamorphosed actinolite-magnetite. Metamorphic mineral
assemblages reflect the mineralogy of primary sedimentary facies. Some
studies of Fe skarn deposits in Altai-Sayan, Russia, and other regions
suggest metamorphic derivation from volcanogenic-sedimentary Fe
deposits. The depositional environment consists of eruption of siliceous
with lesser mafic volcanic rock in fault-controlled marine basins
associated with island arcs, back arcs, or rifts. Examples of the
deposit type are at Belokitatskoye, Russia, Eloguiskoye, Russia, Gar,
Russia, Kholzunskoye, Russia, Turukhanskoye, Russia, and Udorongovskoye,
Russia.

### Volcanogenic-Sedimentary Mn (Watanabe and others, 1970; Varentsov and Rakhmanov, 1978; Koski, 1986; M. Ogasawara, this study)

This deposit type consists of sheets and lenses of braunite,
hausmannite, and rhodochrosite, and oxidized braunite that is
intercalated with shale, chert, jasper, limestone, marine basalt flows,
mafic tuff, spilite, and siliceous keratophyre. Host mafic volcanic rock
differs from normal tholeiitic basalt in relatively higher content of K,
Na, and Ti. Deposits generally occur in sequences with abundant chert
and sedimentary rock, rather than in sequences dominated by volcanic
rock. Deposits are often associated with volcanogenic Fe deposits, and
sometimes contain complex oxidized ferromanganese minerals. Strong
development of secondary Mn oxides (todorokite, psilomelane, amorphous
MnO~2~) is typical at the surface and along fractures. Japanese Mn
deposits are mainly hosted in chert in a Jurassic accretionary-wedge
complex and do not contain volcanic rock. However, a
volcanogenic-sedimentary origin is interpreted (Watanabe and others,
1970). The depositional environment is interpreted as related to
marginal basins associated with island arcs or young intraplate rift
basins. Examples of the deposit type are at Bidzhanskoe (Kabalinskoe),
Russia, Mazulskoye, Russia, Saihangol, Mongolia, and Usinskoye, Russia.

## V. Deposits Related to Subaerial Extrusive Rocks. 

## A. Deposits Associated with Mafic Extrusive Rocks and Dike Complexes.

### Ag-Sb Vein (Borisenko and others, 1992)

This deposit type consists of siderite and quartz-siderite veins and
vein-systems with Ag-sulfosalt minerals that are hosted in carbonaceous
clastic black-shale sequences that are often contact metamorphosed. The
principal deposit minerals are Sb-, Cu-, Pb-, and Ag-sulfosalt minerals,
including tetrahedrite, freibergite, schwatzite, chalcostibite,
zinkenite, jamesonite, boulangerite; Bi-sulfosalt minerals,
chalcopyrite, antimony, arsenopyrite, and pyrite. Main gangue minerals
are siderite, quartz, calcite, ankerite, barite, and fluorite.
Associated carbonate and argillic alteration may occur. The depositional
environment is accumulation of black shale near fault-controlled basins
and back-arc basins in interplate rift zones. The deposit type is
commonly associated with Sb-Hg and Ni-Co-As epithermal deposits.
Examples of the deposit type are at Asgat, Mongolia and Kyuchyus,
Russia.

### Basaltic Native Cu (Lake Superior type) (Lee and Kim, 1966; R.V. Kirkham in Eckstrand, 1984; Kutyrev, 1984; Cox, 1986b)

This deposit type consists of stratabound disseminated Cu minerals in
basalt lava erupted into shallow coastal marine basins, and less onto
subaerial oceanic volcanic islands. Volcanic rocks are generally
interbedded with red sandstone, conglomerate, and siltstone. Basalt is
generally potassic or alkalic, and may include shoshonite and
trachybasalt. Major deposit minerals are native copper, chalcocite,
bornite, chalcopyrite, and native silver. These minerals occur both in
the matrix of, and as amygdules in the porous roofs of basalt flows, and
in veinlets within the basalts. Deposit minerals occur as
disseminations, stringers, lenses, and irregular patchy accumulations.
Wallrocks are altered mainly to epidote, calcite, chlorite, and zeolite.
The largest deposits tend to be concordant or peneconcordant, and occur
along specific lithologies such as amygdaloidal flow-top breccia,
pyroclastic tuff and breccia, and interlayered conglomerate,
carbonaceous sandstone, and siltstone. Smaller deposits occur as veins
or irregular stringer zones in fissures and faults, and fault breccias.
The depositional environment consists of continental, rift-related,
flood-basalt sequences, and continental-margin and island arcs. The
deposit type is often associated with sediment-hosted Cu deposit type.
Examples of the deposit type are at Arylakhskoye, Russia, and Zuunturuu
gol, Mongolia.

### Hg-Sb-W Vein and Stockwork (Scheglov, 1959; Borovkov and Gaivoronsky, 1995)

This deposit type consists of small veins and stockworks of
low-temperature, hydrothermal chalcedony-like quartz, and
ferberite-scheelite, stibnite, and cinnabar. The deposit type occurs in
Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic metamorphic rock (shale and quartzite)
along major fractures or cross-cutting faults in schist. Commonly the
deposits occur in platy stockwork with pseudostratification. Deposits
occur far from intrusive bodies and are associated with deep faults that
occur along edges of late Mesozoic intermountaine basins, or are
associated with Late Cretaceous explosive extrusive siliceous volcanism.
Deposit minerals are ferberite and local stibnite, cinnabar, scheelite;
pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, siderite, fluorite, and native sulfur,
and lesser pyroluzite. Gangue minerals are chalcedony-like quartz,
fine-grained quartz, and hydromica. The deposit types can be divided
into subgroups of ferberite, stibnite, and cinnabar; and scheelite; and
stibnite and ferberite mineral. Deposit textures are breccia,
kidney-shaped, colloform, and banded. Scarce hydromica wall rock
alteration may occur. Examples of the deposit type are at Ryushoden and
Yamatosuigin, Japan.

### Hydrothermal Iceland Spar (Kievlenko, 1974)

This deposit type consists of low temperature hydrothermal island spar
that occurs in crystalline masses in traps in pillow basalt,
amygdaloidal basalt, tuffaceous rock and subvolcanic dolerite. Iceland
spar occurs in cavities; fractures, and fissures in basalt, dolerites,
and in fractures in tuff. Associated minerals are zeolite, analcite,
chalcedony, chlorite, montmorillonite, and hydromica. Alteration to
chlorite and montmorillonite may occur. Examples of the deposit types
are at Khrustalnoye and Skala Suslova, Russia.

### Ni-Co Arsenide Vein (Borisenko and others, 1984; Krutov, 1978; R.J. Thorpe in Eckstrand, 1984)

This deposit type consists of carbonate and quartz-carbonate-chlorite
veins containing Ni-Co arsenides and Cu, Bi, Ag sulfosalt minerals.
Another name is five-metal arsenide (Ag-Co-Ni-Bi-U) ore association. The
deposits occur along steeply-dipping vein and vein systems that occur
along deep-seated faults and conjugate fractures, and are associated
with basalt and alkalic basalt dikes. Host rocks are mainly siltstone,
shale, schist, mafic and felsic volcanic rocks, and contact metamorphic
rocks, and relatively older mafic and ultramafic granitoids. Deposit
minerals are Ni-Co-Cu-Ag-Bi arsenides, sulfoarsenides, and sulfosalt
minerals including skutterudite, smaltite, chloantite, safflorite,
rammelsbergite, nickeline, gersdorfite, argentite, native silver, and
others. Gangue minerals are dolomite, calcite, ankerite, quartz, barite,
fluorite, and chlorite. The deposit type contains two subgroups: (1)
Ni-Co arsenide; and (2) Cu-Co sulfoarsenide-sulfosalt. The first
subgroup exhibits colloform and incrustate structures, and the second
group exhibits disseminated and streaky-disseminated structures. Minor
zones of talc-carbonate-chlorite alteration, and
quartz-carbonate-hydromica metasomatic alteration occur in wall rock.
The depositional environment consists hydrothermal fluids ascending deep
faults and fractures in intraplate areas undergoing tectonic and
magmatic reactivation. Examples of the deposit type are at
Hovu-Aksinskoye, Russia, and Teht, Mongolia.

### Silica-Carbonate (Listvinite) Hg (Kuznetsov, 1974; Obolenskiy, 1985; Rytuba, 1986b)

This deposit type consists of cinnabar and associated minerals along
contacts of serpentinite and siltstone-graywacke, and limestone that
occur in major thrust zones. Deposit mineral is mainly cinnabar, along
with stibnite, pyrite, realgar, orpiment, arsenopyrite, sometimes Ni and
Co minerals. Gangue minerals are mainly dolomite, breunnerite, and
ankerite in association with quartz, calcite, dickite, fuchite, and
talc. The deposits occur in masses, veins, and disseminations in
irregular lenses, in veins in crush breccia and mylonite zones, and in
adjacent sedimentary rocks. Cinnabar is closely associated with
silica-carbonate (listvinite) and argillic alteration. The depositional
environment consists of zones of thrust faults containing lenses of
serpentinite, ultramafic rock, and graywacke. Deposits generally occur
in accretionary-wedge and subduction zone terranes in association with
subduction-related thrust faults, and are often reactivated by younger
interplate movement. Examples of the deposit type are at
Chagan-Uzunskoye and Krasnogorskoye 1, Russia.

### Trap-Related Fe skarn (Angara-Ilim type) (Mazurov and Bondarenko, 1997)

This deposit type consists of magnesian magnetite skarn formed during
mafic trap magmatism. The deposit type occurs mainly in the North Asia
(Siberian) Craton in connection with late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic
tectonism and magmatism. Spatial distribution of deposits is controlled
by deep basement faults, magmatic trap centers, and occurrence of
dolomite and evaporate sequences in lower parts of the crust. The
occurrence of evaporite and Ca-Na salt brines are important. Four types
of deposits occur: (1) steeply-dipping ore shoots containing brecciated
skarn in diatreme; (2) gently-dipping, stratabound deposits occurring
under dolerite sills and interlayered sills in calcareous rock; (3)
steeply-dipping veins; and (4) layered deposits in caldera depressions.
Main deposits occur in explosion pipes that extend to depths of 1,000 to
1,200 m. Calc-silicate and magnesium-silicate skarn are widespread along
with epidote, chlorite-amphibole, serpentine-chlorite, and calcite
metasomatite. The main part of magnesian magnetite deposits is
associated with hydrothermal alteration. Deposits contain halite,
anhydrite, typical oolitic hematite, and magnetite that form lenses in
massive and banded ore. The depositional environment consists of
intrusion of trap-related mafic magma into evaporate horizons with
brine. Examples of the deposit type are at Kapaevskoye, Korshunovskoe,
Nerjundinskoye, and Rudnogorskoe, Russia.

## V. Deposits Related to Subaerial Extrusive Rocks. 

## B. Deposits Associated with Felsic to Intermediate Extrusive Rocks and Dike Complexes.

### Au-Ag Epithermal Vein (Berger, 1986a; Mosier and others, 1986b; Park and others, 1988; Sillitoe, 1993a; Yurgenson and Grabeklis, 1995; Hedenquist and others, 1996; Rodionov and Khanchuk, 1997; Nokleberg and others, 1997; Yan and others, 2000; S.M. Rodionov, this study; M. Ogasawara, this study; Hongquan Yan, this study)

This deposit type consists of gently to steeply dipping quartz veins,
stockworks, and disseminations that are hosted mainly in volcanic rocks.
Associated igneous rock is commonly subaerial, calc-alkaline, volcanic
rocks (andesite, dacite, and rhyolite). Also associated may be
porphyritic shoshonite dikes or alkalic igneous rock in continental
crustal sequences (thickness \> 20 km) and in island arcs. Two main
types of deposits occur - low sulfidation Au-Ag epithermal vein, and
high sulfidation Au epithermal vein.

