REPUBLIC OF KENYA

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######### DRAFT

**NATIONAL POLICY**

**FOR THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF ARID AND SEMI ARID LANDS**

**OF KENYA**

######### DECEMBER 2004 

######### TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

[LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS v](#list-of-abbreviations)

[EXECUTIVE SUMMARY vi](#executive-summary)

[CHAPTER 1: POLICY GUIDELINES FOR THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF ASALS
1](#chapter-1-policy-guidelines-for-the-sustainable-development-of-asals)

[1.1 Background 1](#background)

[1.2 Trend Analysis 2](#trend-analysis)

[1.3 Policy Objectives 5](#policy-objectives)

[1.4 Policy Guidelines for ASAL Development
5](#policy-guidelines-for-asal-development)

[1.5 Cross-cutting Development Issues
10](#cross-cutting-development-issues)

[1.6 A Positive Policy Matrix for Kenya's ASALs
12](#a-positive-policy-matrix-for-kenyas-asals)

[CHAPTER 2: RATIONALE FOR FORMULATING AN ASAL DEVELOPMENT POLICY
14](#chapter-2-rationale-for-formulating-an-asal-development-policy)

[2.1 Past Policies and their Inadequacies
14](#past-policies-and-their-inadequacies)

[2.2 The Need for "Special" Treatment of the ASALs of Kenya
16](#the-need-for-special-treatment-of-the-asals-of-kenya)

[2.3 Linkages with Other GoK Policies
18](#linkages-with-other-gok-policies)

[CHAPTER 3: ASAL RESOURCE BASE AND LIVELIHOOD SYSTEMS
20](#chapter-3-asal-resource-base-and-livelihood-systems)

[3.1 The ASAL Districts 20](#the-asal-districts)

[3.2 Natural Capital 22](#natural-capital)

[3.3 Physical Capital 23](#physical-capital)

[3.4 Social Capital 23](#social-capital)

[3.5 Financial Capital 23](#financial-capital)

[3.6 Human Capital 23](#human-capital)

[3.7 Livelihood Systems 24](#livelihood-systems)

[3.8 Significant Cross-cutting Issues in ASAL Livelihood Systems
26](#significant-cross-cutting-issues-in-asal-livelihood-systems)

[CHAPTER 4: PRIORITY SECTORS FOR INVESTMENT
28](#chapter-4-priority-sectors-for-investment)

[4.1 Investment in Arid Districts 28](#investment-in-arid-districts)

[4.2 Investment in Semi arid districts and in Districts with Pockets of
ASAL
39](#investment-in-semi-arid-districts-and-in-districts-with-pockets-of-asal)

[CHAPTER 5: POLICY IMPLEMENTATION FRAMEWORK
42](#chapter-5-policy-implementation-framework)

[5.1 Overview of Policy Implementation
42](#overview-of-policy-implementation)

[5.2 Framework for Policy Implementation
43](#framework-for-policy-implementation)

[5.3 Policy Guidelines to Facilitate Implementation
45](#policy-guidelines-to-facilitate-implementation)

[5.4 Principles for Policy Implementation
46](#principles-for-policy-implementation)

[5.5 A Suggested Approach to Provision of Services in the ASALs
47](#a-suggested-approach-to-provision-of-services-in-the-asals)

[5.6 Challenge of Implementation Capacity
48](#challenge-of-implementation-capacity)

[5.7 Proposed Points of Institutional Arrangements for Policy
Implementation
49](#proposed-points-of-institutional-arrangements-for-policy-implementation)

[CHAPTER 6: INVESTMENT PROPOSALS 51](#chapter-6-investment-proposals)

[6.1 Resource Mobilization 51](#resource-mobilization)

[6.2 Investment Priorities 52](#investment-priorities)

# 

##### LIST OF TABLES

[Table 1: Positive Policy Matrix for Kenya's ASALs
12](#__RefHeading___Toc90953651)

[Table 2: ASAL Districts Classified by Extent of Aridity
20](#__RefHeading___Toc90953652)

[Table 3: Characteristics of ASALs Based on Agro-Ecological Zones
22](#__RefHeading___Toc90953653)

