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  NOT MEASUREMENT SENSITIVE

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**DOE-HDBK-1109-97 August 1997**

**Change Notice No. 2**

######  with Reaffirmation January 2007 

**DOE HANDBOOK**

RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY TRAINING FOR RADIATION-PRODUCING (X-RAY) DEVICES

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height="2.276388888888889in"}

**U.S. Department of Energy FSC 6910**

##### Washington, D.C. 20585

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release; distribution is
unlimited.

> This document has been reproduced from the best available copy.
>
> Available to DOE and DOE contractors from ES&H Technical Information
> Services, U.S. Department of Energy, (800) 473-4375, fax: (301)
> 903-9823.
>
> Available to the public from the U.S. Department of Commerce,
> Technology Administration, National Technical Information Service,
> Springfield, VA 22161; (703) 605-6000.

Note: The page numbers refer to Change Notice 1 of the standard which
was issued in February 2002. The changes have been incorporated in the
Adobe PDF file posted on the DOE Technical Standards Web Site.

**Change Notice No. 1. RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY TRAINING FOR
RADIATION-PRODUCING (X-RAY) DEVICES**

**DOE--HDBK--1109--97**

+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| **Page**       | **Change**                                          |
+================+=====================================================+
| Instructor     | Change "ACCIDENTAL DOSES" to "ACCIDENTAL            |
| Guide - pg v,  | EXPOSURES".                                         |
| Module 101, H  |                                                     |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Instructor     | Change "accidental doses" to "accidental            |
| Guide - pg 3,  | exposures".                                         |
| EO9            |                                                     |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Instructor     | Change "Rad, a measure of the energy absorbed per   |
| Guide - pg 9   | unit mass."                                         |
|                |                                                     |
|                | To "Rad, a measure of the energy absorbed per unit  |
|                | mass.                                               |
|                |                                                     |
|                | It is defined for any absorbing material."          |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Instructor     | Change " ACCIDENTAL DOSES" to "ACCIDENTAL           |
| Guide - pg 13  | EXPOSURES"                                          |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Instructor     | Change "(3.5 X 10 ^-4^) x Z x E" to "(7 X 10 ^-4^)  |
| Guide - pg 25  | x Z x E"                                            |
|                |                                                     |
|                | Change "(3.5 X 10 ^-4^) x 74 x 0.150 = 0.004\" to   |
|                | "(7 X 10 ^-4^) x 74 x 0.150 = 0.008"                |
|                |                                                     |
|                | Change -                                            |
|                |                                                     |
|                | "Then the energy transformed into X-rays would be   |
|                | 0.004 \[7500\] = 30 J/s.                            |
|                |                                                     |
|                | 1 J = 10^7^ ergs, and 100 ergs/g = 1 rad.           |
|                |                                                     |
|                | So this X-ray energy represents:                    |
|                |                                                     |
|                | 30 x 10^8^ ergs/sec.                                |
|                |                                                     |
|                | If all this X-ray energy were deposited in 1 g of   |
|                | tissue, the dose would be:                          |
|                |                                                     |
|                | 3.0 x 10^8^ ergs/sec \[1 rad/100ergs/g\] =          |
|                |                                                     |
|                | 3.0 x 10^6^ rad/sec."                               |
|                |                                                     |
|                | To -                                                |
|                |                                                     |
|                | "Then the energy transformed into X-rays would be   |
|                | 0.008 \[7500\] = 60 J/s.                            |
|                |                                                     |
|                | 1 J = 10^7^ ergs, and 100 ergs/g = 1 rad.           |
|                |                                                     |
|                | So this X-ray energy represents:                    |
|                |                                                     |
|                | 6.0 x 10^8^ ergs/sec.                               |
|                |                                                     |
|                | If all this X-ray energy were deposited in 1 g of   |
|                | tissue, the dose would be:                          |
|                |                                                     |
|                | 6.0 x 10^8^ ergs/sec \[1 rad/100ergs/g\] =          |
|                |                                                     |
|                | 6.0 x 10^6^ rad/sec."                               |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Instructor     | Change "accidental doses received" to "accidental   |
| Guide - pg 37, | exposures".                                         |
| Note           |                                                     |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Instructor     | Change "accidental dose" to "accidental exposure".  |
| Guide - pg 39, |                                                     |
| iv             |                                                     |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Student        | Change "ACCIDENTAL DOSES" to "ACCIDENTAL            |
| Guide - pg v,  | EXPOSURES".                                         |
| Module 101, H  |                                                     |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Student        | Change "accidental doses" to "accidental            |
| Guide - pg 1,  | exposures".                                         |
| EO9            |                                                     |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Student        | Change "Rad, a measure of the energy absorbed per   |
| Guide - pg 3   | unit mass."                                         |
|                |                                                     |
|                | To "Rad, a measure of the energy absorbed per unit  |
|                | mass.                                               |
|                |                                                     |
|                | It is defined for any absorbing material."          |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Student        | Change " ACCIDENTAL DOSES" to "ACCIDENTAL           |
| Guide - pg 6   | EXPOSURES"                                          |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Student        | Change "accidental doses received" to "accidental   |
| Guide - pg 23, | exposures".                                         |
| Note           |                                                     |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Student        | Change "accidental dose" to "accidental exposure".  |
| Guide - pg 25, |                                                     |
| iv             |                                                     |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Student        | Change "(3.5 X 10 ^-4^) x Z x E" to "(7 X 10 ^-4^)  |
| Guide - pg 15  | x Z x E"                                            |
|                |                                                     |
|                | Change "(3.5 X 10 ^-4^) x 74 x 0.150 = 0.004\" to   |
|                | "(7 X 10 ^-4^) x 74 x 0.150 = 0.008"                |
|                |                                                     |
|                | Change -                                            |
|                |                                                     |
|                | "Then the energy transformed into X-rays would be   |
|                | 0.004 \[7500\] = 30 J/s.                            |
|                |                                                     |
|                | 1 J = 10^7^ ergs, and 100 ergs/g = 1 rad.           |
|                |                                                     |
|                | So this X-ray energy represents:                    |
|                |                                                     |
|                | 30 x 10^8^ ergs/sec.                                |
|                |                                                     |
|                | If all this X-ray energy were deposited in 1 g of   |
|                | tissue, the dose would be:                          |
|                |                                                     |
|                | 3.0 x 10^8^ ergs/sec \[1 rad/100ergs/g\] =          |
|                |                                                     |
|                | 3.0 x 10^6^ rad/sec."                               |
|                |                                                     |
|                | To -                                                |
|                |                                                     |
|                | "Then the energy transformed into X-rays would be   |
|                | 0.008 \[7500\] = 60 J/s.                            |
|                |                                                     |
|                | 1 J = 10^7^ ergs, and 100 ergs/g = 1 rad.           |
|                |                                                     |
|                | So this X-ray energy represents:                    |
|                |                                                     |
|                | 6.0 x 10^8^ ergs/sec.                               |
|                |                                                     |
|                | If all this X-ray energy were deposited in 1 g of   |
|                | tissue, the dose would be:                          |
|                |                                                     |
|                | 6.0 x 10^8^ ergs/sec \[1 rad/100ergs/g\] =          |
|                |                                                     |
|                | 6.0 x 10^6^ rad/sec."                               |
+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+

**Change Notice 2. RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY TRAINING FOR RADIATION-PRODUCING
(X-RAY) DEVICES**

**DOE--HDBK--1109--97**

**Page/Section Change**

+---------------+------------------------------------------------------+
| iii           | Change:                                              |
|               |                                                      |
| Last para     | Copies of this Handbook may be obtained from either  |
|               | the DOE Radiation Safety Training Home Page Internet |
|               | site                                                 |
|               | (http://www.eh.doe.gov/radiation/RST/rstmater.htm)   |
|               | or the DOE Technical Standards Program Internet site |
|               | (<http://www.eh.doe.gov/techstds/>).                 |
|               |                                                      |
|               | To:                                                  |
|               |                                                      |
|               | Copies of this Handbook may be obtained from the DOE |
|               | Radiation Safety Training Home Page Internet site    |
|               | (<htt                                                |
|               | p://www.hss.energy.gov/radiation/RST/rstmater.htm>). |
+---------------+------------------------------------------------------+
| Cover sheet   | Change: Office of Environment, Safety & Health       |
| Parts 1, 2,   |                                                      |
| and 3         | U.S. Department of Energy                            |
|               |                                                      |
|               | February 1997                                        |
|               |                                                      |
|               | To: Office of Health Safety and Security             |
|               |                                                      |
|               | U.S. Department of Energy                            |
|               |                                                      |
|               | January 2007                                         |
+---------------+------------------------------------------------------+
| Part 1, page  | Change: The DOE Office of Worker Protection Policy   |
| 1             | and Programs                                         |
|               |                                                      |
| O             | (EH-52) is responsible for approving and maintaining |
| rganizational | the additional standardized training materials.      |
| Relationships |                                                      |
| and Reporting | To: The DOE Office of Worker Safety and Health       |
| Structure     | Policy (HS-11) is responsible for approving and      |
|               | maintaining the additional standardized training     |
|               | materials.                                           |
+---------------+------------------------------------------------------+
| Part 1, page  | Change reference to ANSI N43.2 to ANSI N43.2-2001    |
| 19            | (reissued in 2001)                                   |
+---------------+------------------------------------------------------+
| Part 1, page  | Change "EH" to "HSS"                                 |
| 12            |                                                      |
|               |                                                      |
| Evaluating    |                                                      |
| Training      |                                                      |
| Program       |                                                      |
| Effectiveness |                                                      |
+---------------+------------------------------------------------------+
| Part 2, page  | Change reference to ANSI N43.2 {1989} to ANSI N43.2  |
| 3             | {2001}                                               |
+---------------+------------------------------------------------------+
| Part 2, page  | Change: 0B500 mR"                                    |
| 47            |                                                      |
|               | To: "0 -- 500 mR"                                    |
| Part 3, page  |                                                      |
| 30            |                                                      |
+---------------+------------------------------------------------------+

**Foreword**

This Handbook describes a recommended implementation process for
additional standardized training as outlined in the *DOE* *Radiological
Control Standard (RCS)*. The Handbook is to assist those individuals
within the Department of Energy (DOE), Managing and Operating (M&O)
contractors, and Managing and Integrating (M&I) contractors identified
as having responsibility for implementing the additional standardized
training recommended by the *RCS*. This training may be given to
radiological workers to assist in meeting their job-specific training
requirements of 10 CFR 835.

This Handbook contains recommended training materials consistent with
other DOE additional standardized radiological training material. The
training material consists of the following documents:

> **[Program Management Guide]{.underline}** - This document contains
> detailed information on how to use the Handbook material.
>
> **[Instructor's Guide]{.underline}** - This document contains a lesson
> plan for instructor use, including notation of key points for
> inclusion of facility-specific information.
>
> **[Student's Guide]{.underline}** - This document contains student
> handout material and also should be augmented by facility-specific
> information.

This Handbook was produced in Word 2000 and has been formatted for
printing on an HP III (or higher) LaserJet printer. Copies of this
Handbook may be obtained from Copies of this Handbook may be obtained
from the DOE Radiation Safety Training Home Page Internet site
(<http://www.hss.energy.gov/radiation/RST/rstmater.htm>. Documents
downloaded from the DOE Radiation Safety Training Home Page Internet
site may be manipulated using the software noted above (current revision
or higher).

**Radiological Safety Training**

**for Radiation-Producing (X-Ray) Devices**

**Program Management Guide**

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height="2.509027777777778in"}

**Coordinated and Conducted**

**for**

**Office of Health, Safety and Security**

**U. S. Department of Energy**

**January 2007**

*This page intentionally left blank.*

ii

##  Course Developers

Jim Allan Stanford Linear Accelerator Center

Ken Barat Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Rocky Barnum Pacific Northwest National Laboratories

Brooke Buddemeier Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Richard Cooke Argonne National Laboratory - East

Ted DeCastro Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

William Egbert Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Darrel Howe Westinghouse Savannah River Company

David Lee Los Alamos National Laboratory

Kathleen McIntyre Brookhaven National Laboratory

Mike McNaughten Los Alamos National Laboratory

Edward Schultz Sandia National Laboratories

Brian Thomson Sandia National Laboratories

Paula Trinoskey Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Susan Vosburg Sandia National Laboratories

Ann Anthony Los Alamos National Laboratory

**Course Reviewers**

Peter O\'Connell U.S. Department of Energy

Randy Sullivan ATL International

Technical Standard Managers U.S. Department of Energy

*This page intentionally left blank.*

**Table of Contents**

**Page**

Introduction 1

Purpose and Scope 1

Management Guide Content 1

Core Training Goal 1

Organizational Relationships and Reporting Structure 1

Instructional Materials Development 3

Target Audience 3

Prerequisites 3

Training Material 4

Exemptions 4

Training Program Standards and Policies 5

Qualification of Instructors 5

Technical Qualifications 5

Instructional Capability and Qualifications 7

Selection of Instructors 9

Test Administration 9

Program Records and Administration 12

Training Program Development/Change Requests 12

Audit (internal and external) 12

Evaluating Training Program Effectiveness 12

Course-Specific Information 14

Purpose 14

Course Goal 14

Target Audience 14

Course Description 14

Prerequisites 15

Length 15

Test Bank 15

Retraining 15

Instructor Qualifications 16

Materials Checklist 17

Bibliography 18

*This page intentionally left blank.*

**Introduction**

+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Purpose and       |   | This program management guide provides       |
| Scope**             |   | guidance for proper implementation of        |
|                     |   | additional standardized training as outlined |
|                     |   | in the *DOE* *Radiological Control Standard  |
|                     |   | (RCS).* The guide is meant to assist those   |
|                     |   | individuals within the Department of Energy, |
|                     |   | Managing and Operating (M&O) contractors,    |
|                     |   | and Managing and Integrating (M&I)           |
|                     |   | contractors identified as having             |
|                     |   | responsibility for implementing the          |
|                     |   | additional standardized training recommended |
|                     |   | by the *RCS.* Facilities should determine    |
|                     |   | the applicability of this material to        |
|                     |   | support existing programs meant to comply    |
|                     |   | with the training required by 10 CFR 835.    |
|                     |   | Facilities are encouraged to revise these    |
|                     |   | materials as appropriate.                    |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Management Guide  |   | The management guide is divided into the     |
| Content**           |   | following sections:                          |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | -   Introduction                             |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | -   Instructional Materials Development      |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | -   Training Program Standards and Policies  |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | -   Course-Specific Information              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Core Training     |   | The goal of the additional standardized      |
| Goal**              |   | training program is to provide a             |
|                     |   | standardized, baseline knowledge for those   |
|                     |   | individuals completing the core training.    |
|                     |   | Standardization of the knowledge provides    |
|                     |   | personnel with the information necessary to  |
|                     |   | perform their assigned duties at a           |
|                     |   | predetermined level of expertise.            |
|                     |   | Implementing a standardized training program |
|                     |   | ensures consistent and appropriate training  |
|                     |   | of personnel.                                |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+

+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Organizational    |   | The DOE Office of Worker Safety and Health   |
| Relationships and   |   | Policy (HS-11) is responsible for approving  |
| Reporting           |   | and maintaining the additional standardized  |
| Structure**         |   | training materials.                          |
|                     |   |                                              |
| **Organizational    |   | *Continued on Next Page*                     |
| Relationships and   |   |                                              |
| Reporting Structure |   | The establishment of a comprehensive and     |
| (continued)**       |   | effective contractor site radiological       |
|                     |   | safety training program is the               |
|                     |   | responsibility of line                       |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | management and their subordinates. The       |
|                     |   | training function can be performed by a      |
|                     |   | separate training organization, but the      |
|                     |   | responsibility for quality and effectiveness |
|                     |   | rests with the line management.              |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | *Instructional Materials Development Next*   |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+

**Instructional Materials Development**

+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Target Audience** |   | Course instructional materials were          |
|                     |   | developed for specific employees who are     |
|                     |   | responsible for knowing or using the         |
|                     |   | knowledge or skills for each course. With    |
|                     |   | this in mind, the participant should never   |
|                     |   | ask the question, "Why do I need to learn    |
|                     |   | this?" However, this question is often asked |
|                     |   | when the participant cannot apply the        |
|                     |   | content of the program. It is the            |
|                     |   | responsibility of management to select and   |
|                     |   | send workers to training who need the        |
|                     |   | content of the program. When workers can     |
|                     |   | benefit from the course, they can be         |
|                     |   | motivated to learn the content and apply it  |
|                     |   | on their jobs. Care should be taken to read  |
|                     |   | the course descriptions along with the       |
|                     |   | information about who should attend.         |
|                     |   | Participants and DOE facilities alike will   |
|                     |   | not benefit from workers attending training  |
|                     |   | programs unsuitable for their needs.         |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Prerequisites**   |   | A background and foundation of knowledge     |
|                     |   | facilitates the trainee in learning new      |
|                     |   | knowledge or skills. It is much easier to    |
|                     |   | learn new material if it can be connected or |
|                     |   | associated to what was previously learned or |
|                     |   | experienced. Curriculum developers who have  |
|                     |   | been involved in preparing instructional     |
|                     |   | materials for the core training know this    |
|                     |   | and have established what is referred to as  |
|                     |   | "prerequisites" for each course.             |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Certain competencies or experiences of       |
|                     |   | participants were also identified as         |
|                     |   | necessary prior to participants attending a  |
|                     |   | course. Without these competencies or        |
|                     |   | experiences, the participants would be at a  |
|                     |   | great disadvantage and could be easily       |
|                     |   | discouraged and possibly fail the course. It |
|                     |   | is not fair to the other participants, the   |
|                     |   | unprepared participant, and the instructor   |
|                     |   | to have this misunderstanding.               |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   | ###                                          |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+

+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   | #### Continued on Next Page                  |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Training          |   | Training materials for this training program |
| Material**          |   | consist of a program management guide, an    |
|                     |   | instructor's guide, and a student's guide.   |
|                     |   | This material is designed to be supplemented |
|                     |   | with facility-specific information.          |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Supplemental material and training aids may  |
|                     |   | be developed to address facility-specific    |
|                     |   | radiological concerns and to suit individual |
|                     |   | training styles. References are cited in     |
|                     |   | each lesson plan and may be used as a        |
|                     |   | resource in preparing facility-specific      |
|                     |   | information and training aids.               |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Each site is responsible for establishing a  |
|                     |   | method to differentiate the                  |
|                     |   | facility-specific information from the       |
|                     |   | standardized lesson plan material. When      |
|                     |   | additional or facility-specific information  |
|                     |   | is added to the text of the core lesson plan |
|                     |   | material, a method should be used to         |
|                     |   | differentiate facility information from      |
|                     |   | standardized material.                       |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Exemptions**      |   | Qualified personnel can be exempted from     |
|                     |   | training if they have satisfactorily         |
|                     |   | completed training programs (i.e., facility, |
|                     |   | college or university, military, or vendor   |
|                     |   | programs) comparable in instructional        |
|                     |   | objectives, content, and performance         |
|                     |   | criteria. Documentation of the applicable    |
|                     |   | and exempted portions of training should be  |
|                     |   | maintained.                                  |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | *Training Program Standards and Policies     |
|                     |   | Next*                                        |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+

**Training Program Standards and Policies**

+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Qualification of  |   | The technical instructor plays a key role in |
| Instructors**       |   | the safe and efficient operation of DOE      |
|                     |   | facilities. Workers must be well qualified   |
|                     |   | and have a thorough understanding of the     |
|                     |   | facility\'s operation, such as use and       |
|                     |   | maintenance of radiation-producing devices.  |
|                     |   | Workers must know how to correctly perform   |
|                     |   | their duties and why they are doing them.    |
|                     |   | They must know how their actions influence   |
|                     |   | other workers' responsibilities. Because     |
|                     |   | workers\' actions are so critical to their   |
|                     |   | own safety and the safety of others, their   |
|                     |   | trainers must be of the highest caliber. The |
|                     |   | technical instructor must understand         |
|                     |   | thoroughly all aspects of the subjects being |
|                     |   | taught and the relationship of the subject   |
|                     |   | content to the total facility. Additionally, |
|                     |   | the instructor must have the skills and      |
|                     |   | knowledge to employ the instructional        |
|                     |   | methods and techniques that will enhance     |
|                     |   | learning and successful job performance.     |
|                     |   | While the required technical and             |
|                     |   | instructional qualifications are listed      |
|                     |   | separately, it is the combination of these   |
|                     |   | two factors that produces a qualified        |
|                     |   | technical instructor.                        |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | The qualifications are based on the best     |
|                     |   | industry practices that employ               |
|                     |   | performance-based instruction and quality    |
|                     |   | assurance. These qualifications are not      |
|                     |   | intended to be restrictive, but to help      |
|                     |   | ensure that workers receive the highest      |
|                     |   | quality training possible. This is only      |
|                     |   | possible when technical instructors possess  |
|                     |   | the technical competence and instructional   |
|                     |   | skills to perform assigned instructional     |
|                     |   | duties in a manner that promotes safe and    |
|                     |   | reliable DOE facility operations.            |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+

+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Technical         |   | Instructors must possess technical           |
| Qualifications**    |   | competence (theoretical and practical        |
|                     |   | knowledge along with work experience) in the |
|                     |   | subject areas in which they conduct          |
|                     |   | training. The foundation for                 |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   | ### Continued on Next Page                   |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Technical         |   | determining the instructor\'s technical      |
| Qualifications      |   | qualifications is based on two factors:      |
| (continued)**       |   |                                              |
|                     |   | -   the trainees being instructed and        |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | -   the subject being presented.             |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | The following is an example of a target      |
|                     |   | audience, subject to be taught, and          |
|                     |   | instructor technical qualifications.         |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+

  --------------------- ----------------- --------------------------------
  TARGET AUDIENCE       SUBJECT BEING     INSTRUCTOR QUALIFICATIONS
                        TAUGHT            

  Radiation-Producing   Radiological      Demonstrated knowledge and
  Device (RPD)          Safety training   skills in radiation protection,
  Operators and staff   for Radiation-    above the level to be achieved
  associated with       Producing (X-ray) by the trainees, as evidenced by
  operation,            Devices.          previous training/education and
  maintenance, or                         through job performance.
  radiation safety of                     
  RPDs.                                   
  --------------------- ----------------- --------------------------------

+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   | Methods for verifying the appropriate level  |
|                     |   | of technical competence may include review   |
|                     |   | of prior training and education,             |
|                     |   | observation, and evaluation of recent        |
|                     |   | related job performance, and oral or written |
|                     |   | examination. Other factors that may be       |
|                     |   | appropriate for consideration include DOE,   |
|                     |   | NRC, or other government license or          |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | certification; vendor or facility            |
|                     |   | certification; and most importantly, job     |
|                     |   | experience. To maintain technical            |
|                     |   | competence, a technical instructor should    |
|                     |   | continue to perform satisfactorily on the    |
|                     |   | job and participate in continuing technical  |
|                     |   | training.                                    |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   | ### Continued on Next Page                   |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Instructional     |   | Qualifications of instructional capability   |
| Capability and      |   | should be based on demonstrated performance  |
| Qualifications**    |   | of the instructional tasks for the specific  |
|                     |   | course requirements and the instructor\'s    |
|                     |   | position. Successful completion of           |
|                     |   | instructor training and education programs,  |
|                     |   | as well as an evaluation of on-the-job       |
|                     |   | performance, is necessary for verification   |
|                     |   | of instructional capability. Instructional   |
|                     |   | capability qualification should be granted   |
|                     |   | as the successful completion of an approved  |
|                     |   | professional development program for         |
|                     |   | training instructors. The program should     |
|                     |   | contain theory and practice of instructional |
|                     |   | skills and techniques; adult learning; and   |
|                     |   | planning, conducting, and evaluating         |
|                     |   | classroom, simulator, laboratory, and        |
|                     |   | on-the-job training activities.              |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Illustrated talks, demonstrations,           |
|                     |   | discussions, role playing, case studies,     |
|                     |   | coaching, and individual projects and        |
|                     |   | presentations should be used as the          |
|                     |   | principal instructional methods for          |
|                     |   | presenting the instructional training        |
|                     |   | program. Each instructional method should    |
|                     |   | incorporate the applicable performance-based |
|                     |   | ­principles and practices. Every effort       |
|                     |   | should be made to apply the content to       |
|                     |   | actual on-the-job experience or to simulate  |
|                     |   | the content in the classroom/ laboratory.    |
|                     |   | The appropriate methodology required to      |
|                     |   | present the instructional content will       |
|                     |   | indicate a required level of instructional   |
|                     |   | qualification and skill.                     |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Current instructors\' training, education,   |
|                     |   | and job performance should be reviewed to    |
|                     |   | determine their training needs for           |
|                     |   | particular courses. Based on this review,    |
|                     |   | management may provide exemptions based on   |
|                     |   | demonstrated proficiency in performing       |
|                     |   | technical instructor\'s tasks.               |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | *Continued on Next Page*                     |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+

+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Instructional     |   | Through training or experience, technical    |
| Capability and      |   | instructors should be able to\*:             |
| Qualifications      |   |                                              |
| (continued)**       |   | Review instructional materials and modify to |
|                     |   | fully meet the needs of the training group.  |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Arrange the training facility                |
|                     |   | (classroom/laboratory or other instructional |
|                     |   | setting) to meet the requirements for the    |
|                     |   | training sessions.                           |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Effectively communicate, verbally and        |
|                     |   | non-verbally, lessons to enhance learning.   |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Invoke student interaction through questions |
|                     |   | and student activity.                        |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Respond to students' questions.              |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Provide positive feedback to students.       |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Use appropriate instructional materials and  |
|                     |   | visual aids to meet the lesson objectives.   |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Administer performance and written tests.    |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Ensure evaluation materials and class        |
|                     |   | rosters are maintained and forwarded to the  |
|                     |   | appropriate administrative personnel.        |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Evaluate training program effectiveness.     |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   | *Continued on Next Page*                     |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+

+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Instructional     |   | Modify training materials based on           |
| Capability and      |   | evaluation of training program.              |
| Qualifications      |   |                                              |
| (continued)**       |   | \*Stein, F. *Instructor Competencies: The    |
|                     |   | Standards.* International Board of Standards |
|                     |   | for Training, Performance and Instruction;   |
|                     |   | 1992.                                        |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Selection of      |   | Selection of instructors should be based on  |
| Instructors**       |   | the technical and instructional              |
|                     |   | qualifications specified in the              |
|                     |   | Course-Specific Information section of this  |
|                     |   | guide. In addition to technical and          |
|                     |   | instructional qualifications, oral and       |
|                     |   | written communication skills and             |
|                     |   | interpersonal skills should be included in   |
|                     |   | the process of selecting and approving       |
|                     |   | instructors.                                 |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Since selection of instructors is an         |
|                     |   | important task, those who share in the       |
|                     |   | responsibility for ensuring program          |
|                     |   | effectiveness should:                        |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | interview possible instructors to ensure     |
|                     |   | they understand the importance of the roles  |
|                     |   | and responsibilities of technical            |
|                     |   | instructors and are willing to accept and    |
|                     |   | fulfill their responsibilities in a          |
|                     |   | professional manner.                         |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | maintain records of previous training,       |
|                     |   | education, and work experience.              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   | Procedures for program evaluation will       |
|                     |   | include documentation of providing qualified |
|                     |   | instructors for generic and                  |
|                     |   | facility-specific training programs.         |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Test              |   | A test bank of questions for each course     |
| Administration**    |   | that has an exam should be developed and     |
|                     |   | content validated. As the test banks are     |
|                     |   | used,                                        |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | ### Continued on Next Page                   |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+

+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Test              |   | statistical validation of the test bank      |
| Administration      |   | should be performed to fully refine the      |
| (continued)**       |   | questions and make the tests as effective as |
|                     |   | possible. The questions contained in the     |
|                     |   | test bank are linked directly to the         |
|                     |   | objectives for each course. In this way,     |
|                     |   | trainee weaknesses can be readily identified |
|                     |   | and remedial procedures can be put into      |
|                     |   | place. The test outcomes can also be used to |
|                     |   | document competence and the acquisition of   |
|                     |   | knowledge.                                   |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | The test banks should also be used by the    |
|                     |   | instructors to identify possible weaknesses  |
|                     |   | in the instruction. If numerous trainees     |
|                     |   | fail to correctly answer a valid set of      |
|                     |   | questions for an objective, the instruction  |
|                     |   | for that objective needs to be reviewed for  |
|                     |   | deficiencies.                                |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Written examinations may be used to          |
|                     |   | demonstrate satisfactory completion of       |
|                     |   | theoretical classroom instruction. The       |
|                     |   | following are some recommended minimal       |
|                     |   | requirements for the test banks and tests:   |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Tests are randomly generated from the test   |
|                     |   | bank.                                        |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Test items represent all objectives in the   |
|                     |   | course.                                      |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | All test bank items are content-validated by |
|                     |   | a subject matter expert.                     |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Test banks are secured and not released      |
|                     |   | either before or after the test is           |
|                     |   | administered.                                |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Trainees should receive feedback on their    |
|                     |   | test performance.                            |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   | *Continued on Next Page*                     |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+

+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Test              |   | For the first administrations of tests, a    |
| Administration      |   | minimum of 80% should be required for a      |
| (continued)**       |   | passing score. As statistical analyses of    |
|                     |   | test results are performed, a more accurate  |
|                     |   | percentage for a passing score should be     |
|                     |   | identified.                                  |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Test administration is critical in           |
|                     |   | accurately assessing the trainee\'s          |
|                     |   | acquisition of knowledge being tested.       |
|                     |   | Generally, the following rules should be     |
|                     |   | followed:                                    |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Tests should be announced at the beginning   |
|                     |   | of the training sessions.                    |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Instructors should continuously monitor      |
|                     |   | trainees during examinations.                |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | All tests and answers should be collected at |
|                     |   | the conclusion of each test.                 |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | No notes can be made by trainees concerning  |
|                     |   | the test items.                              |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | No talking (aside from questions) should be  |
|                     |   | allowed.                                     |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Answers to questions during a test should be |
|                     |   | provided, but answers to test items should   |
|                     |   | not be or alluded to or otherwise provided.  |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Where possible, multiple versions of each    |
|                     |   | test should be produced from the test bank   |
|                     |   | for each test administration.                |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | *Continued on Next Page*                     |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Test              |   | After test completion, trainees may turn in  |
| Administration      |   | their materials and leave the room while     |
| (continued)**       |   | other trainees complete their tests.         |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Trainee scores on the tests should be held   |
|                     |   | as confidential.                             |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Program Records   |   | Training records and documentation shall     |
| and                 |   | meet the requirements of 10 CFR 835.704.     |
| Administration**    |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Training Program  |   | All requests for program changes and         |
| Development/Change  |   | revisions should use the form "Document      |
| Requests**          |   | Improvement Proposal" provided at the end of |
|                     |   | this document.                               |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Audit (internal   |   | Internal verification of training            |
| and external)**     |   | effectiveness should be accomplished through |
|                     |   | senior instructor or supervisor observation  |
|                     |   | of practical applications and discussions of |
|                     |   | course material. All results should be       |
|                     |   | documented and maintained by the             |
|                     |   | organization responsible for Radiological    |
|                     |   | Control training.                            |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | The additional standardized training program |
|                     |   | materials and processes should be evaluated  |
|                     |   | on a periodic basis by DOE-HQ. The           |
|                     |   | evaluation should include a comparison of    |
|                     |   | program elements with applicable industry    |
|                     |   | standards and requirements.                  |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Evaluating        |   | Verification of the effectiveness of         |
| Training Program    |   | Radiological Control training should be      |
| Effectiveness**     |   | accomplished per DOE-HDBK-1131-98, "General  |
|                     |   | Employee Radiological Training," and         |
|                     |   | DOE-HDBK-1130-98, "Radiological Worker       |
|                     |   | Training." In addition, DOE/HSS              |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | *Continued on Next Page*                     |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+

  --------------------- -- ----------------------------------------------
  **Evaluating Training    has issued guidelines for evaluating the
  Program Effectiveness    effectiveness of radiological training through
  (continued)**            the DOE Operations Offices and DOE Field
                           Offices. For additional guidance, refer to
                           DOE-STD-1070-94, "Guide for Evaluation of
                           Nuclear Facility Training Programs."