\(1\) Low sulfidation Au-Ag epithermal vein. This deposit type includes
the Comstock Au, Creede, and Sado epithermal vein deposit types that
contain electrum, native gold, pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena,
tetrahedrite, arsenopyrite, tellurides, and pyrargyrite. Gangue minerals
are quartz, adularia, illuite, calcite, and chalcedony. Fine-grained
chalcedony-like quartz that grades into chalcedony, occurs in laminated
and thin-banded colloform textures. Deposits are typically open-space
filling veins. Hydrothermal alteration adjacent to veins consists of
illite and smectite. Deposits formed from low sulfidation hydrothermal
solutions with neutral pH.

\(2\) High sulfidation Au epithermal vein. This type contains
disseminated native gold, pyrite, and enargite-luzonite that occur in
silicified (vuggy) quartz bodies and in zones of quartz-alunite
(advanced argillic) alteration and replacement. Other deposit minerals
are precious-metal tellurides, covellite, tennantite, tetrahedrite,
chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and galena. The occurrence of high-sulfidation
sulfosalt minerals, such as enargite and luzonite, and relatively high
sulfidation tennantite characterizes this type. Replacements are also
common. Gangue minerals are mainly quartz, alunite, kaolinite,
pyrophyllite, diaspore, illite, and barite that also occur in peripheral
alteration zones. Deposit is interpreted as forming from acidic and
oxidized hydrothermal fluids. Closely-related deposit types are
epithermal quartz-alunite Au, acid-sulfate gold, and enargite gold.

Locally, Au-Ag epithermal vein deposits may occur in volcanic-tectonic
grabens associated with strike-slip faults. Associated porphyry deposits
may occur. Deposits may be overlain by either barren areas, acid-leached
zones, or silicified horizons. Deposits are associated with felsic
volcanic centers developed over sedimentary rocks or older volcanic and
plutonic rocks. The depositional environment consists of a
subduction-related continental-margin or island arc that generally
occurs within 100 km of active volcanic fronts. Subduction-related
magmatism and associated hydrothermal activity tends to shift trenchward
with time. Examples of the deposit type are at Chaganbulagen, Inner
Mongolia, China, Erentaolegai, Inner Mongolia, Hishikari, Japan,
Konomai, Japan, Kushikino, Japan, and Sado, Japan.

### Ag-Pb Epithermal Vein (Batjargal and others, 1997; Dorjgotov and others, 1997; Dangindorjiin Dorjgotov, this study)

This deposit type consists of quartz-sulfide veins and mineralized zones
in various rock types intruded by mafic dikes. Deposits extend along
strike for several hundreds meters, and extend downdip to 300 m.
Thickness of deposits ranges up to several tens of meters. Deposits
consist of quartz-carbonate-sulfide and carbonate-sulfide types. Major
deposit minerals are galena, arsenopyrite, stibnite, and Ag minerals,
and subordinate chalcopyrite, sphalerite, cinnabar, and pyrite. Gangue
minerals are quartz, siderite, chalcedony, kaolin, calcite, barite, and
fluorite. Main wall rock alterations are quartz, chalcedony, kaolinite
and chlorite. The deposit type exhibits three major stages:
quartz-galena, quartz-fluorite, and quartz-carbonate. The depositional
environment consists of intrusion of mafic dikes along active,
deep-seated faults in areas of rifting of continental-margin arcs.
Examples of the deposit type are at Boorch and Dulaan khar uul,
Mongolia.

### Au Potassium Metasomatite (Kuranakh type) (Kazarinov, 1967; M.B. Boradoevskaya and I.S. Rozhkov in Smirnov, 1974; Fredericksen, 1998; Fredericksen, Rodionov, and Berdnikov, 1999; S.M. Rodionov, this study)

This deposit type occurs along contacts between lamprophyre dikes with
calcareous rock and sandstone adjacent to high-angle faults. Host rocks
may be underlain by Precambrian metamorphic rock. Hydrothermal activity
formed metasomatite and is associated with igneous activity that
resulted in intrusion of dike swarms and (or) small plugs and sills of
bostonite, microgabbro, and minette. Gold is spatially related to dikes
and may occur in both early and late stages. Deposits consist of several
subhorizontal, blanket- or ribbon-like bodies up to several dozen meters
thick. Bodies occur mainly along, and (or) locally above or below
contacts between calcareous footwall rocks and overlying clastic rocks
along narrow, long fault zones. Two types of metasomatite occur -
quartz-adularia and quartz replacing adularia. Main deposit minerals are
quartz, pyrite, marcasite, native gold, silver, bismuth, pyrrhotite,
chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, sphalerite, carbonate, and barite.
Gold occurs with pyrite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite, and galena; however,
total sulfide minerals constitute only a few percent of the total rock
mass. Deposits are intensely oxidized and only traces of arsenopyrite
and pyrite occur. Gold occurs primarily as grains less than 5 microns,
usually in friable grains of porous goethite. Fluid inclusions studies
indicate homogenization temperatures of 80° to 220°C and averaging from
110° to 160°C. Mineralization controlled by interplate rifting
structures. In many cases, deposits are complicated by karst formation
that resulted in formation of secondary rubble ore and surficial
weathering of ore and gold. The depositional environment consists of
intrusion of lamprophyre into passive continental margins during
rifting. Examples of the deposit type are at Hadamengou, Inner Mongolia,
China, Kuranakh, Russia, and Wulashan, Baotou City, Inner Mongolia,
China.

### Be Tuff (Kovalenko and Koval, 1984)

This deposit type consists of bedded and graded-bedded tuff with
fragments of ongorhyolite, rhyolite, quartz, feldspar, fluorite, and
Be-bearing bertrandite. Average Be content is about 0.05%. The main
examples are at Durvent, Dorit Uu,l and Teg Uul, Mongolia. The
depositional environment consists of extrusive centers rhyolite and
ongorhyolite. Examples of the deposit type are at Dorvon Dert and Teg
uul, Mongolia.

### Barite Vein (Marinov, Khasin, and Khurts, 1977; Sodov Ariunbileg, this study)

This deposit type consists of quartz-barite and barite veins and veinlet
in stockwork in quartz porphyry, diabase, porphyry, tuff, and biotite
granite. The deposits often occur along contacts of volcanic and
sedimentary rocks. This deposit type is commonly associated with
fluorite deposits. Examples of the deposit type are at Bayan Khoshuu,
Mongolia, Chapsordag, Russia, and Taptan-Turazy, Russia.

### Carbonate-Hosted As-Au Metasomatite (Smirnov, 1961, Zavorotnykh and Titov, 1963)

This deposit type consists of quartz veins, vein zones, and lenses,
nests, and veins in metasomatite bodies in limestone that is intruded by
dikes of granite porphyry, granodiorite porphyry, diorite porphyry, or
lamprophyre. Major deposit minerals are arsenopyrite and pyrite with
less abundant galena, sphalerite, marcasite, and chalcopyrite, and local
gold. Main gangue minerals are quartz, calcite, and dolomite. Wall rock
alteration consists of quartz, dolomite, ankerite, serpentine, chlorite,
sericite, talc, and kaolinite. Deposits generally contain galena, and
sphalerite. The depositional environment consists of intrusion of
granite porphyry or lamprophyre into miogeoclinal sequences during
continental collision. Examples of the deposit type are at Gurulevskoe
and Oktjabrskoye, Russia.

### Carbonate-Hosted Fluorspar (Ivanova, 1974; Bulnaev, 1995)

This deposit type consists of co-crystallized quartz and fluorite
metasomatite that occurs in sheets, mineralized fracture zones, or veins
in layers in sequences of shale, limestone, and dolomite that form small
xenoliths in granitoid plutons. Deposits exhibit gradational contacts
with host rocks and consist of fine-grained, bands, spots, and masses of
fluorite, quartz, and calcite with relic dolomite, limestone, and
carbonaceous rock. Deposit layering is concordant with layering in host
rock. Margin contains quartz, fluorite, and calcite druse. Calcite forms
festoon ore with numerous layers. Shale contains mainly fluorite
stringers. Breccia zones occur along contacts of rocks of contrasting
lithology. Deposit is associated with hydrothermal veins that intrude a
variety of aluminosilicate rock. The depositional environment consists
of intrusion of granite into shale, limestone, and dolomite in
continental-margin arcs. Examples of the deposit type are at
Egitinskoye, Russia, and Urgen 2, Russia.

### Carbonate-Hosted Hg-Sb (Smirnov, Kuznetsov, and Fedorchuk, 1976; Obolenskiy, 1985)

This deposit type consists of stratabound, lenses, and nests in
dolomite-limestone breccia, and in layers in siliceous carbonate rock
and jasperoid (silicified, dolomitized carbonate breccia) that are
intercalated with clay and coal-clay shale. Sedimentary rocks are cut by
dikes quartz porphyry, diabase, and lamprophyre. The calcareous host
rock is subsequently altered to dolomite and brecciated during
diagenesis and karst-formation. Other wall-rock alteration consists of
jasperoid, and quartz and calcite veinlets. Mineralization is usually
confined to thrust zones and is localized under impermeable clay layers.
Clear boundaries do not ocir. Major ore minerals are cinnabar and
stibnite, and lesser pyrite, marcasite, sphalerite, stibnite, realgar,
and orpiment, and rare chalcopyrite, cassiterite, arsenopyrite,
chalcostibite, kermezite, servantite, gold, schwatzite, aktaschite,
galkhaite, and fluorite. The depositional environment is an epithermal
system in deep-fault zones in passive continental shelf margins, and
interplate rifts. Examples of the deposit type are at Aktashskoye and
Kelyanskoye, Russia.

### Clastic-Sediment-Hosted Hg±Sb (Kuznetsov, 1974; Smirnov, Kuznetsov, and Fedorchuk, 1976; Khasin and Suprunov, 1977; Gunchin Dejidmaa, this study)

This deposit type consists of simple and complex ladder, and concordant
carbonate-quartz and quartz veins and veinlets, and mineralized breccia.
Host rocks are terrigenous and volcanic-terrigenous units in
accretionary-wedge terranes, including flysch composed of siltstone,
shale, sandstone, and conglomerate. Wall rocks are altered to quartz,
carbonate, and pyrite, and rare argillite and sericite. Deposit minerals
are cinnabar, pyrite, stibnite, arsenopyrite, and chalcopyrite, and rare
gold, galena, sphalerite, tetrahedrite, realgar, orpiment, native
arsenic, native mercury, and Sb oxides that occur in disseminations,
nests, and stringers. Stibnite and Sb oxides locally form Sb deposits
without mercury. Gangue minerals are mainly quartz, carbonates, and
dickite. Deposits occur in stockworks, lenses, layers, irregular bodies,
breccia, and simple and (or) complex veins in fault zones that are
associated with regional strike-slip faults, and sometimes in thrust
fault zones. In thrust fault zones, extensive alteration occurs, and
zones generally contain vertical quartz-carbonate veins with high-grade
Sb and moderate-grade Au. Deposit type may occur in linear fold belts
with ladder and concordant carbonate-quartz veins with Au grade higher
than Sb. Deposits are structurally controlled by fracture sets and
feathering major faults, anticlines, and domes. Deposits usually contain
several ore horizons that occur in saddle-shaped veins, and bodies.
Associated igneous rocks are mainly rare alkalic basalt dikes. The
depositional environment is interpreted as low-temperature hydrothermal
fluids that originated in deep magmatic chambers. Examples of the
deposit type are at Zagadka and Zvyozdochka, Russia.

