**Chapter II**

**Disaster Fire Suppression**

***Introduction***

During and immediately after a disaster, the first priorities of
professional fire services are life safety and extinguishing *major*
fires. They may be hampered by impassable roads, inadequate water
supply, weather conditions, burning material, and inadequate resources
to deal with the number of existing major fires. At this time, CERT fire
suppression groups play a very important role in firefighting and fire
prevention by:

 Putting out small fires before they become major fires.

 Preventing additional fires by removing fuel sources.

 Assisting with evacuations where necessary.

Portable fire extinguishers are an invaluable firefighting tool. They
can be used to eliminate small fires that might otherwise grow into
larger, more destructive fires and to prevent the loss of life and
property.

Potential fuel sources include natural gas and electrical utilities as
well as hazardous materials. Understanding hazardous materials and other
fire hazards in the home and workplace will help you determine the
appropriate course of action to take.

  ----------------------- ----------------------- -----------------------
                          Work with a buddy.      

  ----------------------- ----------------------- -----------------------

***Fire Chemistry***

Fires require three elements to exist:

 *Heat.* The temperature at which a material produces a vapor, and the
temperature at which vapors will burn. (Vapors will self-ignite if the
temperature is hot enough.)

 *Fuel.* The fuel for a fire may be a solid, liquid, or gas. The type
and quantity of the fuel will determine which method should be used to
extinguish the fire.

 *Oxygen.* Fires will burn vigorously in any atmosphere of at least 20
percent oxygen. Without oxygen, fuel could be heated until entirely
vaporized, and it would not burn.

Together, these three elements are called the *fire triangle,* which is
illustrated in the figure below.

![](media/image1.emf){width="2.2152777777777777in"
height="2.1868055555555554in"}

**Figure II-1. Fire Triangle**

***Fire Chemistry***

*(Continued)*

The three elements in the proper proportions will produce fire.
Extinguishment is possible when one of the three elements is missing as
shown in the following figure.

![](media/image2.emf){width="5.03125in" height="1.40625in"}

**Figure II-2. Effect Of Removing Elements Of The Fire Triangle**

Classes of fire are based on the type of fuel that is burning. There are
four major classes of fire:

 *Class A.* Ordinary combustibles such as paper, cloth, wood, rubber,
and many plastics.

 *Class B.* Flammable liquids (e.g., oils, gasoline, kitchen grease,
paints, and solvents) and combustible liquids (e.g., charcoal lighter,
kerosene, and diesel fuel). These fuels burn only at the surface because
oxygen cannot penetrate the depth of the fluid. If ignited, it is the
vapor that burns.

 *Class C.* Electrical equipment (wiring, fuse boxes, motors, power
tools, appliances).

 *Class D.* Combustible metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and
titanium.

***Fire Chemistry***

*(Continued)*

*It is extremely important to identify the type of fuel so that the
correct method and agent can be used to extinguish the fire.*

The remainder of this chapter will deal with:

 CERT size-up.

 Firefighting resources.

 Safe fire suppression.

In class, your instructor may present additional information that is not
included in this Participant Handbook. Feel free to take notes during
the session.

***Hazardous Materials***

***What Are Hazardous Materials?***

Hazardous materials are any materials that corrode other materials,
explode or are easily ignited, react strongly with water, are unstable
when exposed to heat or shock, or are otherwise toxic to humans,
animals, or the environment. Hazardous materials include, but are not
limited to:

 Explosives

 Flammable gas and liquid

 Poisons and poisonous gases

 Corrosives

 Nonflammable gas

 Oxidizers

 Radioactive materials

Hazardous materials pose an ever-present danger. They are stored in all
types of locations, and they are transported by a variety of means. They
are commonly found in such places as industrial and commercial
districts, highways, harbors, airports, and railroads. They are also
found in homes and offices.

***Identifying Stored Hazardous Materials***

Stored hazardous materials may be identified by means of the National
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 704 Diamond system of placards. These
placards are located on the outside of buildings at the entrance to the
storage area. An example of the NFPA 704 Diamond is shown in the
following figure.