                           
  --------------------- -- ----------------------------------------------

**Course-Specific Information**

+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Purpose**         |   | This section of the program management guide |
|                     |   | is to assist those individuals assigned      |
|                     |   | responsibility for implementing the          |
|                     |   | *Radiological Safety Training for            |
|                     |   | Radiation-Producing (X-Ray) Devices.*        |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Course Goal**     |   | Upon completion of this training, the        |
|                     |   | student will have a basic understanding of   |
|                     |   | the principles of RPD operation, safety      |
|                     |   | requirements, and classification of various  |
|                     |   | types of radiation- producing devices.       |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Target Audience** |   | Individuals who have assigned duties as RPD  |
|                     |   | operators; also staff associated with        |
|                     |   | operation, maintenance, and radiation safety |
|                     |   | of RPDs.                                     |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Course            |   | This course illustrates and reinforces the   |
| Description**       |   | skills and knowledge needed for RPD          |
|                     |   | operators in the basics of safe operation of |
|                     |   | RPDs.                                        |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | The purpose of this lesson is to provide     |
|                     |   | information on each of the primary RPDs and  |
|                     |   | discuss the applicable rules governing the   |
|                     |   | use of these devices. Utilizing the          |
|                     |   | requirements and recommendations from ANSI   |
|                     |   | N43.2 and ANSI N43.3, this course will       |
|                     |   | establish guidelines for the proper use of   |
|                     |   | common types of installations that:          |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | -   Use X-ray diffraction and fluorescence   |
|                     |   |     analysis equipment (analytical) and      |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | -   Use X-ray machines up to 10 million      |
|                     |   |     electron volts (MeV) for non-medical     |
|                     |   |     purposes (industrial).                   |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+

+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Course            |   | The primary emphasis of these standards and  |
| Description         |   | this class is to keep worker exposure to     |
| (continued)**       |   | ionizing radiation at levels that are *as    |
|                     |   | low as reasonably achievable* (ALARA) and to |
|                     |   | ensure that no worker receives greater than  |
|                     |   | the maximum permissible dose equivalent.     |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | This course is designed to be consistent     |
|                     |   | with Article 655 of the *DOE Radiological    |
|                     |   | Control Standard* for individuals who have   |
|                     |   | assigned RPD duties.                         |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Prerequisites**   |   | This training material is designed to        |
|                     |   | augment the DOE Radiological Worker core     |
|                     |   | training. As a refresher, this course        |
|                     |   | includes Radiological Worker training        |
|                     |   | material, as applicable to RPD operators,    |
|                     |   | but is not intended to replace Radiological  |
|                     |   | Worker training. The first module of this    |
|                     |   | course may be issued as a self-study. It is  |
|                     |   | a general overview of Radiological Worker    |
|                     |   | topics. The presentation may be adjusted     |
|                     |   | accordingly.                                 |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | The facility training program should         |
|                     |   | determine the appropriate prerequisites.     |
|                     |   | However, it is recommended that students     |
|                     |   | complete Radiological Worker training and    |
|                     |   | High/Very High Radiation Area training or    |
|                     |   | the equivalent, prior to taking this course. |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Length**          |   | 4-8 hours (depending on facility-specific    |
|                     |   | information)                                 |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Test Bank**       |   | On a site-by-site basis.                     |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+

+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Retraining**      |   | Retraining is not required for this course   |
|                     |   | unless it is used to meet 10 CFR 835         |
|                     |   | training requirements. In that case,         |
|                     |   | retraining every two years is required.      |
|                     |   | Since some of the content is determined on a |
|                     |   | facility-specific basis, retraining should   |
|                     |   | also be provided as facility-specific        |
|                     |   | information changes.                         |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   | ### Continued Next Page                      |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+

+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Instructor        |   | Instructors of this course have a major role |
| Qualifications**    |   | in making it successful and meeting the      |
|                     |   | specified objectives. Instructors must have  |
|                     |   | related experience and be technically        |
|                     |   | competent. In this course it is imperative   |
|                     |   | that the instructor have the background and  |
|                     |   | experience of working with RPDs. Instructors |
|                     |   | must be able to relate their own work        |
|                     |   | experience to the workers assigned duties as |
|                     |   | RPD operators. Instructors must be able to   |
|                     |   | answer specific questions and use a variety  |
|                     |   | of instructional material to meet the        |
|                     |   | objectives.                                  |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Education: Minimum of B.S. degree in Health  |
|                     |   | Physics or related discipline is             |
|                     |   | [preferred]{.underline}.                     |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Certification: Certification by American     |
|                     |   | Board of Health Physics (ABHP) or National   |
|                     |   | Registry of Radiation Protection             |
|                     |   | Technologists (NRRPT) is                     |
|                     |   | [preferred]{.underline}.                     |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Experience:                                  |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | At least five years of applied radiological  |
|                     |   | protection experience in an operating        |
|                     |   | radiological facility including experience   |
|                     |   | as a RPD operator is preferred. The areas of |
|                     |   | experience should include one or more of the |
|                     |   | following:                                   |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Analytical (fluorescence or diffraction)     |
|                     |   | X‑ray devices                                |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Medical (diagnostic or therapeutic) X-ray    |
|                     |   | devices                                      |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Industrial radiography                       |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Electron or low-energy accelerators.         |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Knowledge of best nuclear industry practices |
|                     |   | pertaining to radiological protection with   |
|                     |   | respect to RPDs.                             |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | *Continued on Next Page*                     |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Through training or experience, technical    |
|                     |   | instructors should be able to effectively    |
|                     |   | communicate, verbally and non-verbally,      |
|                     |   | lessons to enhance learning.                 |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
| **Materials         |   | The following checklist should be used to    |
| Checklist**         |   | ensure all training materials are available. |
|                     |   | All materials are provided in Word 2000      |
|                     |   | format.                                      |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Program Management Guide.                    |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Instructor\'s Guide.                         |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | Student\'s Guide.                            |
|                     |   |                                              |
|                     |   | *Bibliography Next*                          |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+
|                     |   |                                              |
+---------------------+---+----------------------------------------------+

**Bibliography:** **[DOE standards, handbooks, and technical standards
lists (TSLs)]{.underline}. The following DOE standards, handbooks, and
TSLs form a part of this document to the extent specified herein.**

> U.S. Department of Energy, *Guide to Good Practices for Training and
> Qualification of Instructors*, DOE‑NE‑STD‑1001‑91, Washington, D.C.,
> 1991.
>
> U.S. Department of Energy, *Radiological Control Standard*,
> DOE-STD-1098-99, Washington, D.C., 1999.
>
> U.S. Department of Energy, *Radiation Generating Devices Guide*,
> Implementation Guide for Use with Title 10, Code of Federal
> Regulations, Part 835, *Occupational Radiation Protection,*
> Washington, D.C., 1999.
>
> U.S. Department of Energy*, Radiation Safety Training Guide*,
> Implementation Guide for Use with Title 10, Code of Federal
> Regulations, Part 835, *Occupational Radiation Protection*,
> Washington, D.C., 1999.
>
> U.S. Department of Energy, Title 10, Code of Federal Regulations, Part
> 835, *Occupational Radiation Protection*, Washington, D.C., 1998.
>
> **[Other government documents, drawings, and
> publications]{.underline}. The following government documents,
> drawings, and publications form a part of this document to the extent
> specified herein. Unless otherwise indicated, the issues of these
> documents are those cited in the contracting document.**
>
> U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Title 10, Code of Federal
> Regulations, Part 34, Subpart 31, *Licenses for Radiography and
> Radiation Safety Requirements for Radiographic Operations*, Section
> 34.31 "Training," Washington, D.C., 1979.
>
> **[Non-government documents]{.underline}.**
>
> American National Standards Institute, *Radiation Safety for X‑Ray
> Diffraction and Fluorescence Analysis Equipment*, ANSI Standard N43.2,
> American National Standards Institute, New York, NY, 1977 (ANSI
> N43.2-2001 (reissued in 2001).
>
> American National Standards Institute, *American National Standard for
> General Radiation Safety Installations Using Non‑Medical X‑Ray and
> Sealed Gamma‑Ray Sources, Energies up to 10 MEV*, ANSI Standard N43.3,
> American National Standards Institute, New York, NY, 1993.
>
> Cooper, L., *An Introduction to the Meaning and Structure of Physics*,
> Harper & Row, Publishers, New York, NY, 1968.
>
> Shleien, B., *The Health Physics and Radiological Health Handbook*,
> Revised Edition, Scinta Inc., Silver Spring, MD, 1992.
>
> National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, *Radiation
> Safety Training Criteria for Industrial Radiography*, NCRP Report, No.
> 61, Washington, D.C., 1978.

*This page intentionally left blank.*

**Radiological Safety Training**

**for Radiation-Producing (X-Ray) Devices**

**Instructor's Guide**

![](media/image2.png){width="2.379861111111111in"
height="2.509027777777778in"}

**Coordinated and Conducted**

**for**

**Office of Health, Safety and Security**

**U.S. Department of Energy**

**January 2007**

*This page intentionally left blank.*

**Course Developers**

Jim Allan Stanford Linear Accelerator Center

Ken Barat Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Rocky Barnum Pacific Northwest National Laboratories

Brooke Buddemeier Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Richard Cooke Argonne National Laboratory - East

Ted DeCastro Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

William Egbert Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Darrel Howe Westinghouse Savannah River Company

David Lee Los Alamos National Laboratory

Kathleen McIntyre Brookhaven National Laboratory

Mike McNaughten Los Alamos National Laboratory

Edward Schultz Sandia National Laboratories

Brian Thomson Sandia National Laboratories

Paula Trinoskey Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Susan Vosburg Sandia National Laboratories

Ann Anthony Los Alamos National Laboratory

**Course Reviewers**

Peter O\'Connell U.S. Department of Energy

Randy Sullivan ATL International

Technical Standard Managers U.S. Department of Energy

*This page intentionally left blank.*

**Table of Contents**

**Page**

DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY - COURSE PLAN 1

Standardized Core Course Material 1

Course Goal 1

Target Audience 1

Description 1

Length 2

Terminal Objective 2

Enabling Objectives 2

Regulations 3

Equipment Needs 4

Student Materials 4

ANSI 5

LESSON SUMMARY 6

Introduction 6

Course Goal 6

Course Content 6

I. MODULE 101 - RADIATION PROTECTION PRINCIPLES 7

A. OBJECTIVES 7

B. ATOMS 8

C. IONIZATION 8

D. RADIATION 8

E. UNITS 9

F. BACKGROUND RADIATION 10

G. DOSE LIMITS 11

H. CAUSES OF ACCIDENTAL EXPOSURES (KEY ITEM) 13

I. ALARA 14

J. REDUCING EXTERNAL DOSE (KEY ITEM) 14

II\. MODULE 102 - PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS 16

A. OBJECTIVES 16

B. ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION 17

C. X-RAY PRODUCTION 19

D. EFFECT OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT ON PHOTON ENERGY AND POWER 21

E. INTERACTION WITH MATTER 23

III\. MODULE 103 - BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS 28

A. OBJECTIVES 28

B. EARLY HISTORY OF X-RAYS 29

C. BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF IONIZATION 31

D. FACTORS THAT DETERMINE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS 31

E. SOMATIC EFFECTS 35

F. HERITABLE EFFECTS 41

IV\. MODULE 104 - RADIATION DETECTION 43

A. OBJECTIVES 43

B. RADIATION SURVEYS 43

C. X-RAY DETECTION INSTRUMENTS 43

D. PERSONNEL-MONITORING DEVICES 45

V. MODULE 105 - PROTECTIVE MEASURES 48

A. OBJECTIVES 48

B. RADIOLOGICAL CONTROLS 49

C. RADIOLOGICAL POSTINGS 50

D. INTERLOCKS 54

E. SHIELDING 55

F. WARNING DEVICES 58

G. WORK DOCUMENTS 59

VI\. MODULE 106 - X-RAY GENERATING DEVICES 63

A. OBJECTIVES 63

B. INCIDENTAL AND INTENTIONAL DEVICES 64

C. INCIDENTAL X-RAY DEVICES 65

D. INTENTIONAL ANALYTICAL X-RAY DEVICES 66

E. INTENTIONAL INDUSTRIAL X-RAY DEVICES 70

F. SUMMARY OF X-RAY DEVICES 74

VII\. MODULE 107 - RESPONSIBILITIES FOR X-RAY SAFETY 76

A. OBJECTIVES 76

B. RESPONSIBILITIES 77

GLOSSARY 82

**DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY - COURSE PLAN**

**Standardized Core Course Material**

+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
| **Course Goal**      |   | Upon completion of this training, the      |
|                      |   | student will have a basic understanding of |
|                      |   | the principles of radiation-producing      |
|                      |   | device (RPD) operation, safety             |
|                      |   | requirements, and classification of        |
|                      |   | various types of radiation-producing       |
|                      |   | devices.                                   |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | Other hazards associated with the use of   |
|                      |   | some X-ray machines, such as electrical,   |
|                      |   | mechanical, laser light, and explosives,   |
|                      |   | are not addressed in this course because   |
|                      |   | they are specific to particular machines   |
|                      |   | and procedures. Neither does this course   |
|                      |   | address operating procedures for specific  |
|                      |   | installations. The participants will       |
|                      |   | receive training on the specific operating |
|                      |   | procedures at the participants' work site. |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
|                      |   |                                            |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
| **Target Audience**  |   | Individuals who have assigned duties as    |
|                      |   | RPD operators. Also staff associated with  |
|                      |   | operation, maintenance, and radiation      |
|                      |   | safety of RPDs.                            |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
|                      |   |                                            |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+

+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
| **Description**      |   | This course illustrates and reinforces the |
|                      |   | skills and knowledge needed for RPD        |
|                      |   | operators in the basics of safe operation  |
|                      |   | of RPDs.                                   |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | The purpose of this lesson is to provide   |
|                      |   | information on each of the primary RPDs    |
|                      |   | and discuss the applicable rules governing |
|                      |   | the use of these devices. Utilizing the    |
|                      |   | requirements and recommendations from ANSI |
|                      |   | N43.2 and ANSI N43.3, this course will     |
|                      |   | establish guidelines for the proper use of |
|                      |   | common types of installations that use:    |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | -   X-ray diffraction and fluorescence     |
|                      |   |     analysis equipment (analytical) and    |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
|                      |   |                                            |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
| *Continued on Next   |   | -   X-ray machines with energies up to 10  |
| Page* **Description  |   |     million electron volts (MeV) for       |
| (continued)**        |   |     non-medical purposes (industrial).     |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | The primary emphasis of these standards    |
|                      |   | and this course is to keep worker exposure |
|                      |   | to ionizing radiation at levels that are   |
|                      |   | *as low as reasonably achievable* (ALARA)  |
|                      |   | and to ensure that no individual receives  |
|                      |   | greater than the maximum permissible dose  |
|                      |   | equivalent.                                |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | This course is designed to be consistent   |
|                      |   | with Article 655 of the *DOE Radiological  |
|                      |   | Control Standard* for individuals who have |
|                      |   | assigned RPD duties.                       |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
|                      |   |                                            |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
| **Length**           |   | 4 - 8 hours (depending on site‑specific    |
|                      |   | information).                              |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
|                      |   |                                            |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
| **Terminal           |   | Demonstrate a basic understanding of :     |
| Objective**          |   |                                            |
|                      |   | -   General radiation protection           |
|                      |   |     principles for safe operation of X-ray |
|                      |   |     devices.                               |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
|                      |   |                                            |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+

+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
| **Enabling           |   | When the participants have completed this  |
| Objectives**         |   | course, the participants will be able to:  |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | EO1 Describe ionizing radiation.           |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | EO2 Describe what X-rays are, how they are |
|                      |   | generated, and how they interact with      |
|                      |   | matter.                                    |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | EO3 Describe the biological effects of     |
|                      |   | X-rays.                                    |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | EO4 Identify and describe                  |
|                      |   | radiation-monitoring instruments and       |
|                      |   | personnel-monitoring devices appropriate   |
|                      |   | for detecting                              |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | > X-rays.                                  |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | EO5 Demonstrate a familiarity with DOE     |
|                      |   | dose limits, facility-specific             |
|                      |   | administrative controls, ALARA, and the    |
|                      |   | major methods for controlling and          |
|                      |   | minimizing external exposure.              |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
|                      |   |                                            |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
| *Continued on Next   |   | EO6 Identify and describe protective       |
| Page***Enabling      |   | measures that restrict or control access   |
| Objectives           |   | to X-ray areas and devices, and warn of    |
| (continued)**        |   | X-ray hazards; and be able to identify and |
|                      |   | describe work documents that provide       |
|                      |   | specific procedures to ensure safe         |
|                      |   | operation of X-ray devices.                |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | EO7 Identify and describe the categories   |
|                      |   | of X-ray-producing devices.                |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | EO8 Explain who is responsible for         |
|                      |   | implementing X-ray safety policies and     |
|                      |   | procedures and describe their specific     |
|                      |   | responsibilities.                          |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | EO9 Identify causes of accidental          |
|                      |   | exposures.                                 |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
|                      |   |                                            |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+

+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
| **Regulations**      |   | The prime compliance document for          |
|                      |   | occupational radiation protection at       |
|                      |   | Department of Energy (DOE) sites is the    |
|                      |   | Code of Federal Regulations, 10 CFR 835,   |
|                      |   | "Occupational Radiation Protection". The   |
|                      |   | *DOE Radiological Control Standard*        |
|                      |   | provides detailed guidance on good         |
|                      |   | practices acceptable to the Department in  |
|                      |   | the area of radiological control.          |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | The American National Standards Institute  |
|                      |   | (ANSI) details safety guidelines for X-ray |
|                      |   | devices in two standards, one on           |
|                      |   | analytical (X‑ray diffraction and          |
|                      |   | fluorescence) X-ray equipment and another  |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | on industrial (nonmedical) X-ray           |
|                      |   | installations (ANSI N43.2 {R2001},         |
|                      |   | *Radiation Safety for X-Ray Diffraction    |
|                      |   | and*                                       |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | *Fluorescence Analysis Equipment* and ANSI |
|                      |   | N43.3 \[1993\], *American National         |
|                      |   | Standard for General Radiation             |
|                      |   | SafetyCInstallations Using Non-Medical     |
|                      |   | X-ray and Sealed Gamma-Ray Sources,        |
|                      |   | Energies up to 10 MeV).* Guidance for      |
|                      |   | X-ray training is also provided by the     |
|                      |   | Nuclear Regulatory Commission in 10 CFR    |
|                      |   | 19.12 and 10 CFR 34.31.                    |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
|                      |   |                                            |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
| *Continued on Next   |   | (Add information on facility-specific      |
| Page***Regulations   |   | requirements documents as applicable.)     |
| (continued)**        |   |                                            |
|                      |   | Most of the information presented in this  |
|                      |   | course is based on the radiation safety    |
|                      |   | guidelines on X-ray devices contained in   |
|                      |   | ANSI N43.2, which outlines the safety      |
|                      |   | requirements for X-ray diffraction and     |
|                      |   | fluorescence equipment, and N43.3, which   |
|                      |   | outlines the safety requirements for the   |
|                      |   | design, installation, and operation of     |
|                      |   | industrial (nonanalytical) X-ray           |
|                      |   | installations.                             |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
|                      |   |                                            |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
| **Equipment Needs**  |   | -   Overhead projector                     |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | -   Screen                                 |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | -   Flip chart                             |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | -   Markers                                |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | -   Facility-specific RPD                  |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
|                      |   |                                            |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
| **Student            |   | Student\'s Guide.                          |
| Materials**          |   |                                            |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
|                      |   |                                            |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+

+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
| **ANSI**             |   | The main objectives of ANSI N43.2 and ANSI |
|                      |   | N43.3 are to keep worker exposure to       |
|                      |   | ionizing radiation at levels below the     |
|                      |   | maximum permissible dose equivalent and    |
|                      |   | that are *as low as reasonably achievable* |
|                      |   | (ALARA). These objectives may be achieved  |
|                      |   | through the following methods:             |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | -   Use of emergency controls.             |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | -   Using firm administrative controls.    |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | -   Using work control documents such as   |
|                      |   |     standard operating procedures (SOPs)   |
|                      |   |     and radiological work permits (RWPs).  |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | -   Maintaining equipment appropriately.   |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
|                      |   |                                            |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
| *Continued on Next   |   | -   Employing a comprehensive maintenance  |
| Page***ANSI          |   |     and surveillance program.              |
| (continued)**        |   |                                            |
|                      |   | -   Using adequate shielding.              |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | -   Maximizing distance from the source.   |
|                      |   |                                            |
|                      |   | *Lesson Summary Next*                      |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+
|                      |   |                                            |
+----------------------+---+--------------------------------------------+

**LESSON SUMMARY**

**Introduction**

Welcome students to the course.

Introduce self to the participants and establish rapport.

> Define logistics:
>
> Safety briefings - exits.
>
> Restrooms.
>
> Hours.
>
> Breaks.
>
> Sign-in sheets.
>
> Test - accountability.
>
> End-of-course evaluation.

**Course Goal**

Upon completion of this unit, the participants will understand basic
radiation protection principles essential to the safe operation of X-ray
devices.

State Enabling Objectives.

**Course Content**

Briefly review the content of the course, noting that there is a logical
sequence ("flow"), and that as the instructor presents the material, the
participants will relate the material covered to the circumstances that
they can expect to find in the facility workplace and procedures. (The
instructor should insert facility-specific information.)

*Lesson Plan and Instructor\'s Notes Next*

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| **I. MODULE 101 - RADIATION PROTECTION      |   |                     |
| PRINCIPLES**                                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > A. OBJECTIVES                             |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > i\. Module Objective.                     |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Upon completion of this unit, the         |   |                     |
| > participants should understand basic      |   |                     |
| > radiation protection principles essential |   |                     |
| > to the safe operation of X-ray devices.   |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Objectives.                          |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Following self‑study and/or classroom     |   |                     |
| > review, the participants will be able to: |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 1\. Define ionizing radiation.            |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 2\. Identify sources of natural and       |   |                     |
| > manmade background radiation.             |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 3\. Define the DOE dose limits and        |   |                     |
| > facility-specific administrative control  |   |                     |
| > levels.                                   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 4\. Describe the ALARA principle.         |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 5\. List the three major methods by which |   |                     |
| > external exposure is reduced.             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > B. ATOMS                                  |   | Objective 1         |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The atom, the basic unit of matter, is    |   |                     |
| > made up of three primary particles:       |   |                     |
| > protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons |   |                     |
| > and neutrons are found in the nucleus of  |   |                     |
| > the atom; electrons are found orbiting    |   |                     |
| > the nucleus. Protons have a positive      |   |                     |
| > charge; neutrons are neutral; electrons   |   |                     |
| > have a negative charge. The configuration |   |                     |
| > of electron shells and the number of      |   |                     |
| > electrons in the shells determine the     |   |                     |
| > chemical properties of atoms.             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > C. IONIZATION                             |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > An atom usually has a number of electrons |   |                     |
| > equal to the number of protons in its     |   |                     |
| > nucleus so that the atom is electrically  |   |                     |
| > neutral. A charged atom, called an *ion,* |   |                     |
| > can have a positive or negative charge.   |   |                     |
| > Free electrons also are called ions. An   |   |                     |
| > ion is formed when ionizing radiation     |   |                     |
| > interacts with an orbiting electron and   |   |                     |
| > causes it to be ejected from its orbit, a |   |                     |
| > process called *ionization.* This leaves  |   |                     |
| > a positively charged atom (or molecule)   |   |                     |
| > and a free electron.                      |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > D. RADIATION                              |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Radiation as used here means alpha        |   | Objective 1         |
| > particles, beta particles, gamma rays,    |   |                     |
| > X-rays, neutrons, high-speed electrons,   |   |                     |
| > high-speed protons, and other particles   |   |                     |
| > capable of producing ions. Radiation with |   |                     |
| > enough energy to cause ionization is      |   |                     |
| > referred to as *ionizing radiation.*      |   |                     |
| > Radiation that lacks the energy to cause  |   |                     |
| > ionization is referred to as              |   |                     |
| > *non-ionizing radiation.*                 |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Examples of non-ionizing radiation        |   |                     |
| > include radio waves, microwaves, and      |   |                     |
| > visible light.                            |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > For radiation-protection purposes,        |   |                     |
| > ionization is important because it        |   |                     |
| > affects chemical and biological processes |   |                     |
| > and allows the detection of radiation.    |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > For most radiation-protection situations, |   |                     |
| > ionizing radiation takes the form of      |   |                     |
| > alpha, beta, and neutron particles, and   |   |                     |
| > gamma and X-ray photons.                  |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > X-rays and gamma rays are a form of       |   |                     |
| > electromagnetic radiation. X-rays differ  |   |                     |
| > from gamma rays in their point of origin. |   |                     |
| > Gamma rays originate from within the      |   |                     |
| > atomic nucleus, whereas X-rays originate  |   |                     |
| > from the electrons outside the nucleus    |   |                     |
| > and from free electrons decelerating in   |   |                     |
| > the vicinity of atoms (i.e.,              |   |                     |
| > bremsstrahlung). Module 102 discusses how |   |                     |
| > X‑rays are produced.                      |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > E. UNITS                                  |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Roentgen (R), a measure of radiation      |   |                     |
| > *exposure*, is defined by ionization in   |   |                     |
| > air.                                      |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Rad, a measure of the energy absorbed per |   |                     |
| > unit mass.                                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| It is defined for any absorbing material.   |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > Rem, a unit of dose equivalent, which is  |   |                     |
| > the energy absorbed per unit mass times   |   |                     |
| > the applicable quality factor and other   |   |                     |
| > modifying factors.                        |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > For X-rays, it may be assumed that 1 R =  |   |                     |
| > 1 rad = 1 rem = 1000 mrem.                |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > F. BACKGROUND RADIATION                   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Background radiation, to which everyone   |   |                     |
| > is exposed, comes from both natural and   |   |                     |
| > manmade sources. Natural background       |   |                     |
| > radiation can be categorized as cosmic    |   |                     |
| > and terrestrial. Radon is the major       |   |                     |
| > contributor to terrestrial background.    |   |                     |
| > The most common sources of manmade        |   |                     |
| > background radiation are medical          |   |                     |
| > procedures and consumer products.         |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > The average background dose to the        |   |                     |
| > general population from both natural and  |   |                     |
| > manmade sources is about 350 mrem per     |   |                     |
| > year to the whole body. Naturally         |   |                     |
| > occurring sources contribute an average   |   |                     |
| > of 200 mrem per year from radon           |   |                     |
| > daughters, about 40 mrem per year from    |   |                     |
| > internal emitters such as potassium-40,   |   |                     |
| > about 30 mrem per year from cosmic and    |   |                     |
| > cosmogenic sources, and about 30 mrem per |   |                     |
| > year from terrestrial sources such as     |   |                     |
| > naturally occurring uranium and thorium.  |   |                     |
| > Manmade sources contribute an average of  |   |                     |
| > about 50 mrem per year to the whole body  |   |                     |
| > from medical procedures such as chest     |   |                     |
| > X-rays.                                   |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > The deep dose equivalent from a chest     |   |                     |
| > X-ray is 5 - 10 mrem, a dental X‑ray is   |   |                     |
| > 50 - 300 mrem, and mammography is 0.5 ‑   |   |                     |
| > 2 rem.                                    |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| G. DOSE LIMITS                              |   | Objective 5         |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > Limits on occupational doses are based on |   |                     |
| > data on the biological effects of         |   |                     |
| > ionizing radiation. The International     |   |                     |
| > Commission on Radiological Protection and |   |                     |
| > the National Council on Radiation         |   |                     |
| > Protection and Measurements publish       |   |                     |
| > guidance for setting radiation protection |   |                     |
| > standards. The DOE, Nuclear Regulatory    |   |                     |
| > Commission, and Environmental Protection  |   |                     |
| > Agency set regulatory requirements        |   |                     |
| > related to radiation protection. These    |   |                     |
| > limits are set to minimize the likelihood |   |                     |
| > of biological effects.                    |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > The following table lists both DOE dose   |   | Refer to:           |
| > limits and administrative control levels. |   |                     |
|                                             |   | 10 CFR 835.202-208  |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| **DOE Dose Limits   |                       |                       |
| and                 |                       |                       |
| Facility-Specific   |                       |                       |
| Administrative      |                       |                       |
| Control Levels**    |                       |                       |
+---------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
|                     | DOE                   | Facility-Specific     |
|                     |                       | Administrative        |
|                     | Dose Limits           | Control Levels        |
+---------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
|                     |                       |                       |
+---------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| whole body          | 5 rem/year            | insert                |
|                     |                       | facility-specific     |
| Total Effective     |                       | value                 |
| Dose Equivalent     |                       |                       |
+---------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| extremity           | 50 rem/year           | insert                |
|                     |                       | facility-specific     |
|                     |                       | value                 |
+---------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| skin                | 50 rem/year           | insert                |
|                     |                       | facility-specific     |
|                     |                       | value                 |
+---------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| internal organ      | 50 rem/year           | insert                |
|                     |                       | facility-specific     |
| committed dose      |                       | value                 |
| equivalent          |                       |                       |
+---------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| lens of the eye     | 15 rem/year           | insert                |
|                     |                       | facility-specific     |
|                     |                       | value                 |
+---------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| embryo/fetus        | 0.5 rem/term          | insert                |
|                     |                       | facility-specific     |
|                     | of pregnancy (for the | value                 |
|                     | embryo/fetus of       |                       |
|                     | workers who declare   |                       |
|                     | pregnancy)            |                       |
+---------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| minors and public   | 0.1 rem/year          | insert                |
|                     |                       | facility-specific     |
|                     |                       | value                 |
+---------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > DOE facilities are designed and operated  |   |                     |
| > to reduce personnel dose equivalents as   |   |                     |
| > far below the occupational limits as      |   |                     |
| > reasonably achievable. The dose           |   |                     |
| > equivalent received by DOE X‑ray workers  |   |                     |
| > is typically between 0 and 100 mrem per   |   |                     |
| > year above the natural background.        |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| H. CAUSES OF ACCIDENTAL EXPOSURES (KEY      |   | Objective 9         |
| ITEM)                                       |   |                     |
|                                             |   | Discuss             |
| > Although most X-ray workers do not        |   | facility-specific   |
| > receive radiation doses near the          |   | incidents.          |
| > regulatory limit, it is important to      |   |                     |
| > recognize that X‑ray device-related       |   |                     |
| > accidents have occurred when proper       |   |                     |
| > procedures have not been followed.        |   |                     |
| > Failure to follow proper procedures has   |   |                     |
| > been the result of:                       |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Rushing to complete a job.              |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Boredom.                                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Fatigue.                                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Illness.                                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Personal problems.                      |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Lack of communication.                  |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Complacency.                            |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > Every year there are numerous X‑ray       |   |                     |
| > incidents nationwide. Of these, about one |   |                     |
| > third result in injury to a person. The   |   |                     |
| > incident rate at DOE laboratories is much |   |                     |
| > lower than the national average.          |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| I. ALARA                                    |   | Objective 5         |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > Because the effects of chronic doses of   |   |                     |
| > low levels of ionizing radiation are not  |   |                     |
| > precisely known, we assume there is some  |   |                     |
| > risk for any dose. The ALARA principle is |   |                     |
| > to keep radiation dose as low as          |   |                     |
| > reasonably achievable, considering        |   |                     |
| > economic and social constraints.          |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > The goal of an ALARA Program is to keep   |   |                     |
| > radiation dose as far below the           |   |                     |
| > occupational dose limits and              |   |                     |
| > administrative control levels as is       |   |                     |
| > reasonably achievable. The success of an  |   |                     |
| > ALARA Program is directly linked to a     |   |                     |
| > clear understanding and following of the  |   |                     |
| > policies and procedures for the           |   |                     |
| > protection of workers. Keeping radiation  |   |                     |
| > dose ALARA is the responsibility of all   |   |                     |
| > workers, management, and the              |   |                     |
| > radiation-protection organization.        |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > J. REDUCING EXTERNAL DOSE (KEY ITEM)      |   | Objective 5         |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Three basic ways to reduce external doses |   | Discuss             |
| > are to                                    |   | facility-specific   |
|                                             |   | methods to reduce   |
| -   Minimize time.                          |   | external dose.      |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Maximize distance.                      |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Use shielding.                          |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Minimize time near a source of radiation  |   |                     |
| > by planning ahead. Increase distance by   |   |                     |
| > moving away from the source of radiation  |   |                     |
| > whenever possible. The dose from X‑ray    |   |                     |
| > sources is inversely proportional to the  |   |                     |
| > square of the distance. This is called    |   |                     |
| > the inverse square law, that is, when the |   |                     |
| > distance is doubled, the dose is          |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > reduced to one‑fourth of the original     |   |                     |
| > value. Proper facility design uses the    |   |                     |
| > amount and type of shielding appropriate  |   |                     |
| > for the radiation hazard. Lead, concrete, |   |                     |
| > and steel are effective in shielding      |   |                     |
| > against X-rays.                           |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| **II. MODULE 102 - PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS**   |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > A. OBJECTIVES                             |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > i\. Module Objective.                     |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Upon completion of this unit, the         |   |                     |
| > participants should understand what       |   |                     |
| > X-rays are and how they are produced so   |   |                     |
| > that the participants will be able to     |   |                     |
| > work around them safely.                  |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Objectives.                          |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Following self‑study and/or classroom     |   |                     |
| > review, the participants will be able to: |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| 1.  Define the types of electromagnetic     |   |                     |
|     radiation.                              |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| 2.  Describe the difference between X-rays  |   |                     |
|     and gamma rays.                         |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| 3.  Identify how X-rays are produced.       |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| 4.  Define bremsstrahlung and               |   |                     |
|     characteristic X‑rays.                  |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| ```{=html}                                  |   |                     |
| <!-- -->                                    |   |                     |
| ```                                         |   |                     |
| 5.  Describe how X-ray tube voltage and     |   |                     |
|     current affect photon energy and power. |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| ```{=html}                                  |   |                     |
| <!-- -->                                    |   |                     |
| ```                                         |   |                     |
| 6.  Explain how X-rays interact with        |   |                     |
|     matter.                                 |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| 7.  Identify how energy relates to          |   |                     |
|     radiation dose.                         |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > 8\. Discuss the effects of voltage,       |   |                     |
| > current, and filtration on X-rays.        |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > B. ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION              |   | Objective 2         |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > i\. Types of Electromagnetic Radiation.   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > X-rays are a type of electromagnetic      |   |                     |
| > radiation. Other types of electromagnetic |   |                     |
| > radiation are radio waves, microwaves,    |   |                     |
| > infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, and |   |                     |
| > gamma rays. The types of radiation are    |   |                     |
| > distinguished by the amount of energy     |   |                     |
| > carried by the individual photons.        |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > All electromagnetic radiation consists of |   |                     |
| > photons, which are individual packets of  |   |                     |
| > energy. For example, a household light    |   |                     |
| > bulb emits about 10^21^ photons of light  |   |                     |
| > (non-ionizing radiation) per second.      |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The energy carried by individual photons, |   |                     |
| > which is measured in electron volts (eV), |   |                     |
| > is related to the frequency of the        |   |                     |
| > radiation. Different types of             |   |                     |
| > electromagnetic radiation and their       |   |                     |
| > typical photon energies are listed in the |   |                     |
| > following table.                          |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
  **Electromagnetic Radiation**