[Table 4: Livestock Population in Kenya 24](#__RefHeading___Toc90953654)

[Table 5: Summary Matrix for ASAL Investment Plan (2005--2014) -- Arid
Districts 54](#__RefHeading___Toc90953655)

[Table 6: Summary Matrix for ASAL Investment Plan (2004-2013) -- Semi
Arid Districts 56](#__RefHeading___Toc90953656)

[Table 7: Government Investment Proposals for ASALs (Billion Kshs)
60](#__RefHeading___Toc90953657)

**FOREWORD**

This policy document focuses on the revitalisation of the Arid and
Semi-arid Lands (ASALs) of Kenya. ASALs constitute about 80% of the
country's land mass, host about 10 million people and approximately 70%
of the national livestock herd. The document signifies government
commitment to the development of ASALs taking cognisance of the fact
that **Kenya will not achieve sustained growth in her national economy
as long as the ASALs and their enormous resources are not factored into
effective national planning and development**. The policy document has
been developed through a participatory consultative process that marks a
major departure from similar past endeavours aimed at improving ASALs.
It outlines priorities and measures necessary to bring about sustainable
development in the ASALs that have in the past been associated only with
poverty and need. It underscores the importance of the ASALs to the rest
of Kenya's economy and identifies areas where the ASALs contribute
significantly to the country's development.

For far too long, ASALs have been marginalized. There is no coherent
pastoral development policy in Kenya. Previously, pastoralist
development issues were articulated in other policies such as the one
for agriculture and livestock development, and tourism. This has
resulted in the relegation of pastoralist development issues to second
place. The piece-meal approach to ASAL policy formulation has introduced
inconsistencies and challenges in policy implementation to the detriment
of ASAL development. There is therefore need to amalgamate the scattered
policies into a single unified and coherent framework for revitalising
ASALs to enhance their contribution to the national economy. Previous
policies aimed at revitalising ASALs were drafted with a degree of bias
against pastoralism as a viable and sustainable way of life. Emphasis
was put on sedentarization of nomadic pastoralists with a strong focus
toward crop farming. Because such policies were mainly top-down,
discriminative and unconsultative, they often failed, making ASALs to be
considered generally unproductive and net consumers of the "national
cake". Yet, these areas have enormous economic potential in livestock
production, mining, tourism and biodiversity. This new policy framework
is expected to help tap the enormous potential of ASALs with the aim of
easing the burgeoning poverty in these areas.

When the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC) took over the reigns of power
in December 2002, it committed itself to reduce poverty through wealth
and employment creation. The government regrets previous development
approaches that marginalized and impoverished people in arid and semi
arid areas. To reverse the current negative trends in ASALs, and indeed
in the rest of the country, enormous financial and human resources will
be needed. The NARC government, in partnership with development
partners, the civil society and the private sector, will look for and
invest public resources in the ASALs in order to fight poverty to uplift
the living standards of the people that inhabit these areas. At the time
of our independence in 1963, poverty, ignorance and disease were
identified as the main enemies of Kenya's social and economic
development. With over forty years of self-rule, it is regrettable that
this "unholy trinity" still continues to ravage a large proportion of
our population. Today, over 50% of Kenya's population lives below the
poverty line, that is, they thrive on less than a dollar a day. In
ASALs, home to the poorest of the poor, over 60% of the population lives
below the poverty line. Inequality is high and rising in our society. It
is amazing that 10% of our population controls 42% of the country's
wealth. The need to tackle structural poverty in our society is
therefore more urgent than ever before. Every sector of our economy is
therefore called upon to integrate poverty reduction measures to provide
a decent standard of living for our people.

Government commitment and attitude towards ASALs has now changed. In
order to utilize the enormous economic potential in ASALs, the
Government will implement poverty reduction strategies through changes
in resource distribution and fighting disasters such as droughts,
floods, conflicts and HIV/AIDS among other conditions that undermine
development. Indeed, past lessons show that growth policies did not
yield expected results since they were not accompanied by effective
resource distributional measures. Resource re-distribution will be
achieved by enhancing equity and access to economic resources by
providing viable incentives to the poor, small-scale producers,
pastoralists as well as traders. This policy has therefore the twin
objective of poverty reduction and economic growth.

