# Protect Children, Protect Our Future

EPA

United States

Environmental Protection

Agency

Children are 30% of the world's population, but 100%of our future.

# Take Action to Protect Children Where They Live, Learn, and Play

Risks from environmental exposure at home, school, and at play can be
reduced if care is taken to assure a healthy environment. Governments,
non-government organizations, private industry, educational
institutions, and individuals can make a difference in protecting
children from environmental harm. Through policy-making, research, and
education we can work together to protect our children and our future.

# Promote Policies that Protect Children

Communities, states, and the federal government can create policies that
protect children from environmental risks and provide proper medical
care to those children exposed to such risks. Legislation, regulations,
and standards in areas such as housing, transportation, education,
agriculture, health, and the environment, should explicitly consider
children's environmental exposures and health effects.

# Increase Scientific Knowledge about Children's Environmental Health

Scientific evidence shows that children are different from adults in
terms of their exposure and susceptibility to pollutants. This evidence
may explain the relationship between environmental risks and some
childhood illnesses. Still, gaps exist in our understanding of how, and
to what extent, environmental contaminants cause or exacerbate childhood
diseases and developmental disorders. Children's environmental health
research should be a priority.

# Enhance Diagnosis and Treatment of Environment-Related Illnesses 

The public turns to health care professionals for environmental health
information. The health care community must be trained in environmental
health, and equipped to share information about environmental risks and
children's health.

# Educate the Next Generation 

Youth involvement in recycling programs created a cultural change in the
way we manage our trash. Programs aimed at children and youth will
create a new generation of experts on environmental health---a
generation that will be prepared to answer the new questions that our
ever-changing world poses.

# Protect Children Beyond Our Borders 

Children's environmental health issues span the globe and transcend
political boundaries. The priorities of developed countries may not be
the same as those in developing countries, but they are similar enough
to warrant international cooperation and collaboration for technical,
scientific, and economic reasons.

For more information about children's environmental health and ways you
can get involved, visit EPA's Office of Children's Health Protection Web
site at www.epa.gov/children or call toll-free 1-877-590-KIDS.

# EPA's Mission to Protect Children

In 1995, EPA made it a priority to explicitly and consistently take into
account environmental health risks to infants and children in all risk
studies and public health standards set for the U.S.

The President's Executive Order on Environmental Health Risks and Safety
Risks to Children requires all federal agencies to address health and
safety risks to children, coordinate research priorities on children's
health, and ensure that their standards take into account special risks
to children.

EPA established the Office of Children\'s Health Protection (OCHP) to
support and facilitate Agency efforts to protect children\'s health from
environmental risks. The mission of OCHP is to make the protection of
children\'s health a fundamental goal of public health and environmental
protection in the U.S.

EPA's mission is to protect human health and to safeguard the natural
environment. Protecting children where they live, learn, and play is
essential to ensuring that our environment is safe and healthy, now and
for future generations.

EPA

United States

Environmental Protection

Agency

Office of Children's

Health Protection (1107A)

EPA 100-F-04-900

Recycled/Recyclable

Printed with Vegetable Oil-Based Inks on Recycled Paper

(Minimum 50% Postconsumer)

Process Chlorine Free

Protecting children from environmental risks is fundamental to the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) efforts to make the world a
healthier place, now and for future generations.

Children need clean air to breathe, clean water to drink, safe food to
eat, and a healthy environment to learn, grow, and thrive. Yet every
day, children are exposed to environmental risks that may stand in the
way of these basic necessities. They may even be more vulnerable to some
environmental risks than adults for several reasons:

-   Children's nervous, immune, digestive, and other systems are still
    developing and their ability to metabolize or inactivate toxicants
    may be different than adults;

-   Children eat more food, drink more fluids, and breathe more air in
    proportion to their body weight than adults; and

-   Children's behavior---such as crawling and placing objects in their
    mouths---may result in greater exposure to environmental
    contaminants.

Many of the health problems that result from exposure to harmful
environmental conditions can be prevented, managed, and treated. This is
why EPA considers risks to children when setting standards to control
pollution. You can play a role, too.

# Children Need Protection Where They Live, Learn, and Play

Each day, children may be exposed to a variety of environmental
contaminants at home, school, and outdoors. These environmental
exposures can have harmful effects on children's health and behavior,
and the amount and timing of exposure can influence the magnitude of
these effects. Children need our protection. Learning about children's
environmental health is the first step to protecting them from
environmental risks.

Children are often at risk of exposure to indoor air pollution.