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

  ------------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------
  **Type**                  **Typical Photon        **Typical
                            Energy**                Wavelengths**

  radio wave                1 ueV                   1 m

  microwave                 1 meV                   1 mm (10^-3^m)

  infrared                  1 eV                    1 um (10^-6^m)

  red light                 2 eV                    6000 Angstrom
                                                    (10^-10^m)

  violet light              3 eV                    4000 Angstrom

  ultraviolet               4 eV                    3000 Angstrom
  ------------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------

  ------------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------
  X-ray                     100 keV                 0.1 Angstrom

  gamma ray                 1 MeV                   0.01 Angstrom
  ------------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. X‑Rays and Gamma Rays.               |   | Objective 2         |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > X-rays and gamma rays both ionize atoms.  |   |                     |
| > The energy required for ionization varies |   |                     |
| > with material (e.g., 34 eV in air, 25 eV  |   |                     |
| > in tissue) but is generally in the range  |   |                     |
| > of several eV. A 100 keV X-ray can        |   |                     |
| > potentially create thousands of ions.     |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > As discussed in Module 101, the           |   |                     |
| > distinction between X‑rays and gamma rays |   |                     |
| > is their origin, or method of production. |   |                     |
| > Gamma rays originate from within the      |   |                     |
| > nucleus; X-rays originate from atomic     |   |                     |
| > electrons and from free electrons         |   |                     |
| > decelerating in the vicinity of atoms     |   |                     |
| > (i.e., bremsstrahlung).                   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > In addition, gamma photons often have     |   |                     |
| > more energy than X-ray photons. For       |   |                     |
| > example, diagnostic X-rays are about 40   |   |                     |
| > keV, whereas gammas from cobalt-60 are    |   |                     |
| > over 1 MeV. However, there are many       |   |                     |
| > exceptions. For example, gammas from      |   |                     |
| > technicium-99m are 140 keV, and the       |   |                     |
| > energy of X-rays from a high-energy       |   |                     |
| > radiographic machine may be as high as 10 |   |                     |
| > MeV.                                      |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > C. X‑RAY PRODUCTION                       |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Radiation-producing devices produce       |   |                     |
| > X-rays by accelerating electrons through  |   |                     |
| > an electrical voltage potential and       |   |                     |
| > stopping them in a target. Many devices   |   |                     |
| > that use a high voltage and a source of   |   |                     |
| > electrons produce X-rays as an unwanted   |   |                     |
| > byproduct of device operation. These are  |   |                     |
| > called *incidental* X-rays.               |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Most X-ray devices emit electrons from a  |   |                     |
| > cathode, accelerate them with a voltage,  |   |                     |
| > and allow them to hit an anode, which     |   |                     |
| > emits X-ray photons.                      |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > i\. Bremsstrahlung.                       |   | Discuss types of    |
| >                                           |   | radiation produced. |
| > When electrons hit the anode, they        |   |                     |
| > decelerate or brake emitting              |   |                     |
| > *bremsstrahlung* (meaning *braking        |   |                     |
| > radiation* in German). Bremsstrahlung is  |   |                     |
| > produced most effectively when small      |   |                     |
| > charged particles interact with large     |   |                     |
| > atoms such as when electrons hit a        |   |                     |
| > tungsten anode. However, bremsstrahlung   |   |                     |
| > can be produced with any charged          |   |                     |
| > particles and any target. For example, at |   |                     |
| > research laboratories, bremsstrahlung has |   |                     |
| > been produced by accelerating protons and |   |                     |
| > allowing them to hit hydrogen.            |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Characteristic X‑Rays.               |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > When electrons change from one atomic     |   |                     |
| > orbit to another, *characteristic X-rays* |   |                     |
| > are produced. The individual photon       |   |                     |
| > energies are characteristic of the type   |   |                     |
| > of atom and can be used to identify very  |   |                     |
| > small quantities of a particular element. |   |                     |
| > For this reason, they are important in    |   |                     |
| > analytical X-ray applications at research |   |                     |
| > laboratories.                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > D. EFFECT OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT ON       |   |                     |
| > PHOTON ENERGY AND POWER                   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > It is important to distinguish between    |   |                     |
| > the energy of individual photons in an    |   |                     |
| > X-ray beam and the total energy of all    |   |                     |
| > the photons in the beam. It is also       |   |                     |
| > important to distinguish between average  |   |                     |
| > power and peak power in a pulsed X-ray    |   |                     |
| > device.                                   |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Typically, the individual photon energy   |   |                     |
| > is given in electron volts (eV), whereas  |   |                     |
| > the power of a beam is given in watts     |   |                     |
| > (W). An individual 100 keV photon has     |   |                     |
| > more energy than an individual 10 keV     |   |                     |
| > photon. However, an X-ray beam consists   |   |                     |
| > of a spectrum (a distribution) of photon  |   |                     |
| > energies and the rate at which energy is  |   |                     |
| > delivered by a beam is determined by the  |   |                     |
| > number of photons of each energy. If      |   |                     |
| > there are many more low energy photons,   |   |                     |
| > it is possible for the low energy         |   |                     |
| > component to deliver more energy.         |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > The photon energy distribution may be     |   |                     |
| > varied by changing the voltage. The       |   |                     |
| > number of photons emitted may be varied   |   |                     |
| > by changing the current.                  |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > i\. Voltage.                              |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The power supplies for many X-ray devices |   |                     |
| > do not produce a constant potential       |   |                     |
| > (D.C.) high voltage but instead energize  |   |                     |
| > the X-ray tube with a time varying or     |   |                     |
| > pulsating high voltage. In addition,      |   |                     |
| > since the bremsstrahlung X-rays produced  |   |                     |
| > are a spectrum of energies up to a        |   |                     |
| > maximum equal to the electron             |   |                     |
| > accelerating maximum voltage, the         |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > accelerating voltage of the X-ray device  |   |                     |
| > is often described in terms of the peak   |   |                     |
| > kilovoltage or kVp.                       |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > A voltage of 50 kVp will produce a        |   |                     |
| > spectrum of X-ray energies with the       |   |                     |
| > theoretical maximum being 50 keV. The     |   |                     |
| > spectrum of energies is continuous from   |   |                     |
| > the maximum to zero. However, X-ray beams |   |                     |
| > are typically filtered to minimize the    |   |                     |
| > low-energy component. Low-energy X-rays   |   |                     |
| > are not useful in radiography, but can    |   |                     |
| > deliver a significant dose.               |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Many X-ray devices have meters to measure |   |                     |
| > voltage. Whenever the voltage is on, a    |   |                     |
| > device can produce some X-rays, even if   |   |                     |
| > the current is too low to read.           |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Current.                             |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The total number of photons produced by   |   |                     |
| > an X-ray device depends on the current,   |   |                     |
| > which is measured in amperes, or amps     |   |                     |
| > (A). The current is controlled by         |   |                     |
| > increasing or decreasing the number of    |   |                     |
| > electrons emitted from the cathode. The   |   |                     |
| > higher the electron current, the more     |   |                     |
| > X-ray photons are emitted from the anode. |   |                     |
| > Many X-ray devices have meters to measure |   |                     |
| > current. However, as mentioned above,     |   |                     |
| > X-rays can be produced by voltage even if |   |                     |
| > the current is too low to read on the     |   |                     |
| > meter. This is sometimes called dark      |   |                     |
| > current. This situation can cause         |   |                     |
| > unnecessary exposure and should be        |   |                     |
| > addressed in SOPs or work documents.      |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > iii\. Determining Electrical Power.       |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Power, which is measured in watts (W),    |   |                     |
| > equals voltage times current (P = V x I). |   |                     |
| > For example, a 10 kVp device with a       |   |                     |
| > current of 1 mA uses 10 W of power.       |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > (Insert facility-specific examples for    |   |                     |
| > determining electrical power.)            |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > E. INTERACTION WITH MATTER                |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > i\. Scattering.                           |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > When X-rays pass through any material,    |   |                     |
| > some will be transmitted, some will be    |   |                     |
| > absorbed, and some will scatter. The      |   |                     |
| > proportions depend on the photon energy,  |   |                     |
| > the type of material and its thickness.   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > X-rays can scatter off a target to the    |   |                     |
| > surrounding area, off a wall and into an  |   |                     |
| > adjacent room, and over and around        |   |                     |
| > shielding. A common mistake is to install |   |                     |
| > thick shielding walls around an X-ray     |   |                     |
| > source but ignore the roof; X-rays can    |   |                     |
| > scatter off air molecules over shielding  |   |                     |
| > walls to create a radiation field known   |   |                     |
| > as *skyshine*. The emanation of X-rays    |   |                     |
| > through and around penetrations in        |   |                     |
| > shielding walls is called *radiation      |   |                     |
| > streaming*.                               |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Implications of Power and X-Ray      |   |                     |
| > Production.                               |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > When high-speed electrons strike the      |   |                     |
| > anode target, most of their energy is     |   |                     |
| > converted to heat in the                  |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > target, but a portion is radiated away as |   |                     |
| > X-rays. As stated previously, the         |   |                     |
| > electrical power of an electrical circuit |   |                     |
| > is given by:                              |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| P = V x I                                   |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > P is the power in watts or joules/second, |   |                     |
| > V is the potential difference in volts,   |   |                     |
| > and I is the current in amps.             |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The power developed in the anode of an    |   |                     |
| > X-ray tube can be calculated using this   |   |                     |
| > relationship. Consider a 150 kilovolt     |   |                     |
| > (kVp) machine, with a current of 50       |   |                     |
| > milliamps (ma).                           |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > P = \[150,000 (V)\] \[0.050 (I)\] = 7500  |   |                     |
| > W.                                        |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > This is about the same heat load as would |   |                     |
| > be found in the heating element of an     |   |                     |
| > electric stove. This power is delivered   |   |                     |
| > over a very short period of time,         |   |                     |
| > typically less than 1 second. More        |   |                     |
| > powerful X-ray machines use higher        |   |                     |
| > voltages and currents and may develop     |   |                     |
| > power as high as 50,000 W or more.        |   |                     |
| > Cooling the anode is a problem that must  |   |                     |
| > be addressed in the design of X-ray       |   |                     |
| > machines. Tungsten is used because of its |   |                     |
| > high melting temperature, and copper is   |   |                     |
| > used because of its excellent thermal     |   |                     |
| > conductivity. These elements may be used  |   |                     |
| > together, with a tungsten anode being     |   |                     |
| > embedded in a large piece of copper.      |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| The percentage of the power transformed to  |   |                     |
| X-rays can be estimated by the following    |   |                     |
| relationship:                               |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > Fraction of incident electron energy      |   |                     |
| > transformed into X-ray energy equals:     |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > (7 X 10 ^-4^) x Z x E                     |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Where Z is the atomic number of the       |   |                     |
| > element (74 for tungsten) and E is the    |   |                     |
| > maximum energy of the incoming electrons  |   |                     |
| > in MeV.                                   |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > In this case, the fraction would be:      |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > (7 X 10 ^-4^) x 74 x 0.150 = 0.008        |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > In the above example P is 7500 W. So the  |   |                     |
| > electron energy incident upon the anode   |   |                     |
| > is:                                       |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 7500 W = 7500 J/s                         |   | Note: 1 W = 1 J/s   |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Then the energy transformed into X-rays   |   |                     |
| > would be 0.008 \[7500\] = 60 J/s.         |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 1 J = 10^7^ ergs, and 100 ergs/g = 1 rad. |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > So this X-ray energy represents:          |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 6.0 x 10^8^ ergs/sec.                     |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > If all this X-ray energy were deposited   |   |                     |
| > in 1 g of tissue, the dose would be:      |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 6.0 x 10^8^ ergs/sec \[1 rad/100ergs/g\]  |   |                     |
| > =                                         |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 6.0 x 10^6^ rad/sec.                      |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > However, in practical applications X-ray  |   |                     |
| > beams are filtered to remove softer       |   |                     |
| > X-rays not useful in radiology, the X-ray |   |                     |
| > pulse is much less than 1                 |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > second, and the useful beam region is     |   |                     |
| > several cm away from the anode target.    |   |                     |
| > These design features lower the dose      |   |                     |
| > rates of the useful X-ray beam            |   |                     |
| > significantly. The dose rate in a typical |   |                     |
| > X-ray beam is estimated in Module 103     |   |                     |
| > section E iii.                            |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > iii\. Filtration.                         |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Low- and high-energy photons are          |   |                     |
| > sometimes referred to as *soft* and       |   |                     |
| > *hard* X-rays, respectively. Because hard |   |                     |
| > X-rays are more penetrating, they are     |   |                     |
| > more desirable for radiography (producing |   |                     |
| > a photograph of the interior of the body  |   |                     |
| > or a piece of apparatus). Soft X-rays are |   |                     |
| > less useful for radiography because they  |   |                     |
| > are largely absorbed near the surface of  |   |                     |
| > the body being X-rayed. However, there    |   |                     |
| > are medical applications where soft       |   |                     |
| > X-rays are useful.                        |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > A filter, such as a few millimeters of    |   |                     |
| > aluminum, or copper may be used to        |   |                     |
| > *harden* the beam by absorbing most of    |   |                     |
| > the low-energy photons. The remaining     |   |                     |
| > photons are more penetrating and are more |   |                     |
| > useful for radiography.                   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > In X-ray analytical work (X-ray           |   |                     |
| > diffraction and fluorescence), filters    |   |                     |
| > with energy selective absorption edges    |   |                     |
| > are not used to *harden* the beam, but to |   |                     |
| > obtain a more monochromatic beam (a beam  |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > with predominantly one energy). By        |   |                     |
| > choosing the right element, it is         |   |                     |
| > possible to absorb a band of high energy  |   |                     |
| > photons preferentially over an adjacent   |   |                     |
| > band of low energy photons.               |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > (Insert facility‑specific examples of     |   |                     |
| > filtration.)                              |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| **III. MODULE 103 - BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS**    |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > A. OBJECTIVES                             |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > i\. Module Objective.                     |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Upon completion of this unit, the         |   |                     |
| > participants should understand the        |   |                     |
| > biological effects of X-rays and the      |   |                     |
| > importance of protective measures for     |   |                     |
| > working with or around X-rays.            |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Objectives.                          |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Following self-study and/or classroom     |   |                     |
| > review, the participants will be able to: |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 1\. Outline the early history of X-rays   |   |                     |
| > and the consequences of working with or   |   |                     |
| > around X‑rays without protective          |   |                     |
| > measures.                                 |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 2\. Identify factors that determine the   |   |                     |
| > biological effects of X-ray exposure.     |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 3\. State the differences between thermal |   |                     |
| > and X-ray burns.                          |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 4\. Identify the signs and symptoms of an |   |                     |
| > acute dose from X-rays.                   |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| 5.  Explain the effects of chronic exposure |   |                     |
|     to X‑rays.                              |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > 6\. Identify the difference between       |   |                     |
| > somatic and heritable effects.            |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > B. EARLY HISTORY OF X-RAYS                |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > i\. Discovery of X-Rays.                  |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > X-rays were discovered in 1895 by German  |   |                     |
| > scientist Wilhelm Roentgen. On November   |   |                     |
| > 8, 1895, Roentgen was investigating       |   |                     |
| > high-voltage electricity and noticed that |   |                     |
| > a nearby phosphor glowed in the dark      |   |                     |
| > whenever he switched on the apparatus. He |   |                     |
| > quickly demonstrated that these unknown   |   |                     |
| > "x" rays, as he called them, traveled in  |   |                     |
| > straight lines, penetrated some           |   |                     |
| > materials, and were stopped by denser     |   |                     |
| > materials. He continued experiments with  |   |                     |
| > these "x" rays and eventually produced an |   |                     |
| > X-ray picture of his wife\'s hand showing |   |                     |
| > the bones and her wedding ring. On        |   |                     |
| > January 1, 1896, Roentgen mailed copies   |   |                     |
| > of this picture along with his report to  |   |                     |
| > fellow scientists.                        |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > By early February 1896, the first         |   |                     |
| > diagnostic X-ray in the United States was |   |                     |
| > taken, followed quickly by the first      |   |                     |
| > X-ray picture of a fetus in utero. By     |   |                     |
| > March of that year, the first dental      |   |                     |
| > X-rays were taken. In that same month,    |   |                     |
| > French scientist Henri Becquerel was      |   |                     |
| > looking for fluorescence effects from the |   |                     |
| > sun, using uranium on a photographic      |   |                     |
| > plate. The weather turned cloudy so he    |   |                     |
| > put the uranium and the photographic      |   |                     |
| > plate into a drawer. When Becquerel       |   |                     |
| > developed the plates a few weeks later,   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > he realized he had made a new discovery.  |   |                     |
| > His student, Marie Curie, named it        |   |                     |
| > radioactivity.                            |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Discovery of Harmful Effects.        |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Because virtually no protective measures  |   |                     |
| > were used in those early days, it was not |   |                     |
| > long after the discovery of X-rays before |   |                     |
| > people began to learn about their harmful |   |                     |
| > effects. X-ray workers were exposed to    |   |                     |
| > very large doses of radiation, and skin   |   |                     |
| > damage from that exposure was observed    |   |                     |
| > and documented early in 1896. In March of |   |                     |
| > that year, Thomas Edison reported eye     |   |                     |
| > injuries from working with X-rays. By     |   |                     |
| > June, experimenters were being cautioned  |   |                     |
| > not to get too close to X-ray tubes. By   |   |                     |
| > the end of that year, reports were being  |   |                     |
| > circulated about cases of hair loss,      |   |                     |
| > reddened skin, skin sloughing off, and    |   |                     |
| > lesions. Some X-ray workers lost fingers, |   |                     |
| > and some eventually contracted cancer. By |   |                     |
| > the early 1900s, the potential            |   |                     |
| > carcinogenic effect of X-ray exposure in  |   |                     |
| > humans had been reported.                 |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Since that time, more than a billion      |   |                     |
| > dollars has been spent in this country    |   |                     |
| > alone on research investigating the       |   |                     |
| > biological effects of ionizing radiation. |   |                     |
| > National and international agencies have  |   |                     |
| > formed to aid in the standardization of   |   |                     |
| > the uses of X-rays to ensure safer        |   |                     |
| > practices.                                |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > C. BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF IONIZATION       |   | Objective 3         |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > X-rays can penetrate into the human body  |   |                     |
| > and ionize atoms. This process creates    |   |                     |
| > radicals that can break or modify         |   |                     |
| > chemical bonds within critical biological |   |                     |
| > molecules. This can cause cell injury,    |   |                     |
| > cell death, and may be the cause of       |   |                     |
| > radiation-induced cancer. The biological  |   |                     |
| > effect of radiation depends on several    |   |                     |
| > factors (discussed below) including the   |   |                     |
| > dose and dose rate.                       |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > In some cases, altered cells are able to  |   |                     |
| > repair the damage. However, in other      |   |                     |
| > cases, the effects are passed to daughter |   |                     |
| > cells through cell division and after     |   |                     |
| > several divisions can result in a group   |   |                     |
| > of cells with altered characteristics.    |   |                     |
| > These cells may result in tumor or cancer |   |                     |
| > development. If enough cells in a body    |   |                     |
| > organ are injured or altered, the         |   |                     |
| > functioning of the organ can be impaired. |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > D. FACTORS THAT DETERMINE BIOLOGICAL      |   |                     |
| > EFFECTS                                   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Several factors contribute to the         |   |                     |
| > biological effects of X‑ray exposure,     |   |                     |
| > including:                                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Dose rate.                              |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Total dose received.                    |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Energy of the radiation.                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Area of the body exposed.               |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Individual sensitivity.                 |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Cell sensitivity.                       |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > i\. Dose Rate.                            |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The rate of dose delivery is commonly     |   |                     |
| > categorized as *acute* or *chronic*. An   |   |                     |
| > *acute* dose is received in a short       |   |                     |
| > period (seconds to days); a *chronic*     |   |                     |
| > dose is received over a longer period     |   |                     |
| > (months to years).                        |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > For the same total dose, an acute dose is |   |                     |
| > more damaging than a chronic dose. It is  |   |                     |
| > believed that this effect is due to the   |   |                     |
| > ability of cells to repair damage over    |   |                     |
| > time. With an acute dose, a cell may      |   |                     |
| > receive many "hits" without sufficient    |   |                     |
| > time to repair damage.                    |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Total Dose Received.                 |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The higher the total amount of radiation  |   |                     |
| > received, the greater the biological      |   |                     |
| > effects. The effects of a whole body dose |   |                     |
| > of less than 25 rem are generally not     |   |                     |
| > clinically observable. For doses of       |   |                     |
| > 25-100 rem there are generally no         |   |                     |
| > symptoms, but a few persons may exhibit   |   |                     |
| > mild prodromal symptoms, such as nausea   |   |                     |
| > and anorexia. Bone-marrow damage may be   |   |                     |
| > noted, and a decrease in red and white    |   |                     |
| > blood-cell counts and platelet count      |   |                     |
| > should be discernable. 100-300 rem may    |   |                     |
| > result in mild to severe nausea, malaise, |   |                     |
| > anorexia, infection. Hematologic damage   |   |                     |
| > will be more severe. Recovery is          |   |                     |
| > probable, though not assured.             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Although effects of lower doses have not  |   |                     |
| > been observed directly, it is             |   |                     |
| > [conservatively]{.underline}              |   |                     |
| > [assumed]{.underline} that the higher the |   |                     |
| > total dose, the greater the risk of       |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > contracting fatal cancer without          |   |                     |
| > consideration of a threshold for effects. |   |                     |
| > This conservative assumption is sometimes |   |                     |
| > called the "linear no threshold"          |   |                     |
| > relationship of health effects to dose.   |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > iii\. Energy of the Radiation.            |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The energy of X-rays can vary from less   |   |                     |
| > than 1 keV up to more than 10 MeV. The    |   |                     |
| > higher the energy of the X-ray, the more  |   |                     |
| > penetrating it will be into body tissue.  |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Lower energy X-rays are largely absorbed  |   |                     |
| > in the skin. They can cause a significant |   |                     |
| > skin dose but may contribute little dose  |   |                     |
| > to the whole body (depending on energy).  |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > iv\. Area of the Body Exposed.            |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Just as a burn to a large portion of the  |   |                     |
| > body is more damaging than a burn         |   |                     |
| > confined to a smaller area, so also is a  |   |                     |
| > radiation dose to the whole body more     |   |                     |
| > damaging than a dose to only a small      |   |                     |
| > area. In addition, the larger the area,   |   |                     |
| > the more difficult it is for the body to  |   |                     |
| > repair the damage.                        |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > v\. Individual Sensitivity.               |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Some individuals are more sensitive to    |   |                     |
| > radiation than others. Age, gender, and   |   |                     |
| > overall health can have an effect on how  |   |                     |
| > the body responds to radiation exposure.  |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > vi\. Cell Sensitivity.                    |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Some cells are more sensitive to          |   |                     |
| > radiation than others. Cells that are     |   |                     |
| > more sensitive to radiation are           |   |                     |
| > *radiosensitive;* cells that are less     |   |                     |
| > sensitive to radiation are                |   |                     |
| > *radioresistant*.                         |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > The law of Bergonie and Tribondeau        |   |                     |
| > states:                                   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The radiosensitivity of a tissue is       |   |                     |
| > directly proportional to its reproductive |   |                     |
| > capacity and inversely proportional to    |   |                     |
| > its degree of differentiation.            |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > It is generally accepted that cells tend  |   |                     |
| > to be radiosensitive if they are:         |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 1\) Cells that have a high division rate  |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 2\) Cells that have a high metabolic rate |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 3\) Cells that are of a non-specialized   |   |                     |
| > type                                      |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 4\) Cells that are well nourished         |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The following are radiosensitive tissues: |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 1\) Germinal                              |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 2\) Hematopoietic                         |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 3\) Epithelium of the skin                |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 4\) Epithelium of the gastrointestinal    |   |                     |
| > tract                                     |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The following are radioresistant tissues: |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 1\) Bone                                  |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 2\) Liver                                 |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 3\) Kidney                                |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 4\) Cartilage                             |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 5\) Muscle                                |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 6\) Nervous system tissue                 |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > E. SOMATIC EFFECTS                        |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Somatic effects are biological effects    |   |                     |
| > that occur in the individual exposed to   |   |                     |
| > radiation. Somatic effects may result     |   |                     |
| > from acute or chronic doses of radiation. |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > i\. Early Acute Somatic Effects.          |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The most common injury associated with    |   |                     |
| > the operation of X-ray analysis equipment |   |                     |
| > occurs when a part of the body, usually a |   |                     |
| > hand, is exposed to the primary X-ray     |   |                     |
| > beam. Both X-ray diffraction and          |   |                     |
| > fluorescence analysis equipment generate  |   |                     |
| > high‑intensity, low-energy X-rays that    |   |                     |
| > can cause severe and permanent injury if  |   |                     |
| > any part of the body is exposed to the    |   |                     |
| > primary beam.                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > The most common injury associated with    |   |                     |
| > the operation of industrial X-ray         |   |                     |
| > equipment occurs when an operator is      |   |                     |
| > exposed to the primary X-ray beam for as  |   |                     |
| > little as a few seconds.                  |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > These types of injuries are sometimes     |   |                     |
| > referred to as *radiation burns*.         |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Difference Between X‑Ray Damage and  |   | Objective 3         |
| > Thermal Burns (Key Item).                 |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Most nerve endings are near the surface   |   |                     |
| > of the skin, so they give immediate       |   |                     |
| > warning of heat or a surface thermal burn |   |                     |
| > such as the participants might receive    |   |                     |
| > from touching a high-temperature object.  |   |                     |
| > In contrast, the body can not immediately |   |                     |
| > feel                                      |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > exposure to X-rays. X-ray damage has      |   |                     |
| > historically been referred to as a        |   |                     |
| > radiation "burn," perhaps because the     |   |                     |
| > reaction of the skin after the radiation  |   |                     |
| > exposure may appear similar to a thermal  |   |                     |
| > burn. In fact, X-ray damage to the tissue |   |                     |
| > is very different from a thermal burn and |   |                     |
| > there is no sensation or feeling as the   |   |                     |
| > damage is occurring.                      |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > In radiation burns, the radiation does    |   |                     |
| > not harm the outer, mature, nondividing   |   |                     |
| > skin layers. Rather, most of the X-rays   |   |                     |
| > penetrate to the deeper, basal skin       |   |                     |
| > layer, damaging or killing the rapidly    |   |                     |
| > dividing germinal cells that are          |   |                     |
| > otherwise destined to replace the outer   |   |                     |
| > layers that slough off. Following this    |   |                     |
| > damage, as the outer cells are naturally  |   |                     |
| > sloughed off, they are not replaced. Lack |   |                     |
| > of a fully viable basal layer of cells    |   |                     |
| > means that X-ray burns are slow to heal,  |   |                     |
| > and in some cases may never heal.         |   |                     |
| > Frequently, such burns require skin       |   |                     |
| > grafts. In some cases, severe X‑ray burns |   |                     |
| > have resulted in gangrene and amputation. |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > An important variable is the energy of    |   |                     |
| > the radiation because this determines the |   |                     |
| > depth of penetration in a given material. |   |                     |
| > Heat radiation is infrared, typically 1   |   |                     |
| > eV; sunburn is caused by ultraviolet      |   |                     |
| > rays, typically 4 eV; and X‑rays are      |   |                     |
| > typically 10 - 100 keV, which are capable |   |                     |
| > of penetrating to the depth of the basal  |   |                     |
| > layer of the skin.                        |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > iii\. Early Signs and Symptoms of         |   |                     |
| > Accidental Exposure to X‑Rays.            |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Note: the doses discussed in this section |   |                     |
| > are localized shallow skin doses and/or   |   |                     |
| > localized doses, but not whole body       |   |                     |
| > doses. Whole body deep doses of this      |   |                     |
| > magnitude would likely be fatal.          |   |                     |
| > Accidental exposures from RPDs are        |   |                     |
| > generally localized to a small part of    |   |                     |
| > the body.                                 |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > **\~600 rad.** An acute dose of about 600 |   |                     |
| > rad to a part of the body causes a        |   |                     |
| > radiation burn equivalent to a            |   |                     |
| > first-degree thermal burn or mild         |   |                     |
| > sunburn. Typically there is no immediate  |   |                     |
| > pain that would cause the participants to |   |                     |
| > pull away, but a sensation of warmth or   |   |                     |
| > itching occurs within a few hours after   |   |                     |
| > exposure. An initial reddening or         |   |                     |
| > inflammation of the affected area usually |   |                     |
| > appears several hours after exposure and  |   |                     |
| > fades after a few more hours or days. The |   |                     |
| > reddening may reappear as late as two to  |   |                     |
| > three weeks after the exposure. A dry     |   |                     |
| > scaling or peeling of the irradiated      |   |                     |
| > portion of the skin is likely to follow.  |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > If the participants have been working     |   |                     |
| > with or around an X‑ray device and the    |   |                     |
| > participants notice an unexplained        |   |                     |
| > reddening of the skin, notify the         |   |                     |
| > supervisor and the Occupational Medicine  |   |                     |
| > Group. Aside from avoiding further injury |   |                     |
| > and guarding against infection, further   |   |                     |
| > medical treatment will probably not be    |   |                     |
| > required and recovery should be fairly    |   |                     |
| > complete.                                 |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > An acute dose of 600 rad delivered to the |   |                     |
| > lens of the eye causes a cataract to      |   |                     |
| > begin to form.                            |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > **\~1,000 rad.** An acute dose of about   |   |                     |
| > 1,000 rad to a part of the body causes    |   |                     |
| > serious tissue damage similar to a        |   |                     |
| > second-degree thermal burn. First         |   |                     |
| > reddening and inflammation occur,         |   |                     |
| > followed by swelling and tenderness.      |   |                     |
| > Blisters will form within one to three    |   |                     |
| > weeks and will break open, leaving raw    |   |                     |
| > painful wounds that can become infected.  |   |                     |
| > Hands exposed to such a dose become       |   |                     |
| > stiff, and finger motion is often         |   |                     |
| > painful. If the participants develop      |   |                     |
| > symptoms such as these, seek immediate    |   |                     |
| > medical attention to avoid infection and  |   |                     |
| > relieve pain.                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > **\~2,000 rad.** An acute dose of about   |   |                     |
| > 2,000 rad to a part of the body causes    |   |                     |
| > severe tissue damage similar to a         |   |                     |
| > scalding or chemical burn. Intense pain   |   |                     |
| > and swelling occur within hours. For this |   |                     |
| > type of radiation burn, seek immediate    |   |                     |
| > medical treatment to reduce pain. The     |   |                     |
| > injury may not heal without surgical      |   |                     |
| > removal of exposed tissue and skin        |   |                     |
| > grafting to cover the wound. Damage to    |   |                     |
| > blood vessels also occurs.                |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > **\~3,000 rad.** An acute dose of 3,000   |   |                     |
| > rad to a part of the body completely      |   |                     |
| > destroys tissue and surgical removal is   |   |                     |
| > necessary.                                |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > It does not take long to get a            |   |                     |
| > significant dose from an X‑ray unit. The  |   |                     |
| > dose rate from an X-ray unit can be       |   |                     |
| > estimated from the Health Physics and     |   |                     |
| > Radiological Health Handbook, 1992        |   |                     |
| > edition Table 10.1.1.                     |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| Example: Assume:                            |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > 2.5 mm Al filter                          |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 100 kVp                                   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 100 mA                                    |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 1 sec exposure                            |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 30 cm distance                            |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Dose estimate (in air, assuming electron  |   |                     |
| > equilibrium): 12.8 Rad                    |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > (Compare these values to                  |   |                     |
| > facility‑specific equipment or examples.) |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > iv\. Latent Effects from Radiation        |   |                     |
| > Exposure.                                 |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The probability of a latent effect        |   |                     |
| > appearing several years after radiation   |   |                     |
| > exposure depends on the amount of the     |   |                     |
| > dose. The higher the dose, the greater    |   |                     |
| > the risk of developing a health effect.   |   |                     |
| > When an individual receives a large       |   |                     |
| > accidental exposure and the prompt        |   |                     |
| > effects of that exposure have been dealt  |   |                     |
| > with, there still remains a concern about |   |                     |
| > latent effects years after the exposure.  |   |                     |
| > Although there is no unique disease       |   |                     |
| > associated with exposure to radiation,    |   |                     |
| > there is a risk of the possibility of     |   |                     |
| > developing fatal cancer. The higher the   |   |                     |
| > accumulated dose, the greater is the risk |   |                     |
| > of health effect, based on the linear-no  |   |                     |
| > threshold model.                          |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > v\. Risk of Developing Cancer from Low    |   | Refer to BEIR V     |
| > Doses.                                    |   | Report, NCRP 116,   |
| >                                           |   | and ICRP 60         |
| > It is not possible to absolutely quantify |   |                     |
| > the risk of cancer from low doses of      |   |                     |
| > radiation because the health effects      |   |                     |
| > cannot be distinguished from the          |   |                     |
| > relatively large natural cancer rate      |   |                     |
| > (approximately 20 percent of Americans    |   |                     |
| > die from cancer). The risk of health      |   |                     |
| > effects from low doses must be inferred   |   |                     |
| > from effects observed from high acute     |   |                     |
| > doses. The risk estimates for high doses  |   |                     |
| > were developed through studies of         |   |                     |
| > Japanese atomic bomb survivors, uranium   |   |                     |
| > miners, radium watch-dial painters, and   |   |                     |
| > radiotherapy patients. These risk factors |   |                     |
| > are applied to low doses with a reduction |   |                     |
| > factor for chronic exposures.             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > However, below 10 rem, health effects are |   |                     |
| > too small to measure. The dose limits and |   |                     |
| > administrative control levels listed in   |   |                     |
| > Module 101 have been established so that  |   |                     |
| > the risk to workers is on a par with the  |   |                     |
| > risks to workers in safe industries,      |   |                     |
| > assuming a linear relationship between    |   |                     |
| > dose and health effects. However, these   |   |                     |
| > are maximum values and the ALARA          |   |                     |
| > principle stresses maintaining doses well |   |                     |
| > below these values.                       |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > vi\. Effects of Prenatal Exposure         |   |                     |
| > (Teratogenic Effects).                    |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The embryo/fetus is especially sensitive  |   |                     |
| > to radiation. The embryo is sensitive to  |   |                     |
| > radiation because of the relatively high  |   |                     |
| > replication activity of the cells and the |   |                     |
| > large number of nonspecialized cells.     |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Workers who become pregnant are           |   | 10 CFR 835.206      |
| > [encouraged to declare their pregnancy in |   |                     |
| > writing]{.underline} to their             |   |                     |
| > supervisors. The dose limit for the       |   |                     |
| > embryo/fetus of a declared pregnant       |   |                     |
| > worker is 500 mrem during the term of the |   |                     |
| > pregnancy; 10 CFR 835.206 (b) states      |   |                     |
| > "Substantial variation above a uniform    |   |                     |
| > exposure rate that would satisfy the      |   |                     |
| > limits provided in 10 CFR835.206 (a)      |   |                     |
| > \[i.e., 500 mrem for term of pregnancy\]  |   |                     |
| > shall be avoided."                        |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > F. HERITABLE EFFECTS                      |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Heritable effects are biological effects  |   |                     |
| > that are inherited by children from their |   |                     |
| > parents at conception. Irradiation of the |   |                     |
| > reproductive organs can damage cells that |   |                     |
| > contain heritable information passed on   |   |                     |
| > to offspring.                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Radiation-induced hereditary effects have |   |                     |
| > been observed in large-scale experiments  |   |                     |
| > with fruit flies and mice irradiated with |   |                     |
| > large doses of radiation. [Such health    |   |                     |
| > effects have not been observed in         |   |                     |
| > humans]{.underline}. Based on the animal  |   |                     |
| > data, however, the conservative           |   |                     |
| > assumption is made that radiation-induced |   |                     |
| > hereditary effects could occur in humans. |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Radiation-induced heritable effects do    |   |                     |
| > not result in genetic diseases that are   |   |                     |
| > uniquely different from those that occur  |   |                     |
| > naturally. Extensive observations of the  |   |                     |
| > children of Japanese atomic bomb          |   |                     |
| > survivors have not revealed any           |   |                     |
| > statistically significant hereditary      |   |                     |
| > health effects.                           |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > ***Note:** Congenital (teratogenic)       |   |                     |
| > effects are not heritable effects.        |   |                     |
| > Congenital effects are not inherited;     |   |                     |
| > they are caused by the action of agents   |   |                     |
| > such as drugs, alcohol, radiation, or     |   |                     |
| > infection to an unborn child in utero.    |   |                     |
| > Congenital or teratogenic effects did     |   |                     |
| > occur in children who were irradiated in  |   |                     |
| > utero by the atomic bombs at Hiroshima or |   |                     |
| > Nagasaki.*                                |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| **IV. MODULE 104 - RADIATION DETECTION**    |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > A. OBJECTIVES                             |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > i\. Module Objective.                     |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Upon completion of this unit, the         |   |                     |
| > participants should understand which      |   |                     |
| > radiation-monitoring instruments and      |   |                     |
| > which personnel-monitoring devices are    |   |                     |
| > appropriate for detecting X-rays.         |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Objectives.                          |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Following self-study and/or classroom     |   |                     |
| > review, the participants will be able to: |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 1\. Identify the instruments used for     |   |                     |
| > X-ray detection and                       |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 2\. Identify the devices used for         |   |                     |
| > personnel monitoring.                     |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > B. RADIATION SURVEYS                      |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Radiation protection surveys should be    |   |                     |
| > conducted on all new or newly installed   |   |                     |
| > X-ray devices by the X-Ray Device Control |   |                     |
| > Office (or facility-specific equivalent)  |   |                     |
| > and repeated at a frequency determined by |   |                     |
| > site policies.                            |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > C. X-RAY DETECTION INSTRUMENTS            |   | Objective 4         |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > External exposure controls used to        |   | Note: Emphasize     |
| > minimize the dose equivalent to workers   |   | that completion of  |
| > are based on the data taken with          |   | this training will  |
| >                                           |   | [not]{.underline}   |
| > portable radiation-monitoring instruments |   | qualify individuals |
| > during a radiation survey. An             |   | to use these        |
| > understanding of these instruments is     |   | instruments,        |
| > important to ensure that the data         |   | specific instrument |
| > obtained are accurate and appropriate for |   | training is         |
| > the source of radiation.                  |   | required.           |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Many factors can affect how well the      |   |                     |
| > survey measurement reflects the actual    |   |                     |
| > conditions, including                     |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Selection of the appropriate instrument |   |                     |
|     based on type and energy of radiation   |   |                     |
|     and on radiation intensity.             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| -   Correct operation of the instrument     |   |                     |
|     based on the instrument operating       |   |                     |
|     characteristics and limitations.        |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Calibration of the instrument to a      |   |                     |
|     known radiation field similar in type,  |   |                     |
|     energy, and intensity to the radiation  |   |                     |
|     field to be measured.                   |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > i\. Instruments Used for X-Ray Detection  |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > It is important to distinguish between    |   |                     |
| > detection and measurement of X-rays.      |   |                     |
| > Equipment users often use a detector to   |   |                     |
| > detect the presence of X-rays, for        |   |                     |
| > example, to verify that the device is off |   |                     |
| > before entry into the area. The           |   |                     |
| > measurement of X-rays is normally the job |   |                     |
| > of a qualified Radiological Control       |   |                     |
| > Technician.                               |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Measurement of radiation dose rates and   |   |                     |
| > surveys of record require an instrument   |   |                     |
| > that reads roentgen or                    |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > rem (R/hour, mR/hour, rem/hour,           |   |                     |
| > mrem/hour) rather than counts per minute  |   |                     |
| > (cpm) or disintegrations per minute       |   |                     |
| > (dpm). Ion chambers measure energy        |   |                     |
| > deposited and are good instruments for    |   |                     |
| > measuring X-ray radiation dose levels.    |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Instruments such as Geiger-Mueller (GM)   |   |                     |
| > counters are effective for detection of   |   |                     |
| > radiation because of their good           |   |                     |
| > sensitivity. However, because both        |   |                     |
| > low-energy and high-energy photons        |   |                     |
| > discharge the counter, GM counters do not |   |                     |
| > quantify a dose well. A thin-window GM    |   |                     |
| > counter is the instrument of choice for   |   |                     |
| > the detection of X-rays. However, this is |   |                     |
| > not the instrument of choice for          |   |                     |
| > measurement of X-ray dose.                |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Facility‑Specific Instrumentation.   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > (Insert facility-specific information on  |   |                     |
| > instrumentation, as appropriate.)         |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > D. PERSONNEL-MONITORING DEVICES           |   | Objective 2         |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Note: X-ray leakage from RPD housings or  |   | 10 CFR 835.801(d)   |
| > shielding may be a narrow beam that is    |   |                     |
| > difficult to detect and may not be        |   |                     |
| > recorded by personnel monitoring devices. |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > i\. Whole Body Dosimeters.                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| Operators of intentional X-ray devices      |   |                     |
| usually wear dosimetry such as              |   |                     |
| thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) film or |   |                     |
| badges. These dosimeters can accurately     |   |                     |
| measure radiation doses as low as 10        |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > mrem and are used to determine the dose   |   |                     |
| > of record. However, they must be sent to  |   |                     |
| > a processor to be read. Therefore, the    |   |                     |
| > exposed individual may not be aware of    |   |                     |
| > his exposure until the results have been  |   |                     |
| > reported (typically 1 day - several       |   |                     |
| > weeks).                                   |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > There are several precautions that are    |   |                     |
| > important in the use of dosimeters.       |   |                     |
| > Dosimeters should be worn in a location   |   |                     |
| > that will record a dose representative of |   |                     |
| > the trunk of the body. Standard practice  |   |                     |
| > is to wear a dosimeter between the neck   |   |                     |
| > and the waist, but in specific situations |   |                     |
| > such as nonuniform radiation fields,      |   |                     |
| > special considerations may apply. Some    |   |                     |
| > dosimeters have a required orientation    |   |                     |
| > with a specific side facing out.          |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > (Insert facility-specific information on  |   |                     |
| > dosimetry, as appropriate.)               |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Extremity Dosimeters.                |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Finger-ring and wrist dosimeters may be   |   |                     |
| > used to assess radiation dose to the      |   |                     |
| > hands.                                    |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > (Insert facility-specific information on  |   |                     |
| > dosimetry, as appropriate.)               |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > iii\. Pocket Dosimeters.                  |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Pocket ionization chambers, such as       |   |                     |
| > pencil dosimeters or electronic           |   |                     |
| > dosimeters, are used in radiological      |   |                     |
| > work. In contrast to TLDs, they give an   |   |                     |
| > immediate readout of the radiation dose.  |   |                     |
| > Pencil                                    |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > dosimeters are manufactured with scales   |   |                     |
| > in several different ranges, but the 0 -  |   |                     |
| > 500 mR range, marked in increments of 20  |   |                     |
| > mR, is often used. The dose is read by    |   |                     |
| > observing the position of a hairline that |   |                     |
| > moves upscale in proportion to dose.      |   |                     |
| > Pocket dosimeters are supplemental and    |   |                     |
| > used primarily as radiological worker     |   |                     |
| > management tools. They are not typically  |   |                     |
| > used for determining the dose of record   |   |                     |
| > required by 10 CFR 835.                   |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > iv\. Alarming Dosimeters.                 |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > In higher dose-rate areas, an alarming    |   |                     |
| > dosimeter may be used to provide an       |   |                     |
| > audible warning of radiation. This        |   |                     |
| > contributes to keeping doses ALARA by     |   |                     |
| > increasing a worker\'s awareness of the   |   |                     |
| > radiation.                                |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| Specific applications may require special   |   |                     |
| considerations. For example, low-energy     |   |                     |
| X‑rays will not penetrate the walls of some |   |                     |
| dosimeters. Flash X-ray devices produce a   |   |                     |
| very short pulse that is not correctly      |   |                     |
| measured by most dose-rate instruments.     |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > (Insert facility-specific information as  |   |                     |
| > appropriate.)                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| **V. MODULE 105 - PROTECTIVE MEASURES**     |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > A. OBJECTIVES                             |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > i\. Module Objective.                     |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Upon completion of this unit, the         |   |                     |
| > participants should understand protective |   |                     |
| > measures that restrict or control access  |   |                     |
| > to X-ray areas and devices or warn of     |   |                     |
| > X‑ray hazards, and should be able to use  |   |                     |
| > work documents that provide specific      |   |                     |
| > procedures to ensure safe operation of    |   |                     |
| > X‑ray devices.                            |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Objectives.                          |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Following self-study and/or classroom     |   |                     |
| > review, the participants will be able to: |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 1\. Identify and state specific           |   |                     |
| > administrative and engineered controls.   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 2\. Identify and state specific           |   |                     |
| > radiological postings.                    |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 3\. Define "interlocks", as applicable.   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 4\. Explain specific shielding practices. |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 5\. Identify typical RPD warning devices. |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 6\. Outline site‑specific work documents. |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > B. RADIOLOGICAL CONTROLS                  |   | Objective 6         |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > To control exposure to radiation, as well |   | 10 CFR 835.501-502  |
| > as maintain exposure ALARA, access to     |   |                     |
| > radiological areas is restricted by a     |   | 10 CFR 835.601-603  |
| > combination of administrative and         |   |                     |
| > engineering controls.                     |   | 10 CFR              |
|                                             |   | 835.1001-1003       |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Examples of administrative controls       |   |                     |
| > include:                                  |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Posting.                                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Warning signals and labels.             |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Work control documents such as SOPs and |   |                     |
|     RWPs.                                   |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Examples of engineered controls include:  |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Interlocks.                             |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Shielding.                              |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > For high-radiation areas where radiation  |   | 10 CFR 835.502      |
| > levels exist such that an individual      |   |                     |
| > could exceed a deep dose equivalent of 1  |   |                     |
| > rem in any 1 hour at 30 cm from the       |   |                     |
| > source or surface that the radiation      |   |                     |
| > penetrates, one or more of the following  |   |                     |
| > features shall be used to control         |   |                     |
| > exposure:                                 |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| -   A control device that prevents entry.   |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   A device that prevents use of the       |   |                     |
|     radiation source while personnel are    |   |                     |
|     present.                                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   A device that energizes a visible and   |   |                     |
|     audible alarm.                          |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Locked entry ways.                      |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| ```{=html}                                  |   |                     |
| <!-- -->                                    |   |                     |
| ```                                         |   |                     |
| -   Continuous direct or electronic         |   |                     |
|     surveillance to prevent unauthorized    |   |                     |
|     entry.                                  |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   A device that generates audible and     |   |                     |
|     visual alarms in sufficient time to     |   |                     |
|     permit evacuation.                      |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > In addition to the above measures, for    |   |                     |
| > very high radiation areas (areas          |   |                     |
| > accessible to individuals in which        |   |                     |
| > radiation levels could result in an       |   |                     |
| > individual receiving a dose in excess of  |   |                     |
| > 500 rads in 1 hour), additional measures  |   |                     |
| > shall be implemented to ensure            |   |                     |
| > individuals are not able to gain access.  |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > C. RADIOLOGICAL POSTINGS                  |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > i\. Purpose of Posting.                   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The two primary reasons for radiological  |   |                     |
| > posting are:                              |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 1\. To inform workers of the radiological |   |                     |
| > conditions and                            |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 2\. To inform workers of the entry        |   |                     |
| > requirements for an area.                 |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. General Posting Requirements.        |   | 10 CFR 835.601(c)   |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 1\. Signs contain the standard radiation  |   |                     |
| > symbol colored magenta or black on a      |   |                     |
| > yellow background.                        |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| 2.  Signs shall be clearly and              |   | 10 CFR 835.601(d)   |
|     conspicuously posted to alert personnel |   |                     |
|     to the presence                         |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > of radiation. Signs may also include      |   |                     |
| > radiological protection instructions.     |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 3\. If more than one radiological         |   |                     |
| > condition exists in the same area, each   |   |                     |
| > condition should be identified.           |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 4\. Rope, tape, chain, or similar barrier |   |                     |
| > material used to designate radiological   |   |                     |
| > areas should be yellow and magenta.       |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 5\. Physical barriers should be placed so |   |                     |
| > that they are clearly visible from all    |   |                     |
| > accessible directions and at various      |   |                     |
| > elevations.                               |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 6\. Posting of doors should be such that  |   |                     |
| > the postings remain visible when doors    |   |                     |
| > are open or closed.                       |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 7\. Radiological postings that indicate   |   |                     |
| > an intermittent radiological condition    |   |                     |
| > should include a statement specifying     |   |                     |
| > when the condition exists, such as        |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > "CAUTION, RADIATION AREA WHEN RED LIGHT   |   |                     |
| > IS ON."                                   |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > For a Radiation Area, wording on the      |   | 10 CFR 835.603(a)   |
| > posting shall include the words:          |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > "CAUTION, RADIATION AREA."                |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > For a High Radiation Area, wording on the |   |                     |
| > posting shall include the words:          |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > "DANGER, HIGH RADIATION AREA."            |   | 10 CFR 835.603(b)   |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > For a Very High Radiation Area, wording   |   | 10 CFR 835.603(c)   |
| > on the posting shall include the words:   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > "GRAVE DANGER, VERY HIGH RADIATION AREA." |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > The same posting requirements apply for   |   |                     |
| > X‑ray or gamma radiation as for any other |   |                     |
| > type of radiation. Areas controlled for   |   |                     |
| > radiological purposes are posted          |   |                     |
| > according to the radiation dose rates in  |   |                     |
| > the area, as shown in the following       |   |                     |
| > table. These definitions are standard     |   |                     |
| > throughout the DOE complex.               |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------
  **Areas**                          **Defining Condition**