On behalf of the Government, I wish to thank all our development
partners and our key stakeholders that have participated in the
formulation of this policy. Of special mention is the United Nation
Development Programme (UNDP) and other UN agencies, public universities
of Nairobi, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology,
Kenyatta and Moi; research institutions such as KARI and ICRAF, the
private sector, civil society organizations such as Oxfam GB and East
African Wildlife Society, religious organizations, women, youth, and the
poor in the Arid and Semi Arid districts, just to mention but a few. I
invite all Kenyans to play their part, both at the individual and
collective levels, to ensure that the new vision espoused in this
document will be realized not only for the benefit of the ASAL
population but also for equitable and sustainable development of our
country.

**Hon. James N. Karume, EGH, MP**

**[MINISTER OF STATE FOR SPECIAL PROGRAMMES]{.underline}**

# LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

  ----------- -----------------------------------------------------------
  AEZ         Agro-Ecological Zone

  ALRMP       Arid Lands Resource Management Project

  ASAL        Arid and Semi Arid Land

  AU-IBAR     African Union -- Inter-Africa Bureau for Animal Resources

  CAPE        Community-based Animal Health and Participatory
              Epidemiology

  CBO         Community Based Organisation

  CBPP        Contagious Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia

  CCPP        Contagious Caprine Pleuro Pneumonia

  DDC         District Development Committee

  DFRD        District Focus for Rural Development

  DSG         District Steering Group

  FEWS-NET    Famine Early Warning System Network

  FMD         Foot and Mouth Disease

  GDP         Gross Domestic Product

  GoK         Government of Kenya

  ERSWEC      Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment
              Creation

  EU          European Union

  HIV/AIDS    Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency
              Syndrome

  ICRAF       International Council for Research in Agro-forestry

  IGAD        Intergovernmental Authority on Development

  ILRI        International Livestock Research Institute

  IRI         Interactive Radio Instruction

  KARI        Kenya Agricultural Research Institute

  KEFRI       Kenya Forestry Research Institute

  KEMFRI      Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute

  KEPI        Kenya Expanded Plan for Immunization

  Km          Kilometre

  Kshs        Kenya Shillings

  KFSM        Kenya Food Security Steering Meeting

  KVA         Kenya Veterinary Association

  KVB         Kenya Veterinary Board

  MDGs        Millennium Development Goals

  MTEF        Medium Term Expenditure Framework

  NARC        National Rainbow Coalition

  NEMA        National Environmental Management Authority

  NGO         Non-governmental Organisation

  NPEP        National Poverty Eradication Plan

  OIE         International Office of Epizootics

  PRSP        Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper

  PIP         Programme Implementation Plan

  SPS         Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary

  UNDP        United Nations Development Program

  VCT         Voluntary Counselling and Testing
  ----------- -----------------------------------------------------------

# EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Arid and Semi Arid Lands (ASALs) of the world make up over 40% of
the earth's surface on which over one billion people depend for their
livelihoods. ASALs are home to the world's poorest and most marginalized
people. In Kenya, the ASALs occupy over 80% of the country and host
about 10 million people. These areas have the lowest development
indicators and the highest incidence of poverty. Over 60% of ASAL
inhabitants live below the poverty line (subsisting on one dollar per
day). The ratio of livestock to human population continues to decline;
droughts, conflicts and household food insecurity are common features.
Many development analysts have argued in the past that pastoral
production is not economically rational while nomadic livestock
management systems are environmentally destructive yet this is the main
livelihood strategy in these areas. That ASALs cannot sustain themselves
and do not contribute substantially to the national economy. The
prescribed solution has been to introduce more efficient and "modern
systems", such as ranches and irrigation schemes, with the Government
putting most of its resources into high rainfall areas where human
population is high and returns to investment are deemed to be better.