![](media/image3.emf){width="6.96875in" height="4.270138888888889in"}

**Figure II-3. National Fire Protection Association 704 Diamond**

***Identifying Stored Hazardous Materials** (Continued)*

The diamond is divided into four colored quadrants, each with a rating
number inside it. The colored quadrants provide information about the
type of danger caused by the material. The numbers within the red, blue,
and yellow quadrants (provided for professional firefighter use only)
indicate the degree of risk associated with the material. *Consider
these placards a "stop sign" for CERT members*, unless in your planning
stages you have identified the dangers involved.

***Identifying Hazardous Materials In Transit***

Hazardous materials that are being transported are marked with
Department of Transportation (DOT), United Nations (UN), or North
American (NA) warning placards. For the DOT system, each diamond-shaped
placard includes a color, symbol, name, and number, each of which
indicates the type of hazard. The DOT placards are illustrated in the
figure below.

![](media/image4.emf){width="7.488194444444445in"
height="3.2284722222222224in"}

**Figure II-4. DOT Warning Placards**

***Identifying Hazardous Materials In Transit** (Continued)*

The UN and NA systems are displayed mainly on tank cars, cargo tanks,
and portable tanks. Examples of UN and NA placards are shown in the
figures below.

**Figure II-5. UN Placarding System Figure II-6. NA Numbering System**

![](media/image5.emf){width="8.519444444444444in"
height="3.6777777777777776in"}

***Reducing Hazards In Home And Office***

***Introduction***

What can you do about fire hazards in the home or office? Simple fire
prevention practices will go far in reducing the likelihood of fires.
First, *locate* potential sources of ignition. They may include
electrical hazards, natural gas hazards, and flammable or combustible
liquids. Then do what you can to *reduce or eliminate* fire hazards.
This section will address the elimination of hazards related to:

 Electricity

 Natural gas

 Flammable or combustible liquids

***Electrical Hazards***

When misused or neglected, electricity can cause serious injury or
death. With a little effort, however, most electrical hazards can be
eliminated. Ways to reduce electrical hazards include:

 Avoid the "electrical octopus." Eliminate tangles of electrical cords
and don't overload electrical outlets.

 Don't run electrical cords under carpets.

 Replace broken or frayed cords immediately.

 Properly maintain electrical appliances. Remove or replace
malfunctioning appliances.

  ----------------------- ----------------------- -----------------------
                          Fire safety begins at   
                          home.                   

  ----------------------- ----------------------- -----------------------

***Electrical Hazards** (Continued)*

When an electrical emergency does occur, be prepared to handle an
electrically charged appliance fire. Know where the power shut-off and
circuit breakers or fuses are, and know how to shut off the power.

 For circuit boxes: Switch off smaller breakers first, then the main
breaker.

 Fuse boxes: Unscrew the individual fuses, then pull the main switch.

Examples of circuit and fuse boxes are shown in the figures below. Do
*not*, however, enter a flooded basement to shut off the electrical
supply.

![](media/image6.emf){width="6.447916666666667in"
height="2.9479166666666665in"}

**Figure II-7. Circuit Box With Figure II-8. Fuse Box With**

**Shut-Off Shut-Off**

When turning power back on, turn the main breaker or switch on first,
then switch on the smaller breakers or fuses.

***Natural Gas Hazards***

Natural gas presents two kinds of hazards. It is an *asphyxiant*,
meaning that it robs the body of oxygen, and it is *explosive*leaking
gas can easily be ignited, causing an explosion and subsequent fires.
Ways to reduce natural gas hazards in a disaster include:

 Installing a gas detector near your furnace and hot water heater and
testing the detector monthly to ensure that it works.

 Locating and labeling the gas shut-off valve. (Multiple gas units in
an apartment building are usually identified by apartment number or
letter.) **NOTE:** After the natural gas is turned off, it should be
turned on only by a trained utility technician.

![](media/image7.emf){width="3.8041666666666667in"
height="3.020138888888889in"}

**Figure II-9. Natural Gas Meter With Shut-Off**

 Knowing how to shut off the gas. The valve position indicates ON/OFF.
**NOTE:** [Never]{.underline} enter the basement of a structure that is
on fire to turn off [any]{.underline} utility.