Poor indoor air quality can cause respiratory illness in children
because their respiratory systems are still developing. They also
breathe more air than adults in proportion to their body weight.
Respiratory diseases, such as asthma, can severely affect a child's
ability to live an active life.

Exposure to allergens and irritants, including animal dander,
cockroaches, mold, and dust mites, plays a significant role in
triggering asthma episodes in children. Secondhand tobacco smoke is
another asthma trigger that typically occurs in the home. It may cause
bronchitis, pneumonia, and ear infections, and is believed to be
associated with sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Since children
spend a lot of their time at home, day care, and school, reducing their
exposure to indoor environmental triggers in these places is especially
important.

Outdoor air pollution may affect children more than adults.

Outdoor activity is part of a healthy lifestyle, but when air pollution
levels are high, adverse health effects may result. Outdoor air
pollutants that have been shown to be particularly harmful to children
include ozone and fine particulate matter. Other air pollutants, such as
sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and toxic air pollutants,
also may affect children's health.

Ground-level ozone (a component of smog) is formed when NOx and other
air pollutants react in the presence of heat and sunlight. Smog can
cause coughing, throat irritation, and chest pain. It can reduce lung
function, inflame the linings of the lungs, and trigger asthma attacks,
even the day after ozone levels are high. Repeated inflammation over
time may permanently scar lung tissue. Children and teenagers who are
active outdoors--especially those with asthma or other respiratory
illnesses--are particularly vulnerable to smog.

Some fine particles are emitted directly into the air from combustion
sources such as cars, trucks, buses, construction and farming equipment,
and electric utilities. Fine particles in urban air also result from
chemical reactions of SO2 and NOx with other chemicals in the
atmosphere. Exposures to fine particles have been linked to a number of
children's health problems, including bronchitis and asthma. Diesel
exhaust is a source of fine particles and is also a likely human
carcinogen.

SO~2~ is formed when fuel containing sulfur--mainly coal, oil, and
diesel--is burned, and during metal smelting and other industrial
processes. The majority of SO~2~ released into the air comes from
electric utilities and refineries, particularly those that burn coal.
SO~2~ contributes to respiratory disease, and may aggravate existing
heart and lung disease.

NOx refers to a group of highly reactive gases emitted by motor
vehicles, electric utilities, and other fuel-burning industrial and
commercial sources. NOx gases can contribute to respiratory illnesses
especially in children, and as noted above, both SO~2~ and NOx can react
to form harmful particles in the air.

Toxic air pollutants, also known as hazardous air pollutants, are
emitted from combustion sources, such as motor vehicles and power
plants, and industrial activities. A number of commonly occurring toxic
air pollutants, including solvents, organic chemicals, and heavy metals,
have been shown to harm the developing nervous system, reproductive
organs, and immune system--all of which grow and develop rapidly during
the first months and years of life. Long-term exposure to some toxic air
pollutants may cause cancer.

Lead is a risk to children's physical and mental development.

Removing lead from gasoline in the U.S. is considered by many to be one
of the great public health achievements of this generation. Lead levels
in children's blood dropped dramatically from the 1970s to the
mid-1980s, as the use of leaded gasoline was phased out. However, lead
still poses a risk.

Lead was a common ingredient in household paint until it was banned in
1978. Children living in homes built before 1978 may be exposed to
hazards from deteriorated lead paint and lead dust. Because children
play outside and frequently put their hands in their mouths,
contaminated soil near automobile repair shops, abandoned mines,
industrial sites, and highways also may be a source of exposure. In
addition, lead in drinking water can contribute to overall lead
exposure. Childhood exposure to lead may result in damage to the nervous
system leading to behavioral problems and reduced intelligence, and may
cause impaired growth and hearing.

Mercury is toxic during child development.

Children born to women with substantially elevated blood mercury levels
are at increased risk for nervous system and developmental effects,
delayed onset of walking and talking, and abnormalities in vision,
hearing, and speech. At far lower exposures, reduced neurological and
developmental test scores occur. Children exposed to mercury after birth
may be sensitive to the toxic effects of mercury because their nervous
systems are still developing.

Mercury is found in the environment in several forms, but coal-fired
power electric utilities are the largest source of mercury emissions in
the U.S. Mercury emitted from plants and other combustion sources is
deposited on surface water and transformed into methylmercury, which
builds up in fish. People are exposed to methylmercury almost
exclusively by eating fish. Though fish is an important part of a
balanced diet, federal and state fish advisories guide consumers to
limit their intake of certain fish that contain higher levels of
mercury.