The argument for poor returns on investment in arid districts is not
based on sound socio-economic analysis. It stems from lack of
understanding of the livelihood strategies and production systems in
ASALs. The ASALs host about 70% of the national livestock population
with an estimated value of about Kshs 70 billion. They are also home to
over 90% of wild game that supports our tourist industry. Pastoralism
provides direct employment and livelihood to over three million Kenyans.
ASALs have an enormous potential for mineral exploitation. For example,
soda ash mining in Lake Magadi contributes substantial revenue to the
exchequer and employment opportunities. Moreover, the symbiotic
interaction between wildlife and pastoralism, coupled with the rich
cultural heritage of pastoral and agro-pastoral communities, is a major
tourist attraction. In the past, this has earned Kenya in excess of Kshs
50 billion annually.

Although there is great potential for ASAL development in Kenya, the
current picture is rather grim. Droughts and conflicts still
significantly affect both lives and livelihoods in these areas. Losses
and wastage of the livestock resource through disease, death and theft
still continues. As a result, Kenya is no longer self-sufficient in red
meat production. In fact, the local market for beef considerably relies
on cattle imports from Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan and Tanzania due to
inadequate local production. Export trade in hides and skins has
declined considerably mid 1980s partly due to inadequate local livestock
production and a host of other factors such as poor prices and high cost
of transportation due to a dilapidated road network. In addition, rising
population in the midst of a declining natural resource base poses a
great challenge for the sustainability of ASALs. The HIV/AIDS pandemic
which was previously insignificant in ASALs is now eroding past gains in
social and economic development in these areas.

The future of ASALs need not be painted so bleak. These areas have
enormous resources that can be harnessed not only to sustain themselves
but also to contribute to national economic development. What has been
lacking for years is adequate attention to the ASALs, a proper
understanding of the needs and potential of ASAL communities coupled
with lack of a deliberate political commitment to invest in these areas.
This policy document, prepared through an intensive participatory and
consultative process with relevant stakeholders, provides a vision and a
practical framework for achieving multiple developmental objectives in
the ASALs. It provides a vital link between public policy and the
socio-economic needs of ASAL communities. It offers an opportunity for
the Government and other stakeholders (including the ASAL communities
themselves) to realize sustainable development for the well-being of the
ASAL population. This new vision of hope and prosperity recognises that
the interdependence between ASAL and non-ASAL socio-economic systems is
the main driver for sustainable development.

In this policy document, the development strategy in the ASALs is
envisioned under three perspectives: the short-term (5 years), the
medium-term (10-15 years) and the long-term (25-30 years). In the short
term, this policy envisages that the needs of poor people in the ASALs
will be reflected in all national policy and planning frameworks, that
the vulnerability of poor people to climatic shocks, particularly
droughts and floods, will be reduced and capacities strengthened to
respond to climate change, and, that ASAL inhabitants benefit from
systems of good local governance. In the medium term, the policy
envisages that attracting sustained investments by government, the
private sector and development partners in various priority areas such
as physical infrastructure, livestock production and marketing, water
resources development, education and human capital development, health,
tourism, trade and industry. In the long-term, the government envisions
a vibrant ASAL economy that has strong linkages with non-ASAL economic
systems and contributes significantly to national economic development.

In order for this vision to be realized, there is need to address the
following key policy issues:

-   Restructure the ASAL economy over time to conform with a neo-liberal
    economic thinking so that key inputs are accessed through the market
    as opposed to kinship and social networks as is the case today;

-   Reduce reliance on livestock through human capital development and
    diversification of sources of income;

-   Improving natural resource management and utilisation by reviewing
    existing land use policies and land tenure systems;

-   Improving pastoral productivity by conservation of the environment,
    domestic animal genetic resources and other biodiversity;

-   Improving markets and providing social services to mobile
    pastoralists;

-   Providing financial services to nomadic pastoralists;

-   Reducing and managing risks such as droughts and floods that often
    reduce assets and increase food insecurity.