  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------

  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------
  Controlled Area                    Means any area to which access is
                                     managed to protect individuals from
                                     exposure to radiation and/or
                                     radioactive material.

  Radiation Area                     Means any area accessible to
                                     individuals in which radiation
                                     levels could result in an individual
                                     receiving a deep dose equivalent in
                                     excess of 0.005 rem (0.05
                                     millisievert) in 1 hour at 30
                                     centimeters from the source or from
                                     any surface that the radiation
                                     penetrates.

  High Radiation Area                Means any area accessible to
                                     individuals, in which radiation
                                     levels could result in an individual
                                     receiving a deep dose equivalent in
                                     excess of 0.1 rem (0.001 sievert) in
                                     1 hour at 30 centimeters from the
                                     radiation source or from any surface
                                     that the radiation penetrates.

  Very High Radiation Area           Means any area accessible to
                                     individuals in which radiation
                                     levels could result in an individual
                                     receiving an absorbed dose in excess
                                     of 500 rads (5 grays) in 1 hour at 1
                                     meter from a radiation source or
                                     from any surface that the radiation
                                     penetrates.
  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > (Insert facility-specific information on  |   |                     |
| > posting, labeling, and entry              |   |                     |
| > requirements, as applicable.)             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > D. INTERLOCKS                             |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Fail-safe interlocks should be provided   |   |                     |
| > on doors and access panels of X-ray       |   |                     |
| > devices so that X-ray production is not   |   |                     |
| > possible when they are open. A fail-safe  |   |                     |
| > interlock is designed so that any failure |   |                     |
| > that can reasonably be anticipated will   |   |                     |
| > result in a condition in which personnel  |   |                     |
| > are safe from excessive radiation         |   |                     |
| > exposure.                                 |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Guidance from the ANSI standards is that  |   | Refer to ANSI N43.2 |
| > interlocks should be tested by the        |   |                     |
| > operating group at least every six        |   |                     |
| > months. The interlock test procedure may  |   |                     |
| > be locally specified, but typically is as |   |                     |
| > follows:                                  |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| 1.  Energize the X-ray tube.                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| 2.  Open each door or access panel one at a |   |                     |
|     time.                                   |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| 3.  Observe the X-ray warning light or      |   |                     |
|     current meter at the control panel.     |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| 4.  Record the results in a log.            |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > (Insert facility-specific information, as |   |                     |
| > appropriate.)                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| E. SHIELDING                                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > i\. Analytical Systems.                   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > For analytical X-ray machines, such as    |   |                     |
| > X-ray fluorescence and diffraction        |   |                     |
| > systems, the manufacturer provides        |   |                     |
| > shielding in accordance with ANSI N43.2.  |   |                     |
| > However, prudent practice requires that   |   |                     |
| > any device or source that involves        |   |                     |
| > radiation should be surveyed to determine |   |                     |
| > the adequacy of the shielding.            |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Enclosed beam systems have sufficient     |   |                     |
| > shielding so that the dose rate at 5 cm   |   |                     |
| > from its outer surface does not exceed    |   |                     |
| > 0.25 mrem per hour under normal operating |   |                     |
| > conditions. The dose rate may be          |   |                     |
| > difficult to evaluate. According to ANSI  |   |                     |
| > N43.2, this requirement is met if the     |   |                     |
| > shielding is at least equal to the        |   |                     |
| > thickness of lead specified in the        |   |                     |
| > following table for the maximum rated     |   |                     |
| > anode current and potential.              |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
  [Minimum Shielding to Keep the Dose Rate Below 0.25
  mrem/hour]{.smallcaps}

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

  ---------------------- ----------------------------------------------------
  [Anode                 [Millimeters of Lead]{.smallcaps}
  Current]{.smallcaps}   

  ---------------------- ----------------------------------------------------

  -------------------- ------------------ ------------------ ------------------
  [(mA)]{.smallcaps}   [50                [70                [100
                       kVp]{.smallcaps}   kVp]{.smallcaps}   kVp]{.smallcaps}

  20                   1.5                5.6                7.7

  40                   1.6                5.8                7.9

  80                   1.6                5.9                \--

  160                  1.7                \--                \--
  -------------------- ------------------ ------------------ ------------------