Children may be exposed to contamination through the water supply.

The U.S. has one of the safest water supplies in the world. Public water
systems test water for more than 90 chemical, microbial, and
radiological contaminants, and are required to treat water to remove
harmful substances under the *Safe Drinking Water Act*.

While actual events of serious drinking water contamination are
infrequent and usually of short duration, it is possible for children to
ingest contaminated water from a public water system or, more commonly,
from a private well or by swimming in polluted bodies of water.
Microbial contaminants, such as bacteria and viruses, are of special
concern because they may cause immediate or acute reactions, such as
vomiting or diarrhea. Long-term exposure to some contaminants, including
pesticides, minerals, and solvents, at levels above standards may cause
gastrointestinal problems, skin irritations, cancer, reproductive and
developmental problems, and other chronic health effects. High levels of
nitrates in drinking water can cause serious illness in infants. If
contamination poses an immediate health threat, water suppliers are
required by law to notify customers right away. Individuals with private
wells are responsible for testing to assure that the water is safe to
drink.

Children may be more sensitive and more exposed to pesticides.

Children, due to their relative body size, may be more exposed to
pesticides because they drink more water, breathe more air, and eat more
of certain foods compared to adults. Young children eat three to four
times more food than adults in proportion to their body size, and they
often eat greater proportionate quantities of a more limited variety of
foods. Children may be disproportionately exposed to certain pesticide
residues that may be present in food. Still, for children and adults
alike, the benefits of a diet that includes fruits and vegetables far
outweigh the potential risks of pesticides.

Children's behavior, such as playing on lawns, floors, or carpeting
recently treated with pesticides, as well as putting their fingers or
objects, including dirt and toys that may be contaminated with pesticide
residues, in their mouths, also can lead to higher exposures. Access to
containers of pesticides and other chemicals in the house, garage, or
storage sheds can result in dangerous exposures.

The dose, toxicity, and timing of exposure can have a significant impact
on the nature and severity of the resulting health effect. During early
years of development, children's bodies metabolize substances
differently than adults. In some cases, this may make a pesticide more
toxic to a child. Too much exposure to pesticides may lead to a variety
of health effects, such as acute poisoning, disruption of the hormone
and immune systems, respiratory problems, neurological damage, and
cancer.

Elevated levels of radon in indoor air may cause cancer.

Radon is an invisible, odorless, radioactive gas that comes from the
natural breakdown of uranium in soil, rock, and water. Radon can enter
into basements or crawl spaces through cracks and porous foundations,
leading to high levels in indoor air where children may sleep or play.
In some locations, well water containing dissolved radon also may affect
children's health. Testing homes for radon is simple and inexpensive,
and if discovered, radon problems can usually be fixed.

Carbon monoxide can be a risk to fetuses, infants, and children.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas produced
whenever any fuel such as gas, oil, kerosene, wood, or charcoal is
burned. If indoor and outdoor appliances that burn fuel are properly
installed, vented, maintained, and used, the amount of CO in the air we
breathe is usually not hazardous. However, dangerous levels of CO can
accumulate where appliances are not working with proper ventilation or
are used incorrectly. If a pregnant woman is exposed to elevated levels
of CO, it may harm the fetus. Infants and children are believed to be
more susceptible to CO exposure than adults. Exposure to very high
levels of CO can result in severe injury or death.

Unprotected sun exposure during childhood increases lifetime risk for
skin cancer.

Children spend much of their time outdoors, exposed to the sun.
Overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun can cause
sunburns in the short term, but also may lead to long term health
problems such as skin cancer, cataracts, and premature aging of the
skin. Just one or two blistering childhood sunburns may double the risk
of some skin cancers as an adult. Artificial sources of UV light such as
sunbeds and sunlamps also can damage the skin and unprotected eyes.
Preliminary scientific research suggests that UV radiation also may harm
the immune system.

# Online Resources to Protect Children

The following is a list of online tools and resources provided by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to educate and encourage the
public to protect children from environmental risks at home, at school,
and outdoors. EPA is working with many partners to protect children's
environmental health and links to non-EPA Web sites can be found at
[www.epa.gov/children](http://www.epa.gov/children).

# 

# LIVE

**Indoor Air Quality** -- Provides information about indoor air quality
topics, resources, and hotline numbers.

[www.epa.gov/iaq](http://www.epa.gov/iaq)

**A Brief Guide to Mold, Moisture, and Your Home** -- Provides
information and guidance for homeowners and renters on how to clean up
residential mold problems and how to prevent mold growth.