In order to address these issues, investment will be made to improve the
road infrastructure and communication network in order to minimise
transaction costs in production, trade and business. Efforts will be
made to add value to ASAL products at source. This will be done through
the establishment of abattoirs, rural dairies and small leather
processing factories. Crop farming and livestock production will be
strengthened through dissemination of improved technologies in water
harvesting, irrigation, range management, livestock disease control,
livestock and crop-based marketing as well as through the revitalization
of extension services. Provision of social services such as education
and health will be improved. Development of skills through vocational
training, gender equity and the fight against HIV/AIDS will be given
priority. Conflicts will be minimized through support and promotion of
peace initiatives.

Private sector investment will be encouraged in productive sectors,
e.g., tourism, mining and agro-processing, improvement of road
infrastructure and security in tourist destinations particularly game
parks, and increasing compensation for human/livestock/crop losses or
injuries/damage to reduce human-wildlife conflicts. In addition, the
government will encourage the sharing benefits of the tourism industry
between stakeholders and local communities through promotion of
community-based eco-tourism projects such as lodges, camping sites and
recreation centres. Governance structures, development planning and
government financial support systems will be devolved to the lowest
level of local government in to order increase participation of ASAL
communities in development management. It is hoped that this will result
in faster decision-making, transparency and accountability in the use of
resources earmarked for ASAL development. Where assistance networks will
collapse as a result of disasters such as drought and floods, government
relief will be provided through appropriate, timely and effective
interventions.

The Government proposes to spend Kshs 217 billion (or 10% of
government's annual revenue) on ASAL development over the next ten
years. Assuming the remaining 36 non-ASAL districts also require a
similar amount, this will total to only 20% of the total government
revenue. Even if the remaining 80% of the revenue were spent on
recurrent expenditure, the Government would have gone a long way in
making substantial investment to improve the productive capacity of this
country. Based on the interest the donor community and the UN agencies
have shown in the formulation of this policy, it is likely that external
support will be forthcoming to complement government funding. There is
therefore a window of opportunity and a ray of hope that can only
materialise if government's commitment to ASAL development remains
steadfast. The government counts on the participation of all Kenyans and
development partners to help realise the objectives spelt out in this
policy document to reduce poverty through sustained economic growth and
improvement in social well being for all.

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# CHAPTER 1: POLICY GUIDELINES FOR THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF ASALS

## 1.1 Background

This policy document has been formulated through a participatory and
consultative process, which has been spearheaded by Arid Lands resource
Management Project and United Nations Development Programme. The process
has involved relevant stakeholders including government departments,
research institutions (ILRI, ICRAF, IPAR, KARI, KEMRI, KEFRI, KEMFRI),
UN agencies, local and international NGOs, religious organizations,
national and regional programme representatives (FEWS-NET and African
Union's IBAR Programme), universities and bilateral donor agencies. The
objective of the policy is **to provide a coherent and practical
framework for the implementation and realization of a new vision for
ASAL development in Kenya**. The document has been prepared based on an
intensive and extensive review of existing policies and information, in
order to ensure that it is in harmony with existing strategies and
policies in all the relevant sectors of Kenya's economy. The target
audience of this document is those in government departments as well as
development partners with the responsibility of formulating policies and
allocating resources for development and aid. The document consists of
six chapters. This first chapter provides an overview of the policy
guidelines that will facilitate the effective implementation of
development and aid programmes aimed at bringing about sustainable
development in the ASALs. The second chapter gives the rationale for
formulating a new ASAL development policy. The third chapter presents
the resource base in the ASALs and describes the different livelihood
systems. The fourth chapter outlines priority sectors for intervention
while the fifth chapter focuses on the policy implementation framework
and strategy. The sixth and final chapter presents investment proposals
prepared by different government ministries that will be supported
through the Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) and Government's
financial disbursement system.