 Having the proper tool (gas wrench, pliers, channel locks, ViseGrips,
etc.) in your disaster supplies kit or near the gas valve.

***Natural Gas Hazards*** *(Continued)*

 Strapping the water heater to the wall in two places:  from the top
and  from the bottom of the tank. Each strap should cross behind the
water tank and fasten to wall studs behind the tank. (See Figure II-10
below.)

 Have a licensed plumber attach the water heater to the gas supply by a
flexible gas line with shut-off that will move in the event of an
earthquake.

![](media/image8.emf)

**Figure II-10. Hot Water Heater Bracing**

***Flammable Liquid Hazards***

Many typical household products, such as gasoline, charcoal lighter, and
paint thinners and removers are flammable. In addition, many household
products such as air fresheners, deodorants, hair sprays, insecticides,
and furniture polish are packaged as aerosols. Aerosols contain
flammable propellants and may explode if heated.

To minimize hazards associated with flammable products:

 Read labels to identify flammable products.

 Store them properly (remember the L.I.E.S. rulesLimit, Isolate,
Eliminate, Separate).

***CERT Size-Up***

Before fire suppression operations can begin, rescue teams must first
ensure the safety of all rescuers, then citizen life safety. Once these
primary concerns have been addressed, CERT size-up can begin.

The first task in fire suppression is the size-up or gathering of
information for decision making and planning. Size-up is a continuous
data-gathering process that will dictate whether to attempt fire
suppression, and planning for extinguishing the fire. CERT size-up
answers these questions:

 Can my buddy and I fight the fire safely?

 Do my buddy and I have the right equipment?

 Are there other hazards?

 Is the building going to collapse?

 Can my buddy and I escape?

Some of the factors involved in each step of size-up are shown in the
checklist on the following pages. Use the checklist as a guide for CERT
size-up. Taking the actions listed will help the CERT member make safer
decisions. Practice will make this process more automatic.

***CERT Size-Up***

*(Continued)*

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Step 1: Gather Facts Yes No**                                       |
|                                                                       |
|  *Time*                                                              |
|                                                                       |
| Does the time of day or week impact fire suppression efforts?       |
|                                                                       |
| How?                                                                  |
|                                                                       |
|  *Weather*                                                           |
|                                                                       |
| Will weather conditions impact your safety?                         |
|                                                                       |
| If yes, how will your safety be impacted?                             |
|                                                                       |
| Will weather conditions impact the fire situation?                  |
|                                                                       |
| If yes, how will the fire situation be impacted?                      |
|                                                                       |
|  *Type Of Construction*                                              |
|                                                                       |
| What type(s) of structure(s) are involved?                            |
|                                                                       |
| What type(s) of construction are involved?                            |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

**Table II-1. CERT Size-Up Checklist**

***CERT Size-Up***

*(Continued)*

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Step 1: Gather Facts** (Continued) **Yes No**                       |
|                                                                       |
|  *Occupancy*                                                         |
|                                                                       |
| Are the structures occupied?                                        |
|                                                                       |
| If yes, how many people are likely to be affected?                    |
|                                                                       |
| Are there special considerations (e.g., children, elderly)?         |
|                                                                       |
|  *Hazards*                                                           |
|                                                                       |
| Are hazardous materials involved?                                   |
|                                                                       |
| Are any other types of hazards likely to be involved?               |
|                                                                       |
| If yes, what other hazards?                                           |
|                                                                       |
| **Step 2: Assess And Communicate The Damage**                         |
|                                                                       |
|  Take a lap around the building. Is the damage beyond the CERT       |
| team's capability?                                                  |
|                                                                       |
| If yes, what special requirements or qualifications are required?     |
|                                                                       |
|  Are normal communication channels functioning?                    |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

**Table II-1. CERT Size-Up Checklist**

(Continued)