[www.epa.gov/iaq/molds/moldguide.html](http://www.epa.gov/iaq/molds/moldguide.html)

**Lead Poisoning Prevention** -- Provides information about lead, lead
hazards, and simple steps to protect your family.

[www.epa.gov/lead](http://www.epa.gov/lead)

**Pesticides and Lead Poisoning** -- Offers simple tips to protect
children from pesticides and lead poisoning in the home.

[www.epa.gov/oppfead1/cb/10_tips](http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/cb/10_tips)

**Ground Water and Drinking Water** -- Provides information about the
quality and safety of our drinking water.

[www.epa.gov/safewater](http://www.epa.gov/safewater)

**Drinking Water from Household Wells** -- Gives private household well
owners answers to the most frequently asked questions, describes
potential problems, and offers maintenance suggestions.

[www.epa.gov/safewater/faq/faq/html1#pwell](http://www.epa.gov/safewater/faq/faq/html1#pwell)

**Asbestos Home Page** -- Provides information and resources about
asbestos in the home.

[www.epa.gov/asbestos](http://www.epa.gov/asbestos)

**Pesticides and Food** -- Explains what your family needs to know about
children's health risks associated with pesticides and food.

[www.epa.gov/pesticides/food](http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/food)

# LEARN

**Healthy School Environments** -- Serves as a gateway to EPA and other
online resources to help facility managers, school administrators,
architects, design engineers, school nurses, parents, teachers, and
staff address environmental health issues in schools.

[www.epa.gov/schools](http://www.epa.gov/schools)

**Indoor Air Quality 'Tools for Schools'** -- Helps school personnel
identify, solve, and prevent indoor air quality problems in the school
environment.

[www.epa.gov/iaq/schools](http://www.epa.gov/iaq/schools)

**Integrated Pest Management in Schools** -- Encourages school officials
to adopt Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices to reduce
children\'s exposure to pesticides.

[www.epa.gov/pesticides/ipm](http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/ipm)

**Student Environmental Human Health Information** -- Explores ways in
which students can protect their health.

[www.epa.gov/students/health.htm](http://www.epa.gov/students/health.htm)

**Sunwise School Program** -- Focuses on children's health risks
associated with overexposure to the sun, UV radiation, and ozone
depletion.

[www.epa.gov/sunwise](http://www.epa.gov/sunwise)

**Lead-Free Schools and Day Care Centers** -- Provides information on
reducing the risk of lead exposure from drinking water in educational
facilities.

[www.epa.gov/safewater/lead/schoolanddccs.htm](http://www.epa.gov/safewater/lead/schoolanddccs.htm)

# PLAY

**Beach Watch** -- Describes EPA's goals of improving public health and
environmental protection programs for beach goers, and provides the
public with information about the quality of their beach water.

[www.epa.gov/waterscience/beaches](http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/beaches)

**Mercury Fish Advisories** -- Provides consumption advisories for
commercial and non-commercial fish, and information on the risks
associated with mercury in freshwater fish.

[www.epa.gov/ost/fish](http://www.epa.gov/ost/fish)

[www.epa.gov/mercury/fish.htm](http://www.epa.gov/mercury/fish.htm)

**Outdoor Air Quality** -- Offers information about air quality in your
area and provides links to air pollution data and maps.

[www.epa.gov/air/urbanair/whappen.html](http://www.epa.gov/air/urbanair/whappen.html)

**AIR *NOW*** -- Provides information on ozone maps, air quality
forecasts, and health facts.

[www.epa.gov/airnow](http://www.epa.gov/airnow)

**Diesel Exhaust and School Bus Idling** -- Encourages school districts
to establish school bus idling guidelines to protect children from
exposure to diesel exhaust.

[www.epa.gov/region01/eco/diesel/assets/pdfs/Diesel_Factsheet_Schoolbus.pdf](http://www.epa.gov/region01/eco/diesel/assets/pdfs/Diesel_Factsheet_Schoolbus.pdf)

**Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA) Treated Wood** -- Provides information
about wood pressure treated with cromated copper arsenate (CCA), which
is commonly used on playground equipment.