**Lesson Plan Instructor's Notes**

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Industrial Systems.                  |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Some industrial X-ray systems, such as    |   |                     |
| > the cabinet X-ray systems used for        |   |                     |
| > airport security, are completely enclosed |   |                     |
| > in an interlocked and shielded cabinet.   |   |                     |
| > Larger systems such as medical X-ray      |   |                     |
| > units are enclosed in a shielded room to  |   |                     |
| > which access is restricted. Shielding for |   |                     |
| > X-ray rooms is conservatively designed to |   |                     |
| > handle the expected workload conditions.  |   |                     |
| > Radiological control technicians (RCTs)   |   |                     |
| > periodically verify that the shielding    |   |                     |
| > integrity has not deteriorated.           |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > X-Ray Device Control Office (or           |   |                     |
| > facility-specific equivalent) personnel   |   |                     |
| > develop recommendations for shielding     |   |                     |
| > based on the following information:       |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 1\. Shielding the primary X-ray beam and  |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 2\. Shielding the areas not in the line   |   |                     |
| > of the primary beam from leakage and      |   |                     |
| > scattered radiation.                      |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > There are independent analyses for each   |   |                     |
| > component to derive an acceptable shield  |   |                     |
| > thickness.                                |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > For example, the calculation used for the |   |                     |
| > primary X-ray beam depends on:            |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > \- Peak voltage.                          |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > \- The maximum permissible exposure rate  |   |                     |
| > to an individual.                         |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > \- The workload of the machine expressed  |   |                     |
| > in mA min/wk.                             |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > \- The use factor: the fraction of the    |   |                     |
| > workload during which the useful beam is  |   |                     |
| > pointed in a direction under              |   |                     |
| > consideration.                            |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   The occupancy factor that takes into    |   |                     |
|     account the fraction of time that an    |   |                     |
|     area outside the barrier is likely to   |   |                     |
|     be occupied by a given individual.      |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > \- The distance from the target of the    |   |                     |
| > tube to the location under consideration. |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The calculation uses conservative values  |   |                     |
| > and derives a value (K) that is used with |   |                     |
| > graphs to determine shield thickness of a |   |                     |
| > given type of material (e.g., lead or     |   |                     |
| > concrete).                                |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > F. WARNING DEVICES                        |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Operators should be aware of the status   |   |                     |
| > of the X-ray tube. Indicators that warn   |   |                     |
| > of X-ray production typically include:    |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| -   A current meter on the X-ray control    |   |                     |
|     panel.                                  |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   A warning light labeled X-RAYS ON near  |   |                     |
|     or on the control panel.                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| -   Warning light labeled X-RAYS ON near    |   |                     |
|     any X-ray room door.                    |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > These warning lights or indicators are    |   |                     |
| > activated automatically when power is     |   |                     |
| > available for X-ray production.           |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > For X-ray systems with an open beam in a  |   |                     |
| > shielded room, evacuation warning signals |   |                     |
| > and signs must be activated at least 20   |   |                     |
| > seconds before X-ray production can be    |   |                     |
| > started. Any person who is inside the     |   |                     |
| > room when warning signals come on should  |   |                     |
| > immediately leave the room and activate   |   |                     |
| > the panic or scram switch on the way out. |   |                     |
| > This is an emergency system designed to   |   |                     |
| > shut down the X-ray system immediately.   |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| (Insert facility‑specific information.)     |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > G. WORK DOCUMENTS                         |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > (Note: this section is provided only as   |   | Objective 6         |
| > an example and should be replaced with    |   |                     |
| > facility-specific information.)           |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > i\. Typical Standard Operating Procedures |   |                     |
| > (SOP).                                    |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > An X-ray device has a procedure such as   |   |                     |
| > an SOP to promote safe and efficient      |   |                     |
| > operation. SOPs typically include the     |   |                     |
| > following:                                |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 1\. Description/specification of the      |   |                     |
| > X-ray device and the purpose for which it |   |                     |
| > is used.                                  |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 2\. Normal X-ray parameters (peak power,  |   |                     |
| > current, exposure time, X-ray             |   |                     |
| > source-to-film distance, etc.).           |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 3\. Procedures for proper sample          |   |                     |
| > preparation, alignment procedures, or     |   |                     |
| > handling of object to be radiographed.    |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| 4\. Description of all safety hazards       |   |                     |
| (electrical, mechanical, explosive, as well |   |                     |
| as radiation hazards) associated with the   |   |                     |
| operation of the X‑ray device.              |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > 5\. Description of the safety features    |   |                     |
| > such as interlocks and warning signals    |   |                     |
| > and any other safety precautions.         |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 6\. Procedures for performing interlock   |   |                     |
| > tests and the recommended frequency of    |   |                     |
| > such tests.                               |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 7\. Required operator training and        |   |                     |
| > dosimetry.                                |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 8\. Posting of signs and labels.          |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 9\. X-ray device safety checklist (items  |   |                     |
| > to be checked periodically or each day    |   |                     |
| > before use).                              |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 10\. Actions to take in the event of an   |   |                     |
| > abnormal occurrence or emergency.         |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 11\. Requirements for the use of a        |   | Specify which types |
| > radiation-monitoring instrument upon      |   | of X-ray devices    |
| > entry into the Radiation Area to verify   |   | require this        |
| > that the X-ray beam is off are specified  |   | measure at your     |
| > in ANSI N43.3 for some industrial X-ray   |   | facility (e.g.,     |
| > devices.                                  |   | only open systems). |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > X-Ray Device Control Office personnel (or |   |                     |
| > facility‑specific equivalent) review each |   |                     |
| > SOP to verify that it establishes         |   |                     |
| > appropriate                               |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > safety practices and they can assist the  |   |                     |
| > operating groups in preparing or          |   |                     |
| > modifying an SOP. The current SOP should  |   |                     |
| > be kept near the X-ray device.            |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Operating groups are responsible for      |   |                     |
| > ensuring that the operator becomes        |   |                     |
| > familiar with and uses the SOP. The       |   |                     |
| > operator is responsible for following the |   |                     |
| > SOP.                                      |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Radiological Work Permits (RWPs).    |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > RWPs are used to establish radiological   |   |                     |
| > controls for entry into radiological      |   |                     |
| > areas. They serve to:                     |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 1\. Inform workers of area radiological   |   |                     |
| > conditions.                               |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 2\. Inform workers of entry requirements  |   |                     |
| > into the areas.                           |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 3\. Provide a means to relate radiation   |   |                     |
| > doses to specific work activities.        |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > A job-specific RWP is used to control     |   |                     |
| > nonroutine operations or work areas with  |   |                     |
| > changing radiological conditions.         |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > RWPs are typically used in conjunction    |   |                     |
| > with X-ray devices when any of the        |   |                     |
| > following situations exist:               |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 1\. A compliance label for a newly        |   |                     |
| > acquired X-ray device cannot be issued    |   |                     |
| > because the SOP for that device has not   |   |                     |
| > yet been written and approved.            |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 2\. A portable X-ray device or open       |   |                     |
| > system used only for a short period that  |   |                     |
| > does not warrant writing an SOP.          |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 3\. An event that requires an operator    |   | An example of a     |
| > enter the area when the X-ray beam is on. |   | non-routine entry   |
|                                             |   | is one that         |
|                                             |   | requires operator   |
|                                             |   | entry with the beam |
|                                             |   | on, creating a      |
|                                             |   | radiation area or   |
|                                             |   | high radiation      |
|                                             |   | area. Include       |
|                                             |   | facility-specific   |
|                                             |   | examples.           |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| **VI. MODULE 106 - X-RAY GENERATING         |   |                     |
| DEVICES**                                   |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > A. OBJECTIVES                             |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > i\. Module Objective.                     |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Upon completion of this unit, the         |   |                     |
| > participants should understand the        |   |                     |
| > categories of X-ray producing devices and |   |                     |
| > the hazards associated with each.         |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > (Note: Module 106 reflects the guidance   |   |                     |
| > of the ANSI Standards N43.2 and N43.3.    |   |                     |
| > Insert facility‑specific information as   |   |                     |
| > appropriate.)                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Objectives.                          |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Following self‑study and/or review, the   |   |                     |
| > participants will be able to:             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 1\. Contrast incidental and intentional   |   |                     |
| > X-ray devices.                            |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 2\. Contrast analytical and industrial    |   |                     |
| > X-ray devices.                            |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 3\. Identify open and enclosed beam       |   |                     |
| > installations.                            |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 4\. Describe the safety features          |   |                     |
| > essential for operation of industrial and |   |                     |
| > analytical systems.                       |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > B. INCIDENTAL AND INTENTIONAL DEVICES     |   | Objective 7         |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > X-ray systems are divided into two broad  |   |                     |
| > categories: intentional and incidental.   |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > An *incidental* X-ray device produces     |   |                     |
| > X-rays that are not wanted or used as a   |   |                     |
| > part of the designed purpose of the       |   |                     |
| > machine. Shielding on an incidental X-ray |   |                     |
| > device should preclude significant        |   |                     |
| > exposure. Examples of incidental systems  |   |                     |
| > are computer monitors, televisions,       |   |                     |
| > electron microscopes, high-voltage        |   |                     |
| > electron guns, electron beam welding      |   |                     |
| > machines, electrostatic separators, and   |   |                     |
| > Jennings switches.                        |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > An *intentional* X-ray device is designed |   |                     |
| > to generate an X-ray beam for a           |   |                     |
| > particular use. Examples include X‑ray    |   |                     |
| > diffraction and fluorescence analysis     |   |                     |
| > systems, flash X-ray systems, medical     |   |                     |
| > X-ray machines, and industrial cabinet    |   |                     |
| > and noncabinet X-ray equipment.           |   |                     |
| > Intentional X-ray devices are further     |   |                     |
| > divided into two subcategories:           |   |                     |
| > analytical and industrial.                |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > ANSI has issued two standards that        |   |                     |
| > provide radiation safety guidelines for   |   |                     |
| > X-ray systems. ANSI N43.2 applies to      |   |                     |
| > non-medical X-ray systems and ANSI N43.3  |   |                     |
| > applies to X-ray diffraction and          |   |                     |
| > fluorescence industrial systems.          |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| C.  INCIDENTAL X-RAY DEVICES                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| ```{=html}                                  |   |                     |
| <!-- -->                                    |   |                     |
| ```                                         |   |                     |
| i.  Exempt Shielded Systems.                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| Exempt shielded systems are defined in the  |   |                     |
| ANSI Standard N43.3. Electron microscopes   |   |                     |
| and other systems that are exempt shielded  |   |                     |
| are inherently safe, and require review     |   |                     |
| only on purchase or modification. The       |   |                     |
| exposure rate during any phase of operation |   |                     |
| of these devices at the maximum-rated       |   |                     |
| continuous beam current for the             |   |                     |
| maximum-rated accelerating potential should |   |                     |
| not exceed 0.5 mrem/hour at 2 inches (5 cm) |   |                     |
| from any accessible external surface.       |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > (Add facility-specific examples.)         |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Other Devices.                       |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > At a research laboratory, many devices    |   |                     |
| > produce incidental X-rays. Any device     |   |                     |
| > that combines high voltage and a vacuum   |   |                     |
| > could, in principle, produce X-rays. For  |   |                     |
| > example, a television or computer monitor |   |                     |
| > generates incidental X-rays, but in       |   |                     |
| > modern designs the intensity is small,    |   |                     |
| > much less than 0.5 mrem/hour.             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > Occasionally, this hazard is recognized   |   |                     |
| > only after the device has operated for    |   |                     |
| > some time.                                |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > If the participants suspect an X-ray      |   |                     |
| > hazard, contact an RCT or the X‑Ray       |   |                     |
| > Device Control Office (or                 |   |                     |
| > facility-specific equivalent) to survey   |   |                     |
| > the device.                               |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| (Add facility-specific examples.)           |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > D. INTENTIONAL ANALYTICAL X-RAY DEVICES   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > i\. Analytical X-Ray Devices.             |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Analytical X-ray devices use X-rays for   |   |                     |
| > diffraction or fluorescence experiments.  |   |                     |
| > These research tools are normally used in |   |                     |
| > materials science. ANSI N43.2 defines two |   |                     |
| > types of analytical X-ray systems:        |   |                     |
| > enclosed beam and open beam.              |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > The following safety features are common  |   |                     |
| > to both systems:                          |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 1\. A fail-safe light or indicator is     |   |                     |
| > installed in a conspicuous location near  |   |                     |
| > the X-ray tube housing. These indicators  |   |                     |
| > are energized automatically and only when |   |                     |
| > the tube current flows or high voltage is |   |                     |
| > applied to the X-ray tube.                |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 2\. Accessories to the equipment have a   |   |                     |
| > beam stop or other barrier.               |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 3\. Shielding is provided.                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| (Add facility-specific examples.)           |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Enclosed‑Beam System.                |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > In an enclosed-beam system, all possible  |   |                     |
| > X-ray paths (primary and diffracted) are  |   |                     |
| > completely enclosed so that no part of a  |   |                     |
| > human body can be exposed to the beam     |   |                     |
| > during normal operation. Because it is    |   |                     |
| > safer, the enclosed-beam system should be |   |                     |
| > selected over the open-beam system        |   |                     |
| > whenever possible.                        |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > The following safety features are         |   |                     |
| > specified by ANSI N43.2 for an            |   |                     |
| > enclosed-beam X‑ray system:               |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 1\. The sample chamber door or other      |   |                     |
| > enclosure should have a fail-safe         |   |                     |
| > interlock on the X-ray tube high-voltage  |   |                     |
| > supply or a shutter in the primary beam   |   |                     |
| > so that no X-ray beam can enter the       |   |                     |
| > sample chamber while it is open.          |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 2\. X-ray tube, sample, detector, and     |   |                     |
| > analyzing crystal (if used) must be       |   |                     |
| > enclosed in a chamber or coupled chambers |   |                     |
| > that cannot be entered by any part of the |   |                     |
| > body during normal operation.             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 3\. Radiation leakage measured at         |   |                     |
| > 2 inches (5 cm) from any outer surface    |   |                     |
| > must not exceed 0.25 mrem/hour during     |   |                     |
| > normal operation.                         |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| (Add facility-specific examples.)           |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > iii\. Open-Beam System.                   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > According to ANSI N43.2, a device that    |   |                     |
| > does not meet the enclosed-beam standards |   |                     |
| > is classified as an open-beam system. In  |   |                     |
| > an open-beam system, one or more X-ray    |   |                     |
| > beams are not enclosed, making exposure   |   |                     |
| > of human body parts possible during       |   |                     |
| > normal operation. The open-beam system is |   |                     |
| > acceptable for use only if an enclosed    |   |                     |
| > beam is impractical because of any of the |   |                     |
| > following reasons:                        |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 1\. A need for frequent changes of        |   |                     |
| > attachments and configurations.           |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 2\. A need for making adjustments with    |   |                     |
| > the X-ray beam energized.                 |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 3\. Motion of specimen and detector over  |   |                     |
| > wide angular limits.                      |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 4\. The examination of large or bulky     |   |                     |
| > samples.                                  |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > The following safety features are         |   |                     |
| > essential in an open-beam X-ray system:   |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 1\. Each port of the X-ray tube housing   |   |                     |
| > must have a beam shutter.                 |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > 2\. All shutters must have a conspicuous  |   |                     |
| > SHUTTER OPEN indicator of fail-safe       |   |                     |
| > design.                                   |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 3\. Shutters at unused ports should be    |   |                     |
| > mechanically or electrically secured to   |   |                     |
| > prevent casual opening.                   |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 4\. Special rules apply when the          |   |                     |
| > accessory setup is subject to change as   |   |                     |
| > is the case with powder diffraction       |   |                     |
| > cameras. In these cases, the beam shutter |   |                     |
| > must be interlocked so the port will be   |   |                     |
| > open only when the accessory is in place. |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > 5\. Exposure rates adjacent to the system |   |                     |
| > must not exceed 2.5 mrem/hour at 5 cm     |   |                     |
| > from the surface of the housing.          |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| 6.  A guard or interlock must prevent entry |   |                     |
|     of any part of the body into the        |   |                     |
|     primary beam.                           |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > (Insert facility-specific information if  |   |                     |
| > system definitions differ from the        |   |                     |
| > above.)                                   |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > E. INTENTIONAL INDUSTRIAL X-RAY DEVICES   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > i\. Industrial X-Ray Devices.             |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| Industrial X-ray devices are used for       |   |                     |
| radiography, for example, to take pictures  |   |                     |
| of the inside of an object as in an X-ray   |   |                     |
| of a pipe weld or to measure the thickness  |   |                     |
| of material. ANSI standard N43.3 defines    |   |                     |
| five classes of industrial X-ray            |   |                     |
| installations: cabinet, exempt shielded,    |   |                     |
| shielded, unattended, and open.             |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > (Add facility-specific examples.)         |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > ii\. Cabinet X-ray Installation.          |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > A cabinet X-ray installation is similar   |   |                     |
| > in principle to the analytical enclosed   |   |                     |
| > beam system. The X-ray tube is installed  |   |                     |
| > in an enclosure (cabinet) that contains   |   |                     |
| > the object being irradiated, provides     |   |                     |
| > shielding, and excludes individuals from  |   |                     |
| > its interior during X-ray generation. A   |   |                     |
| > common example is the X-ray device used   |   |                     |
| > to inspect carry-on baggage at airline    |   |                     |
| > terminals. Certified cabinet X-ray        |   |                     |
| > systems comply with the regulations of 21 |   |                     |
| > CFR 1020.40.                              |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > Exposure rates adjacent to a cabinet      |   |                     |
| > X-ray system shall not exceed 2           |   |                     |
| > mrem/hour.                                |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| (Add facility-specific examples.)           |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| > iii\. Exempt Shielded Installation.       |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > An exempt shielded facility or            |   |                     |
| > installation is similar to a cabinet      |   |                     |
| > X-ray installation. It provides a high    |   |                     |
| > degree of inherent safety because the     |   |                     |
| > protection depends on passive shielding   |   |                     |
| > and not on compliance with procedures.    |   |                     |
| > This type does not require restrictions   |   |                     |
| > in occupancy since passive shielding is   |   |                     |
| > sufficient. The low allowable dose        |   |                     |
| > equivalent rate of 0.5 mrem in any 1 hour |   |                     |
| > at 5 cm from the accessible surface of    |   |                     |
| > the enclosure for this class of           |   |                     |
| > installation necessitates a high degree   |   |                     |
| > of installed shielding surrounding the    |   |                     |
| > X-ray device.                             |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| (Add facility-specific examples.)           |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > iv\. Shielded Installation.               |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > A shielded installation has less          |   |                     |
| > shielding than exempt shielded. This is a |   |                     |
| > cost advantage for fixed installations,   |   |                     |
| > particularly for high‑energy sources      |   |                     |
| > where the reduction in shielding may      |   |                     |
| > result in significant savings. However,   |   |                     |
| > there is more reliance on protective      |   |                     |
| > measures such as warning lights, posting, |   |                     |
| > and procedures. However, the posting and  |   |                     |
| > access control requirements of 10 CFR 835 |   |                     |
| > apply. Any High Radiation Area must be    |   |                     |
| > appropriately controlled and any          |   |                     |
| > Radiation Area must be defined and        |   |                     |
| > posted.                                   |   |                     |
|                                             |   |                     |
| (Add facility-specific examples.)           |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > v\. Unattended Installation.              |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > An unattended installation consists of    |   |                     |
| > equipment designed and manufactured for a |   |                     |
| > specific purpose and does not require     |   |                     |
| > personnel in attendance for its           |   |                     |
| > operation. Steps must be taken to ensure  |   |                     |
| > that the dose to personnel is less than   |   |                     |
| > 100 mrem/year. However, a short term      |   |                     |
| > limit of 2 mrem/hour may be used provided |   |                     |
| > the expected dose to personnel is less    |   |                     |
| > than 100 mrem/year.                       |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > (Add facility-specific examples.)         |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > vi\. Open Installation.                   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > An open installation has X-ray paths that |   |                     |
| > are not enclosed. An example would be a   |   |                     |
| > portable X-ray machine outdoors in an     |   |                     |
| > emergency response situation, with the    |   |                     |
| > X-ray tube not enclosed inside a shielded |   |                     |
| > room. This class is acceptable for use    |   |                     |
| > only if operational requirements prevent  |   |                     |
| > the use of one of the other classes. Its  |   |                     |
| > use is limited mainly to mobile and       |   |                     |
| > portable equipment where fixed shielding  |   |                     |
| > cannot be used. The protection of         |   |                     |
| > personnel and the public depends almost   |   |                     |
| > entirely on strict adherence to safe      |   |                     |
| > operating procedures and posting. High    |   |                     |
| > Radiation Areas must either be locked (as |   |                     |
| > in the shielded installation) or be under |   |                     |
| > constant surveillance by the operator.    |   |                     |
| > The perimeter of any Radiation Area       |   |                     |
| > created by the system must be defined and |   |                     |
| > posted.                                   |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > According to ANSI N43.3, when the         |   |                     |
| > radiation source is being approached      |   |                     |
| > following the conclusion of a procedure,  |   |                     |
| > the operator shall use a suitable         |   |                     |
| > calibrated and operable survey instrument |   |                     |
| > to verify that the source is in its fully |   |                     |
| > shielded condition or that the X-ray tube |   |                     |
| > has been turned off.                      |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > (Add facility-specific examples.)         |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
| > F. SUMMARY OF X-RAY DEVICES               |   |                     |
| >                                           |   |                     |
| > The following table summarizes the        |   |                     |
| > classes of X-ray devices recognized by    |   |                     |
| > ANSI. For the enclosed beam, exempt       |   |                     |
| > shielded, and cabinet systems, access is  |   |                     |
| > controlled by enclosing the X-rays within |   |                     |
| > a chamber or cabinet. The other systems   |   |                     |
| > can have potentially hazardous dose rates |   |                     |
| > outside the system housing, so access     |   |                     |
| > must be controlled by a combination of    |   |                     |
| > locked doors, posting, warning lights,    |   |                     |
| > and procedures.                           |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+
|                                             |   |                     |
+---------------------------------------------+---+---------------------+

SUMMARY OF X-RAY DEVICES

  ------------------- --------------- ------------------- -----------------
  **X-Ray Device**    **Category**    **Maximum Dose      **Access**
                                      Rate - Whole Body** 

  ------------------- --------------- ------------------- -----------------

  ------------------- --------------- ------------------- -----------------
  Enclosed beam       Analytical      0.25 mrem/hour      Fully enclosed
                                                          chamber

  Open beam           Analytical      2.5 mrem/hour       Beam guard

  Cabinet             Industrial      2.0 mrem/hour       Fully enclosed in
                                                          a cabinet

  Exempt shielded     Industrial      0.5 mrem/hour       Enclosed

  Shielded            Industrial      as posted           Locked doors

  Unattended          Industrial      2 mrem/hour -       Secured access
                                      maximum 100         panel
                                      mrem/year           

  Open installation   Industrial      as posted           Constant
                                                          surveillance
  ------------------- --------------- ------------------- -----------------

+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| **VII. MODULE 107 - RESPONSIBILITIES FOR    |   |                      |
| X-RAY SAFETY**                              |   |                      |
|                                             |   |                      |
| > A. OBJECTIVES                             |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > i\. Module Objective.                     |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > Upon completion of this unit, the         |   |                      |
| > participants will understand who is       |   |                      |
| > responsible for implementing X-ray safety |   |                      |
| > policies and procedures and what their    |   |                      |
| > specific responsibilities are.            |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > ii\. Objectives.                          |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > Following self‑study and/or classroom     |   |                      |
| > review, the participants will be able to: |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > 1\. State the responsibilities of the     |   |                      |
| > X-Ray Device Control Office.              |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > 2\. State the responsibilities of         |   |                      |
| > operating groups regarding X-ray safety.  |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > 3\. State the responsibilities of X-ray   |   |                      |
| > device custodians.                        |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > 4\. State the responsibilities of X-ray   |   |                      |
| > device operators.                         |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > (Note: Module 107 is included as an       |   |                      |
| > example. Insert facility‑specific         |   |                      |
| > information as appropriate.)              |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > B. RESPONSIBILITIES                       |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > The responsibility for maintaining        |   |                      |
| > exposures from X‑rays ALARA is shared     |   |                      |
| > among the personnel assigned to the X-Ray |   |                      |
| > Device Control Office, the operating      |   |                      |
| > groups, X-ray device custodians, and      |   |                      |
| > X-ray device operators.                   |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > i\. X-Ray Device Control Office.          |   | Objective 8          |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > The X-Ray Device Control Office is        |   |                      |
| > responsible for:                          |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > 1\. Establishing requirements and         |   |                      |
| > standards.                                |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > 2\. Offering consulting services and      |   |                      |
| > training.                                 |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > 3\. Approving purchases, moves,           |   |                      |
| > transfers, and alterations of X-ray       |   |                      |
| > equipment.                                |   |                      |
|                                             |   |                      |
| 4\. Surveying new equipment, verifying that |   |                      |
| the appropriate safety program requirements |   |                      |
| have been met, and affixing compliance      |   |                      |
| labels to the devices.                      |   |                      |
|                                             |   |                      |
| > 5\. Issuing variances for devices that do |   |                      |
| > not meet one or more of the requirements, |   |                      |
| > if safety is achieved through alternative |   |                      |
| > means or if the function could not be     |   |                      |
| > performed if the device met the           |   |                      |
| > requirements.                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > ii\. Operating Groups.                    |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > Operating groups are responsible for:     |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > 1\. Complying with all X-ray safety       |   |                      |
| > requirements.                             |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > 2\. Registering X-ray machines.           |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > 3\. Preparing SOPs.                       |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > 4\. Appointing X-ray device custodians.   |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > 5\. Ensuring proper training of           |   |                      |
| > operators.                                |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > iii\. X-Ray Device Custodians.            |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > X-ray device custodians are responsible   |   |                      |
| > for specific X-ray generating machines.   |   |                      |
| > Their duties include:                     |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > 1\. Completing X-Ray-Generating Device    |   |                      |
| > Registration forms and submitting them to |   |                      |
| > the X-Ray Device Control Office to        |   |                      |
| > register new electron microscopes,        |   |                      |
| > intentional X-ray devices, and new X-ray  |   |                      |
| > tube assemblies or source housings.       |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > 2\. Making arrangements for operator      |   |                      |
| > training.                                 |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > 3\. Maintaining a list of qualified       |   |                      |
| > operators authorized for particular       |   |                      |
| > machines.                                 |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > 4\. Documenting that operators have read  |   |                      |
| > the appropriate SOPs and machine safety   |   |                      |
| > features.                                 |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > 5\. Posting an authorized operator list   |   |                      |
| > near the control panel of each X-ray      |   |                      |
| > device.                                   |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > 6\. Checking enclosure door safety        |   |                      |
| > interlocks every six months to ensure     |   |                      |
| > proper functioning and recording results  |   |                      |
| > on an interlock test log posted on or     |   |                      |
| > near the control panel.                   |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > 7\. Contacting the X-Ray Device Control   |   |                      |
| > Office before performing any repair,      |   |                      |
| > maintenance, and/or nonroutine work that  |   |                      |
| > could cause the exposure of any portion   |   |                      |
| > of the body to the primary beam.          |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > 8\. Meeting all requirements of Safe      |   |                      |
| > Operating Procedures, Special Work        |   |                      |
| > Permits, and Lockout/ Tagout for Control  |   |                      |
| > of Hazardous Energy Sources for Personnel |   |                      |
| > Safety (Red Lock Procedure).              |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > iv\. X-Ray Device Operators.              |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > Authorized X-ray device operators are     |   |                      |
| > responsible for knowing and following the |   |                      |
| > operator safety checklist, including:     |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > 1\. Wearing a TLD badge.                  |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > 2\. Knowing the SOP for every machine     |   |                      |
| > operated.                                 |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| > 3\. Notifying his/her supervisor of any   |   |                      |
| > unsafe or hazardous work situations.      |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
| 4\. Before reaching into the primary beam,  |   |                      |
| verifying that the beam shutter is closed   |   |                      |
| or that machine power is off.               |   |                      |
|                                             |   |                      |
| > 5\. Meeting all applicable training       |   |                      |
| > requirements before operating RPD.        |   |                      |
| >                                           |   |                      |
| > 6\. Maintaining exposures ALARA.          |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+
|                                             |   |                      |
+---------------------------------------------+---+----------------------+

**GLOSSARY**

**Absorbed dose**: The energy absorbed by matter from ionizing radiation
per unit mass of irradiated material at the place of interest in that
material. The absorbed dose is expressed in units of rad.

(10 CFR 835.2(b))

**Accelerator:** A device employing electrostatic or electromagnetic
fields to impart kinetic energy to molecular, atomic, or subatomic
particles and capable of creating a radiological area (DOE
Order 5480.25)

Examples include linear accelerators, cyclotrons, synchrotrons,
synchrocyclotrons, free-electron lasers (FELs), and ion LINACs. Single
and tandem Van de Graaff generators, when used to accelerate charged
particles *other than electrons,* are also considered accelerators.
Specifically *excluded* from this definition (per DOE 0 5480.25) are the
following:

-   Unmodified commercially available units such as electron
    microscopes, ion implant devices, and X-ray generators that are
    acceptable for industrial applications.

-   Accelerator facilities not capable of creating a radiological area.

**Access panel:** Any barrier or panel that is designed to be removed or
opened for maintenance or service purposes, requires tools to open, and
permits access to the interior of the cabinet. *See also* door, port,
and aperture.

**Access port:** *See* port.

**Analytical X-ray device.** A group of components that use
intentionally produced X-rays to evaluate, typically through X-ray
diffraction or fluorescence, the phase state or elemental composition of
materials. Local components include those that are struck by X-rays such
as the X-ray source housings, beam ports and shutter assemblies,
collimators, sample holders, cameras, goniometers, detectors, and
shielding. Remote components include power supplies, transformers,
amplifiers, readout devices, and control panels.

**Anode:** The positive electrode in an X-ray device that emits X-rays
after being struck by energetic electrons from the cathode.

**Aperture:** In this context, the opening within an X-ray source
housing that permits the primary X-ray beam to emerge in the intended
direction. Such an aperture is not necessarily an open hole, but rather
may be a portion of the metal wall of the X-ray source housing that is
significantly thinner than the surrounding X-ray source housing walls.

**Attenuation:** The reduction of a radiation quantity upon passage of
the radiation through matter, resulting from all types of interaction
with that matter. The radiation quantity may be, for example, the
particle fluency rate.

**As low as reasonably achievable (ALARA):** Means the approach to
radiation protection to manage and control exposures (both individual
and collective) to the work force and to the general public to as low as
is reasonable, taking into account social, technical, economic,
practical and public policy considerations. ALARA is not a dose limit
but a process which has the objective of attaining doses as far below
the applicable limits of 10 CFR 835 as is reasonably achievable. (10 CFR
835.2(a))

**Bremsstrahlung:** The electromagnetic radiation emitted when an
electrically charged subatomic particle, such as an electron, loses
energy upon being accelerated and deflected by the electric field
surrounding an atomic nucleus. In German, the term means *braking
radiation.*

**Cabinet X-ray system:** An industrial X-ray device with the X-ray tube
installed in an enclosure (cabinet) that, independent of existing
architectural structures except the floor upon which it may be placed,
is intended to contain at least that portion of a material being
irradiated, provide radiation attenuation, and exclude individuals from
its interior during X‑ray generation. Included are all X-ray devices
designed primarily for the inspection of carry-on baggage at airline,
railroad, and bus terminals. *Excluded* from this definition are X‑ray
devices using a building wall for shielding and those using portable
shields on a temporary basis.

**Cathode:** The negative electrode that emits electrons in an X-ray
device.

**Collimator:** A device used to limit the size, shape, and direction of
the primary beam.

**Compliance label:** A label affixed to an intentional X-ray device
certifying that the device has been surveyed and that safe operating
requirements have been met.

**Control panel:** A device containing the means for regulating and
activating X-ray equipment or for preselecting and indicating operating
factors.

**Controlled Area:** Any area to which access is managed to protect
individuals from exposure to radiation and/or radioactive material. (10
CFR 835.2(a))

**Dark current:** A current, usually of electrons, that may flow through
an acceleration tube or wave guide from sources other than the cathode
of the accelerator. This is an abnormal phenomenon, often associated
with poor vacuum conditions or contaminated surfaces in the acceleration
region.

**Door:** In this context, any barrier that is designed to be moved or
opened for routine operation purposes, does not require tools to open,
and permits access to the interior of the cabinet.

**Dose equivalent:** The product of absorbed dose, a quality factor, and
other modifying factors. The unit of dose equivalent is the rem. (10 CFR
835.2 (b))

**Dosimeter:** A device that measures and indicates radiation dose.

**Electron volt (eV):** A unit of energy equal to the energy gained by
an electron passing through a potential difference of 1 volt.

**Enclosed beam system:** An analytical X-ray system in which all
possible X-ray paths (primary as well as diffracted beams) are fully
enclosed.

**Exempt shielded installation:** An X-ray installation in which the
source of radiation and all objects exposed to that source are within a
permanent enclosure that meets the requirements of a shielded
installation and contains *additional* shielding such that the dose
equivalent rate at any accessible area 2 inches (5 cm) from the outside
surface of the enclosure shall not exceed 0.5 mrem in any 1 hour.

**Exposure:** A measure of the ionization produced in air by X-ray or
gamma radiation defined up to 3 MeV. It is the sum of the electrical
charges of all of the ions of one sign produced in air when all
electrons liberated by photons in a volume element of air are completely
stopped in the air, divided by the mass of the air in the volume
element. The unit of exposure is the roentgen (R) and is defined for
photons with energy up to 3 MeV.

**External surface:** An outside surface of a cabinet X-ray system,
including the high-voltage generator, doors, access panels, latches,
control knobs, and other permanently mounted hardware, and including the
plane across any aperture or port.

**Fail-safe design:** A design in which the failure of any single
component that can be realistically anticipated results in a condition
in which personnel are safe from exposure to radiation. Such a design
should cause beam-port shutters to close, primary transformer electrical
power to be interrupted, or emergence of the primary X-ray beam to be
otherwise prevented upon failure of the safety or warning device.

**Flash X-ray unit:** A radiation-producing device that can produce
nanosecond bursts of high-intensity  X-ray radiation.

**Floor:** In this context, the underside external surface of the
cabinet.

**Fluorescence analysis:** Analysis of characteristic X-rays and the
X-ray emission process.

**Gauge:** A device that produces ionizing radiation for the purpose of
measuring particular properties of a system.

**Half-value layer (HVL):** The thickness of a specified substance that,
when introduced into a beam of radiation, reduces the dose rate by
one-half.

**High Radiation Area:** Any area accessible to individuals in which
radiation levels could result in an individual receiving a deep dose
equivalent in excess of 0.1 rem (0.001 sievert) in 1 hour at
30 centimeters from the radiation source or from any surface that the
radiation penetrates (10 CFR 835.2(a)).

**Incidental X-ray device:** A device that emits or produces X-rays in
the process of its normal operation, in which the X-rays are an unwanted
byproduct of the device's intended use. Examples include video display
terminals, electron microscopes, high-voltage electron guns, electron
beam welders, ion implant devices, microwave cavities used as beam
guides, radio-frequency cavities, microwave generators
(magnetrons/klystrons), and field‑emission electron beam diodes.

**Installation:** A radiation source, with its associated equipment, and
the space in which it is located.

**Installation enclosure:** The portion of an X-ray installation that
clearly defines the transition from a noncontrolled to a controlled area
and provides such shielding as may be required to limit the dose rate in
the noncontrolled area during normal operations.

**Intentional X-ray device:** A device in which electrons undergo
acceleration in a vacuum and collide with a metal anode target designed
to produce X-rays for a particular application. Examples include
diagnostic medical/dental X-ray devices, electron LINACs used in
radiation therapy applications, portable and fixed flash X-ray systems,
X-ray diffraction and fluorescence analysis equipment, cabinet X-ray
systems, some Van de Graaff generators, and electron LINACs.

**Interlock:** A device for precluding access to an area of radiation
hazard either by preventing entry or by automatically removing the
hazard when the device is actuated.