In September 2000, the Heads of State and Government of the entire world
gathered in New York and signed the Millennium Declaration that
committed rich and poor countries to work together to eliminate poverty,
hunger and disease by 2015. This declaration, dubbed the **Millennium
Development Goals** (MDGs), have eight overall goals and specific
targets to measure the development against:

+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| **Millennium Development Goals** | **Target**                        |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Eradicate extreme poverty and    | Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the |
| hunger                           | proportion of people whole income |
|                                  | is less than one dollar a day.    |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the |
|                                  | proportion of people that suffer  |
|                                  | from hunger.                      |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Achieve universal primary        | Ensure that, by 2015, children    |
| education                        | everywhere, boys and girls alike, |
|                                  | will be able to complete a full   |
|                                  | course of primary schooling.      |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Promote gender equality and      | Eliminate gender disparity in     |
| empower women                    | primary and secondary education   |
|                                  | preferably by 2005 and in all     |
|                                  | levels of education no later than |
|                                  | 2015.                             |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| [Reduce child                    | Reduce by two thirds, between     |
| mortality](http://www.developme  | 1990 and 2015, the under          |
| ntgoals.com/Child_Mortality.htm) | five-mortality rate.              |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Improve maternal health          | Reduce by three-quarters, between |
|                                  | 1990 and 2015, the maternal       |
|                                  | mortality ratio                   |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and     | Have halted by 2015 and begun to  |
| other diseases                   | reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS.   |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | Have halted by 2015, and begun to |
|                                  | reverse the incidence of malaria  |
|                                  | and other major diseases.         |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Ensure environmental             | Integrate the principles of       |
| sustainability                   | sustainable development into      |
|                                  | country policies and programmes   |
|                                  | and reverse the loss of           |
|                                  | environmental resources.          |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | Halve, by 2015, the proportion of |
|                                  | people without sustainable access |
|                                  | to safe drinking water.           |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | Have achieved, by 2020,           |
|                                  | significant improvement in the    |
|                                  | lives of at least 100 million     |
|                                  | slum dwellers.                    |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Develop a global partnership for | In cooperation with developing    |
| development                      | countries, develop and employment |
|                                  | strategies for decent and         |
|                                  | productive work for youth.        |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | In cooperation with the private   |
|                                  | sector, make available the        |
|                                  | benefits of new technologies,     |
|                                  | especially information and        |
|                                  | communication.                    |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

Many of the challenges to achieving these MDGs, especially in the Third
World, and more specifically in Kenya, are at their most acute in the
arid and semi arid areas. Because of their fragile ecosystems,
inconsistent development policies and historical marginalization, these
areas have lagged behind in terms of socio-economic development. Today,
ASALs have the highest incidence of poverty in Kenya. The current state
of the ASALs presents a major development challenge for the Government
due to the enormous resources required in an environment of a poorly
performing economy. This policy reflects the Government's commitment to
overcome this challenge and is aimed at reversing the negative trends
prevailing in the ASALs in order to uplift the socio-economic welfare of
ASAL inhabitants.

## **1.2 Trend Analysis**

It is useful to compare trends based on the current situation in the
ASALs with an alternative future scenario in order to illustrate the
potential that exists if appropriate policies, attitudes and commitment
among policy makers and other stakeholders are institutionalised. Two
scenarios are used to illustrate the point (i) baseline scenario and
(ii) alternative scenario

1.  **Baseline scenario**

The current situation in the ASALs is characterised by inappropriate
policy designed with little regard for the unique features of livelihood
systems in the ASALs. Due to cultural, economic, political and social
barriers, ASAL communities have lacked a 'voice' to be adequately
represented in national affairs. The result has been that they remain
peripheral to national development and investment. Forty years of post
independence development have seen greater social differentiation and a
widening gap between the rich and the poor to the effect that 10% of the
population control 42% of the country's wealth. In addition, in the
ASALs, social services are not adequately provided to the population.
All social development indicators (income, health and educational
status) fall far behind those of the rest of the country.

Traditional land rights are currently not being respected and greater
pressure is being exerted on the natural resource base (pasture and
water resources) as populations increase (both human and livestock). At
the same time, the pressure on land is increasing due to loss of access
to grazing as land is taken for cultivation, conservation areas and
state use. The net effect is increased social insecurity and conflict in
which the more vulnerable in society are the hardest hit. The rights of
women and other minority groups continue to be abused.