### Epithermal Quartz-Alunite (S.M. Rodionov, this study)

This deposit type occurs in volcanic cones, caldera ring fractures, and
areas of igneous activity underlain by sedimentary evaporite. Associated
rocks are felsic hypabyssal intrusions and volcanic rocks, including
dacite, quartz latite, rhyodacite, and rhyolite. Large deposits occur in
zones of intensely-altered host rock. Early-stage, high temperature
assemblage is quartz-alunite-pyrophyllite with corundum, diaspore,
andalusite, and zunyite. Depending on extent of alunite, deposits are
zoned with an inner zone of quartz-alunite, a surrounding intermediate
zone of quartz-alunite-kaolinite-montmorillonite, and an outer zone of
pervasive chlorite-calcite propylitic alteration. Ammonium-bearing clay
may occur. Deposit type is closely related to epithermal Au, porphyry
Cu, and polymetallic volcanic-hosted metasomatite. An example of the
deposit type is at Iskinskoe (Askum), Russia.

### Fluorspar Vein (Ivanova, 1974; Bulnaev, 1976)

This deposit type consists of fluorspar in steeply-dipping veins and
brecciated zones and less frequently of metasomatite in carbonate rock,
granite, and volcanic, and volcanic-sedimentary sequences. Main mineral
assemblages are quartz-fluorite, quartz-calcite-fluorite,
barite-quartz-calcite-fluorite, and pyrite-marcasite-fluorite. Main
deposit minerals are fluorspar and quartz. Varying associated minerals
are barite, calcite, pyrite, marcasite, and clay. Argillic hydrothermal
alteration is common in aluminosilicate host-rocks; silicification
alteration is common in limestone. The depositional environment is
flanks or inner parts of volcanic rift depressions. Deposit type is
structurally controlled by fractures and breccia, and form linear belts
related to intraplate rifting in reactivated areas. Some deposits occur
in volcanic belts in continental-marginal arcs mainly in trachyrhyolite
and trachybasalt of subaerial volcanic-plutonic belts. Examples of the
deposit type are at Anas, Berkh 1, Bujgar, Bilkh-Uul, and Chuluut
tsagaan del, Mongolia, and Naranskoye, Russia.

### Hydrothermal-Sedimentary Fluorite (Cheng, Gao, and Cao, 1994)

This deposit type consists of multi-layered fluorite and associate
minerals that occur conformably in layered volcanic and sedimentary
rock, including limestone, slate, rhyolite, and dacite. Deposit minerals
occur in layers, bands, and breccia. Major deposit mineral is fluorite
with minor clay and carbonate minerals. The homogenization temperature
of fluid inclusions in fluorite is about 85 to 270° C. Quartz grains are
both angular and rounded, suggesting that the fluorite formation is
related to volcanism. The depositional environment consists of late
Paleozoic volcanic island arcs. Examples of the deposit type are at
Aobaotu and Sumochaganaobao, Inner Mongolia, China.

### Limonite from Spring Water (Shiikawa, 1970; M. Ogasawara, this study)

This deposit type consists of bedded limonite deposits formed on
mountain slopes and in valleys in areas of volcanic activity with
precipitation of Fe from acidic ferruginous spring water associated with
volcanic activity. The deposit is principally composed of aggregates of
amorphous and (or) crystalline hydrated ferric oxide. The deposit
mineral is mainly goethite, and lesser hydro-hematite, akaganerite,
lepidocrocite, xanthosiderite, and stilpnosiderite. Jarosite, scorodite,
and siderite may also occur along with clays including kaolinite and
hydrated halloysite. Deposit forms by chemical precipitation during
neutralization of acidic water containing ferrous sulphate. Some
deposits exhibit megascopic and microscopic textures and structures that
are pseudomorphs after various plants, indicating that a biochemical
process caused precipitation of Fe from spring water. Examples of the
deposit type are at Gumma and Tokushunbetsu, Japan.

### Mn Vein (Mosier, 1986a)

This deposit type occurs as manganese minerals in epithermal veins that
occur along faults and fractures in subaerial volcanic rock. Host rock
is rhyolite, dacite, andesite, and basalt flows, tuffs, breccia, and
agglomerate. Deposit minerals are rhodochrosite, manganocaloite,
calcite, quartz, chalcedony, barite, and zeolite that occur in veins,
masses, stringers, and disseminations. Kaolinite alteration is most
common. Depositional environment is interpreted as penetrative fracture
systems in volcanic centers in continental-margin arcs. Examples of the
deposit type are at Inakuraishi, Jokoku, and Yakumo, Japan.

### Polymetallic (Pb, Zn ± Cu, Ba, Ag, Au) Volcanic-Hosted Metasomatite (Distanov, 1977; Morris, 1986)

This deposit type consists of hydrothermal-metasomatic polymetallic
sulfide minerals that occur in volcanic and sedimentary rock.
Intensely-deformed and sheared rock forms most favorable replacement
site. Deposits are complicated lenses and stockworks that contain
massive, vein, and disseminated minerals. Host rocks are commonly felsic
to mafic extrusive rock, tuff, and volcanic rock, most commonly
hypabyssal quartz rhyolite and dacite porphyry intrusions and diabase
porphyry dike swarms. Metasomatic alteration is intensive and consists
of quartz-sericite, quartz-sericite-chlorite metasomatite, as well as
silica and barite alterations. Aluminosilicate lithologies are more
extensively altered. Deposit type is divided into barite-polymetallic,
pyrite-polymetallic, and Cu-sulfide epigenetic subtypes. Early-stage
pyrite and barite-sulfide-polymetallic, and late-stage
quartz-carbonate-sulfide minerals are typical. Deposit minerals are
mainly pyrite, sphalerite, galena, tennantite, tetrahedrite, and
chalcopyrite, and lesser arsenopyrite, bornite, electrum, argentite,
magnetite, hematite, and native gold. Gangue minerals are barite,
quartz, carbonate, albite, sericite, chlorite, and rare fluorite. Main
ore controlling structures are shears in deep fault zones in basement.
Steep-fault zones locally are important. Deposit type is associated with
small porphyry intrusions and mafic dikes. The depositional environment
is active continental-margin arcs built on zones of accreted terranes.
Examples of the deposit type are at Jiawula, Inner Mongolia, China,
Sanmen, Jilin Province, China, Salairskoye, Russia, and Urskoye
district, Russia.

### Polymetallic (Pb, Zn, Ag) Carbonate-Hosted Metasomatite (Gorzhevskiy and others, 1970; Sinyakov, 1994)

This deposit type consists of hydrothermal-metasomatic polymetallic
Pb-Zn minerals hosted mainly in limestone and dolomite. Deposits and
districts are controlled by folds and fracture with major faults,
companion fractures, and shear zones. Deposits are complicated and vary
from layered, lenticular, and often vein, stock, or pipe-like bodies.
Major assemblages are galena and sphalerite; boulangerite, galena, and
arsenopyrite; and sphalerite and pyrite. Abundant pyrite and Pb-Sb
sulfide minerals are typical. Deposit minerals occur in masses, layers,
and breccia. Associated magmatic rocks are small intrusions and dikes of
quartz porphyry, granite porphyry, and lamprophyre. The depositional
environment consists of active continental-margin arcs built on
carbonate sequences overlying continental crust. Examples of the deposit
type are at Leiba, Lugovoye, and Vozdvizhenskoye, Russia.

### Rhyolite-Hosted Sn (Reed and others, 1986)

This deposit type consists of cassiterite and wood tin that occur in
discontinuous veinlets and stockworks, and in disseminations in rhyolite
flow-dome complexes. Other deposit minerals are hematite, cristobalite,
fluorite, tridymite, opal, chalcedony, adularia, and zeolite. Accessory
minerals are topaz, fluorite, bixbyite, pseudobrookite, and beryl.
Associated wall rock alteration minerals are mainly cristobalite,
fluorite, smectite, kaolinite, and alunite. Host rhyolite commonly
contains greater than 75% SiO~2~ and is K-enriched. Controlling fracture
and breccia zones occur in the most permeable, upper portions of
flow-dome complexes. The depositional environment is felsic volcanism
erupted onto continental crust. An example of the deposit type is at
Dzhalinda, Russia.

### Sulfur-Sulfide (S, FeS2) (Vlasov, 1976; Mukaiyama, 1970; M. Ogasawara, this study)

This deposit type consists of three subtypes: (1) sublimation subtype
consisting of surficial sulfur deposited from gas and solution; (2)
sedimentary subtype consisting of lacustrine deposits formed in volcanic
craters; and (3) replacement subtype, the most valuable subtype,
consisting of replacement metasomatic sheets and irregular bodies in
porous and fractured rock. All three subtypes are genetically and
spatially associated with andesite. Deposit minerals are generally
diverse and consist mainly of sulfur and pyrite with lesser variable
realgar, orpiment, metacinnabar, stibnite, sphalerite, and molybdenite.
Sulfide content increases with depth and grades into massive sulfide.
Host rocks are generally hydrothermally altered to opal, pyrite,
alunite, and kaolinite. An example of the deposit type is at
Kusatsu-Shirane district, Matsuo, and Shojingawa, Japan.

### Volcanic-Hosted Au-Base-Metal Metasomatite (Kormilitsyn and Ivanova, 1968; Sanin and Zorina, 1980; Tauson, Gundobin, and Zorina, 1987)

This deposit type consists of metasomatic listvenite-beresite zones with
sulfide minerals. The zones occur in propylitically-altered
trachyandesite and latite that are intruded by small stockworks and
dikes of diorite porphyry, granodiorite porphyry, and granite porphyry.
Zones extend up to several kilometers along strike with thicknesses up
to several hundred meters. Zones exhibit gradational boundaries with
host volcanic rock. Deposits occur in pipes, nests, lenses, veins, and
echelon-like fractures. Both continuous veins and disseminations occur.
Massive deposits are not abundant, but contain between 60 to 80% pyrite,
galena, and sphalerite along with sulfosalt minerals, quartz, and
dolomite. Textures range from massive, layered, densely disseminated,
spotted, to colloform. Veinlets and disseminations form haloes around
the massive deposit minerals, but generally form independent bodies with
an irregular distribution of sulfide. The following assemblages are
recognized: (1) tourmaline and pyrite, and local arsenopyrite,
chalcopyrite, and gold; (2) pyrite, galena, and sphalerite with gold,
quartz, and carbonates; (3) sulfosalt minerals (fahl ore, tetrahedrite,
schwatzite, tennantite, cleiophane), gold, and dolomite; and (4)
realgar-stibnite with gold, Hg-barite, and stibnite. Gold is finely
dispersed and occurs in sulfide minerals. The depositional environment
is intrusion of intermediate to siliceous granitoids into hypabyssal
parts of collisional zones and extrusion of associated andesite and
latite. Examples of the deposit type are at Bupyoung, South Korea, and
Yixingzai, Fanshi, Shanxi Province, China.

### Volcanic-Hosted Hg (Kuznetsov, 1974; Babkin, 1975; Smirnov, Kuznetsov, and Fedorchuk, 1976)

This deposit type consists of disseminated and locaol masses of cinnabar
in veinlets and breccia in layers, lenses, and irregular bodies. Deposit
type is hosted in felsic, and lesser intermediate and mafic volcanic
rocks, or along contacts between subvolcanic intrusive and volcanic
rock. Other common deposit minerals are stibnite, pyrite, and marcasite,
with subordinate or rare arsenopyrite, hematite, lead, Zn- and
Cu-sulfide minerals, tetrahedrite, schwatzite, Ag sulfosalt minerals,
gold, realgar, and native mercury. Gangue minerals are mainly quartz,
chalcedony, hydromica, kaolinite, dickite, alunite, carbonate, chlorite,
and solid bitumen. Deposit minerals may occur in multiple layers.
Wallrocks may be altered to propylite and argillite with various
combinations of quartz, sericite, kaolinite, and epidote. Mercury is
deposited mainly during intense metasomatic replacement, and, to lesser
extent, in open fissures and voids. The depositional environment is
generally tectonic boundaries of major volcanic depressions and calderas
related to active continental margin arcs and interplate rifts. This
deposit type is similar to the hot-spring Hg model of Rytuba (1986a).
Examples of the deposit type are at Dogdo and Terligkhaiskoye, Russia,
and Itomuka, Japan.