**Ion:** An atom, or molecule bearing an electric charge, or an electron
that is not associated with a nucleus.

**Ionizing radiation:** Any electromagnetic or particulate radiation
capable of producing ions, directly or indirectly, by interaction with
matter, including gamma and X-rays and alpha, beta, and neutron
particles.

**Lead equivalent:** The thickness of lead affording the same
attenuation, under specific conditions, as the shielding material in
use.

**Leakage radiation:** Any radiation, except the useful beam, coming
from the X‑ray assembly or sealed source housing.

**Medical X-ray system:** An X-ray system for medical use, generally
categorized as either diagnostic or therapeutic. Diagnostic X-ray
procedures are used to obtain images of body parts; therapeutic x‑ray
procedures are used to manage malignancies.

**Normal operation:** Operation under conditions as recommended by the
manufacturer of an X-ray system or as specified by a written SOP.
Recommended shielding and interlocks shall be in place and operable.

**Occupancy factor:** The factor by which the workload should be
multiplied to correct for the degree or type of occupancy of the area
specified.

**Open-beam system:** An analytical X-ray system in which one or more
X-ray paths (primary as well as secondary) are not fully enclosed.

**Open installation:** An industrial X-ray installation that, because of
operational requirements or temporary needs, cannot be provided with the
inherent degree of protection specified for other classes of industrial
installations. Generally mobile or portable equipment where fixed
shielding cannot be effectively used.

**Port:** In this context, an opening on the outside surface of the
cabinet that is designed to remain open during X-ray production for the
purpose of moving material to be irradiated into and out of the cabinet,
or for partial insertion of an object that will not fit inside the
cabinet.

**Primary beam:** The X-radiation emitted directly from the target and
passing through the window of the X-ray tube.

**Primary radiation:** Radiation coming directly from the target of the
X-ray tube or from the sealed source.

**Quality factor:** An energy-dependent dimensionless factor by which
absorbed dose is to be multiplied to obtain, on a common scale for all
ionizing radiations, the magnitude of radiation effects likely to be
incurred by exposed persons. The quality factor for X-rays, gamma rays,
and most beta particles is 1.0.

**Rad (radiation absorbed dose):** The unit of absorbed dose. One rad
equals 100 ergs per gram.

**Radiation Area:** Any area accessible to individuals in which
radiation levels could result in an individual receiving a deep dose
equivalent in excess of 0.005 rem (0.05 millisievert) in 1 hour at 30
centimeters from the source or from any surface that the radiation
penetrates. (10 CFR 835.2(a)).

**Radiation source:** A device or a material that is capable of emitting
ionizing radiation.

**Radiological worker:** A general employee whose job assignment
involves operation of radiation- producing devices or working with
radioactive materials, or who is likely to be routinely occupationally
exposed above 0.1 rem per year total effective dose
equivalent. (10 CFR 835.2(a))

**Radiological control technician (RCT):** Any person who is actively
engaged in or who has completed facility-specific RCT training and
qualification programs.

**Rem (roentgen equivalent man):** The unit of dose equivalence used for
humans, which considers the biological effects of different types of
radiation. The dose equivalent in rem is numerically equal to the
absorbed dose in rad multiplied by the applicable quality factor.

**Roentgen (R):** The unit of exposure. One roentgen equals 2.58 x
10^-4^ coulomb per kilogram of air.

**Scattered radiation:** Radiation that has been deviated in direction
as a result of interaction with matter and has usually been reduced in
energy.

**Secondary radiation:** Radiation (electrons, X-rays, gamma rays, or
neutrons) produced by the interaction of primary radiation with matter.

**Shielding:** Attenuating material used to reduce the transmission of
radiation. The two general types of shielding are primary and secondary.
Primary shielding is material sufficient to attenuate the useful beam to
the required level. Secondary shielding is material sufficient to
attenuate stray radiation to the required level.

**Shielded installation:** An industrial X-ray installation in which the
source of radiation and all objects exposed to that source are within a
permanent enclosure.

**Skyshine:** Radiation emerging from a shielded enclosure which then
scatters off air molecules to increase radiation levels at some distance
from the outside of the shield.

**Stem radiation:** X-rays given off from parts of the anode other than
the target, particularly from the target support.

**Stray radiation:** Radiation other than the useful beam. It includes
leakage and scattered radiation.

**Survey:** An evaluation of the radiological conditions and potential
hazards incident to the production, use, transfer, release, disposal, or
presence of radioactive material or other sources of radiation. When
appropriate, such an evaluation includes a physical survey of the
location of radioactive material and measurements or calculations of
levels of radiation, or concentrations or quantities of radioactive
material present. (10 CFR 835.2(a)).

**System barrier:** The portion of an X-ray installation that clearly
defines the transition from a Controlled Area to a Radiation Area and
provides such shielding as may be required to limit the dose rate in the
Controlled Area during normal operation.

**Tenth-value layer (TVL):** The thickness of a specified substance
that, when introduced into a beam of radiation, reduces the dose rate to
one-tenth of the original value. One TVL is equivalent to 3.3 HVLs.

**Unattended installation:** An industrial installation that consists of
equipment designed and manufactured for a specific purpose and that does
not require personnel in attendance for its operation.

**Units:** In accordance with 10 CFR 835.4, for all radiological units,
the quantities used for records required by 10 CFR 835 shall be the
curie (Ci), rad or rem. SI units, Becquerel (Bq), gray (Gy), and sievert
(Sv) may be included parenthetically for reference to scientific
standards, but are not authorized for required records. To convert
conventional radiation units to SI units, the following factors are
used:

> 1 rad = 0.01 gray (Gy)
>
> 1 rem = 0.01 sievert (Sv)
>
> 1 Ci = 3.7 X 10^10^ Bq

**Use factor:** The fraction of the workload during which the useful
beam is pointed in the direction under consideration.

**Useful beam:** The part of the primary and secondary radiation that
passes through the aperture, cone, or other device used for collimation.

**Very High Radiation Area:** Any area accessible to individuals in
which radiation levels could result in an individual receiving an
absorbed dose in excess of 500 rads (5 grays) in 1 hour at 1 meter from
a radiation source or from any surface that the radiation penetrates
(10 CFR 835.2(a)).

**Warning label:** A label affixed to the X-ray device that provides
precautions and special conditions of use.

**Workload:** A measure, in suitable units, of the amount of use of
radiation equipment. For the purpose of this standard, the workload is
expressed in milliampere-minutes per week for X-ray sources and in
roentgens per week at 1 meter from the source for gamma-ray sources and
high-energy equipment (such as linear accelerators, betatrons, etc.).

**X-ray accessory apparatus:** Any portion of an X-ray installation that
is external to the radiation source housing and into which an X‑ray beam
is directed for making X-ray measurements or for other uses.

**X-Ray Device Control Office:** A team that establishes X-ray device
program requirements and standards, provides X-ray device radiation
protection consultation, and serves as the central point of contact for
the management/control of X-ray devices. This function may have a
facility-specific name.

**X-ray device custodian:** A person designated by line management as
responsible for specific X-ray devices. This individual is responsible
for designating the operators of specific X-ray devices, arranging for
the operators to attend X-ray safety training, assisting in the
development and maintenance of the X-ray device SOP, familiarizing
operators with the X‑ray device SOP, maintaining records of operator
training and safety interlock checks, serving as the point of contact
for the line organization\'s X-ray devices, and coordinating surveys
with the X-Ray Device Control Office. An X-ray device custodian may also
be an X‑ray device operator.

**X-ray device operator:** An individual designated in writing by the
X-ray-device custodian and qualified by training and experience to
operate a specific X-ray device.

**X-ray diffraction:** The scattering of X-rays by matter with
accompanying variation in intensity in different directions due to
interference effects.

**X-ray installation:** One or more X-ray systems, the surrounding room
or controlled area, and the installation enclosure.

**X-ray power supply:** The portion of an X-ray device that generates
the accelerating voltage and current for the X-ray tube.

**X-ray source housing:** An enclosure directly surrounding an X-ray
tube that provides attenuation of the radiation emitted by the X-ray
tube. The X-ray source housing typically has an aperture through which
the useful beam is transmitted.

**X-ray system:** An assemblage of components for the controlled
generation of X-rays.

**X-ray tube:** An electron tube that is designed for the conversion of
electrical energy to X‑ray energy.

**X-ray tube assembly:** An array of components typically including the
cathode, anode, X‑ray target, and electron-accelerating components
within a vacuum.

**Student's Guide**

**Radiological Safety Training**

**for Radiation-Producing (X-Ray) Devices**

![](media/image2.png){width="2.379861111111111in"
height="2.509027777777778in"}

**Coordinated and Conducted**

**for**

**Office of Health, Safety and Security**

**U.S. Department of Energy**

**January 2007**

*This page intentionally left blank.*

**Course Developers**

Jim Allan Stanford Linear Accelerator Center

Ken Barat Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Rocky Barnum Pacific Northwest National Laboratories

Brooke Buddemeier Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Richard Cooke Argonne National Laboratory - East

Ted DeCastro Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

William Egbert Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Darrel Howe Westinghouse Savannah River Company

David Lee Los Alamos National Laboratory

Kathleen McIntyre Brookhaven National Laboratory

Mike McNaughten Los Alamos National Laboratory

Edward Schultz Sandia National Laboratories

Brian Thomson Sandia National Laboratories

Paula Trinoskey Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Susan Vosburg Sandia National Laboratories

Ann Anthony Los Alamos National Laboratory

**Course Reviewers**

Peter O\'Connell U.S. Department of Energy

Randy Sullivan ATL International

Technical Standard Managers U.S. Department of Energy

*This page intentionally left blank.*

**Table of Contents**

**Page**

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE 1

ENABLING OBJECTIVES 1

I. MODULE 101 - RADIATION PROTECTION PRINCIPLES 2

A. OBJECTIVES 2

B. ATOMS 2

C. IONIZATION 3

D. RADIATION 3

E. UNITS 3

F. BACKGROUND RADIATION 4

G. DOSE LIMITS 4

H. CAUSES OF ACCIDENTAL EXPOSURES (KEY ITEM) 6

I. ALARA 6

J. REDUCING EXTERNAL DOSE (KEY ITEM) 7

II\. MODULE 102 - PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS 8

A. OBJECTIVES 8

B. ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION 9

C. X-RAY PRODUCTION 11

D. EFFECT OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT ON PHOTON ENERGY AND POWER 12

E. INTERACTION WITH MATTER 13

III\. MODULE 103 - BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS 17

A. OBJECTIVES 17

B. EARLY HISTORY OF X-RAYS 17

C. BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF IONIZATION 19

D. FACTORS THAT DETERMINE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS 19

E. SOMATIC EFFECTS 22

F. HERITABLE EFFECTS 26

IV\. MODULE 104 - RADIATION DETECTION 27

A. OBJECTIVES 27

B. RADIATION SURVEYS 27

C. X-RAY DETECTION INSTRUMENTS 27

D. PERSONNEL-MONITORING DEVICES 29

V. MODULE 105 - PROTECTIVE MEASURES 31

A. OBJECTIVES 31

B. RADIOLOGICAL CONTROLS 31

C. RADIOLOGICAL POSTINGS 32

D. INTERLOCKS 36

E. SHIELDING 36

F. WARNING DEVICES 38

G. WORK DOCUMENTS 39

VI\. MODULE 106 - X-RAY GENERATING DEVICES 42

A. OBJECTIVES 42

B. INCIDENTAL AND INTENTIONAL DEVICES 42

C. INCIDENTAL X-RAY DEVICES 43

D. INTENTIONAL ANALYTICAL X-RAY DEVICES 44

E. INTENTIONAL INDUSTRIAL X-RAY DEVICES 46

F. SUMMARY OF X-RAY DEVICES 49

VII\. MODULE 107 - RESPONSIBILITIES FOR X-RAY SAFETY 50

A. OBJECTIVES 50

B. RESPONSIBILITIES 50

GLOSSARY 54

**TERMINAL OBJECTIVE:**

Demonstrate a basic understanding of :

> General radiation protection principles for safe operation of X-ray
> devices.

**ENABLING OBJECTIVES**:

When the participants have completed this course, the participants will
be able to:

EO1 Describe ionizing radiation.

EO2 Describe what X-rays are, how they are generated, and how they
interact with matter.

EO3 Describe the biological effects of X-rays.

EO4 Identify and describe radiation-monitoring instruments and
personnel-monitoring devices appropriate for detecting X-rays.

EO5 Demonstrate a familiarity with DOE dose limits, facility-specific
administrative controls, ALARA, and the major methods for controlling
and minimizing external exposure.

EO6 Identify and describe protective measures that restrict or control
access to X-ray areas and devices, and warn of X-ray hazards; and be
able to identify and describe work documents that provide specific
procedures to ensure safe operation of X-ray devices.

EO7 Identify and describe the categories of X-ray-producing devices.

EO8 Explain who is responsible for implementing X-ray safety policies
and procedures and describe their specific responsibilities.

EO9 Identify causes of accidental exposures.

**I. MODULE 101 - RADIATION PROTECTION PRINCIPLES**

> A. OBJECTIVES
>
> i\. Module Objective.
>
> Upon completion of this unit, the participants should understand basic
> radiation protection principles essential to the safe operation of
> X-ray devices.
>
> ii\. Objectives.
>
> Following self‑study and/or classroom review, the participants will be
> able to:
>
> 1\. Define ionizing radiation.
>
> 2\. Identify sources of natural and manmade background radiation.
>
> 3\. Define the DOE dose limits and facility-specific administrative
> control levels.
>
> 4\. Describe the ALARA principle.
>
> 5\. List the three major methods by which external exposure is
> reduced.
>
> B. ATOMS
>
> The atom, the basic unit of matter, is made up of three primary
> particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are
> found in the nucleus of the atom; electrons are found orbiting the
> nucleus. Protons have a positive charge; neutrons are neutral;
> electrons have a negative charge. The configuration of electron shells
> and the number of electrons in the shells determine the chemical
> properties of atoms.
>
> C. IONIZATION
>
> An atom usually has a number of electrons equal to the number of
> protons in its nucleus so that the atom is electrically neutral. A
> charged atom, called an *ion,* can have a positive or negative charge.
> Free electrons also are called ions. An ion is formed when ionizing
> radiation interacts with an orbiting electron and causes it to be
> ejected from its orbit, a process called *ionization.* This leaves a
> positively charged atom (or molecule) and a free electron.
>
> D. RADIATION
>
> Radiation as used here means alpha particles, beta particles, gamma
> rays, X-rays, neutrons, high-speed electrons, high-speed protons, and
> other particles capable of producing ions. Radiation with enough
> energy to cause ionization is referred to as *ionizing radiation.*
> Radiation that lacks the energy to cause ionization is referred to as
> *non-ionizing radiation.* Examples of non-ionizing radiation include
> radio waves, microwaves, and visible light.
>
> For radiation-protection purposes, ionization is important because it
> affects chemical and biological processes and allows the detection of
> radiation.
>
> For most radiation-protection situations, ionizing radiation takes the
> form of alpha, beta, and neutron particles, and gamma and X-ray
> photons.
>
> X-rays and gamma rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation. X-rays
> differ from gamma rays in their point of origin. Gamma rays originate
> from within the atomic nucleus, whereas X-rays originate from the
> electrons outside the nucleus and from free electrons decelerating in
> the vicinity of atoms (i.e., bremsstrahlung). Module 102 discusses how
> X‑rays are produced.
>
> E. UNITS

-   Roentgen (R), a measure of radiation *exposure*, is defined by
    ionization in air.