***CERT Size-Up***

*(Continued)*

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Step 3: Consider Probabilities Yes No**                             |
|                                                                       |
|  *Life Hazards*                                                      |
|                                                                       |
| Are there potentially life-threatening hazards?                     |
|                                                                       |
| If yes, what are the hazards?                                         |
|                                                                       |
|  *Path Of Fire*                                                      |
|                                                                       |
| What is the path of the fire?                                         |
|                                                                       |
| Does the fire's path jeopardize other areas?                        |
|                                                                       |
| If yes, what other areas may be jeopardized?                          |
|                                                                       |
|  *Additional Damage*                                                 |
|                                                                       |
| Is there great risk or potential for more disaster activity that    |
|                                                                       |
| will impact personal safety?                                          |
|                                                                       |
| **Step 4: Assess Your Own Situation**                                 |
|                                                                       |
|  What resources are available with which you can suppress the fires? |
|                                                                       |
|  What equipment is available?                                        |
|                                                                       |
| **Step 5: Establish Priorities**                                      |
|                                                                       |
|  Can fire suppression be *safely* attempted by CERT members?       |
|                                                                       |
| If no, do *not* attempt suppression.                                  |
|                                                                       |
|  Are there other, more pressing needs at the moment?               |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

**Table II-1. CERT Size-Up Checklist**

(Continued)

***CERT Size-Up***

*(Continued)*

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Step 6: Make Decisions**                                            |
|                                                                       |
|  Where will deployment of available resources do the most good while |
| maintaining an adequate margin of safety?                             |
|                                                                       |
| **Step 7: Develop Action Plans**                                      |
|                                                                       |
|  Determine how personnel and other resources should be deployed.     |
|                                                                       |
| **Step 8: Take Action**                                               |
|                                                                       |
|  Put the plans into effect.                                          |
|                                                                       |
| **Step 9: Evaluate Progress**                                         |
|                                                                       |
|  Continually size up the situation to identify changes in the:       |
|                                                                       |
| \- Scope of the problem.                                              |
|                                                                       |
| \- Safety risks.                                                      |
|                                                                       |
| \- Resource availability.                                             |
|                                                                       |
|  Adjust strategies as required.                                      |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

**Table II-1. CERT Size-Up Checklist**

(Continued)

***Firefighting Resources***

A variety of resources may be available for fire suppression, including:

 *Portable Fire Extinguishers.* Portable fire extinguishers are an
invaluable tool for putting out small fires. A well-prepared home or
office will have at least two.

 *Interior Wet Standpipes.* In commercial buildings and apartment
buildings, interior wet standpipes should be available for use by
occupants or tenants. These standpipes usually consist of about 100 feet
of 1-inch jacketed hose with a 3/8-inch nozzle tip. They deliver up to
125 gallons of water per minute. **NOTE:** [Always]{.underline} work in
3-person teams when using an interior wet standpipe. One person handles
the hose, another bleeds the air from the line, and the third controls
the water pressure.

 *Confinement.* In interior spaces, the ability to confine the fire by
closing doors is a valuable resource. Close doors to rooms and hallways
to restrict the spread of smoke and heat while you escape to the
outside.

 *"Creative" Resources.* Sometimes it is necessary to make use of other
materials and equipment that may be at hand. Examples include:

\- Swimming pool or spa, with buckets

\- Dirt or sand and shovels

\- Garden hose and ladders (for second floor or roof)

The type of fuel will determine which firefighting agent(s) you select.

This section will focus on portable fire extinguishers, as they are the
most likely resource available in an emergency.

***Extinguisher Rating And Labeling***

Portable fire extinguishers must be rated and approved by the State Fire
Marshal and Underwriters' Laboratories. They are rated according to
their effectiveness on classes of fire and their relative strength and
capability and must be so labeled by the manufacturer. An example of a
manufacturer's label is shown in the figure below.

![](media/image9.emf){width="5.134722222222222in"
height="3.265972222222222in"}

**Figure II-11. Manufacturer's Label**

Each manufacturer's label also displays the NFPA *rating* code for the
extinguisher. The rating provides important information about the types
of fires that can be extinguished using the extinguisher.