[www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/chemicals/cca_qa.htm](http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/chemicals/cca_qa.htm)

Other useful tools and resources:

EPA's President's Task Force on Environmental Health Risks and Safety
Risks to Children

<http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/ochpweb.nsf/content/Whatwe_fedtask.htm>

EPA's Strategy for Research on Environmental Risks to Children

[www.epa.gov/ncea/pdfs/strat4resrch.pdf](http://www.epa.gov/ncea/pdfs/strat4resrch.pdf)

Children's Environmental Health and Safety Inventory of Research
(CHEHSIR)

[www.oaspub.epa.gov/chehsir/chehsir.page](http://www.oaspub.epa.gov/chehsir/chehsir.page)

America's Children and the Environment: A First View of Available
Measures

<http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/ochpweb.nsf/content/pdf50.htm/$File/ACE-Report.pdf>

Smart Growth Information

[www.epa.gov/livablecommunities](http://www.epa.gov/livablecommunities)

\*For links to additional online resources about children's
environmental health, visit EPA's Office of Children's Health Protection
web site at [www.epa.gov/children](http://www.epa.gov/children).

# 

#  

## The Facts About Children's Health

**Asthma** An estimated 6.3 million children (8.7 %) under 18 year of
age had asthma in 2001.^1^

Hospitalizations for asthma increased from 21 per 10,000 children in
1980 to 29 per 10,000 children in 1999.^2^

In 1999, asthma was the fourth ranking cause of non-injury-related
hospitalization among children less than 15 years of age.^3^

In 2000, 233 children under 18 years of age died from asthma.^4^

The number of children ages 1-14 dying from asthma increased 180 % from
1979 to 1998.^5^

Asthma disproportionately affects children from lower-income families
and children from different racial and ethnic groups.^6^

Asthma is the most common chronic childhood disease in the United
States.^7^

**Economic Impact of Asthma** In 1994-1996, children with asthma missed
approximately 14 million school days a year.^8^

The direct and indirect costs of asthma to the U.S. economy were
estimated at \$14 billion in 2002.^9^

-   About 1/3 of the costs are associated with children's asthma.^10^

-   School absenteeism costs over \$1.5 billion each year in lost
    productivity.^11^

Asthmatic patients and their families pay a higher portion of their
medical care costs than patients with other diseases because of heavy
reliance on prescription medication combined with lower insurance
coverage for prescription drugs.

-   They pay about 25 % of the cost themselves compared to 10% for other
    general medical care costs.^12^

**Lead Poisoning** About 430,000 American children (approximately 2
percent) ages 1-5 had elevated levels of lead in their blood (that is,
levels at or greater than 10 ug/dL) in 1999-2000. That number of lead
poisoned children declined significantly from 4.7 million in 1978.^13^

Childhood lead poisoning reduces IQ, which can never be regained^14^.

The decline in blood lead levels is due largely to the phasing out of
lead in gasoline between 1973 and 1995^15^ and to the reduction in the
number of homes with lead-based paint from 64 million in 1990 to 38
million in 2000.^16^

Today, elevated blood lead levels are due mostly to the ingestion of
contaminated dust, paint, and soil.^17^

Blood lead levels are higher for children ages 1-5 from lower-income
families and for certain racial and ethnic groups.^18^

**Economic Impact of Lead Poisoning** Reduced cognitive ability, as
measured by IQ scores and valued in terms of forgone earnings, is
estimated to be about \$9,600 per IQ point lost.^19^

The cost of not eliminating lead exposure to children between 2000-2010
is expected to be about \$22 billion in forgone earnings.^20^

**Childhood Cancer** In 1998, approximately 12,400 children younger than
20 years of age were diagnosed with cancer and 2,500 died.^21^

Cancer is the leading cause of death by disease among children between 1
and 19 years of age in the United States. It is the third most common
overall cause of death, preceded only by intentional injuries and
accidents.^22^

Leukemia was the most common cancer diagnosis for children under age 20
from 1975-1995, followed by central nervous system tumors, and
lymphomas.^23^

The causes of childhood cancer are poorly understood, though in general
it is thought that different forms of cancer have different causes.^24^

**Economic Impact of Childhood Cancer** The total cost per case of
childhood cancer is estimated to be approximately \$623,000 (in 1998
dollars).^25^

The estimated annualized cost of cancer for children under 15 years of
age is \$4.8 billion

(in 1998 dollars).^26^

**Developmental Disorders** Approximately 12 million children (17
percent) under age 18 suffer from one or more developmental
disabilities, which include physical, cognitive, psychological, sensory,
and speech impairments.^27^

In 1997-2000 about 0.6 percent of children were reported to be diagnosed
with mental retardation.^28^

Between 3 and 8 percent of the babies born each year will be affected by
developmental disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
or mental retardation.^29^

Mental retardation is more common for children from lower-income
families and for certain racial and ethnic groups.^30^

The causes of developmental disorders are generally unknown.^31^

**Economic Impact of Developmental Disorders** State and federal
education departments spend about \$36 billion each year on special
education programs for individuals with developmental disabilities who
are 3-21 years of age.^32^

Although it is hard to estimate the costs of caring for children with
more serious forms of mental retardation, the costs may be as much as 10
times higher than caring for a child who does not have a disability.^33^

Footnotes:

^1^EPA, America's Children and the Environment, Second Edition, 2003, p.
69. See
<http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/ochpweb.nsf/content/publications.htm>.