-   Rad, a measure of the energy absorbed per unit mass. It is defined
    for any absorbing material.

```{=html}
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```
-   Rem, a unit of dose equivalent, which is the energy absorbed per
    unit mass times the applicable quality factor and other modifying
    factors.

> For X-rays, it may be assumed that 1 R = 1 rad = 1 rem = 1000 mrem.
>
> F. BACKGROUND RADIATION
>
> Background radiation, to which everyone is exposed, comes from both
> natural and manmade sources. Natural background radiation can be
> categorized as cosmic and terrestrial. Radon is the major contributor
> to terrestrial background. The most common sources of manmade
> background radiation are medical procedures and consumer products.
>
> The average background dose to the general population from both
> natural and manmade sources is about 350 mrem per year to the whole
> body. Naturally occurring sources contribute an average of 200 mrem
> per year from radon daughters, about 40 mrem per year from internal
> emitters such as potassium-40, about 30 mrem per year from cosmic and
> cosmogenic sources, and about 30 mrem per year from terrestrial
> sources such as naturally occurring uranium and thorium. Manmade
> sources contribute an average of about 50 mrem per year to the whole
> body from medical procedures such as chest X-rays.
>
> The deep dose equivalent from a chest X-ray is 5 - 10 mrem, a dental
> X‑ray is 50 - 300 mrem, and mammography is 0.5 ‑ 2 rem.
>
> G. DOSE LIMITS
>
> Limits on occupational doses are based on data on the biological
> effects of ionizing radiation. The International Commission on
> Radiological Protection and the National Council on Radiation
> Protection and Measurements publish guidance for setting radiation
> protection standards. The DOE, Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and
> Environmental Protection Agency set regulatory requirements related to
> radiation protection. These limits are set to minimize the likelihood
> of biological effects.
>
> The following table lists both DOE dose limits and administrative
> control levels. Refer to:

10 CFR 835.202-208

+-------------------+------------------------+------------------------+
| **DOE Dose Limits |                        |                        |
| and               |                        |                        |
| Facility-Specific |                        |                        |
| Administrative    |                        |                        |
| Control Levels**  |                        |                        |
+-------------------+------------------------+------------------------+
|                   | DOE                    | Facility-Specific      |
|                   |                        | Administrative Control |
|                   | Dose Limits            | Levels                 |
+-------------------+------------------------+------------------------+
| whole body        | 5 rem/year             | insert                 |
|                   |                        | facility-specific      |
| Total Effective   |                        | value                  |
| Dose Equivalent   |                        |                        |
+-------------------+------------------------+------------------------+
| extremity         | 50 rem/year            | insert                 |
|                   |                        | facility-specific      |
|                   |                        | value                  |
+-------------------+------------------------+------------------------+
| skin              | 50 rem/year            | insert                 |
|                   |                        | facility-specific      |
|                   |                        | value                  |
+-------------------+------------------------+------------------------+
| internal organ    | 50 rem/year            | insert                 |
|                   |                        | facility-specific      |
| committed dose    |                        | value                  |
| equivalent        |                        |                        |
+-------------------+------------------------+------------------------+
| lens of the eye   | 15 rem/year            | insert                 |
|                   |                        | facility-specific      |
|                   |                        | value                  |
+-------------------+------------------------+------------------------+
| embryo/fetus      | 0.5 rem/term of        | insert                 |
|                   | pregnancy              | facility-specific      |
|                   |                        | value                  |
|                   | (for the embryo/fetus  |                        |
|                   | of workers who declare |                        |
|                   | pregnancy)             |                        |
+-------------------+------------------------+------------------------+
| minors and public | 0.1 rem/year           | insert                 |
|                   |                        | facility-specific      |
|                   |                        | value                  |
+-------------------+------------------------+------------------------+

> DOE facilities are designed and operated to reduce personnel dose
> equivalents as far below the occupational limits as reasonably
> achievable. The dose equivalent received by DOE X‑ray workers is
> typically between 0 and 100 mrem per year above the natural
> background.

H. CAUSES OF ACCIDENTAL EXPOSURES (KEY ITEM)

> Although most X-ray workers do not receive radiation doses near the
> regulatory limit, it is important to recognize that X‑ray
> device-related accidents have occurred when proper procedures have not
> been followed. Failure to follow proper procedures has been the result
> of:

-   Rushing to complete a job.

-   Boredom.

-   Fatigue.

-   Illness.

-   Personal problems.

-   Lack of communication.

-   Complacency.

> Every year there are numerous X‑ray incidents nationwide. Of these,
> about one third result in injury to a person. The incident rate at DOE
> laboratories is much lower than the national average.
>
> I. ALARA
>
> Because the effects of chronic doses of low levels of ionizing
> radiation are not precisely known, we assume there is some risk for
> any dose. The ALARA principle is to keep radiation dose *as low as
> reasonably achievable*, considering economic and social constraints.
>
> The goal of an ALARA Program is to keep radiation dose as far below
> the occupational dose limits and administrative control levels as is
> reasonably achievable. The success of an ALARA Program is directly
> linked to a clear understanding and following of the policies and
> procedures for the protection of workers. Keeping radiation dose ALARA
> is the responsibility of all workers, management, and the
> radiation-protection organization.
>
> J. REDUCING EXTERNAL DOSE (KEY ITEM)
>
> Three basic ways to reduce external doses are to

-   Minimize time.

-   Maximize distance.

-   Use shielding.

> Minimize time near a source of radiation by planning ahead. Increase
> distance by moving away from the source of radiation whenever
> possible. The dose from X‑ray sources is inversely proportional to the
> square of the distance. This is called Athe inverse square law,@ that
> is, when the distance is doubled, the dose is reduced to one‑fourth of
> the original value. Proper facility design uses the amount and type of
> shielding appropriate for the radiation hazard. Lead, concrete, and
> steel are effective in shielding against X-rays.

**II. MODULE 102 - PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS**

> A. OBJECTIVES
>
> i\. Module Objective.
>
> Upon completion of this unit, the participants should understand what
> X-rays are and how they are produced so that the participants will be
> able to work around them safely.
>
> ii\. Objectives.
>
> Following self‑study and/or classroom review, the participants will be
> able to:
>
> 1\. Define the types of electromagnetic radiation.
>
> 2\. Describe the difference between X-rays and gamma rays.
>
> 3\. Identify how X-rays are produced.
>
> 4\. Define bremsstrahlung and characteristic X‑rays.
>
> 5\. Describe how X-ray tube voltage and current affect photon energy
> and power.
>
> 6\. Explain how X-rays interact with matter.
>
> 7\. Identify how energy relates to radiation dose.
>
> 8\. Discuss the effects of voltage, current, and filtration on X-rays.
>
> B. ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
>
> i\. Types of Electromagnetic Radiation.
>
> X-rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation. Other types of
> electromagnetic radiation are radio waves, microwaves, infrared,
> visible light, ultraviolet, and gamma rays. The types of radiation are
> distinguished by the amount of energy carried by the individual
> photons.
>
> All electromagnetic radiation consists of photons, which are
> individual packets of energy. For example, a household light bulb
> emits about 10^21^ photons of light (non-ionizing radiation) per
> second.
>
> The energy carried by individual photons, which is measured in
> electron volts (eV), is related to the frequency of the radiation.
> Different types of electromagnetic radiation and their typical photon
> energies are listed in the following table.

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
  **Electromagnetic Radiation**

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

  ------------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------
  **Type**                  **Typical Photon        **Typical
                            Energy**                Wavelengths**

  radio wave                1 ueV                   1 m

  microwave                 1 meV                   1 mm (10^-3^m)

  infrared                  1 eV                    1 um (10^-6^m)

  red light                 2 eV                    6000 Angstrom
                                                    (10^-10^m)

  violet light              3 eV                    4000 Angstrom

  ultraviolet               4 eV                    3000 Angstrom
  ------------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------

  ------------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------
  X-ray                     100 keV                 0.1 Angstrom

  gamma ray                 1 MeV                   0.01 Angstrom
  ------------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------

> ii\. X‑Rays and Gamma Rays.
>
> X-rays and gamma rays both ionize atoms. The energy required for
> ionization varies with material (e.g., 34 eV in air, 25 eV in tissue)
> but is generally in the range of several eV. A 100 keV X-ray can
> potentially create thousands of ions.
>
> As discussed in Module 101, the distinction between X‑rays and gamma
> rays is their origin, or method of production. Gamma rays originate
> from within the nucleus; X-rays originate from atomic electrons and
> from free electrons decelerating in the vicinity of atoms (i.e.,
> bremsstrahlung).
>
> In addition, gamma photons often have more energy than X-ray photons.
> For example, diagnostic X-rays are about 40 keV, whereas gammas from
> cobalt-60 are over 1 MeV. However, there are many exceptions. For
> example, gammas from technicium-99m are 140 keV, and the energy of
> X-rays from a high-energy radiographic machine may be as high as 10
> MeV.
>
> C. X‑RAY PRODUCTION
>
> Radiation-producing devices produce X-rays by accelerating electrons
> through an electrical voltage potential and stopping them in a target.
> Many devices that use a high voltage and a source of electrons produce
> X-rays as an unwanted byproduct of device operation. These are called
> *incidental* X-rays.
>
> Most X-ray devices emit electrons from a cathode, accelerate them with
> a voltage, and allow them to hit an anode, which emits X-ray photons.
>
> i\. Bremsstrahlung.
>
> When electrons hit the anode, they decelerate or brake emitting
> *bremsstrahlung* (meaning *braking radiation* in German).
> Bremsstrahlung is produced most effectively when small charged
> particles interact with large atoms such as when electrons hit a
> tungsten anode. However, bremsstrahlung can be produced with any
> charged particles and any target. For example, at research
> laboratories, bremsstrahlung has been produced by accelerating protons
> and allowing them to hit hydrogen.
>
> ii\. Characteristic X‑Rays.
>
> When electrons change from one atomic orbit to another,
> *characteristic X-rays* are produced. The individual photon energies
> are characteristic of the type of atom and can be used to identify
> very small quantities of a particular element. For this reason, they
> are important in analytical X-ray applications at research
> laboratories.
>
> D. EFFECT OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT ON PHOTON ENERGY AND POWER
>
> It is important to distinguish between the energy of individual
> photons in an X-ray beam and the total energy of all the photons in
> the beam. It is also important to distinguish between average power
> and peak power in a pulsed X-ray device.
>
> Typically, the individual photon energy is given in electron volts
> (eV), whereas the power of a beam is given in watts (W). An individual
> 100 keV photon has more energy than an individual 10 keV photon.
> However, an X-ray beam consists of a spectrum (a distribution) of
> photon energies and the rate at which energy is delivered by a beam is
> determined by the number of photons of each energy. If there are many
> more low energy photons, it is possible for the low energy component
> to deliver more energy.
>
> The photon energy distribution may be varied by changing the voltage.
> The number of photons emitted may be varied by changing the current.
>
> i\. Voltage.
>
> The power supplies for many X-ray devices do not produce a constant
> potential (D.C.) high voltage but instead energize the X-ray tube with
> a time varying or pulsating high voltage. In addition, since the
> bremsstrahlung X-rays produced are a spectrum of energies up to a
> maximum equal to the electron accelerating maximum voltage, the
> accelerating voltage of the X-ray device is often described in terms
> of the peak kilovoltage or kVp.
>
> A voltage of 50 kVp will produce a spectrum of X-ray energies with the
> theoretical maximum being 50 keV. The spectrum of energies is
> continuous from the maximum to zero. However, X-ray beams are
> typically filtered to minimize the low-energy component. Low-energy
> X-rays are not useful in radiography, but can deliver a significant
> dose.
>
> Many X-ray devices have meters to measure voltage. Whenever the
> voltage is on, a device can produce some X-rays, even if the current
> is too low to read.
>
> ii\. Current.
>
> The total number of photons produced by an X-ray device depends on the
> current, which is measured in amperes, or amps (A). The current is
> controlled by increasing or decreasing the number of electrons emitted
> from the cathode. The higher the electron current, the more X-ray
> photons are emitted from the anode. Many X-ray devices have meters to
> measure current. However, as mentioned above, X-rays can be produced
> by voltage even if the current is too low to read on the meter. This
> is sometimes called dark current. This situation can cause unnecessary
> exposure and should be addressed in SOPs or work documents.
>
> iii\. Determining Electrical Power.
>
> Power, which is measured in watts (W), equals voltage times current
> (P = V x I). For example, a 10 kVp device with a current of 1 mA uses
> 10 W of power.
>
> (Insert facility-specific examples for determining electrical power.)
>
> E. INTERACTION WITH MATTER
>
> i\. Scattering.
>
> When X-rays pass through any material, some will be transmitted, some
> will be absorbed, and some will scatter. The proportions depend on the
> photon energy, the type of material and its thickness.
>
> X-rays can scatter off a target to the surrounding area, off a wall
> and into an adjacent room, and over and around shielding. A common
> mistake is to install thick shielding walls around an X-ray source but
> ignore the roof; X-rays can scatter off air molecules over shielding
> walls to create a radiation field known as *skyshine*. The emanation
> of X-rays through and around penetrations in shielding walls is called
> *radiation streaming*.
>
> ii\. Implications of Power and X-Ray Production.
>
> When high-speed electrons strike the anode target, most of their
> energy is converted to heat in the target, but a portion is radiated
> away as X-rays. As stated previously, the electrical power of an
> electrical circuit is given by:

P = V x I

> P is the power in watts or joules/second, V is the potential
> difference in volts, and I is the current in amps.
>
> The power developed in the anode of an X-ray tube can be calculated
> using this relationship. Consider a 150 kilovolt (kVp) machine, with a
> current of 50 milliamps (mA).
>
> P = \[150,000 (V)\] \[0.050 (I)\] = 7500 W.
>
> This is about the same heat load as would be found in the heating
> element of an electric stove. This power is delivered over a very
> short period of time, typically less than 1 second. More powerful
> X-ray machines use higher voltages and currents and may develop power
> as high as 50,000 W or more. Cooling the anode is a problem that must
> be addressed in the design of X-ray machines. Tungsten is used because
> of its high melting temperature, and copper is used because of its
> excellent thermal conductivity. These elements may be used together,
> with a tungsten anode being embedded in a large piece of copper.
>
> The percentage of the power transformed to X-rays can be estimated by
> the following relationship:
>
> Fraction of incident electron energy transformed into X-ray energy
> equals:
>
> (7 X 10 ^-4^) x Z x E
>
> Where Z is the atomic number of the element (74 for tungsten) and E is
> the maximum energy of the incoming electrons in MeV.
>
> In this case, the fraction would be:
>
> (7 X 10 ^-4^) x 74 x 0.150 = 0.008
>
> In the above example P is 7500 W. So the electron energy incident upon
> the anode is:
>
> 7500 W = 7500 J/s
>
> Then the energy transformed into X-rays would be 0.008 \[7500\] = 60
> J/s.
>
> 1 J = 10^7^ ergs, and 100 ergs/g = 1 rad.
>
> So this X-ray energy represents:
>
> 6.0 x 10^8^ ergs/sec.
>
> If all this X-ray energy were deposited in 1 g of tissue, the dose
> would be:
>
> 6.0 x 10^8^ ergs/sec \[1 rad/100ergs/g\] =
>
> 6.0 x 10^6^ rad/sec.
>
> However, in practical applications X-ray beams are filtered to remove
> softer X-rays not useful in radiology, the X-ray pulse is much less
> than 1 second, and the useful beam region is several cm away from the
> anode target. These design features lower the dose rates of the useful
> X-ray beam significantly. The dose rate in a typical X-ray beam is
> estimated in Module 103 section E iii.

iii\. Filtration.

> Low- and high-energy photons are sometimes referred to as *soft* and
> *hard* X-rays, respectively. Because hard X-rays are more penetrating,
> they are more desirable for radiography (producing a photograph of the
> interior of the body or a piece of apparatus). Soft X-rays are less
> useful for radiography because they are largely absorbed near the
> surface of the body being X-rayed. However, there are medical
> applications where soft X-rays are useful.
>
> A filter, such as a few millimeters of aluminum, or copper may be used
> to *harden* the beam by absorbing most of the low-energy photons. The
> remaining photons are more penetrating and are more useful for
> radiography.
>
> In X-ray analytical work (X-ray diffraction and fluorescence), filters
> with energy selective absorption edges are not used to *harden* the
> beam, but to obtain a more monochromatic beam (a beam with
> predominantly one energy). By choosing the right element, it is
> possible to absorb a band of high-energy photons preferentially over
> an adjacent band of low energy photons.
>
> (Insert facility‑specific examples of filtration.)

**III. MODULE 103 - BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS**

> A. OBJECTIVES
>
> i\. Module Objective.
>
> Upon completion of this unit, the participants should understand the
> biological effects of X-rays and the importance of protective measures
> for working with or around X-rays.
>
> ii\. Objectives.
>
> Following self-study and/or classroom review, the participants will be
> able to:
>
> 1\. Outline the early history of X-rays and the consequences of
> working with or around X‑rays without protective measures.
>
> 2\. Identify factors that determine the biological effects of X-ray
> exposure.
>
> 3\. State the differences between thermal and X-ray burns.
>
> 4\. Identify the signs and symptoms of an acute dose from X-rays.
>
> 5\. Explain the effects of chronic exposure to X‑rays.
>
> 6\. Identify the difference between somatic and heritable effects.
>
> B. EARLY HISTORY OF X-RAYS
>
> i\. Discovery of X-Rays.
>
> X-rays were discovered in 1895 by German scientist Wilhelm Roentgen.
> On November 8, 1895, Roentgen was investigating high-voltage
> electricity and noticed that a nearby phosphor glowed in the dark
> whenever he switched on the apparatus. He quickly demonstrated that
> these unknown "x" rays, as he called them, traveled in straight lines,
> penetrated some materials, and were stopped by denser materials. He
> continued experiments with these "x" rays and eventually produced an
> X-ray picture of his wife\'s hand showing the bones and her wedding
> ring. On January 1, 1896, Roentgen mailed copies of this picture along
> with his report to fellow scientists.
>
> By early February 1896, the first diagnostic X-ray in the United
> States was taken, followed quickly by the first X-ray picture of a
> fetus in utero. By March of that year, the first dental X-rays were
> taken. In that same month, French scientist Henri Becquerel was
> looking for fluorescence effects from the sun, using uranium on a
> photographic plate. The weather turned cloudy so he put the uranium
> and the photographic plate into a drawer. When Becquerel developed the
> plates a few weeks later, he realized he had made a new discovery. His
> student, Marie Curie, named it radioactivity.
>
> ii\. Discovery of Harmful Effects.
>
> Because virtually no protective measures were used in those early
> days, it was not long after the discovery of X-rays before people
> began to learn about their harmful effects. X-ray workers were exposed
> to very large doses of radiation, and skin damage from that exposure
> was observed and documented early in 1896. In March of that year,
> Thomas Edison reported eye injuries from working with X-rays. By June,
> experimenters were being cautioned not to get too close to X-ray
> tubes. By the end of that year, reports were being circulated about
> cases of hair loss, reddened skin, skin sloughing off, and lesions.
> Some X-ray workers lost fingers, and some eventually contracted
> cancer. By the early 1900s, the potential carcinogenic effect of X-ray
> exposure in humans had been reported.
>
> Since that time, more than a billion dollars has been spent in this
> country alone on research investigating the biological effects of
> ionizing radiation. National and international agencies have formed to
> aid in the standardization of the uses of X-rays to ensure safer
> practices.
>
> C. BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF IONIZATION
>
> X-rays can penetrate into the human body and ionize atoms. This
> process creates radicals that can break or modify chemical bonds
> within critical biological molecules. This can cause cell injury, cell
> death, and may be the cause of radiation-induced cancer. The
> biological effect of radiation depends on several factors (discussed
> below) including the dose and dose rate.
>
> In some cases, altered cells are able to repair the damage. However,
> in other cases, the effects are passed to daughter cells through cell
> division and after several divisions can result in a group of cells
> with altered characteristics. These cells may result in tumor or
> cancer development. If enough cells in a body organ are injured or
> altered, the functioning of the organ can be impaired.
>
> D. FACTORS THAT DETERMINE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
>
> Several factors contribute to the biological effects of X‑ray
> exposure, including:

-   Dose rate.

-   Total dose received.

-   Energy of the radiation.

-   Area of the body exposed.

-   Individual sensitivity.

-   Cell sensitivity.

> i\. Dose Rate.
>
> The rate of dose delivery is commonly categorized as *acute* or
> *chronic*. An *acute* dose is received in a short period (seconds to
> days); a *chronic* dose is received over a longer period (months to
> years).
>
> For the same total dose, an acute dose is more damaging than a chronic
> dose. It is believed that this effect is due to the ability of cells
> to repair damage over time. With an acute dose, a cell may receive
> many "hits" without sufficient time to repair damage.
>
> ii\. Total Dose Received.
>
> The higher the total amount of radiation received, the greater the
> biological effects. The effects of a whole body dose of less than 25
> rem are generally not clinically observable. For doses of 25-100 rem
> there are generally no symptoms, but a few persons may exhibit mild
> prodromal symptoms, such as nausea and anorexia. Bone-marrow damage
> may be noted, and a decrease in red and white blood-cell counts and
> platelet count should be discernable. 100-300 rem may result in mild
> to severe nausea, malaise, anorexia, and infection. Hematologic damage
> will be more severe. Recovery is probable, though not assured.
>
> Although effects of lower doses have not been observed directly, it is
> [conservatively]{.underline} [assumed]{.underline} that the higher the
> total dose, the greater the risk of contracting fatal cancer without
> consideration of a threshold for effects. This conservative assumption
> is sometimes called the "linear no threshold" relationship of health
> effects to dose.
>
> iii\. Energy of the Radiation.
>
> The energy of X-rays can vary from less than 1 keV up to more than 10
> MeV. The higher the energy of the X-ray, the more penetrating it will
> be into body tissue.
>
> Lower energy X-rays are largely absorbed in the skin. They can cause a
> significant skin dose but may contribute little dose to the whole body
> (depending on energy).
>
> iv\. Area of the Body Exposed.
>
> Just as a burn to a large portion of the body is more damaging than a
> burn confined to a smaller area, so also is a radiation dose to the
> whole body more damaging than a dose to only a small area. In
> addition, the larger the area, the more difficult it is for the body
> to repair the damage.
>
> v\. Individual Sensitivity.
>
> Some individuals are more sensitive to radiation than others. Age,
> gender, and overall health can have an effect on how the body responds
> to radiation exposure.
>
> vi\. Cell Sensitivity.
>
> Some cells are more sensitive to radiation than others. Cells that are
> more sensitive to radiation are *radiosensitive;* cells that are less
> sensitive to radiation are *radioresistant*.
>
> The law of Bergonie and Tribondeau states: The radiosensitivity of a
> tissue is directly proportional to its reproductive capacity and
> inversely proportional to its degree of differentiation.
>
> It is generally accepted that cells tend to be radiosensitive if they
> are:
>
> 1\) Cells that have a high division rate
>
> 2\) Cells that have a high metabolic rate
>
> 3\) Cells that are of a non-specialized type
>
> 4\) Cells that are well nourished
>
> The following are radiosensitive tissues:
>
> 1\) Germinal
>
> 2\) Hematopoietic
>
> 3\) Epithelium of the skin
>
> 4\) Epithelium of the gastrointestinal tract
>
> The following are radioresistant tissues:
>
> 1\) Bone
>
> 2\) Liver
>
> 3\) Kidney
>
> 4\) Cartilage
>
> 5\) Muscle
>
> 6\) Nervous system tissue
>
> E. SOMATIC EFFECTS
>
> Somatic effects are biological effects that occur in the individual
> exposed to radiation. Somatic effects may result from acute or chronic
> doses of radiation.
>
> i\. Early Acute Somatic Effects.
>
> The most common injury associated with the operation of X-ray analysis
> equipment occurs when a part of the body, usually a hand, is exposed
> to the primary X-ray beam. Both X-ray diffraction and fluorescence
> analysis equipment generate high‑intensity, low-energy X-rays that can
> cause severe and permanent injury if any part of the body is exposed
> to the primary beam.
>
> The most common injury associated with the operation of industrial
> X-ray equipment occurs when an operator is exposed to the primary
> X-ray beam for as little as a few seconds.
>
> These types of injuries are sometimes referred to as *radiation
> burns*.
>
> ii\. Difference Between X‑Ray Damage and Thermal Burns (Key Item).
>
> Most nerve endings are near the surface of the skin, so they give
> immediate warning of heat or a surface thermal burn such as the
> participants might receive from touching a high-temperature object. In
> contrast, the body can not immediately feel exposure to X-rays. X-ray
> damage has historically been referred to as a radiation "burn,"
> perhaps because the reaction of the skin after the radiation exposure
> may appear similar to a thermal burn. In fact, X-ray damage to the
> tissue is very different from a thermal burn and there is no sensation
> or feeling as the damage is occurring.
>
> In radiation burns, the radiation does not harm the outer, mature,
> nondividing skin layers. Rather, most of the X-rays penetrate to the
> deeper, basal skin layer, damaging or killing the rapidly dividing
> germinal cells that are otherwise destined to replace the outer layers
> that slough off. Following this damage, as the outer cells are
> naturally sloughed off, they are not replaced. Lack of a fully viable
> basal layer of cells means that X-ray burns are slow to heal, and in
> some cases may never heal. Frequently, such burns require skin grafts.
> In some cases, severe X‑ray burns have resulted in gangrene and
> amputation.
>
> An important variable is the energy of the radiation because this
> determines the depth of penetration in a given material. Heat
> radiation is infrared, typically 1 eV; sunburn is caused by
> ultraviolet rays, typically 4 eV; and X‑rays are typically 10 - 100
> keV, which are capable of penetrating to the depth of the basal layer
> of the skin.
>
> iii\. Early Signs and Symptoms of Accidental Exposure to X‑Rays.
>
> Note: the doses discussed in this section are localized shallow skin
> doses and/or localized doses, but not whole body doses. Whole body
> deep doses of this magnitude would likely be fatal. Accidental
> exposures from RPDs are generally localized to a small part of the
> body.
>
> **\~600 rad.** An acute dose of about 600 rad to a part of the body
> causes a radiation burn equivalent to a first-degree thermal burn or
> mild sunburn. Typically there is no immediate pain that would cause
> the participants to pull away, but a sensation of warmth or itching
> occurs within a few hours after exposure. An initial reddening or
> inflammation of the affected area usually appears several hours after
> exposure and fades after a few more hours or days. The reddening may
> reappear as late as two to three weeks after the exposure. A dry
> scaling or peeling of the irradiated portion of the skin is likely to
> follow.
>
> If the participants have been working with or around an X‑ray device
> and the participants notice an unexplained reddening of the skin,
> notify the supervisor and the Occupational Medicine Group. Aside from
> avoiding further injury and guarding against infection, further
> medical treatment will probably not be required and recovery should be
> fairly complete.
>
> An acute dose of 600 rad delivered to the lens of the eye causes a
> cataract to begin to form.
>
> **\~1,000 rad.** An acute dose of about 1,000 rad to a part of the
> body causes serious tissue damage similar to a second-degree thermal
> burn. First reddening and inflammation occur, followed by swelling and
> tenderness. Blisters will form within one to three weeks and will
> break open, leaving raw painful wounds that can become infected. Hands
> exposed to such a dose become stiff, and finger motion is often
> painful. If the participants develop symptoms such as these, seek
> immediate medical attention to avoid infection and relieve pain.
>
> **\~2,000 rad.** An acute dose of about 2,000 rad to a part of the
> body causes severe tissue damage similar to a scalding or chemical
> burn. Intense pain and swelling occur within hours. For this type of
> radiation burn, seek immediate medical treatment to reduce pain. The
> injury may not heal without surgical removal of exposed tissue and
> skin grafting to cover the wound. Damage to blood vessels also occurs.
>
> **\~3,000 rad.** An acute dose of 3,000 rad to a part of the body
> completely destroys tissue and surgical removal is necessary.
>
> It does not take long to get a significant dose from an X‑ray unit.
> The dose rate from an X-ray unit can be estimated from the Health
> Physics and Radiological Health Handbook, 1992 edition Table 10.1.1.

Example: Assume:

> 2.5 mm Al filter
>
> 100 kVp
>
> 100 mA
>
> 1 sec exposure
>
> 30 cm distance
>
> Dose estimate (in air, assuming electron equilibrium): 12.8 Rad
>
> (Compare these values to facility‑specific equipment or examples.)
>
> iv\. Latent Effects from Radiation Exposure.
>
> The probability of a latent effect appearing several years after
> radiation exposure depends on the amount of the dose. The higher the
> dose, the greater the risk of developing a health effect. When an
> individual receives a large accidental exposure and the prompt effects
> of that exposure have been dealt with, there still remains a concern
> about latent effects years after the exposure. Although there is no
> unique disease associated with exposure to radiation, there is a
> possibility of developing fatal cancer. The higher the accumulated
> dose, the greater is the risk of health effect, based on the linear-no
> threshold model.
>
> v\. Risk of Developing Cancer from Low Doses.
>
> It is not possible to absolutely quantify the risk of cancer from low
> doses of radiation because the health effects cannot be distinguished
> from the relatively large natural cancer rate (approximately 20
> percent of Americans die from cancer). The risk of health effects from
> low doses must be inferred from effects observed from high acute
> doses. The risk estimates for high doses were developed through
> studies of Japanese atomic bomb survivors, uranium miners, radium
> watch-dial painters, and radiotherapy patients. These risk factors are
> applied to low doses with a reduction factor for chronic exposures.
>
> However, below 10 rem, health effects are too small to measure. The
> dose limits and administrative control levels listed in Module 101
> have been established so that the risk to workers is on a par with the
> risks to workers in safe industries, assuming a linear relationship
> between dose and health effects. However, these are maximum values and
> the ALARA principle stresses maintaining doses well below these
> values.
>
> vi\. Effects of Prenatal Exposure (Teratogenic Effects).
>
> The embryo/fetus is especially sensitive to radiation. The embryo is
> sensitive to radiation because of the relatively high replication
> activity of the cells and the large number of nonspecialized cells.
>
> Workers who become pregnant are [encouraged to declare their pregnancy
> in writing]{.underline} to their supervisors. The dose limit for the
> embryo/fetus of a declared pregnant worker is 500 mrem during the term
> of the pregnancy; 10 CFR 835.206 (b) states "Substantial variation
> above a uniform exposure rate that would satisfy the limits provided
> in 10 CFR835.206 (a) \[i.e., 500 mrem for term of pregnancy\] shall be
> avoided."
>
> F. HERITABLE EFFECTS
>
> Heritable effects are biological effects that are inherited by
> children from their parents at conception. Irradiation of the
> reproductive organs can damage cells that contain heritable
> information passed on to offspring.
>
> Radiation-induced hereditary effects have been observed in large-scale
> experiments with fruit flies and mice irradiated with large doses of
> radiation. [Such health effects have not been observed in
> humans]{.underline}. Based on the animal data, however, the
> conservative assumption is made that radiation-induced hereditary
> effects could occur in humans.
>
> Radiation-induced heritable effects do not result in genetic diseases
> that are uniquely different from those that occur naturally. Extensive
> observations of the children of Japanese atomic bomb survivors have
> not revealed any statistically significant hereditary health effects.
>
> ***Note:** Congenital (teratogenic) effects are not heritable effects.
> Congenital effects are not inherited; they are caused by the action of
> agents such as drugs, alcohol, radiation, or infection to an unborn
> child in utero. Congenital or teratogenic effects did occur in
> children who were irradiated in utero by the atomic bombs at Hiroshima
> or Nagasaki.*

**IV. MODULE 104 - RADIATION DETECTION**

> A. OBJECTIVES
>
> i\. Module Objective.
>
> Upon completion of this unit, the participants should understand which
> radiation-monitoring instruments and which personnel-monitoring
> devices are appropriate for detecting X-rays.
>
> ii\. Objectives.
>
> Following self-study and/or classroom review, the participants will be
> able to:
>
> 1\. Identify the instruments used for X-ray detection and
>
> 2\. Identify the devices used for personnel monitoring.
>
> B. RADIATION SURVEYS
>
> Radiation protection surveys should be conducted on all new or newly
> installed X-ray devices by the X-Ray Device Control Office (or
> facility-specific equivalent) and repeated at a frequency determined
> by site policies.
>
> C. X-RAY DETECTION INSTRUMENTS
>
> External exposure controls used to minimize the dose equivalent to
> workers are based on the data taken with portable radiation-monitoring
> instruments during a radiation survey. An understanding of these
> instruments is important to ensure that the data obtained are accurate
> and appropriate for the source of radiation.
>
> Many factors can affect how well the survey measurement reflects the
> actual conditions, including:

-   Selection of the appropriate instrument based on type and energy of
    radiation and on radiation intensity.

-   Correct operation of the instrument based on the instrument
    operating characteristics and limitations.

-   Calibration of the instrument to a known radiation field similar in
    type, energy, and intensity to the radiation field to be measured.

> i\. Instruments Used for X-Ray Detection
>
> It is important to distinguish between detection and measurement of
> X-rays. Equipment users often use a detector to detect the presence of
> X-rays, for example, to verify that the device is off before entry
> into the area. The measurement of X-rays is normally the job of a
> qualified Radiological Control Technician.
>
> Measurement of radiation dose rates and surveys of record require an
> instrument that reads roentgen or rem (R/hour, mR/hour, rem/hour,
> mrem/hour) rather than counts per minute (cpm) or disintegrations per
> minute (dpm). Ion chambers measure energy deposited and are good
> instruments for measuring X-ray radiation dose levels.
>
> Instruments such as Geiger-Mueller (GM) counters are effective for
> detection of radiation because of their good sensitivity. However,
> because both low-energy and high-energy photons discharge the counter,
> GM counters do not quantify a dose well. A thin-window GM counter is
> the instrument of choice for the detection of X-rays. However, this is
> not the instrument of choice for measurement of X-ray dose.
>
> ii\. Facility‑Specific Instrumentation.
>
> (Insert facility-specific information on instrumentation, as
> appropriate.)
>
> D. PERSONNEL-MONITORING DEVICES
>
> Note: X-ray leakage from RPD housings or shielding may be a narrow
> beam that is difficult to detect and may not be recorded by personnel
> monitoring devices.
>
> i\. Whole Body Dosimeters.
>
> Operators of intentional X-ray devices usually wear dosimetry such as
> thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) film or badges. These dosimeters
> can accurately measure radiation doses as low as 10 mrem and are used
> to determine the dose of record. However, they must be sent to a
> processor to be read. Therefore, the exposed individual may not be
> aware of his exposure until the results have been reported (typically
> 1 day - several weeks).
>
> There are several precautions that are important in the use of
> dosimeters. Dosimeters should be worn in a location that will record a
> dose representative of the trunk of the body. Standard practice is to
> wear a dosimeter between the neck and the waist, but in specific
> situations such as nonuniform radiation fields, special considerations
> may apply. Some dosimeters have a required orientation with a specific
> side facing out.
>
> (Insert facility-specific information on dosimetry, as appropriate.)
>
> ii\. Extremity Dosimeters.
>
> Finger-ring and wrist dosimeters may be used to assess radiation dose
> to the hands.
>
> (Insert facility-specific information on dosimetry, as appropriate.)
>
> iii\. Pocket Dosimeters.
>
> Pocket ionization chambers, such as pencil dosimeters or electronic
> dosimeters, are used in radiological work. In contrast to TLDs, they
> give an immediate readout of the radiation dose. Pencil dosimeters are
> manufactured with scales in several different ranges, but the
>
> 0 - 500 mR range, marked in increments of 20 mR, is often used. The
> dose is read by observing the position of a hairline that moves
> upscale in proportion to dose. Pocket dosimeters are supplemental and
> used primarily as radiological worker management tools. They are not
> typically used for determining the dose of record required by 10 CFR
> 835.
>
> iv\. Alarming Dosimeters.
>
> In higher dose-rate areas, an alarming dosimeter may be used to
> provide an audible warning of radiation. This contributes to keeping
> doses ALARA by increasing a worker\'s awareness of the radiation.
>
> Specific applications may require special considerations. For example,
> low-energy X‑rays will not penetrate the walls of some dosimeters.
> Flash X-ray devices produce a very short pulse that is not correctly
> measured by most dose-rate instruments.
>
> (Insert facility-specific information as appropriate.)

**V. MODULE 105 - PROTECTIVE MEASURES**

> A. OBJECTIVES
>
> i\. Module Objective.
>
> Upon completion of this unit, the participants should understand
> protective measures that restrict or control access to X-ray areas and
> devices or warn of X‑ray hazards, and should be able to use work
> documents that provide specific procedures to ensure safe operation of
> X‑ray devices.
>
> ii\. Objectives.
>
> Following self-study and/or classroom review, the participants will be
> able to:
>
> 1\. Identify and state specific administrative and engineered
> controls.
>
> 2\. Identify and state specific radiological postings.
>
> 3\. Define "interlocks", as applicable.
>
> 4\. Explain specific shielding practices.
>
> 5\. Identify typical RPD warning devices.
>
> 6\. Outline site‑specific work documents.
>
> B. RADIOLOGICAL CONTROLS
>
> To control exposure to radiation, as well as maintain exposure ALARA,
> access to radiological areas is restricted by a combination of
> administrative and engineering controls.
>
> Examples of administrative controls include:

-   Posting.

-   Warning signals and labels.

-   Work control documents such as SOPs and RWPs.

> Examples of engineered controls include:

-   Interlocks.

-   Shielding.

> For high-radiation areas where radiation levels exist such that an
> individual could exceed a deep dose equivalent of 1 rem in any 1 hour
> at 30 cm from the source or surface that the radiation penetrates, one
> or more of the following features shall be used to control exposure:

-   A control device that prevents entry.

-   A device that prevents use of the radiation source while personnel
    are present.

-   A device that energizes a visible and audible alarm.

-   Locked entry ways.

-   Continuous direct or electronic surveillance to prevent unauthorized
    entry.

-   A device that generates audible and visual alarms in sufficient time
    to permit evacuation.

> In addition to the above measures, for very high radiation areas (
> areas accessible to individuals in which radiation levels could result
> in an individual receiving a dose in excess of 500 rads in 1 hour),
> additional measures shall be implemented to ensure individuals are not
> able to gain access.
>
> C. RADIOLOGICAL POSTINGS
>
> i\. Purpose of Posting.
>
> The two primary reasons for radiological posting are:
>
> 1\. To inform workers of the radiological conditions and
>
> 2\. To inform workers of the entry requirements for an area.
>
> ii\. General Posting Requirements.
>
> 1\. Signs contain the standard radiation symbol colored magenta or
> black on a yellow background.
>
> 2\. Signs shall be clearly and conspicuously posted to alert personnel
> to the presence of radiation. Signs may also include radiological
> protection instructions.
>
> 3\. If more than one radiological condition exists in the same area,
> each condition should be identified.
>
> 4\. Rope, tape, chain, or similar barrier material used to designate
> radiological areas should be yellow and magenta.
>
> 5\. Physical barriers should be placed so that they are clearly
> visible from all accessible directions and at various elevations.
>
> 6\. Posting of doors should be such that the postings remain visible
> when doors are open or closed.
>
> 7\. Radiological postings that indicate an intermittent radiological
> condition should include a statement specifying when the condition
> exists, such as
>
> "CAUTION, RADIATION AREA WHEN RED LIGHT IS ON."
>
> For a Radiation Area, wording on the posting shall include the words:
>
> "CAUTION, RADIATION AREA."
>
> For a High Radiation Area, wording on the posting shall include the
> words:
>
> "DANGER, HIGH RADIATION AREA."
>