***Types Of Fire Extinguishers***

There are five types of extinguishers:

 Water

 Dry chemical

 Halon

 Carbon dioxide

 Foam

It is extremely important to use the correct agent and method for the
class of fire. The chart in Figure II-12 on the following page shows
appropriate agents and methods for each type of fire. The
characteristics of each type of fire extinguisher are listed below and
on page II-25.

*Water Extinguishers*

Water extinguishers are among the most commonly used. They are excellent
for heat removal on Class A fires. Extreme caution should be exercised
when using a water extinguisher to ensure that the water, which is under
extreme pressure, does not scatter lightweight materials and spread the
fire. Common characteristics for water fire extinguishers are:

 *Capacity.* Standard size is 2 gallons.

 *Range.* 30-40 feet.

 *Pressure.* 110 pounds per square inch (psi).

***Types Of Fire Extinguishers** (Continued)*

![](media/image10.emf){width="7.106944444444444in"
height="5.180555555555555in"}

**Figure II-12. Fire Types, Extinguishing Agents, And Methods**

*Dry Chemical Extinguishers*

Dry chemical extinguishers are also commonly used. Regular dry chemical
extinguishers have a sodium bicarbonate base and are effective on Class
B and C fires. Multipurpose dry chemical extinguishers have a
monoammonium phosphate base and are effective for Class A, B, and C
fires. Both types of dry chemical extinguishers are nontoxic. Both
should be inverted monthly to prevent caking. Common characteristics for
dry chemical extinguishers are:

 *Capacity.* Approximately 10-20 seconds discharge time.

 *Range.* 8-12 feet.

 *Pressure.* 175-250 psi.

*Other Types Of Extinguishers*

Although still in use, carbon dioxide, halon, and foam extinguishers are
becoming less common.

 *Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers* are used primarily on Class C fires and
are also effective on Class B fires. They have limited use on Class A
fires because of reflash potential. They suppress fire by displacing or
diluting oxygen levels.

 *Halon Extinguishers* are best used on Class B or C fires. Halon is a
clean agent and is nontoxic when used in low concentrations or in
nonconfined areas. However, halon extinguishers are being phased out
because of potential impact on the environment.

 *Foam Extinguishers* are used for special applications and are less
common.

***Deciding To Use A Fire Extinguisher***

Below is a decision making guide for using a portable fire extinguisher
during a fire in a disaster. Ask yourself each of the questions before
attempting to extinguish a fire. If you answer "NO" to any of these
questions:

 Leave the building [immediately]{.underline}.

 Shut all doors as you leave to slow the spread of the fire.

If you answer "YES" to all of the questions, you may attempt to
extinguish the fire. If you feel unable to extinguish the fire, however,
leave immediately.

![](media/image11.emf){width="6.65625in" height="3.25in"}

Courtesy of Public Education Specialist, City of Colorado Springs Fire
Department

**Figure II-13. Deciding To Use A Fire Extinguisher**

***Operating A Fire Extinguisher***

A portable fire extinguisher includes the following components:

 Pressure gauge.

 Hose.

 Cylinder.

 Carrying handle and trigger.

These components are shown in the figure below.

![](media/image12.emf){width="5.958333333333333in"
height="2.7493055555555554in"}

**Figure II-14. Components Of A Portable Fire Extinguisher**

***Operating A Fire Extinguisher** (Continued)*

Always operate extinguishers in an upright position. As shown in the
figure below, the acronym to remember when operating a portable
extinguisher is *P.A.S.S.*: *P*ull, *A*im, *S*queeze, *S*weep. Aim at
the base of the fire.

![](media/image13.emf){width="3.8958333333333335in"
height="3.9166666666666665in"}

**Figure II-15. P.A.S.S.**

***Fire Suppression Safety***

As in all emergency operations, safety is key when fighting fires. CERT
teams should use the following guidelines when approaching and
suppressing a fire.

 Do *not* attempt to suppress a fire that is clearly too large for the
equipment at hand.

 Use safety equipment (helmet, goggles, dust mask, all-leather work
gloves, heavy shoes).

 Work in a buddy system.