^2^Ibid, p. 75.

^3^Ibid.

^4^CDC,
<http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/asthma/asthma.htm>.

^5^American Lung Association, Trends in Asthma Morbidity and Mortality,
March 2003, Table 4. See
<http://www2.lungusa.org/data/asthma/ASTHMAdt.pdf>.

^6^EPA, America's Children and the Environment, p. 71.

^7^National Academy of Science, Clearing the Air: Asthma and Indoor Air
Exposures, 2000, Executive Summary, p. 1.

^8^Mannino, D., D. Homa, L. Akinbami, J. Moorman, C. Gwynn, and S. Redd,
Surveillance for Asthma-United States, 1980-1999, Morbidity and
Mortality Weekly Report 51(SS01), p. 5. See
http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/PDF/SS/SS5101.pdf

^9^NIH, <http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/resources/docs/02_chtbk.pdf>.

^10^EPA, National Costs of Asthma for 1997, pp. 21-22.

^11^American Lung Association, Table 17.

^12^EPA, National Costs of Asthma for 1997, p. 24.

^13^EPA, America's Children and the Environment, Second Edition, 2003,
p. 53. See
<http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/ochpweb.nsf/content/publications.htm>.

^14^ATSDR, Case Studies in Environmental Medicine, Lead Toxicity,
revised September 1992. See
<http://wonder.cdc.gov/wonder/prevguid/p0000017/p0000017.asp>.

^15^EPA, National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 1998 (2000),
p. 78. See <http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd98/toc.html>

^16^D. Jacobs, R. Clickner, J. Zhou, S. Viet, D. Marker, J. Rogers, D.
Zeldin, P. Broene, and W. Friedmanm, 2002, The Prevalence of Lead-based
Paint Hazards in U.S. Housing, Environmental Health Perspectives
110(10): 599-606 (2002).

^17^CDC, Screening Young Children for Lead Poisoning: Guidance for State
and Local Public Health Officials, 1997. See
<http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/guide/guide97.htm>.

^18^CDC, <http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/factsheets/childhoodlead.htm>.

^19^President's Task Force on Environmental Health Risks and Safety
Risks to Children, Eliminating Childhood Lead Poisoning: A Federal
Strategy Targeting Lead Paint Hazards, February 2000, p. A-26. See
<http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/ochpweb.nsf/content/leadhaz.htm/$file/leadhaz.pdf>.

^20^Ibid, p. A-28.

^21^L. Reis, M. Smith, J. Gurney, M. Linet, T. Tamra, J. Young, and G.
Bunin, Cancer Incidence and Survival among Children and Adolescents:
United States SEER Program 1975-1995, National Cancer Institute, NIH
Pub. No. 99-4649, 1999, p. 1. See
<http://seer.cancer.gov/publications/childhood/introduction.pdf>.

^22^Ibid.

^23^Ibid, p. 2.

^24^EPA, America's Children and the Environment, Second Edition, 2003,
p. 76. See
<http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/ochpweb.nsf/content/publications.htm>.

^25^P. Landrigan, C. Schechter, J. Lipton, M. Fahs, and J. Schwartz,
Environmental Pollutants and Disease in American Children: Estimates of
Morbidity, Mortality, and Costs for Lead Poisonings, Asthma, Cancer, and
Developmental Disabilities, Environmental Health Perspectives 110(7):
771-8 (2002).

^26^Ibid.

^27^CDC, <http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/dd>.

^28^EPA, America's Children and the Environment, Second Edition, 2003,
p. 85. See
<http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/ochpweb.nsf/content/publications.htm>.

^29^B. Weiss and P. Landrigan, The Developing Brain and the Environment:
An Introduction, Environmental Health Perspectives 108 (Suppl.3): 373-4
(2000).

^30^EPA, America's Children and the Environment, p. 85.

^31^CDC, <http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/dd>.

^32^Ibid.

^33^CDC, <http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/dd/ddmr.htm>.