### Volcanic-Hosted U (Bagby, 1986)

This deposit type consists of U minerals in pervasive fractures and
breccias that occur along margins of shallow intrusives. Common deposit
minerals are coffinite, uraninite, and brannerite. Other minerals are
pyrite, realgar-orpiment, leucoxene, molybdenite, fluorite, quartz,
adularia, and barite. Uraninite is commonly encapsulated in silica.
Common host rocks are high-silica alkali rhyolite, potash trachyte, and
peralkaline and peraluminous rhyolite. Host rocks are altered to
kaolinite, montmorillonite, and alunite. Wall rocks are altered to
silica and adularia. Deposits occur in subaerial to subaqueous,
near-surface volcanic complexes that are associated with shallow
intrusive rocks. The depositional environment consists of continental
rifts and associated calderas. Examples of the deposit type are at
Dornod and Gurvanbulag, Mongolia.

### Volcanic-Hosted Zeolite (Gottardi and Galli, 1985; Zhamoitsina and others, 1992)

This deposit type consists of concordant beds and lenses of
zeolite-altered tuff in epicontinental basins and lacusterine volcanic
and sedimentary rock sequences. Deposits are formed by replacement of
siliceous tuff, volcanic breccia composed of trachyrhyolite and
trachydacite. Deposit minerals are clinoptilolite, and mordenite, and
lesser heulandite, analcime, montmorillonite, quartz, calcite, adularia,
and hydromica. Clinoptilolite and mordenite occur in siliceous tuff, and
fillipsite, and analcime occur in mafic tuff. Diagenetic and sedimentary
zeolite are widespread. Zeolites are formed by isochemical alteration of
porous vitric tuff permeated by low-temperature water with normal
salinity and alkalinity. Zeolite beds are homogenous and zoned as a
function of temperature gradient. The depositional environment consists
of volcanic depressions in epicontinental volcanic belts or continental
margin arcs. Examples of the deposit type are at Pezasskoye, Russia, and
Tsagaantsav, Mongolia.

# Deposits Related to Hydrothermal-Sedimentary Processes

## VI. Stratiform and Stratabound Deposits.

### Bedded Barite (Orris, 1986)

This deposit type consists of stratiform, massive, and nodular barite
interbedded with marine chert and calcareous sedimentary rock, mainly
dark chert, shale, mudstone, and dolomite. Deposit type often associated
with sedimentary exhalative Zn-Pb massive sulfide deposits. Alteration
consists of secondary barite veining and local, weak to moderate
sericite replacement. Associated minerals are minor witherite, pyrite,
galena, and sphalerite, quartz, and carbonate. The depositional
environment consists of epicratonal marine basins or embayments, often
with smaller local restricted basins. Examples of the deposit type are
at Martyuhinskoye, Sorminskoye, and Tolcheinskoye, Russia.

### Carbonate-Hosted Pb-Zn (Mississippi Valley Type) (Briskey, 1986b; D.F., Sangster in Eckstrand, 1984; Ponomarev and Zabirov, 1988)

This deposit type consists of stratabound, carbonate-hosted deposits of
Pb- and Zn-sulfide minerals hosted in carbonate rock with both primary
and secondary porosity that commonly formed on reefs on paleotopographic
highs. Deposits are hosted mainly in dolomite and limestone, but are
locally hosted in sandstone, conglomerate, and calcareous shale. Deposit
minerals are mainly galena, sphalerite, pyrite, marcasite, dolomite,
calcite, and barite, with minor chalcopyrite, siegenite, bornite,
tennantite, bravoite, digenite, covellite, arsenopyrite, and other
sulfide minerals. Alteration consists of regional dolomite alteration.
Also common is disseminated secondary carbonate gangue that is
occasionally massive and occurs in coarsely crystalline aggregates.
Deposits are highly irregular in shape, stratiform or often discordant
on deposit-scale, but stratabound on a district-scale. Deposit minerals
occur mainly in open-space fillings in highly brecciated dolomite.
Sphalerite commonly exhibits a colloform texture. Deposits commonly
occur at the margins of clastic basins, generally in orogenic foreland
carbonate platforms. Some deposits occur in carbonate sequences in
foreland thrust belts bordering foredeeps of platforms. Few are
associated with rift zones. The depositional environment consists of
areas of shallow-water marine carbonate with prominent facies controlled
by reefs growing on flanks of paleotopographic basement highs. Deposit
type may be also associated with sedimentary-exhalative Pb-Zn deposits.
Examples of the deposit type are at Chaihe, Liaoning Province, China,
and Mayskoye 1 and Sardana, Russia.

### Sediment-Hosted Cu (Narkelun and others, 1977; Yakovlev, 1977; Sotnikov and others, 1985; Lurie, 1988; R.V., Kirkham in Eckstrand, 1984; Cox, D.P., 1986i)

This deposit type consists of stratabound, disseminated Cu sulfide
minerals that occur in reduced red-bed sequences with green or gray
shale, siltstone, and sandstone, thinly-laminated carbonate and
evaporate beds, and local channel conglomerate. Main deposit minerals
are chalcocite, bornite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, galena, and sphalerite,
and lesser carrollite, Co-pyrite, betekhtinite, native Cu, Ag, and Ge
minerals. Sulfide minerals are commonly zoned both vertically and
laterally with the following type sequence upward and outward from the
base of the ore body: (1) chalcocite and bornite; (2)
bornite-chalcopyrite; (3) chalcopyrite and pyrite; and (4) galena and
sphalerite. Sulfide minerals may be weathered to malachite, azurite,
chrysocolla, and atacamite. Secondary down-dip chalcocite enrichment is
common. The genetic model is sedimentary concentration of deposit
minerals in red-bed sequences with extraction of Cu from basement rocks
or underlying sedimentary rocks by subsurface brines that are probably
derived from evaporates, with transportation through oxidized-beds and
precipitation in anoxic sediments. The depositional environment is
epicontinental shallow-marine basins or intracontinental rifts along
continental margin platforms. Examples of the deposit type are at
Pravo-Ingamakitskoye, Sakinskoye, and Unkurskoye, Russia.

### Sedimentary-Exhalative Pb-Zn (SEDEX) (Brisky, 1986a; Ponomarev, 1987)

This deposit type consists of stratiform massive to disseminated sulfide
minerals occurring in sheets or lenses that are conformable with host
rock that consists of carbonate, clastic-carbonate, and
siliceous-carbonate rock, including limestone and dolomite, and lesser
marl, calcareous shale, siltstone, sandstone, and chert. Deposit
minerals are mainly galena, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, pyrite, and Mg-Fe
carbonate. Lesser minerals are various sulfide and sulfosalt minerals,
barite, and fluorite. Deposit minerals are typically finely crystalline.
Metamorphosed deposits are coarsely crystalline and massive. Deposit
minerals occur in bands, laminae, masses, breccia, streaks, and
disseminations. Sedimentary-exhalative silica-siderite and
silica-ankerite-sideroplesite rock is associated with deposit layers,
and diagenetic dolomite is also common. Common sites for deposition are
interpreted as local synsedimentary depressions, synclines, and
paleoslopes. Meager to no association of deposit minerals with volcanism
exists in most areas. Minor volcanic rock, mainly tuff and breccia,
occurs in host rock in some deposits. Extensive hydrothermal alteration
may occur near vents, including stockwork and disseminated sulfide
minerals, silica, albite, and chlorite. Hydrothermal activity is
interpreted as associated with growth faults between major crustal
blocks. The depositional environment is typically late Proterozoic to
late Paleozoic carbonate-rich and fine-grained clastic sedimentary rock
forming in shallow-water marine basins that are undergoing pericratonal
platform subsidence along microcontinent margins. Examples of the
deposit type are at Dongshengmiao, Inner Mongolia, China, Gorevskoye,
Russia, Huogeqi, Inner Mongolia, China, Jiashengpan, Inner Mongolia,
China, and Tanyaokou, Inner Mongolia, China.

### Korean Pb-Zn Massive Sulfide (V.V. Ratkin in Nokleberg and others, 1997)

This deposit type consists of Pb- and Zn-sulfide minerals in carbonate
rock, mainly limestone and dolomite, and lesser marl. Deposit minerals
are mainly pyrite, galena, sphalerite, fluorite, and magnetite. Deposit
minerals occur mainly as lenses and beds conformable to bedding in host
rocks. Magnetite also forms layers that are interbedded with sulfide
minerals, fluorite, and carbonate minerals. Little to no hydrothermal
alteration occurs; mainly diagenetic alteration occurs in carbonates and
associated rocks. The deposit type is intermediate between the
sedimentary exhalative Pb-Zn and carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn (Mississippi
Valley) deposit types. Examples in the Russian Southeast are the
Voznesenskoe and Chernyshevskoe mines. The depositional environment is
typically Late Proterozoic to Early Paleozoic carbonate-rich sedimentary
rocks in basins that overlap folded metamorphic complexes. Examples of
the deposit type are at Huanggoushan, Jilin Province, China,
Qingchengzi, Liaoning Province, China, and Voznesenka-I, Russia.

## VII. Sedimentary Rock-Hosted Deposits.

### Chemical-Sedimentary Fe-Mn (Hwang and Reedman, 1975; Philippova and Vydrin, 1977; Zaitsev and others, 1984; Zhong and Yao, 1987; Ye and others, 1994; Hongquan Yan, this study)

This deposit type consists of sheets and lenses of massive to
disseminated Fe and Mn oxide and carbonate minerals that are hosted in
sedimentary and clastic carbonate rock, including limestone and
dolomite. Deposit minerals are magnetite, hematite, siderite,
pyrolusite, hausmannite, braunite, and rhodochrosite (Ca-rhodochrosite,
Fe-rhodochrosite, and others). Ore layers consist of sedimentary chert,
quartzite, quartz-sericite-chlorite schist, and clastic carbonate rocks.
According to mineralogy and Fe and Mn grade, the deposit type is divided
into Fe, Fe-Mn, and Mn subtypes. Mn beds usually occur in the middle to
upper parts of a progressive sequence that occurs in a transitional zone
between clastic rocks and chemical precipitations. Some Mn beds may
occur in the middle to lower parts of a retrogressive sequence.
Mn-bearing carbonate usually occurs in shale or mudstone. However, some
Mn carbonate occurs in sandstone and red shale. In the North China
Platform, a group of B-Mn deposits belongs to the Mn subtype and is
characterized by Mn-boracite. Deposit minerals are mainly Mn-boracite,
rhodochrosite, Ca-rhodochrosite, and ankerite. In northeast China, a
group of deposits is hosted in mudstone, dolostone, and dolomitic
limestone that are part of the Mesoproterozoic Jixian System, and are
named the Jixian type of B-Mn deposit. Also occurring are: (1) a group
of late Paleoproterozoic Fe-oxide (Fe siderite) deposits (Xuanlong type
of Fe deposit); and (2) a group of late Mesoproterozoic Fe-Mn deposits
(Wafanzhi type of Mn deposit) in North China Platform. Another example
is the Khovsgol carbonate basin located in northern Mongolia where Fe,
Fe-Mn, and Mn occurrences are associated with sedimentary phosphate,
allunite, and vanadium deposits that occur in the same stratigraphic
level but without a regular spatial distribution. Associated with
extensive phosphate deposits are also low-grade sedimentary Fe, Mn, and
Al deposits. The depositional environment is interpreted formation of
sheets and lenses of massive to disseminated Fe and Mn oxide and
carbonate minerals in a shallow, epicontinental marine environment.
Deposit type may be associated with sedimentary gypsum, and alunite, and
rare barite and bauxite deposits. Examples of the deposit type are at
Dongshiuchang, Tiejin Province, China, Pangjiapu, Hebei Province, China,
and Wafangzi, Liaoning Province, China.