 Have a backup team when possible.

 Always have two ways to exit the fire area.

 Approach smoke-filled areas correctly. The primary component of smoke
is carbon monoxide. Without proper self-contained breathing apparatus,
firefighting will be limited. Use extreme caution when entering
smoke-filled areas.

 Feel closed doors with the back of the hand, working from the bottom
of the door up. If the door is hot, there is fire behind it.

 Confine the fire whenever possible by keeping doors closed.

 Stay low to the ground.

 Always know a second escape route.

 Use natural ventilation techniques to clear smoke:

\- Open windows if possible.

\- Create cross-ventilation by channeling natural wind flow.

 Maintain a safe distance. Remember the effective extinguisher range.

 Move around the perimeter of the fire to maximize coverage of the
extinguisher agent.

***Fire Suppression Safety***

*(Continued)*

 Overhaul ensures that every piece of burning material is completely
extinguished. To prevent rekindling of the fire:

 Locate hidden burning material. Extinguish and safely remove it.

 Remove heat by cooling.

***Summary***

***Introduction***

Effective fire suppression depends on an understanding of:

 The elements required for fire to exist.

 The class of fire.

 The type of material involved.

 The resources required to extinguish each type of fire.

 Fire suppression techniques.

***The Fire Triangle***

Fires require three elements to exist:

 Heat

 Fuel

 Oxygen

If any of the elements are missing or can be suppressed, the fire can be
extinguished.

***Classes Of Fire***

There are four types of fire:

 Class A. Ordinary combustibles.

 Class B. Flammable liquids.

 Class C. Electrical equipment.

 Class D. Combustible metals.

It is extremely important to identify the class of fire so that you can
select the proper means of extinguishing the fire.

***Hazardous Materials***

To help understand the types of materials, several organizations have
developed placarding systems for hazardous and nonhazardous materials
being stored or transported.

 The NFPA 704 diamond system uses a combination of colors and numbers
to placard stored materials according to the type of hazard and level of
danger they present.

 Several organizations have developed placarding systems for
transported materials:

\- Like the NFPA 704 diamond, the DOT placard uses numbers and colors to
identify placard-transported materials according to type of hazard and
level of danger.

\- UN and NA placards use numbers to identify specific types of hazards.

When approaching accidents involving materials that are placarded as
hazardousor when the material is unknown*keep away and* *call for
professional help immediately.* Do *not* attempt to deal with the hazard
yourself. NFPA 704 Diamond system and UN and NA placards are "stop
signs" to CERT teams.

***Firefighting Resources***

While there are many resources available for extinguishing fires, the
resource that you will use most frequently is the portable fire
extinguisher. Portable extinguishers are labeled according to:

 The class(es) of the fire against which they are effective.

 The fire area that they can suppress.

Water and dry foam extinguishers are the most commonly used. Water
extinguishers are effective for Class A fires. Regular dry foam
extinguishers are effective for Class B and C fires. Multipurpose dry
foam extinguishers, however, are effective for Class A, B, or C fires.

Other types of portable fire extinguishers that are less commonly used
are carbon dioxide extinguishers, halon extinguishers, and foam
extinguishers.

***Fire Suppression Techniques***

When using a portable fire extinguisher, remember to use the *P.A.S.S.*
method: Pull, Aim, Squeeze, Sweep. You will have the opportunity to
practice using a portable fire extinguisher during the classroom
session.

***Assignment***

Before the next session:

 Read and familiarize yourself with Chapter III: Disaster Medical
OperationsPart I.

***Assignment** (Continued)*

 Purchase the following items:

\- 1 box of 4  4 bandages

\- 1 triangular bandage

\- 1 roll of roller gauze

\- 1 medical mask

\- 1 pair of latex examination gloves

 Bring a blanket to the next session.

 Wear comfortable clothes, since you will be practicing medical
techniques.

***Additional Reading***

The reference below is available if you would like to know more about
the information in this chapter.

[International Fire Service Training Association Manual]{.underline},
Fifth Edition. Oklahoma State University Fire Protection Publications,
Stillwater, OK: 1981.