There remains a general lack of investment (both public and private) in
infrastructure, economic development, access to markets with few
opportunities for diversification and the absorption of surplus labour.
The resource poor households in ASALs have become even more marginalized
and vulnerable to drought and floods, losing their productive assets and
becoming increasingly more dependent upon external humanitarian aid. If
this situation persists, overall growth of the national economy will be
grossly slowed down and efforts aimed at meeting the MDGs, to which the
Kenya Government is committed, will be undermined. Poverty, food
insecurity, unemployment, conflicts, an unskilled and rising human
population with a dwindling natural resource base will continue to
characterize the ASALs. However, such a situation can be reversed with
commitment and political will.

### Alternative scenario

A future situation can be envisioned where a new coherent long-term
vision to remedy the ASALs from past impediments and failures is
facilitated through an enabling policy. This vision would incorporate a
framework for social cohesion, economic development, the development of
physical infrastructure and the enhancement of good governance through
devolved decision-making and development planning. By implementing this
policy, the following results would be realized, at least in the next
15-20 years:

-   **The needs of the poor people in the ASALs are reflected in
    national policy and planning frameworks;**

-   **The vulnerability of poor people to climatic shocks, particularly
    to droughts and floods, are reduced, and capacities strengthened to
    respond to the effects of climate change;**

-   **People in the ASALs benefit from systems of good governance;**

-   **The private sector investment increase with decreasing insecurity
    and improved physical infrastructure; and,**

-   **ASAL communities take full charge of managing their natural
    resource base and have a voice and sufficient say on land tenure and
    resource utilisation issues that impact on their lives.**

The strategy for this new vision of 'hope' is 'connectedness'. This
incorporates:

-   Social cohesion that narrows the gap between the rich and the poor,
    i.e., the poor in our community get assisted;

-   Economic development - a series of rural service centres provides
    both wealth creation and employment opportunities;

-   Physical infrastructure development - a network of roads,
    telecommunications, rural schools, health facilities and water and
    sanitation systems to reduce transaction costs in business and
    trade; among other benefits;

-   Partnerships between government, development partners, the civil
    society, local communities and the private sector in ASAL
    development;

-   Political leadership - goodwill and good governance such that the
    local people's views are listened to and incorporated into
    development planning and decisions on allocation of resources are
    gradually devolved to the grassroots.

This alternative scenario brings people together in contributing to
harness the human and physical resource potential of the ASALs such that
communities in ASALs realize their social economic potential as a result
of an enabling political and economic investment environment that
supports sustainable development. This new vision is based upon the
values of respect and the 'active' participation of all stakeholders
with:

-   A better understanding of pastoralist livelihood systems;

-   The acceptance of mobile herding systems as a rational, economically
    viable and efficient use of dry land resources;

-   Engaging ASAL communities in policy reform and the enhancement of
    participatory governance;

-   Encouraging stakeholders and policy makers to undertake
    participatory policy research and analysis in the ASALs;

-   Decentralized services from Provincial/District administrative
    centres such that they are available, accessible and affordable to
    rural and urban users;

-   Decision-making is devolved to the grass roots with the
    corresponding need to strengthen these local institutions and
    organisations;

-   Strategic public and private investments based on geographical areas
    with similar livelihood systems; and,

-   Allocation of resources supports problem-oriented interventions
    based on participatory needs assessments.

## 1.3 Policy Objectives 

In accordance with the national goal to create wealth, employment,
attain household food security and to achieve economic recovery, the
central objective of this policy is t**o improve the standard of living
of the ASAL population by appropriately integrating ASALs into the
mainstream national economy and social development in an environmentally
sustainable manner.** This policy is formulated in order to provide a
framework for a coherent approach to ASAL development that is informed
by a new understanding of the different livelihood systems and causes of
poverty in these areas. It is also based on experiences and lessons
learnt since the 1980s in order to identify critical areas and sectors
where investment will immediately stimulate economic growth and
capital/asset accumulation such that wealth is created, poverty and
long-term vulnerability to insecurity and disasters are significantly
reduced over the next 10-15 years. Considerable effort has been made to
re-align and closely fine-tune this policy document with other current
government policy documents.