### Evaporate Halite (Kleiner and others, 1977; Sodov Ariunbileg, this study) 

This deposit type consists of halite that occurs mainly in Middle to
Late Devonian reef limestone, dolomite, calcareous breccia, arkose,
siltstone, diabase, agglomerate, and tuff. Deposit minerals are gypsum,
halite, and anhydrite, with lesser carbonate, vanthoffite, and
sylvinite. Deposits occur in beds and vary in thicknesses from 9 to 50
m. Halite is generally smoky, shiny pink, and coarse-grained.
Thicknessof halite bearing units varies from 100 to 600 m, and they
occur mainly in anticlines. Largest known deposits in the study area are
Shuden-Uul and Davst-Uul in northern part of Mongolian Altay range. The
deposit type is interpreted as forming during rifting of continental
margin or along transform continental-margin boundaries. Examples of the
deposit type are at Davst uul and Shuden uul, Mongolia.

### Evaporate Sedimentary Gypsum (Kleiner and others, 1977; Yuan, Cao, and others, 1982; Ganbaatar, 1999; Sodov Ariunbileg, this study)

The deposit type occurs in evaporite carbonate sequences of supratidal
(Sabkha) faces in enclosed to semi-enclosed sedimentary cover basins.
Two main types of evaporite sequence occur, a carbonate sequence and a
cataclastic sequence. Deposits are multiply-layered, and their shape
varies from bedded to stratiform to lensoid. From the margins to the
centers of a basin, thickness of deposits increases gradually. Major
minerals are gypsum and anhydrite with lesser brongniartine, K- and
Mg-halite, and native sulfur. Gangue minerals are calcite, dolomite,
magnesite, native sulphur, clay, and minor halite, authigenic quartz,
and chalcedony. Gypsum content ranges up to 98%. Deposits often exhibit
idiomorphic, mosaic, and granular textures. Deposit minerals occur in
masses, bands, beds, laminae, stockwork, breccia, and bioturbation
zones. From margin to the center of a gypsum basin, usual facies are
sandstone (conglomerate), mudstone, gypsum, halite, and K- and Mg-halite
that occur in circular zones. Deposit-forming materials are derived from
the weathering of surrounding rocks, dissolution of the ancient halite
deposits, or from deep brines, volcanic hydrothermal fluids, or marine
water. Local later alteration during diagenesis and dissolution may form
gypsum veins. Deposit indicators include shallow-water deposition of
mudstone and marl with mud cracks. On North China Platform, deposits are
mainly hosted in a Cambrian and Late Ordovician epicontinental units.
The depositional environment consists of intense evaporation of brine in
enclosed or semi-enclosed subsiding basins in a dry climate. Examples of
the deposit type are at Baruun Tserd, Mongolia andTaiyuan, Shanxi
Province, China.

### Sedimentary Bauxite (A.N. Sucharina in Kuznetsov, 1982)

This deposit type consists of layered sedimentary bauxite hosted in
carbonaceous and clastic rocks that form in marine or continental
environments. Two subtypes exist. (1) A carbonaceous bauxite subtype
occurs in neritic marine deposits along passive continental margins.
Thick, rift-related carbonate rock with interformational stratigraphic
breaks, and interlayered with thin (up to a few meters) bauxite horizons
are characteristic. Metamorphosed equivalent consists of diaspore that
forms at andalusite-sillimanite facies. And (2) a clastic bauxite
subtype occurs in clastic sequences as a result of weathering of
aluminosilicate rocks and minerals, and redeposition in a peneplain
environment. Main minerals are gibbsite and gibbsite-kaolinite.
Thickness of deposits varies from tens to about 100 m. Deposits are
generally flat-lying. Deposits may be linear or lens-shape, and may form
in karsts underneath layered deposits. Examples of the deposit type are
at Ke\'er, Re\'er, Shigong, and Xiaoyi, Shanxi Province, China.

### Sedimentary Celestite (Yakovlev, 1986; Gunchin Dejidmaa, this study) 

This deposit type consists of thin layers and concretions of celestite
in sandstone and mudstone. Major ore mineral is celestite. The
depositional environment is continental lacustrine sedimentary rock that
forms in grabens in a late stage of continental rifting. Examples of the
deposit type are at Dugshih hudag and Horgo uul, Mongolia.

### Sedimentary Phosphate (V.L. Librovich, and L.M. Miznikova in Rundqvist, D.V., 1978; Mosier, 1986a, b; R.L. Christie in Eckstrand, 1984)

This deposit type consists of phosphorite in mainly clastic
silica-carbonate and volcanic-silica-carbonate rock. Phosphate layers
may be monomineralic. Major textures and structures are fine-grained
laminations (locally aphanitic), oolitic, streaky-disseminated, and
brecciated. Associated rocks are marl, shale, cherty limestone, and
dolomite. Volcanic rocks may occur. The depositional environment is a
marine sedimentary basin connected to open sea, and local upwelling
zones that occur over continental shelf rock along passive or active
continental margins. Examples of the deposit type are at Belkinskoye,
Russia, Burenhan, Mongolia, Seibinskoye 2, Russia, and Hubsugul,
Mongolia.

### Sedimentary Fe-V (Oh and Hwang, 1968; Gross, in Eckstrand, O.R. (ed.), 1984; Sinyakov, 1988; Poznaikin and Shpilikov, 1990; Gunchin Dejidmaa, this study)

This deposit type consists of chemical-sedimentary strata containing
layered oolitic brown ironstone and (or) V-bearing chert, carbonaceous
shale, and chert horizons. Fe deposits occur in mudstone, argillite,
black shale, ferruginous sandstone, glauconite sandstone, limestone, and
manganiferous and phosphatic shale and sandstone. V deposits occur in
chert-carbonaceous shale with interlayered siliceous shale, carbonaceous
and calcareous shale, mudstone, siltstone, and chert, and rare
limestone. Chert horizons may contain sedimentary quartzite. Massive
deposit beds commonly range from 2 to 25 to 30 m thick and are
interbedded with shale, sandstone, and gritstone. Deposit minerals are
mainly hematite, goethite, siderite, and chamosite. Associated minerals
are calcite, ankerite, various clay minerals, clastic quartz, pyrite,
and phosphatic fossil debris. Distribution of Fe in ore beds is
irregular and varies from 20 to 45%. Deposits are high in P~2~O~5~ and
V~2~O~5~. V grade ranges from 0.01% to 1.0%. Depositional environment
consists of deposition of ironstone is neritic basins, lagoons, and
estuaries in oxygenated to euxinic conditions. Examples of the deposit
type are at Kolpashevskoye, Russia, and Hitagiin gol, Mongolia.

### Sedimentary Siderite Fe (V.E. Popov and J.G. Staritskiy in Rundqvist, 1986)

This deposit type consists of layers and lenses of siderite in upper
part of a coal series. Deposit is hosted in sandstone and argillite with
siderite oolites and concretions. Siderite content ranges up to 80 to
90%. Associated minerals in matrix are chlorite, hydromica, quartz, and
feldspar. Thickness of ore layers ranges from 0.1 to 2 m. Deposit type
is of little economic importance. Examples of the deposit type are at
Barandatskoye, Ishimbinskoye, Nizhne-Angarskoye, and
Parabel-Chuzikskoye, Russia.

### Stratiform Zr (Algama Type) (Zalishchak and others, 1991; Bagdasarov and others, 1990; Nekrasov and Korzhinskaya, 1991)

This deposit type consists of hydrozircon and baddeleyite in lenses and
veins that occur mainly in a layer of cavernous dolomite marble up to 40
m thick. The ore occurs as breccia composed of fragments of metamorphic
quartz and dolomite cemented by an aggregate of hydrozircon and
baddeleyite. Baddeleyite also occurs as loose aggregates formed by
weathering of primary ore. Some caverns in the dolomite contain
colloform, sinter-type aggregates of hydrozircon and baddeleyite, but
breccia texture predominates. The cavern walls are coated with
metamorphic quartz. The host dolomite is not hydrothermally altered. A
large deposit of this type occurs in the northern part of the Khabarovsk
province and is hosted mainly in subhorizontal dolomite marble that,
along with other miogeoclinal sedimentary rock, constitute the
Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic sedimentary cover of the Stanovoy
block of the North Asian Craton. The origin of the deposit is
speculative. According to B. Zalischak (written commun., 1992) the
deposit formed by discharge of hydrothermal solution along a layer of
porous dolomite. A sudden pressure fall resulted in a blast. An U-Pb
isotopic age of about 100 Ma was obtained for hydrozircon (J.N.
Aleinikoff, written commun., 1993). An example of the deposit type is at
Algama, Russia.

## VIII. Polygenic Carbonate-Hosted Deposits.

### Polygenetic REE-Fe-Nb (Bayan-Obo Type) (Kim and others, 1959; Bai and others, 1996; Chao and others, 1992; Lin and others, 1994a, b; Ren Yinchen and others, 1994; Cao and others, 1994; Zhang and Tang, 1994; Tu Guangzhi, 1996, 1998; Pan, 1996)

The only typical example of this deposit model is the Bayan-Obo
superlarge REE-Fe-Nb deposit in China that contains reserves of up 70
percent of the world's REE resource. Deposit occurs in the
Mesoproterozoic clastic and Mg-carbonate rock. Deposit consists of
layered to lenticular bodies that are generally concordant with host
dolomite marble. Deposit contains about 170 minerals, including 60 Nb-,
REE-, Ti-, Th-, Fe-minerals. Principal Fe minerals are hematite,
magnetite, and siderite. Principal Nb-Ta minerals are niobite,
aeschynite, fersmite, and pyrochlore. Principal REE minerals are
monazite, parisite, huangheite, cerapatite, and others. Deposit is
subdivided into Nb-REE-Fe subtype A, and Nb-REE subtype B. Subtype A is
divided into massive ore, banded ore, vein-disseminated ore (aegirine
type), disseminated and laminated ore (riebeckite type), massive and
disseminated ore (biotite and dolomite types). Subtype B is divided into
disseminated muscovite, aegirine, and diopside rich areas. Deposit
consists of several blocks. A northern block contains abundant ferrous
minerals. Others blocks contain abundant REE minerals with lesser
ferrous minerals. Other blocks contain both ferrous and REE minerals.
Deposit type contains well-developed hydrothermal alterations, including
riebeckite, aegirine, fluorite, and biotite alterations, especially Mg
skarn in the contact zone between dolomite and granite.

Several genetic interpretations exist. Tu (1998) describes Rb-Sr and
Sm-Nd isotopic composition and Nb/Ta ratios that indicate that REE and
Nb are mantle derived. The current controversy is about the timing and
the mechanism of ore formation. Some studies suggest a relation to
carbonatite magma (Bai, 1996). Other studies suggest that the
metasomatism formed REE, Nb, Th, and Fe minerals, and that the deposit
is epigenetic (Chao, 1992). Recent isotopic studies of the country rock,
and deposit and gangue minerals (Cao, 1994, Ren, 1994, Zhang, 1994)
indicate mainly Mesoproterozoic and Caledonian ages, suggesting
formation in the Mesoproterozoic, and strong reworking in the early
Paleozoic, possibly with partial introduction of new REE minerals (Ren,
1994, Cao, 1994, Pan, 1996). Tu Guangzhi (1996, 1998) interprets a
Mesoproterozoic sedimentary-exhalative event in which metasomatic
activity, diagenesis, and alteration of dolomite were synchronous, and
were subsequently enriched during Caledonian deformation. The general
interpretation is that the deposit formed in a rift zone along north
edge of North China Craton.