> For a Very High Radiation Area, wording on the posting shall include
> the words:
>
> "GRAVE DANGER, VERY HIGH RADIATION AREA."
>
> The same posting requirements apply for X‑ray or gamma radiation as
> for any other type of radiation. Areas controlled for radiological
> purposes are posted according to the radiation dose rates in the area,
> as shown in the following table. These definitions are standard
> throughout the DOE complex.

  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------
  **Areas**                          **Defining Condition**

  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------

  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------
  Controlled Area                    Means any area to which access is
                                     managed to protect individuals from
                                     exposure to radiation and/or
                                     radioactive material.

  Radiation Area                     Means any area accessible to
                                     individuals in which radiation
                                     levels could result in an individual
                                     receiving a deep dose equivalent in
                                     excess of 0.005 rem (0.05
                                     millisievert) in 1 hour at 30
                                     centimeters from the source or from
                                     any surface that the radiation
                                     penetrates.

  High Radiation Area                Means any area accessible to
                                     individuals, in which radiation
                                     levels could result in an individual
                                     receiving a deep dose equivalent in
                                     excess of 0.1 rem (0.001 sievert) in
                                     1 hour at 30 centimeters from the
                                     radiation source or from any surface
                                     that the radiation penetrates.

  Very High Radiation Area           Means any area accessible to
                                     individuals in which radiation
                                     levels could result in an individual
                                     receiving an absorbed dose in excess
                                     of 500 rads (5 grays) in 1 hour at 1
                                     meter from a radiation source or
                                     from any surface that the radiation
                                     penetrates.
  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------

> (Insert facility-specific information on posting, labeling, and entry
> requirements, as applicable.)
>
> D. INTERLOCKS
>
> Fail-safe interlocks should be provided on doors and access panels of
> X-ray devices so that X-ray production is not possible when they are
> open. A fail-safe interlock is designed so that any failure that can
> reasonably be anticipated will result in a condition in which
> personnel are safe from excessive radiation exposure.
>
> Guidance from the ANSI standards is that interlocks should be tested
> by the operating group at least every six months. The interlock test
> procedure may be locally specified, but typically is as follows:

-   Energize the X-ray tube.

-   Open each door or access panel one at a time.

-   Observe the X-ray warning light or current meter at the control
    panel.

-   Record the results in a log.

> (Insert facility-specific information, as appropriate.)
>
> E. SHIELDING
>
> i\. Analytical Systems.
>
> For analytical X-ray machines, such as X-ray fluorescence and
> diffraction systems, the manufacturer provides shielding in accordance
> with ANSI N43.2. However, prudent practice requires that any device or
> source that involves radiation should be surveyed to determine the
> adequacy of the shielding.
>
> Enclosed beam systems have sufficient shielding so that the dose rate
> at 5 cm from its outer surface does not exceed 0.25 mrem per hour
> under normal operating conditions. The dose rate may be difficult to
> evaluate. According to ANSI N43.2, this requirement is met if the
> shielding is at least equal to the thickness of lead specified in the
> following table for the maximum rated anode current and potential.

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
  [Minimum Shielding to Keep the Dose Rate Below 0.25
  mrem/hour]{.smallcaps}

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

  ---------------------- ----------------------------------------------------
  [Anode                 [Millimeters of Lead]{.smallcaps}
  Current]{.smallcaps}   

  ---------------------- ----------------------------------------------------

  -------------------- ------------------ ------------------ ------------------
  [(mA)]{.smallcaps}   [50                [70                [100
                       kVp]{.smallcaps}   kVp]{.smallcaps}   kVp]{.smallcaps}

  20                   1.5                5.6                7.7

  40                   1.6                5.8                7.9

  80                   1.6                5.9                \--

  160                  1.7                \--                \--
  -------------------- ------------------ ------------------ ------------------

> ii\. Industrial Systems.
>
> Some industrial X-ray systems, such as the cabinet X-ray systems used
> for airport security, are completely enclosed in an interlocked and
> shielded cabinet. Larger systems such as medical X-ray units are
> enclosed in a shielded room to which access is restricted. Shielding
> for X-ray rooms is conservatively designed to handle the expected
> workload conditions. Radiological control technicians (RCTs)
> periodically verify that the shielding integrity has not deteriorated.
>
> X-Ray Device Control Office (or facility-specific equivalent)
> personnel develop recommendations for shielding based on the following
> information:
>
> 1\. Shielding the primary X-ray beam and
>
> 2\. Shielding the areas not in the line of the primary beam from
> leakage and scattered radiation.
>
> There are independent analyses for each component to derive an
> acceptable shield thickness.
>
> For example, the calculation used for the primary X-ray beam depends
> on:
>
> \- Peak voltage.
>
> \- The maximum permissible exposure rate to an individual.
>
> \- The workload of the machine expressed in mA min/wk.
>
> \- The use factor: the fraction of the workload during which the
> useful beam is pointed in a direction under consideration.
>
> \- The occupancy factor that takes into account the fraction of time
> that an area outside the barrier is likely to be occupied by a given
> individual.
>
> \- The distance from the target of the tube to the location under
> consideration.
>
> The calculation uses conservative values and derives a value (K) that
> is used with graphs to determine shield thickness of a given type of
> material (e.g., lead or concrete).
>
> F. WARNING DEVICES
>
> Operators should be aware of the status of the X-ray tube. Indicators
> that warn of X-ray production typically include:

-   A current meter on the X-ray control panel.

-   A warning light labeled X-RAYS ON near or on the control panel.

-   Warning light labeled X-RAYS ON near any X-ray room door.

> These warning lights or indicators are activated automatically when
> power is available for X-ray production.
>
> For X-ray systems with an open beam in a shielded room, evacuation
> warning signals and signs must be activated at least 20 seconds before
> X-ray production can be started. Any person who is inside the room
> when warning signals come on should immediately leave the room and
> activate the panic or scram switch on the way out. This is an
> emergency system designed to shut down the X-ray system immediately.
>
> (Insert facility‑specific information.)
>
> G. WORK DOCUMENTS
>
> (Note: this section is provided only as an example and should be
> replaced with facility-specific information.)
>
> i\. Typical Standard Operating Procedures (SOP).
>
> An X-ray device has a procedure such as an SOP to promote safe and
> efficient operation. SOPs typically include the following:
>
> 1\. Description/specification of the X-ray device and the purpose for
> which it is used.
>
> 2\. Normal X-ray parameters (peak power, current, exposure time, X-ray
> source-to-film distance, etc.).
>
> 3\. Procedures for proper sample preparation, alignment procedures, or
> handling of object to be radiographed.
>
> 4\. Description of all safety hazards (electrical, mechanical,
> explosive, as well as radiation hazards) associated with the operation
> of the X‑ray device.
>
> 5\. Description of the safety features such as interlocks and warning
> signals and any other safety precautions.
>
> 6\. Procedures for performing interlock tests and the recommended
> frequency of such tests.
>
> 7\. Required operator training and dosimetry.
>
> 8\. Posting of signs and labels.
>
> 9\. X-ray device safety checklist (items to be checked periodically or
> each day before use).
>
> 10\. Actions to take in the event of an abnormal occurrence or
> emergency.
>
> 11\. Requirements for the use of a radiation-monitoring instrument
> upon entry into the Radiation Area to verify that the X-ray beam is
> off are specified in ANSI N43.3 for some industrial X-ray devices.
>
> X-Ray Device Control Office personnel (or facility‑specific
> equivalent) review each SOP to verify that it establishes appropriate
> safety practices and they can assist the operating groups in preparing
> or modifying an SOP. The current SOP should be kept near the X-ray
> device.
>
> Operating groups are responsible for ensuring that the operator
> becomes familiar with and uses the SOP. The operator is responsible
> for following the SOP.
>
> ii\. Radiological Work Permits (RWPs).
>
> RWPs are used to establish radiological controls for entry into
> radiological areas. They serve to:
>
> 1\. Inform workers of area radiological conditions.
>
> 2\. Inform workers of entry requirements into the areas.
>
> 3\. Provide a means to relate radiation doses to specific work
> activities.
>
> A job-specific RWP is used to control nonroutine operations or work
> areas with changing radiological conditions.
>
> RWPs are typically used in conjunction with X-ray devices when any of
> the following situations exist:
>
> 1\. A compliance label for a newly acquired X-ray device cannot be
> issued because the SOP for that device has not yet been written and
> approved.
>
> 2\. A portable X-ray device or open system used only for a short
> period that does not warrant writing an SOP.
>
> 3\. An event that requires an operator enter the area when the X-ray
> beam is on.

**VI. MODULE 106 - X-RAY GENERATING DEVICES**

> A. OBJECTIVES
>
> i\. Module Objective.
>
> Upon completion of this unit, the participants should understand the
> categories of X-ray producing devices and the hazards associated with
> each.
>
> (Note: Module 106 reflects the guidance of the ANSI Standards N43.2
> and N43.3. Insert facility‑specific information as appropriate.)
>
> ii\. Objectives.
>
> Following self‑study and/or review, the participants will be able to:
>
> 1\. Contrast incidental and intentional X-ray devices.
>
> 2\. Contrast analytical and industrial X-ray devices.
>
> 3\. Identify open and enclosed beam installations.
>
> 4\. Describe the safety features essential for operation of industrial
> and analytical systems.
>
> B. INCIDENTAL AND INTENTIONAL DEVICES
>
> X-ray systems are divided into two broad categories: intentional and
> incidental.
>
> An *incidental* X-ray device produces X-rays that are not wanted or
> used as a part of the designed purpose of the machine. Shielding of an
> incidental X-ray device should preclude significant exposure. Examples
> of incidental systems are computer monitors, televisions, electron
> microscopes, high-voltage electron guns, electron beam welding
> machines, electrostatic separators, and Jennings switches.
>
> An *intentional* X-ray device is designed to generate an X-ray beam
> for a particular use. Examples include X‑ray diffraction and
> fluorescence analysis systems, flash X-ray systems, medical X-ray
> machines, and industrial cabinet and noncabinet X-ray equipment.
> Intentional X-ray devices are further divided into two subcategories:
> analytical and industrial.
>
> ANSI has issued two standards that provide radiation safety guidelines
> for X-ray systems. ANSI N43.2 applies to non-medical X-ray systems and
> ANSI N43.3 applies to X-ray diffraction and fluorescence systems.
>
> C. INCIDENTAL X-RAY DEVICES
>
> i\. Exempt Shielded Systems.
>
> Exempt shielded systems are defined in the ANSI Standard N43.3.
> Electron microscopes and other systems that are exempt shielded are
> inherently safe, and require review only on purchase or modification.
> The exposure rate during any phase of operation of these devices at
> the maximum-rated continuous beam current for the maximum-rated
> accelerating potential should not exceed 0.5 mrem/hour at 2 inches (5
> cm) from any accessible external surface.
>
> (Add facility-specific examples.)
>
> ii\. Other Devices.
>
> At a research laboratory, many devices produce incidental X-rays. Any
> device that combines high voltage and a vacuum could, in principle,
> produce X-rays. For example, a television or computer monitor
> generates incidental X-rays, but in modern designs the intensity is
> small, much less than 0.5 mrem/hour.
>
> Occasionally, this hazard is recognized only after the device has
> operated for some time. If the participants suspect an X-ray hazard,
> contact an RCT or the X‑Ray Device Control Office (or
> facility-specific equivalent) to survey the device.

(Add facility-specific examples.)

> D. INTENTIONAL ANALYTICAL X-RAY DEVICES
>
> i\. Analytical X-Ray Devices.
>
> Analytical X-ray devices use X-rays for diffraction or fluorescence
> experiments. These research tools are normally used in materials
> science. ANSI N43.2 defines two types of analytical X-ray systems:
> enclosed beam and open beam.
>
> The following safety features are common to both systems:
>
> 1\. A fail-safe light or indicator is installed in a conspicuous
> location near the X-ray tube housing. These indicators are energized
> automatically and only when the tube current flows or high voltage is
> applied to the X-ray tube.
>
> 2\. Accessories to the equipment have a beam stop or other barrier.
>
> 3\. Shielding is provided.

(Add facility-specific examples.)

> ii\. Enclosed‑Beam System.
>
> In an enclosed-beam system, all possible X-ray paths (primary and
> diffracted) are completely enclosed so that no part of a human body
> can be exposed to the beam during normal operation. Because it is
> safer, the enclosed-beam system should be selected over the open-beam
> system whenever possible.
>
> The following safety features are specified by ANSI N43.2 for an
> enclosed-beam X‑ray system:
>
> 1\. The sample chamber door or other enclosure should have a fail-safe
> interlock on the X-ray tube high-voltage supply or a shutter in the
> primary beam so that no X-ray beam can enter the sample chamber while
> it is open.
>
> 2\. X-ray tube, sample, detector, and analyzing crystal (if used) must
> be enclosed in a chamber or coupled chambers that cannot be entered by
> any part of the body during normal operation.
>
> 3\. Radiation leakage measured at 2 inches (5 cm) from any outer
> surface must not exceed 0.25 mrem/hour during normal operation.

(Add facility-specific examples.)

> iii\. Open-Beam System.
>
> According to ANSI N43.2, a device that does not meet the enclosed-beam
> standards is classified as an open-beam system. In an open-beam
> system, one or more X-ray beams are not enclosed, making exposure of
> human body parts possible during normal operation. The open-beam
> system is acceptable for use only if an enclosed beam is impractical
> because of any of the following reasons:
>
> 1\. A need for frequent changes of attachments and configurations.
>
> 2\. A need for making adjustments with the X-ray beam energized.
>
> 3\. Motion of specimen and detector over wide angular limits.
>
> 4\. The examination of large or bulky samples.
>
> The following safety features are essential in an open-beam X-ray
> system:
>
> 1\. Each port of the X-ray tube housing must have a beam shutter.
>
> 2\. All shutters must have a conspicuous SHUTTER OPEN indicator of
> fail-safe design.
>
> 3\. Shutters at unused ports should be mechanically or electrically
> secured to prevent casual opening.
>
> 4\. Special rules apply when the accessory setup is subject to change
> as is the case with powder diffraction cameras. In these cases, the
> beam shutter must be interlocked so the port will be open only when
> the accessory is in place.
>
> 5\. Exposure rates adjacent to the system must not exceed
> 2.5 mrem/hour at 5cm from the surface of the housing.
>
> 6\. A guard or interlock must prevent entry of any part of the body
> into the primary beam.
>
> (Insert facility-specific information if system definitions differ
> from the above.)
>
> E. INTENTIONAL INDUSTRIAL X-RAY DEVICES
>
> i\. Industrial X-Ray Devices.
>
> Industrial X-ray devices are used for radiography, for example, to
> take pictures of the inside of an object as in an X-ray of a pipe weld
> or to measure the thickness of material. ANSI standard N43.3 defines
> five classes of industrial X-ray installations: cabinet, exempt
> shielded, shielded, unattended, and open.
>
> (Add facility-specific examples.)
>
> ii\. Cabinet X-ray Installation.
>
> A cabinet X-ray installation is similar in principle to the analytical
> enclosed beam system. The X-ray tube is installed in an enclosure
> (cabinet) that contains the object being irradiated, provides
> shielding, and excludes individuals from its interior during X-ray
> generation. A common example is the X-ray device used to inspect
> carry-on baggage at airline terminals. Certified cabinet X-ray systems
> comply with the regulations of 21 CFR 1020.40. Exposure rates adjacent
> to a cabinet X-ray system shall not exceed 2 mrem/hour.

(Add facility-specific examples.)

> iii\. Exempt Shielded Installation.
>
> An exempt shielded facility or installation is similar to a cabinet
> X-ray installation. It provides a high degree of inherent safety
> because the protection depends on passive shielding and not on
> compliance with procedures. This type does not require restrictions in
> occupancy since passive shielding is sufficient. The low allowable
> dose equivalent rate of 0.5 mrem in any 1 hour 5 cm from the
> accessible surface of the enclosure for this class of installation
> necessitates a high degree of installed shielding surrounding the
> X-ray device.

(Add facility-specific examples.)

> iv\. Shielded Installation.
>
> A shielded installation has less shielding than exempt shielded. This
> is a cost advantage for fixed installations, particularly for
> high‑energy sources where the reduction in shielding may result in
> significant savings. However, there is more reliance on protective
> measures such as warning lights, posting, and procedures. However, the
> posting and access control requirements, of 10 CFR 835 apply. Any High
> Radiation Area must be appropriately controlled and any Radiation Area
> must be defined and posted.

(Add facility-specific examples.)

> v\. Unattended Installation.
>
> An unattended installation consists of equipment designed and
> manufactured for a specific purpose and does not require personnel in
> attendance for its operation. Steps must be taken to ensure that the
> dose to personnel is less than 100 mrem/year. However, a short term
> limit of 2 mrem/hour may be used provided the expected dose to
> personnel is less than 100 mrem/year.
>
> (Add facility-specific examples.)
>
> vi\. Open Installation.
>
> An open installation has X-ray paths that are not enclosed. An example
> would be a portable X-ray machine outdoors in an emergency response
> situation, with the X-ray tube not enclosed inside a shielded room.
> This class is acceptable for use only if operational requirements
> prevent the use of one of the other classes. Its use is limited mainly
> to mobile and portable equipment where fixed shielding cannot be used.
> The protection of personnel and the public depends almost entirely on
> strict adherence to safe operating procedures and posting. High
> Radiation Areas must either be locked (as in the shielded
> installation) or be under constant surveillance by the operator. The
> perimeter of any Radiation Area created by the system must be defined
> and posted.
>
> According to ANSI N43.3, when the radiation source is being approached
> following the conclusion of a procedure, the operator shall use a
> suitable calibrated and operable survey instrument to verify that the
> source is in its fully shielded condition or that the X-ray tube has
> been turned off.
>
> (Add facility-specific examples.)
>
> F. SUMMARY OF X-RAY DEVICES
>
> The following table summarizes the classes of X-ray devices recognized
> by ANSI. For the enclosed beam, exempt shielded, and cabinet systems,
> access is controlled by enclosing the X-rays within a chamber or
> cabinet. The other systems can have potentially hazardous dose rates
> outside the system housing, so access must be controlled by a
> combination of locked doors, posting, warning lights, and procedures.

SUMMARY OF X-RAY DEVICES

  ------------------- --------------- ------------------- -----------------
  **X-Ray Device**    **Category**    **Maximum Dose      **Access**
                                      Rate - Whole Body** 

  ------------------- --------------- ------------------- -----------------

  ------------------- --------------- ------------------- -----------------
  Enclosed beam       Analytical      0.25 mrem/hour      Fully enclosed
                                                          chamber

  Open beam           Analytical      2.5 mrem/hour       Beam guard

  Cabinet             Industrial      2.0 mrem/hour       Fully enclosed in
                                                          a cabinet

  Exempt shielded     Industrial      0.5 mrem/hour       Enclosed

  Shielded            Industrial      as posted           Locked doors

  Unattended          Industrial      2 mrem/hour -       Secured access
                                      maximum 100         panel
                                      mrem/year           

  Open installation   Industrial      as posted           Constant
                                                          surveillance
  ------------------- --------------- ------------------- -----------------

**VII. MODULE 107 - RESPONSIBILITIES FOR X-RAY SAFETY**

> A. OBJECTIVES
>
> i\. Module Objective.
>
> Upon completion of this unit, the participants will understand who is
> responsible for implementing X-ray safety policies and procedures and
> what their specific responsibilities are.
>
> ii\. Objectives.
>
> Following self‑study and/or classroom review, the participants will be
> able to:
>
> 1\. State the responsibilities of the X-Ray Device Control Office.
>
> 2\. State the responsibilities of operating groups regarding X-ray
> safety.
>
> 3\. State the responsibilities of X-ray device custodians.
>
> 4\. State the responsibilities of X-ray device operators.
>
> (Note: Module 107 is included as an example. Insert facility‑specific
> information as appropriate.)
>
> B. RESPONSIBILITIES
>
> The responsibility for maintaining exposures from X‑rays ALARA is
> shared among the personnel assigned to the X-Ray Device Control
> Office, the operating groups, X-ray device custodians, and X-ray
> device operators.
>
> i\. X-Ray Device Control Office.
>
> The X-Ray Device Control Office is responsible for:
>
> 1\. Establishing requirements and standards.
>
> 2\. Offering consulting services and training.
>
> 3\. Approving purchases, moves, transfers, and alterations of X-ray
> equipment.
>
> 4\. Surveying new equipment, verifying that the appropriate safety
> program requirements have been met, and affixing compliance labels to
> the devices.
>
> 5\. Issuing variances for devices that do not meet one or more of the
> requirements, if safety is achieved through alternative means or if
> the function could not be performed if the device met the
> requirements.
>
> ii\. Operating Groups.
>
> Operating groups are responsible for:
>
> 1\. Complying with all X-ray safety requirements.
>
> 2\. Registering X-ray machines.
>
> 3\. Preparing SOPs.
>
> 4\. Appointing X-ray device custodians.
>
> 5\. Ensuring proper training of operators.
>
> iii\. X-Ray Device Custodians.
>
> X-ray device custodians are responsible for specific X-ray generating
> machines. Their duties include:
>
> 1\. Completing X-Ray-Generating Device Registration forms and
> submitting them to the X-Ray Device Control Office to register new
> electron microscopes, intentional X-ray devices, and new X-ray tube
> assemblies or source housings.
>
> 2\. Making arrangements for operator training.
>
> 3\. Maintaining a list of qualified operators authorized for
> particular machines.
>
> 4\. Documenting that operators have read the appropriate SOPs and
> machine safety features.
>
> 5\. Posting an authorized operator list near the control panel of each
> X-ray device.
>
> 6\. Checking enclosure door safety interlocks every six months to
> ensure proper functioning and recording results on an interlock test
> log posted on or near the control panel.
>
> 7\. Contacting the X-Ray Device Control Office before performing any
> repair, maintenance, and/or nonroutine work that could cause the
> exposure of any portion of the body to the primary beam.
>
> 8\. Meeting all requirements of Safe Operating Procedures, Special
> Work Permits, and Lockout/Tagout for Control of Hazardous Energy
> Sources for Personnel Safety (Red Lock Procedure).
>
> iv\. X-Ray Device Operators.
>
> Authorized X-ray device operators are responsible for knowing and
> following the operator safety checklist, including:

1.  Wearing a TLD badge.

2.  Knowing the SOP for every machine operated.

3.  Notifying his/her supervisor of any unsafe or hazardous work
    situations.

4.  Before reaching into the primary beam, verifying that the beam
    shutter is closed or that machine power is off.

5.  Meeting all applicable training requirements before operating RPD.

6.  Maintaining exposures ALARA.

**GLOSSARY**

**Absorbed dose**: The energy absorbed by matter from ionizing radiation
per unit mass of irradiated material at the place of interest in that
material. The absorbed dose is expressed in units of rad.

(10 CFR 835.2(b)).

**Accelerator:** A device employing electrostatic or electromagnetic
fields to impart kinetic energy to molecular, atomic, or subatomic
particles and capable of creating a radiological area (DOE
Order 5480.25).

Examples include linear accelerators, cyclotrons, synchrotrons,
synchrocyclotrons, free-electron lasers (FELs), and ion LINACs. Single
and tandem Van de Graaff generators, when used to accelerate charged
particles *other than electrons,* are also considered accelerators.
Specifically *excluded* from this definition (per DOE 0 5480.25) are the
following:

-   Unmodified commercially available units such as electron
    microscopes, ion implant devices, and X-ray generators that are
    acceptable for industrial applications.

-   Accelerator facilities not capable of creating a radiological area.

**Access panel:** Any barrier or panel that is designed to be removed or
opened for maintenance or service purposes, requires tools to open, and
permits access to the interior of the cabinet. *See also* door, port,
and aperture.

**Access port:** *See* port.

**Analytical X-ray device.** A group of components that use
intentionally produced X-rays to evaluate, typically through X-ray
diffraction or fluorescence, the phase state or elemental composition of
materials. Local components include those that are struck by X-rays such
as the X-ray source housings, beam ports and shutter assemblies,
collimators, sample holders, cameras, goniometers, detectors, and
shielding. Remote components include power supplies, transformers,
amplifiers, readout devices, and control panels.

**Anode:** The positive electrode in an X-ray device that emits X-rays
after being struck by energetic electrons from the cathode.

**Aperture:** In this context, the opening within an X-ray source
housing that permits the primary X-ray beam to emerge in the intended
direction. Such an aperture is not necessarily an open hole, but rather
may be a portion of the metal wall of the X-ray source housing that is
significantly thinner than the surrounding X-ray source housing walls.

**Attenuation:** The reduction of a radiation quantity upon passage of
the radiation through matter, resulting from all types of interaction
with that matter. The radiation quantity may be, for example, the
particle fluency rate.

**As low as reasonably achievable (ALARA):** Means the approach to
radiation protection to manage and control exposures (both individual
and collective) to the work force and to the general public to as low as
is reasonable, taking into account social, technical, economic,
practical and public policy considerations. ALARA is not a dose limit
but a process which has the objective of attaining doses as far below
the applicable limits of 10 CFR 835 as is reasonably achievable. (10 CFR
835.2(a))

**Bremsstrahlung:** The electromagnetic radiation emitted when an
electrically charged subatomic particle, such as an electron, loses
energy upon being accelerated and deflected by the electric field
surrounding an atomic nucleus. In German, the term means *braking
radiation.*

**Cabinet X-ray system:** An industrial X-ray device with the X-ray tube
installed in an enclosure (cabinet) that, independent of existing
architectural structures except the floor upon which it may be placed,
is intended to contain at least that portion of a material being
irradiated, provide radiation attenuation, and exclude individuals from
its interior during X‑ray generation. Included are all X-ray devices
designed primarily for the inspection of carry-on baggage at airline,
railroad, and bus terminals. *Excluded* from this definition are X‑ray
devices using a building wall for shielding and those using portable
shields on a temporary basis.

**Cathode:** The negative electrode that emits electrons in an X-ray
device.

**Collimator:** A device used to limit the size, shape, and direction of
the primary beam.

**Compliance label:** A label affixed to an intentional X-ray device
certifying that the device has been surveyed and that safe operating
requirements have been met.

**Control panel:** A device containing the means for regulating and
activating X-ray equipment or for preselecting and indicating operating
factors.

**Controlled Area:** Any area to which access is managed to protect
individuals from exposure to radiation and/or radioactive material. (10
CFR 835.2(a))

**Dark current:** A current, usually of electrons, that may flow through
an acceleration tube or wave guide from sources other than the cathode
of the accelerator. This is an abnormal phenomenon, often associated
with poor vacuum conditions or contaminated surfaces in the acceleration
region.

**Door:** In this context, any barrier that is designed to be moved or
opened for routine operation purposes, does not require tools to open,
and permits access to the interior of the cabinet.

**Dose equivalent:** The product of absorbed dose, a quality factor, and
other modifying factors. The unit of dose equivalent is the rem. (10 CFR
835.2 (b))

**Dosimeter:** A device that measures and indicates radiation dose.

**Electron volt (eV):** A unit of energy equal to the energy gained by
an electron passing through a potential difference of 1 volt.

**Enclosed beam system:** An analytical X-ray system in which all
possible X-ray paths (primary as well as diffracted beams) are fully
enclosed.

**Exempt shielded installation:** An X-ray installation in which the
source of radiation and all objects exposed to that source are within a
permanent enclosure that meets the requirements of a shielded
installation and contains *additional* shielding such that the dose
equivalent rate at any accessible area 2 inches (5 cm) from the outside
surface of the enclosure shall not exceed 0.5 mrem in any 1 hour.

**Exposure:** A measure of the ionization produced in air by X-ray or
gamma radiation defined up to 3 MeV. It is the sum of the electrical
charges of all of the ions of one sign produced in air when all
electrons liberated by photons in a volume element of air are completely
stopped in the air, divided by the mass of the air in the volume
element. The unit of exposure is the roentgen (R) and is defined for
photons with energy up to 3 MeV.

**External surface:** An outside surface of a cabinet X-ray system,
including the high-voltage generator, doors, access panels, latches,
control knobs, and other permanently mounted hardware, and including the
plane across any aperture or port.

**Fail-safe design:** A design in which the failure of any single
component that can be realistically anticipated results in a condition
in which personnel are safe from exposure to radiation. Such a design
should cause beam-port shutters to close, primary transformer electrical
power to be interrupted, or emergence of the primary X-ray beam to be
otherwise prevented upon failure of the safety or warning device.

**Flash X-ray unit:** A radiation-producing device that can produce
nanosecond bursts of high-intensity  X-ray radiation.

**Floor:** In this context, the underside external surface of the
cabinet.

**Fluorescence analysis:** Analysis of characteristic X-rays and the
X-ray emission process.

**Gauge:** A device that produces ionizing radiation for the purpose of
measuring particular properties of a system.

**Half-value layer (HVL):** The thickness of a specified substance that,
when introduced into a beam of radiation, reduces the dose rate by
one-half.

**High Radiation Area:** Any area accessible to individuals in which
radiation levels could result in an individual receiving a deep dose
equivalent in excess of 0.1 rem (0.001 sievert) in 1 hour at
30 centimeters from the radiation source or from any surface that the
radiation penetrates (10 CFR 835.2(a)).

**Incidental X-ray device:** A device that emits or produces X-rays in
the process of its normal operation, in which the X-rays are an unwanted
byproduct of the device's intended use. Examples include video display
terminals, electron microscopes, high-voltage electron guns, electron
beam welders, ion implant devices, microwave cavities used as beam
guides, radio-frequency cavities, microwave generators
(magnetrons/klystrons), and field‑emission electron beam diodes.

**Installation:** A radiation source, with its associated equipment, and
the space in which it is located.

**Installation enclosure:** The portion of an X-ray installation that
clearly defines the transition from a noncontrolled to a controlled area
and provides such shielding as may be required to limit the dose rate in
the noncontrolled area during normal operations.

**Intentional X-ray device:** A device in which electrons undergo
acceleration in a vacuum and collide with a metal anode target designed
to produce X-rays for a particular application. Examples include
diagnostic medical/dental X-ray devices, electron LINACs used in
radiation therapy applications, portable and fixed flash X-ray systems,
X-ray diffraction and fluorescence analysis equipment, cabinet X-ray
systems, some Van de Graaff generators, and electron LINACs.

**Interlock:** A device for precluding access to an area of radiation
hazard either by preventing entry or by automatically removing the
hazard when the device is actuated.

**Ion:** An atom, or molecule bearing an electric charge, or an electron
that is not associated with a nucleus.

**Ionizing radiation:** Any electromagnetic or particulate radiation
capable of producing ions, directly or indirectly, by interaction with
matter, including gamma and X-rays and alpha, beta, and neutron
particles.

**Lead equivalent:** The thickness of lead affording the same
attenuation, under specific conditions, as the shielding material in
use.

**Leakage radiation:** Any radiation, except the useful beam, coming
from the X‑ray assembly or sealed source housing.

**Medical X-ray system:** An X-ray system for medical use, generally
categorized as either diagnostic or therapeutic. Diagnostic X-ray
procedures are used to obtain images of body parts; therapeutic x‑ray
procedures are used to manage malignancies.

**Normal operation:** Operation under conditions as recommended by the
manufacturer of an X-ray system or as specified by a written SOP.
Recommended shielding and interlocks shall be in place and operable.

**Occupancy factor:** The factor by which the workload should be
multiplied to correct for the degree or type of occupancy of the area
specified.

**Open-beam system:** An analytical X-ray system in which one or more
X-ray paths (primary as well as secondary) are not fully enclosed.

**Open installation:** An industrial X-ray installation that, because of
operational requirements or temporary needs, cannot be provided with the
inherent degree of protection specified for other classes of industrial
installations. Generally mobile or portable equipment where fixed
shielding cannot be effectively used.

**Port:** In this context, an opening on the outside surface of the
cabinet that is designed to remain open during X-ray production for the
purpose of moving material to be irradiated into and out of the cabinet,
or for partial insertion of an object that will not fit inside the
cabinet.

**Primary beam:** The X-radiation emitted directly from the target and
passing through the window of the X-ray tube.

**Primary radiation:** Radiation coming directly from the target of the
X-ray tube or from the sealed source.

**Quality factor:** An energy-dependent dimensionless factor by which
absorbed dose is to be multiplied to obtain, on a common scale for all
ionizing radiations, the magnitude of radiation effects likely to be
incurred by exposed persons. The quality factor for X-rays, gamma rays,
and most beta particles is 1.0.

**Rad (radiation absorbed dose):** The unit of absorbed dose. One rad
equals 100 ergs per gram.

**Radiation Area:** Any area accessible to individuals in which
radiation levels could result in an individual receiving a deep dose
equivalent in excess of 0.005 rem (0.05 millisievert) in 1 hour at 30
centimeters from the source or from any surface that the radiation
penetrates. (10 CFR 835.2(a)).

**Radiation source:** A device or a material that is capable of emitting
ionizing radiation.

**Radiological worker:** A general employee whose job assignment
involves operation of radiation- producing devices or working with
radioactive materials, or who is likely to be routinely occupationally
exposed above 0.1 rem per year total effective dose
equivalent. (10 CFR 835.2(a))

**Radiological control technician (RCT):** Any person who is actively
engaged in or who has completed facility-specific RCT training and
qualification programs.

**Rem (roentgen equivalent man):** The unit of dose equivalence used for
humans, which considers the biological effects of different types of
radiation. The dose equivalent in rem is numerically equal to the
absorbed dose in rad multiplied by the applicable quality factor.

**Roentgen (R):** The unit of exposure. One roentgen equals 2.58 x
10^-4^ coulomb per kilogram of air.

**Scattered radiation:** Radiation that has been deviated in direction
as a result of interaction with matter and has usually been reduced in
energy.

**Secondary radiation:** Radiation (electrons, X-rays, gamma rays, or
neutrons) produced by the interaction of primary radiation with matter.

**Shielding:** Attenuating material used to reduce the transmission of
radiation. The two general types of shielding are primary and secondary.
Primary shielding is material sufficient to attenuate the useful beam to
the required level. Secondary shielding is material sufficient to
attenuate stray radiation to the required level.

**Shielded installation:** An industrial X-ray installation in which the
source of radiation and all objects exposed to that source are within a
permanent enclosure.

**Skyshine:** Radiation emerging from a shielded enclosure which then
scatters off air molecules to increase radiation levels at some distance
from the outside of the shield.

**Stem radiation:** X-rays given off from parts of the anode other than
the target, particularly from the target support.

**Stray radiation:** Radiation other than the useful beam. It includes
leakage and scattered radiation.

**Survey:** An evaluation of the radiological conditions and potential
hazards incident to the production, use, transfer, release, disposal, or
presence of radioactive material or other sources of radiation. When
appropriate, such an evaluation includes a physical survey of the
location of radioactive material and measurements or calculations of
levels of radiation, or concentrations or quantities of radioactive
material present. (10 CFR 835.2(a)).

**System barrier:** The portion of an X-ray installation that clearly
defines the transition from a Controlled Area to a Radiation Area and
provides such shielding as may be required to limit the dose rate in the
Controlled Area during normal operation.

**Tenth-value layer (TVL):** The thickness of a specified substance
that, when introduced into a beam of radiation, reduces the dose rate to
one-tenth of the original value. One TVL is equivalent to 3.3 HVLs.

**Unattended installation:** An industrial installation that consists of
equipment designed and manufactured for a specific purpose and that does
not require personnel in attendance for its operation.

**Units:** In accordance with 10 CFR 835.4, for all radiological units,
the quantities used for records required by 10 CFR 835 shall be the
curie (Ci), rad or rem. SI units, Becquerel (Bq), gray (Gy), and sievert
(Sv) may be included parenthetically for reference to scientific
standards, but are not authorized for required records. To convert
conventional radiation units to SI units, the following factors are
used:

> 1 rad = 0.01 gray (Gy)
>
> 1 rem = 0.01 sievert (Sv)
>
> 1 Ci = 3.7 X 10^10^ Bq

**Use factor:** The fraction of the workload during which the useful
beam is pointed in the direction under consideration.

**Useful beam:** The part of the primary and secondary radiation that
passes through the aperture, cone, or other device used for collimation.

**Very High Radiation Area:** Any area accessible to individuals in
which radiation levels could result in an individual receiving an
absorbed dose in excess of 500 rads (5 grays) in 1 hour at 1 meter from
a radiation source or from any surface that the radiation penetrates
(10 CFR 835.2(a)).

**Warning label:** A label affixed to the X-ray device that provides
precautions and special conditions of use.

**Workload:** A measure, in suitable units, of the amount of use of
radiation equipment. For the purpose of this standard, the workload is
expressed in milliampere-minutes per week for X-ray sources and in
roentgens per week at 1 meter from the source for gamma-ray sources and
high-energy equipment (such as linear accelerators, betatrons, etc.).

**X-ray accessory apparatus:** Any portion of an X-ray installation that
is external to the radiation source housing and into which an X‑ray beam
is directed for making X-ray measurements or for other uses.

**X-Ray Device Control Office:** A team that establishes X-ray device
program requirements and standards, provides X-ray device radiation
protection consultation, and serves as the central point of contact for
the management/control of X-ray devices. This function may have a
facility-specific name.

**X-ray device custodian:** A person designated by line management as
responsible for specific X-ray devices. This individual is responsible
for designating the operators of specific X-ray devices, arranging for
the operators to attend X-ray safety training, assisting in the
development and maintenance of the X-ray device SOP, familiarizing
operators with the X‑ray device SOP, maintaining records of operator
training and safety interlock checks, serving as the point of contact
for the line organization\'s X-ray devices, and coordinating surveys
with the X-Ray Device Control Office. An X-ray device custodian may also
be an X‑ray device operator.

**X-ray device operator:** An individual designated in writing by the
X-ray-device custodian and qualified by training and experience to
operate a specific X-ray device.

**X-ray diffraction:** The scattering of X-rays by matter with
accompanying variation in intensity in different directions due to
interference effects.

**X-ray installation:** One or more X-ray systems, the surrounding room
or controlled area, and the installation enclosure.

**X-ray power supply:** The portion of an X-ray device that generates
the accelerating voltage and current for the X-ray tube.

**X-ray source housing:** An enclosure directly surrounding an X-ray
tube that provides attenuation of the radiation emitted by the X-ray
tube. The X-ray source housing typically has an aperture through which
the useful beam is transmitted.

**X-ray system:** An assemblage of components for the controlled
generation of X-rays.

**X-ray tube:** An electron tube that is designed for the conversion of
electrical energy to X‑ray energy.

**X-ray tube assembly:** An array of components typically including the
cathode, anode, X‑ray target, and electron-accelerating components
within a vacuum.

*This page intentionally blank.*

**CONCLUDING MATERIAL**

> **Review Activity: Preparing Activity:**
>
> [DOE]{.underline} [Operations Offices]{.underline} [Field
> Offices]{.underline} DOE-HS-11
>
> DP AL RFFO
>
> HSS CH OH **Project Number:**
>
> EM ID GFO 6910-0057
>
> NE NV
>
> NN OR
>
> ER RL
>
> OAK
>
> SR
>
> [National Laboratories]{.underline} [Area Offices]{.underline}
>
> BNL Amarillo Area Office
>
> LLNL Ashtabula Area Office
>
> LANL Carlsbad Area Office
>
> PNNL Columbus Area Office
>
> Sandia Fernald Area Office
>
> FNL Los Alamos Area Office
>
> SRNL West Valley Area Office
>
> Kirtland Area Office
>
> Pinellas Area Office
>
> Kansas City Area Office
>
> Miamisburg Area Office