Another example of this deposit type is at Yangyang, Korea that consists
of magnetite in a polymetamorphosed contact deposit. The deposit is
hosted in Precambrian biotite gneiss and a younger syenite intrusion.
The west part of the syenite contains many lenticular xenoliths of
calc-silicate rock, tactite, and amphibolite formed from metasomatized
impure limestone. Magnetite occurs in syenite and is closely associated
with tactite or amphibolite and occurs in lenticular masses locally in
syenite as xenoliths, or is intruded by the syenite dikes. Deposit
mineral is mainly magnetite that occurs in masses, plates, or brittle
zones, and gangue minerals, including hornblende, epidote, and biotite.
This deposit is interpreted as a polymetamorphosed contact deposit in
which a primary contact-metasomatic magnetite was intruded by syenite.

# Deposits Related to Metamorphic Processes

## IX. Sedimentary-Metamorphic Deposits.

### Banded Iron Formation (BIF, Algoma Fe) (Cannon, 1986; Zhang and others, 1984;Yan, 1985; Zhang and others, 1985, Hongquan Yan, this study)

This deposit type consists of Fe minerals hosted mainly in Archean
ferrous quartzite beds and Fe-rich mafic to felsic volcanic,
volcanoclastic, and clastic rock. Deposit type is typically layered on a
centimeter scale with quartzite interlayered with Fe-rich beds. Deposit
may be metamorphosed to varying degrees. At lower metamorphic grade, the
minerals are mainly magnetite, hematite, ilmenite, maghematite,
fine-grained quartz, amphibole, and biotite Mineral composition,
texture, and structures vary with metamorphic grade. With increasing
metamorphism, deposit minerals coarsen, and Fe grade increases. At
granulite facies the deposit consists of magnetite, quartz, hypersthene,
diopside, amphibole, ilmenite, plagioclase, garnet, and biotite. Deposit
type is widespread in Early Precambrian basement of the Sino-Korean
Craton and is a major source of iron in North China. Local enrichment
associated with regional metamorphism or contact metamorphism associated
with granitoid intrusion. Compared with the Superior deposit type, this
deposit type is interpreted as forming in tectonically mobile marine
volcanic belts that occur in small volcanic-sedimentary basins. Some Fe
deposits are spatially associated with Zn-Cu volcanogenic massive
sulphide, Homestake gold, and Au in shear zone and quartz veins
deposits. Examples of the deposit type are at Nanfen, Liaoning Province,
Sijiaying, Hebei Province, Gongchangling, Anshan, Liaoning Province,
Shanyangping, Daixian County, Shanxi Province, and Yangchaoping, Daixian
County, Shanxi Province, China.

### Banded Iron Formation (BIF, Superior Fe) (Cannon, 1986; G.A. Gross in Eckstrand, 1984; Sinyakov, 1988)

This deposit type consists of ferrous minerals in quartzite beds of
mainly Paleoproterozoic age. Deposit consists of mainly banded, Fe-rich
sedimentary rock, generally of great lateral extent, that is typically
layered on a centimeter scale with siliceous (chert) beds interlayered
with Fe-rich beds. Iron formation and host rock commonly exhibit
sedimentary textures typical of shallow-water deposition in tectonically
stable regions. Principal deposit minerals are magnetite, hematite,
fine-grained quartz, Fe-silicates, and Fe-carbonates. Many deposits are
isoclinally folded and thrust faulted. Deposits are commonly
metamorphosed to varying degrees, or weathered and enriched by supergene
processes. Supergene deposits may be localized in irregularities along
paleoerosion surfaces. End product of weathering is Fe-hydroxides and
high-grade supergene hematite. The depositional environment is stable
shallow-water marine basins, commonly on stable continental shelf or
intracratonic basin formed on ancient cratons and microcontinents.
Examples of the deposit type are at Bakcharskoye, Russia, Kostenginskoe,
Russia, Nelyuki, Russia, Olimpiyskoe, Russia, Sutarskoye, Russia,
Tarynnakh, Russia, and Yuanjiachun, Shanxi Province, China.

### Homestake Au (Berger, 1985b; Xujun Li, this study)

This deposit type is hosted mainly in metamorphosed banded iron
formation. Deposit usually occurs in thin laminations, concordant
lenses, or veins in Fe-rich, siliceous, and carbonate rock. Main deposit
minerals are native gold, pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, magnetite,
sphalerite, and chalcopyrite, along with local tetrahedrite, scheelite,
wolframite, molybdenite, fluorite, and actinolite. Banded iron oxides
are frequently replaced by pyrite and pyrrhotite. Main alterations are
chlorite and tourmaline. Associated deposits are Kuroko type massive
sulphide, Algoma type Fe and low sulphide Au quartz vein deposits.
Genesis is debated, but deposit type is frequently interpreted as
forming during marine volcanism or during late-stage hydrothermal
activity. An example of the deposit type is at Dongfengshan,
Heilongjiang Province, China.

### Sedimentary-Metamorphic Borate (Peng and others, 1993)

Deposit type is divided into metasedimentary and hydrothermal subtypes.
Metasedimentary subtype A is conformably hosted in the stratiform Mg
carbonates (mainly magnesite) with suanite (Mg~2~\[B~2~O~5~\]) as the
main ore mineral, along with magnesite. Hydrothermal subtype B consists
of stratiform Mg-silicates in breccia or deformed bands, and is the more
important of the two subtypes. Breccia fragments contain laminated,
fine-grained forsterite and diopside in a matrix of suanile and
magnesite. Ludwigite

((MgFe)~2~Fe~3~+(BO~3~)O~2~) occurs mainly in subtype B that is Fe rich.
Both subtypes A and B, especially the latter, may be altered with
replacement of forsterite by serpentinite, phlogopite, and other
minerals, and alteration of suanite to szaibelyite
(Mg~2~\[B~2~O~4~\](OH)OH). Hydrothermal alteration is closely associated
with the intrusion of granitic rock and pegmatite. B deposits in eastern
Liaoning, northeastern China are hosted in amphibolite facies
Paleoproterozoic volcanic-sedimentary sequences that contain tourmaline,
albite, and microcline and exhibit a spatial distribution suggesting an
evaporite rift-related genesis. Examples of the deposit type are at
Wengquangou, Liaoning Province, China, and Zhuanmiao, Liaoning Province,
China.

### Sedimentary-Metamorphic Magnesite (Zhang Qiusheng and others, 1984; Li Xujun and Zhu Guolin, 1992)

This deposit type consists of magnesite that occurs in beds ranging from
200 to 2,000 m long and 30 to 300 m wide. Deposit type is hosted mainly
in Paleoproterozoic carbonate rock, and generally in dolomite marble.
Deposit contains sedimentary textures, including ripple marks, and mud
cracks, and local metasomatic textures. Deposit minerals are mainly
massive with lesser banding. The major mineral is medium- to
coarse-grained magnesite, and minor talc, tremolite, dolomite, and
chlorite, and rare calcite, Fe-dolomite, rhodochrosite, Fe-magnesite,
siderite, garnet, pyrite, serpentinite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite,
magnetite, apatite, and hematite. MgO content of magnesite ranges up to
47%. The depositional environment is Paleoproterozoic rift in a
littoral, shallow sea sedimentary environment. Subsequent lower
greenschist to amphibolite facies metamorphism and intensive deformation
may occur, resulting in recrystallization of deposit minerals,
crystallization of siderite, and formation of lenticular metasomatic
deposits. Examples of the deposit type are at Xiafangshen and
Xiaoshengshuisi, Liaoning Province, China, and Biderin gol, Mongolia.

## X. Deposits Related to Regionally Metamorphosed Rocks.

### Au in Black Shale (Kazakevich and 1972; Buryak, 1980, Kanovalov, 1985)

This type of deposit consists of stringers, disseminations and veins
that occur in Riphean sequences composed of alternating layers of folded
black phyllite or shale, sandstone, limestone, siltstone, and argillite.
Microfolds and longitudinal shear zones in anticlines are an important
control. Gold occurs in conformable zones as disseminations. Highest
gold content is in horizons and lenses of carbonaceous shale.
Quartz-gold veins occur in upper horizons as relatively thin bodies that
pinch out downdip. Deposit minerals constitute a low-sulfide quartz
assemblage and are mainly pyrite and arsenopyrite, and scarce
sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite. Rare PGE minerals may occur.
Peripheral haloes, that are low in gold, contain disseminated pyrite and
arsenopyrite. Deposits are polygenic and polychronous. Gold initially
accumulated during deposition of host rock, and was redistributed and
concentrated during dynamic metamorphism and infiltration of ore-bearing
fluid. Examples of the deposit type are at Mangazeika 2, Olympiada, and
Sukhoy Log, Russia.

### Au in Shear Zone and Quartz Vein (Berger, 1986c)

This deposit type includes low-sulfide Au quartz vein, turbidite-hosted,
concordant vein, and shear zone Au deposits. The deposit type consists
of gold in massive, persistent quartz veins that are hosted in
regionally metamorphosed volcanic rock, and in metamorphosed graywacke,
chert, and shale. Veins are generally late synmetamorphic to
postmetamorphic and locally cut granitic rocks. Associated minerals are
minor pyrite, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite
and sulfosalt minerals. Alteration minerals include quartz, siderite,
albite, and carbonate minerals. The depositional environment consists of
low-grade metamorphic belts associated with continental margin arcs or
collisional (anatectic) zones, or along transform continental margins.
Examples of the deposit type are at Jiapigou, Jilin Province, China,
Jinchangyu, Hebei Province, China, Nezhdaninka, Russia, Paishanlou, and
Liaoning Province, China.

### Clastic-Sediment-Hosted Sb-Au (Distanov and others, 1977; Indolev and others, 1980; Berger, 1978, 1993)

This deposit type consists of stibnite and associated minerals that
occur in simple, lenticular, and ladder veins, and in reticulate veins
and veinlets, sometimes with subconformable disseminations. Main deposit
minerals are stibnite, berthierite, pyrite, arsenopyrite, and gold, with
subordinate sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite,
chalcostibite, scheelite, pyrrhotite, marcasite, gudmundite,
gersdorffite, native antimony, and native silver. Gangue minerals are
mainly quartz and lesser ankerite, calcite, dolomite, siderite,
donbassite, sericite, and gypsum. Wall rocks are altered to varying
combinations of quartz, carbonate, sericite, and pyrite. The host rocks
for these deposits are: (1) Proterozoic and Paleozoic greenschist
derived from mafic volcanic and volcanic-clastic rock; (2) interbedded
carbonaceous black shale and volcaniclastic rock; (3) or to a lesser
extent, retrogressively-metamorphosed granitic rock. The depositional
environment is strongly deformed fold belts developed along
intracratonic rift troughs or reactivated pericratonic platform
subsidence in a passive continental margin. Deposit type is controlled
by linear zones of folds and mylonites that are associated with regional
strike-slip faults. Deposits are associated with low-grade greenschist
facies regional metamorphism, suggesting a hydrothermal-metamorphic
origin. The deposit type may also be associated with Au-quartz vein
deposits. Examples of the deposit type are at Sentachan, Russia, and
Ichinokawa, Japan.

### Cu-Ag Vein (Nokleberg and others, 1997; Gunchin Dejidmaa, this study) 

This deposit type consists mostly of Cu-sulfide minerals and accessory
Ag minerals in quartz vein and stringers hosted in either weakly,
regionally metamorphosed basalt, andesite-basalt, or clastic sedimentary
rock. The deposit type may also occur in structural slices of ultramafic
rock that occur along regional faults in clastic sedimentary rocks. The
occurrences are found in lower grade, metamorphosed mafic volcanic rock,
and consist mainly of widespread zones of sulfide-bearing quartz veins.
Cu-Ag quartz vein occurrences occur widely in the western part of
Mongolia (Obolenskiy and others, 1989). Well-developed Cu-sulfide quartz
stringers and veins may occur. Deposit minerals are chalcopyrite,
bornite, chalcocite, covellite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, malachite, and
azurite, and rare native Cu. Alteration minerals are epidote, chlorite,
actinolite, albite, carbonates, and quartz. Special features are: (1)
quartz veins and stringers that occur in extensive linear zones; (2)
occurrence of deposit minerals in impregnations, stringers, layers, and
rare breccia; and (3) local high grades of Ag, Au, and Zn. In the study
area, many occurrences are in Middle Riphean mafic volcanic rock,
Vendian to Lower Cambrian, and Ordovician-Silurian Biji units. The
depositional environment consists of low-grade metamorphic belts
containing mafic volcanic or clastic sedimentary rock in continental
margin arcs or collisional (anatectic) zones. Veins are generally
late-stage metamorphic. Examples of the deposit type are at Goseong and
Yanggudong, South Korea.

### Piezoquartz (Arkhipov, 1979)

This deposit type occurs in Precambrian quartzite associated with
high-alumina gneiss and mafic schist. The rock crystal deposits tend to
occur at rupture intersections in flexures and periclines of folds, and
form single veins (from 0.5 to 2 m thick and 20 to 30 m long) and vein
zones (from 1 to 30 m thick with an average of 5 to 15 m thick, from a
few tens of meters to 400 m long with an average of 100 to 200 m). Most
deposits occur in pipes, veins, and stockworks with diameters of a few
tens of meters. Veins consist of rock crystal or smoky quartz, clay
filling voids, K-feldspar, and rare crystals of hematite, chlorite,
sericite, tourmaline, albite, epidote, and adularia. Rock crystals occur
on the walls of the voids or in the lower parts of voids amidst clay.
Voids occur inside quartz veins, at the contacts of veins and host rock,
or in host rock adjacent to veins. Host rock is altered to sericite,
chlorite, and epidote. Examples of the deposit type are at Bugarykta and
Perekatnoe, Russia.

### Rhodusite Asbestos (Andreev, 1962; Romanovich and others, 1982)

This deposit type consists of rhodusite-asbestos and nonfibrous
rhodusite in layers of mottled rock sequences with salt and gypsum. The
mottled rocks consist of rhythmic layers of marl, argillite, siltstone,
and sandstone. Argillite predominates. Thickness of deposits ranges up
to tens of meters. Rhodusite-asbestos and nonfibrous rhodusite also
occur in veinlets and disseminations. The deposit is interpreted as
forming during epigenetic replacement of red-bed clastic rock and
mottled host rock during initial metamorphism. The depositional
environment is intermountain depressions in arid areas with high
salinity water in sedimentary basins. An example of the deposit type is
at Azkizskoye, Russia.

### Talc (Magnesite) Replacement (Romanovich, 1973; Kim, 1972; Romanovich and others, 1982)

This deposit type consists of metasomatic talc that replaces ultramafic
and Mg-bearing sedimentary and magmatic rock during regional or contact
metamorphism. One group of deposits consists of ultramafic rock, mainly
dunite and harzburgite, that contain ferrous-talc and talc-chlorite.
Deposits occur in veins, stocks, and lenses, and consist of metasomatic
ferrous talc, talc-breunnerite, and talc-chlorite. Another group of
deposits consists of low-ferrous talc minerals formed in dolomitic
carbonaceous rock. This group consists of: (1) deposits associated with
regional metamorphism with steatite, talc-schist, and talc-carbonate
rock; and (2) deposits of talc, carbonate, and tremolite that are
associated with contact metamorphism and related granitoid intrusions.
Wall rocks are dolomite, interlayered dolomitic limestone and
aluminosilicate rock (slate, amphibolite, quartzite). Deposits are
bedded and generally large. Surficial processes result in formation of
weathering crust with high-quality, powdery, low-ferrous talc. This
deposit type is commonly associated with magnesite, marshallite and
karst-bauxite deposits. Major deposit control is ultramafic host rock
that is regionally metamorphosed to greenstone facies and intensely
intruded by granitoids. The depositional environment consists of
dolomitic rock and ultramafic rock in orogenic belts along continental
margin arcs and collisional zones, and pericratonal subsidences.
Examples of the deposit type are at Alguiskoye, Russia, Fanjiapuzi,
Liaoning Province, China, Savinskoe, Russia, Svetlyi Klyuch, Russia, and
Togulenskoye, Russia.

### Metamorphic Graphite (Lee, 1960; Eremin, 1991)

This deposit type consists of two subtypes: (1) deposits in regional
high-grade metamorphosed rock, including gneiss and schist with
coarse-crystalline graphite; and (2) deposits formed during contact
metamorphism of coal beds during trap intrusion, such as the Tungus
graphite province in the North Asian Craton. In this area, deposits
formed during thermal metamorphism of coal layers during intrusion of
thick Triassic diabase sills. Deposits display a complicated composition
and consist of layers of amorphous graphite and numerous fragments and
lenses of sedimentary rock. Major mineral is fine-grained and flake
graphite. Associated minerals are pyrite, calcite, apatite, zircon,
magnetite, rutile, and hydrosilicates. Examples of the deposit type are
at Itgel Naidvar, Mongolia, Liumao, Heilongjiang Province, China, and
Noginskoye, Russia.

### Metamorphic Sillimanite (Zhang, 1984; Jiang, 1994)

This deposit type consists of multiple concordant layers that contain 25
to 50% sillimanite in graphite-garnet-sillimanite schist,
biotite-garnet-sillimanite schist and plagioclase-cordierite-sillimanite
schist and gneiss, and lesser garnet schist, phosphorus marble, and
other lithologies. Major ore mineral is sillimanite, and accessory
minerals are quartz, garnet, biotite, cordierite, K-feldspar, graphite,
pyrite, pyrrhotite, tourmaline, phlogopite, and others. Protolith is
high-aluminum argillaceous sedimentary rock that formed in near-shore
tidal flats and lagoons. Metamorphic grade ranges from amphibolite to
granulite facies metamorphism with intense folding. Deposit type usually
spatially associated with metamorphic graphite deposits. An example of
the deposit type is at Sandaogou, Heilongjiang Province, China.

### Phlogopite Skarn (Murzaev, 1974; Arkhipov, 1979)

This deposit type consists of phlogopite in diopside and
phlogopite-diopside schist, marble, and calc granofels that is
metasomatized to coarse-grained phlogopite-diopside skarn. Some deposits
arecontrolled by synforms and occur along fold hinges, axial planes, and
cores of superposed transverse folds. Deposit type varies from 0.7 to
2.5 km long, and from 0.2 to 0.5 km wide. Thickness of phlogopite skarn
ranges from a few meters to several tens of meters, and the length
varies from 10 to 20 m to several hundreds of meters. The phlogopite
skarn consist of phlogopite, diopside, hornblende, scapolite, apatite,
and actinolite. Phlogopite occurs in nests that vary from 0.5 to 1.5 to
6 m wide (average of 1 to 2 m). Rare phlogopite occurs in thin veins.
Phlogopite crystals are irregular, vary from brown-green to brown, and
vary from 8 to 15 cm wide. Most deposits associated with
diopside-magnetite skarn. Local diopside- and
diopside-scapolite-plagioclase skarn may contain molybdenite. The
depositional environment is interpreted as post-collisional stage of
Precambrian orogenies. Examples of the deposit type are at Fyodorovskoe
Megyuskan, and Nadyozhnoe Russia.

# Deposits Related to Surficial Processes

## XI. Residual Deposits.

### Bauxite (Karst Type) (Patterson, 1986)

This deposit type consists of sedimentary bauxite that occurs mainly in
depressions of karst surfaces in thick carbonate sequences. Deposits are
confined to interformational breaks in carbonate rock. Deformation and
metamorphism are typical. Main deposit minerals are diaspore and
boehmite. Associated minerals are hematite, goethite, and kaolinite, and
minor quartz. Deposit structures include pisolitic, nodular, massive,
and earthy. Examples of the deposit type are at Novogodneye and
Oktyabrskoye 4, Russia,

### Laterite Ni (Singer, 1986b)

This deposit type consists of Ni and silicate minerals in weathering
crust developed from ultramafic rock, particularly peridotite, dunite
and serpentinized peridotite. Three morphological types of deposits
occur - areal, linear, and contact karst. The major minerals are complex
Fe-Co-Ni silicates or oxides. Silicate minerals occur in lower part of
residual weathering crust and in infiltration deposits. Major deposit
minerals are garnierite, nepuite, and revdenskite. Associated minerals
are serpentine, nontronite, goethite, Mn-oxide, and quartz. Goethite
commonly contains abundant Ni. Oxide deposit minerals consist of
Ni-bearing Fe-hydroxide and asbolan. Zonation from top to bottom is: (1)
an upper limonite zone with Ni in iron oxides; and (2) a lower saprolite
and boxwork zone with Ni in hydrous silicates. The depositional
environment is convergent margins with obducted ophiolite complexes.
Uplift is required to expose ultramafic rock to weathering. Examples of
the deposit type are at Alexandrovskoye 2 and Belininskoye, Russia.

### Weathering Crust Mn (±Fe) (Kim and Kim, 1962; Varentsov and Rachmanov, 1978)

This deposit type consists of extensive Mn-bearing weathering crust
formed as a residual deposit on Mn-rich limestone and metamorphic rocks.
Mn concentration is a result of leaching and removing of carbonates and
silica. Mn crust consists of sand and clay masses that contain hypergene
concentrations of Mn oxides. Main deposit minerals are pyrolusite,
psilomelane, manganite, and vernadite, and local Fe-hydroxides. Deposit
minerals occur in layers, lenses, and branches, and sometimes in karst
cavities. Deposits ranges up to kilometers long and tens of meters
thick. Thick deposits exhibit a clear zonation with Mn-minerals in a
lower part that is overlapped by pure Mn-bearing and Fe-hydroxide
minerals. The depositional environment consists of subaerial exposures
of Mn-bearing calcareous rock in a humid climate. Examples of the
deposit type are at Karaulnaya Gorka and Seibinskoye 1, Russia.

### Weathering Crust and Karst Phosphate (V.L. Librovich and L.M. Miznikova in Rundqvist, 1986)

This deposit type consists of phosphorite minerals forming in weathering
crust and karst in association with phosphatic rock and
phosphorite-bearing carbonate rock. Deposit forms in linear and karst
structures in near-surface exposures. Secondary hypergene enrichment of
phosphorite may occur. Dissolution and redeposition of phosphatic matter
may form unconsolidated and stony phosphorite with granular and
fragmental structures. Deposits occur in extension regimes containing
low-grade phosphate rock. An example of the deposit type is at
Telekskoye, Russia.

### Weathering Crust Carbonatite REE-Zr-Nb-Li (Lapin, 1996)

This deposit type consists of complex REE minerals in weathering crust
developed on nepheline syenite and associated carbonatites. The more
productive is weathering crust developed on melanocratic
feldspar-carbonate rock that contains feldspar, siderite, dolomite,
calcite, pyroxene, amphibole, nepheline, apatite, monazite, fluorite,
zircon, torianite, loparite, parisite, eudialyte, and lepidomelane, and
Cu-, Zn-, and Pb-sulfide minerals. This type of weathering crust is
divided into hydromica and ferrihalloysite types. The major REE-deposit
minerals are bastnaesite, staffelite, rabdofanite, and melanterite, and
associated pyrolusite and limonite. The deposits are complex and contain
REE and Nb along with Li and Zr. Some deposits are large. Examples of
the deposit type are at Kiiskoye and Tomtor, Russia.

## XII. Depositional deposits.

### Placer and Paleoplacer Au (Hwang and Choi, 1961; Yeend, 1986)

This deposit type consists of gold in grains and rare nuggets in gravel,
sand, silt, and clay, and their consolidated equivalents in alluvial,
beach, eolian, and rare glacial deposits. Major deposit minerals are
gold, sometimes with attached quartz, magnetite, or ilmenite. Rare PGE
mineral may also occur. The depositional environment is high-energy
alluvial where gradients flatten and river velocities lessen as at the
inside of meanders, below rapids and falls, beneath boulders, and in
shoreline areas where the winnowing action of surf causes gold
concentrations in modern beaches, or in uplifted or submerged beaches.
Numerous major placer districts with placer and paleoplacer Au deposits
occur in Russia, Mongolia, and China.

### Placer Diamond (Orlov, 1973; Lampietti and Sutherland, 1978; Cox, 1986f)

This deposit type consists of diamonds in alluvial and beach sediments
and in sandstone and conglomerate. The conglomerate beds may contain
paleoplacers. The age range is generally Tertiary and Quaternary, and
the tectonic setting is generally stable cratons. The associated deposit
type is diamond-bearing kimberlite. The main deposit minerals are
diamond, bort or carbonado, and ballas. Diamonds derived from ancient
placers in sedimentary rocks commonly retain sand grains cemented to
grooves, or to indentations in crystals. The depositional environment is
concentration in low-energy parts of stream systems with other heavy
minerals. The diamonds generally decrease in size and increase in
quality with distance from the source. An example of the deposit type is
at Huangsongdianzhi, Hunchun City, Jilin Province, China.

### Placer PGE (Yeend and Page, 1986)

This deposit type consists of PGE minerals and alloys in grains in
gravel, sand, silt, and clay, and their consolidated equivalents in
alluvial, beach, eolian, and rarely in glacial deposits. In some areas,
placer Au and placer PGE deposits occur together. Major deposit minerals
are Pt-group alloys, Os-Ir alloys, magnetite, chromite, and ilmenite.
The depositional environment is high-energy alluvial where gradients
flatten and river velocities lessen as at the inside of meanders, below
rapids and falls, beneath boulders, and in shoreline areas where the
winnowing action of surf causes PGE and gold concentrations in raised,
present, or submerged beaches. An example of this deposit type is at
Kondyor, Russia.

### Placer Sn (Nokleberg, W.J. and others, 1997)

This deposit type consists of mainly cassiterite and elemental gold in
grains in gravel, sand, silt, and clay, and their consolidated
equivalents, mainly in alluvial deposits. The depositional environment
is similar to that of placer Au deposits. Examples of the deposit type
are at Janchivlan, Mongolia, Khar Morit, Mongolia, Modot , Mongolia,
Verkhnegilyui, Russia, and Zuuntarts, Mongolia.

### Placer Ti-Zr (Yoon and others, 1959; Force, 1986b; Rosliakov and Sviridov, 1998)

This deposit type consists of zircon-ilmenite placers concentrated by
marine beach processes and in continental surface environments. The host
sediments are well-sorted, medium- to fine-grained sand with silt. The
depositional environment is stable coastal regions receiving sediments
from deeply weathered terranes. Deposit morphology consists of lenses
and elongate \"shoe-string\" deposits that occur parallel to beaches,
sometimes in multilayerd packets. Major deposit minerals are low-Fe
ilmenite, zircon, leucoxene, anatase, rutile, staurolite, disthene,
tourmaline, and monazite. Examples of the deposit type are at
Koppi-Nelman and Sash-Yular, Russia.

### REE and Fe Oolite (Arkhipov, 1979)

This deposit type is hosted in thick quartz and arkose sandstone with
gravelstone. REE minerals occur in gravelstone and conglomerate horizons
that are 15 to 30 km long, and vary from a few to 150 m thick. Principal
heavy minerals are monazite and zircon (up to 95%) containing Ce, La, Y,
Hf, Ta, and Nb. Siltstone in middle part of section may include
concordant hematite beds that vary from 0.3 to 3 m thick and extend up
to 40 km. Deposits exhibit oolitic, pisolitic, and colloform textures.
Principal deposit mineral is hematite. Grade ranges from 29.6 to 70.7%
Fe, 0.01 to 0.05 % S, and 0.1 to 0.2 % P~2~O~5~. The depositional
environment consists of sedimentation in rifts in Paleoproterozoic
grabens formed in intracratonic basins. No deposits of this type occur
in the region.

# Exotic deposits

## Impact diamond (Masaitis and others, 1975, 1998)

This deposit type occurs in the Popigay, Russia ring structure that is
interpreted as an impact structure in a round surficial depression with
diameter of several tens of kilometers. Occurring in the depression is a
complex variety of impact rocks that appear like volcanic rocks with
varying amounts of: (1) glass of andesite-dacite composition; (2) rock
and mineral fragments; (3) explosive allogenic breccias that were
deposited after impact within, or beyond the limits of the depression;
and (4) authigenic breccia that formed from the bottom of the crater
that underwent high-grade shock metamorphism, melting, and formation of
pseudotachylite. Impactite also includes massive lava-like tagamite and
glassy clastic suevite. Diamond occurs in graphite gneiss and tagamite
that underwent shock metamorphism. Diamond crystals range from 0.05 to
20 mm diameter. Associated placer deposits contain diamonds ranging up
to 8 to 10 mm. Most abundant diamonds are yellow - transparent, gray,
and black crystals are rare. Diamonds from gneiss retain morphological
and structural features inherited from crystalline graphite. Common are
tabular crystals with a characteristic striation of basal planes due to
repeated twinning, parallel intergrowths, irregular intergrowths, and
aggregates. For origin of the Popigay ring structure, the prevaling
interpretation is impact of a giant meteorite. Supporting data consists
of numerous indications of shock metamorphism with partial melting of
the rock derived from Early Precambrian crystalline bedrock.

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**[Table 1. Hierarchial ranking of mineral deposit models according to
hierarchial levels discussed in text.]{.underline}**

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

Deposits related to magmatic processes

Deposits related to intrusive magmatic rocks

I. Deposits related to mafic and ultramafic intrusions

A. Deposits associated with differentiated mafic-ultramafic complexes

Mafic-ultramafic related Cu-Ni-PGE

Mafic-ultramafic related Ti-Fe ([+]{.underline}V)

Zoned mafic-ultramafic Cr-PGE

B. Deposits associated with ophiolitic complexes

Podiform chromite

Serpentinite-hosted asbestos

C. Deposits associated with anorthosite complexes

Anorthosite apatite-Ti-Fe-P

D. Deposits associated with kimberlite

Diamond-bearing kimberlite

II\. Deposits related to intermediate and felsic intrusions

A. Pegmatite

Muscovite pegmatite

REE-Li pegmatite

B. Greisen and quartz vein

Fluorite greisen

Sn-W greisen, stockwork, and quartz vein

W-Mo-Be greisen, stockwork, and quartz vein

C. Alkaline metasomatite

Ta-Nb-REE alkaline metasomatite

D. Skarn (contact metasomatic)

Au skarn

Boron (datolite) skarn

Carbonate-hosted asbestos

Co skarn

Cu (±Fe, Au, Ag, Mo) skarn

Fe skarn

Fe-Zn skarn

Sn skarn

Sn-B (Fe) skarn (ludwigite)

W±Mo±Be skarn

Zn-Pb (±Ag, Cu) skarn

E. Porphyry and granitoid pluton-hosted deposit

Cassiterite-sulfide-silicate vein and stockwork

Felsic plutonic U-REE

Granitoid-related Au vein

Polymetallic Pb-Zn ± Cu (±Ag, Au) vein and stockwork

Porphyry Au

Porphyry Cu (±Au)

Porphyry Cu-Mo (±Au, Ag)

Porphyry Mo (±W, Bi)

Porphyry Sn

III\. Deposits related to alkaline intrusions

A. Carbonatite-related deposits

Apatite carbonatite

Fe-REE carbonatite

Fe-Ti (±Ta, Nb, Fe,Cu, apatite) carbonatite

Phlogopite carbonatite

REE (±Ta, Nb, Fe) carbonatite

B. Alkaline-silicic intrusions related deposits

Alkaline complex-hosted Au

Peralkaline granitoid-related Nb-Zr-REE

Albite syenite-related REE

Ta-Li ongonite

C. Alkaline-gabbroic intrusion-related deposits

Charoite metasomatite

Magmatic and metasomatic apatite

Magmatic graphite

Magmatic nepheline

Deposits related to extrusive rocks

IV\. Deposits related to marine extrusive rocks

A. Massive sulfide deposits

Besshi Cu-Zn-Ag massive sulfide

Cyprus Cu-Zn massive sulfide

Volcanogenic Cu-Zn massive sulfide (Urals type)

Volcanogenic Zn-Pb-Cu massive sulfide (Kuroko, Altai types)

B. Volcanogenic-sedimentary deposits

Volcanogenic-hydrothermal-sedimentary massive sulfide Pb-Zn (±Cu)

Volcanogenic-sedimentary Fe

Volcanogenic-sedimentary Mn

V. Deposits related to subaerial extrusive rocks

A. Deposits associated with mafic extrusive rocks and dike complexes

Ag-Sb vein

Basaltic native Cu (Lake Superior type)

Hg-Sb-W vein and stockwork

Hydrothermal Iceland spar

Ni-Co arsenide vein

Silica-carbonate (listvenite) Hg

Trap related Fe skarn (Angara-Ilim type)

B. Deposits associated with felsic to intermediate extrusive rocks

Au-Ag epithermal vein

Ag-Pb epithermal vein

Au potassium metasomatite (Kuranakh type)

Barite vein

Be tuff

Carbonate-hosted As-Au metasomatite

Carbonate-hosted fluorspar

Carbonate-hosted Hg-Sb

Clastic sediment-hosted Hg±Sb

Epithermal quartz-alunite

Fluorspar vein

Hydrothermal-sedimentary fluorite

Limonite from spring water

Mn vein

Polymetallic (Pb, Zn±Cu, Ba, Ag, Au) volcanic-hosted metasomatite

Polymetallic (Pb, Zn, Ag) carbonate-hosted metasomatite

Rhyolite-hosted Sn

Sulfur-sulfide (S, FeS2)

Volcanic-hosted Au-base-metal metasomatite

Volcanic-hosted Hg

Volcanic-hosted U

Volcanic-hosted zeolite

Deposits related to hydrothermal-sedimentary sedimentary processes

VI\. Stratiform and stratabound deposits

Bedded barite

Carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn (Mississippi valley type)

Sediment-hosted Cu

Sedimentary exhalative Pb-Zn (SEDEX)

Korean Pb-Zn massive sulfide

VII\. Sedimentary rock-hosted deposits

Chemical-sedimentary Fe-Mn

Evaporate halite

Evaporate sedimentary gypsum

Sedimentary bauxite

Sedimentary celestite

Sedimentary phosphate

Sedimentary Fe-V

Sedimentary siderite Fe

Stratiform Zr (Algama Type)

VIII\. Polygenic carbonate-hosted deposits

Polygenic REE-Fe-Nb deposits (Bayan-Obo type)

Deposits related to metamorphic processes

IX\. Sedimentary-metamorphic deposits

Banded iron formation (BIF, Algoma Fe)

Banded iron formation (BIF, Superior Fe)

Homestake Au

Sedimentary-metamorphic borate

Sedimentary-metamorphic magnesite

X. Deposits related to regionally metamorphosed rocks

Au in black shale

Au in shear zone and quartz vein

Clastic-sediment-hosted Sb-Au

Cu-Ag vein

Piezoquartz

Rhodusite asbestos

Talc (magnesite) replacement

Metamorphic graphite

Metamorphic sillimanite

Phlogopite skarn

Deposits related to surficial proceses

XI\. Residual deposts

Bauxite (karst type)

Laterite Ni

Weathering crust Mn (±Fe)

Weathering crust and karst phosphate

Weathering crust carbonatite REE-Zr-Nb-Li

XII\. Depositional deposits

Placer and paleoplacer Au

Placer diamond

Placer PGE

Placer Sn

Placer Ti-Zr

REE and Fe oolite

Exotic deposits

Impact diamond

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_