## 1.4 Policy Guidelines for ASAL Development

The following statements constitute the essential policy guidelines for
the development of the Arid and Semi Arid areas over the next 10-15
years:

***1.4.1 Interdependence with non-ASAL areas:*** The Government
understands that there exists a symbiotic relationship between the
economies of the ASALs and those of the other parts of the country. It
is not possible to realize effective economic growth in the rest of the
country if ASALs are not incorporated into the national development
agenda. For example, the pastoral areas produce livestock and livestock
products demanded in the non-ASALs while higher rainfall areas produce
crop-based products that are demanded in the ASALs. In recognition of
this complimentarity, the government will facilitate the development of
strong linkages between ASAL and non-ASAL economies by developing
communication infrastructure such as telephone services, the road
network and information sharing networks that will provide easy access
to ASALs and closer interaction between people in terms of trade,
tourism, cultural values and overall socio-economic development.

***1.4.2 Substantial investments required to tap the potential in the
ASALs**:* The ASALs have enormous resources, ranging from human capital,
wildlife, minerals, livestock, etc. With proper policies and development
approaches, these resources provide a basis for improved lives and
livelihoods in these areas and could significantly contribute to the
country\'s economic recovery and growth. The Government recognizes that
the solution to underdevelopment, the high incidence of poverty among
ASAL populations, household food insecurity, declining natural resource
base, insecurity and the high vulnerability of ASAL communities to
disasters such as droughts and floods lies in addressing the root causes
of structural poverty and long-term societal vulnerability to disasters
and livelihood shocks. In view of this, the Government will adopt a
long-term development approach in the ASALs as opposed to implementing
piecemeal short-term donor-funded relief and development projects that
are often triggered by disasters such as droughts and floods.

***1.4.3 Providing an enabling environment**:* While the Government will
provide an enabling environment for development, it is the
responsibility of the communities themselves to chart out their own
development agenda because they perhaps know what is best for them.
Together with development partners, the Government will provide support
by making substantial investments in public goods and services such as
the improvement of the road network, communication systems, combating
insecurity and livestock thefts, provision of appropriate basic social
services in water, health and education sectors. In addition,
appropriate policy reforms will be instituted in order to safeguard the
benefits that accrue from investments at the local and community levels.

***1.4.4 Community participation in ASAL development**:* Participation
of communities and beneficiaries in the identification, planning,
implementation and evaluation of all kinds of development assistance
projects is essential to ensure that they take greater control and
responsibility of activities and pursue them on a sustainable basis.
Participation does not necessarily restrict itself to beneficiaries of
development projects and/or local communities. These groups should
actively be involved in the identification of felt needs and strategies
for implementation. However, the concept of participation has to be
extended to other actors as well. In its broadest sense, a development
programme has four potential client groups, i.e., beneficiaries/local
communities, the private sector, civil society, including
non-governmental organizations and government. Depending on the scope of
the particular project, participation of these client groups should be
guaranteed during project planning and implementation in order to
achieve sustainable development. The government will encourage the
participation of communities in programmes that affect them. This will
be done through improved local governance and decentralized planning to
ensure that decisions on programmes and resource allocation are made at
the lowest feasible level (e.g. village level) in order to enhance
ownership and sustainability of development activities.

***1.4.5 Decentralized planning**:* There is need to decentralize
development planning to the grassroots level in order to improve
community involvement, participation and ownership of development
programmes that are meant to benefit them. The government will support
and facilitate reforms that will enable appropriate decentralization,
both in terms of planning as well as disbursement of resources meant for
communities. Indeed, decentralised decision-making and planning
mobilises social capital, puts communities in the lead role, empowers
them and enhances transparency and accountability. For example, use of
community-based civil institutions provides an effective vehicle for
rural development and will obtain maximum government support.

6.  ***Diversification of livelihood systems**:* The government
    recognizes the importance of livestock in the lives and livelihood
    systems of pastoralist and agro-pastoralist communities. Pastoral
    and agro-pastoral production systems make efficient use of natural
    resources in the rangelands, other factors not withstanding. These
    production systems are not perfect and have considerable scope for
    improvement. The Government, in partnership with other stakeholders,
    will continue to support pastoralism and agro-pastoralism as viable
    production systems while encouraging diversification of the pastoral
    economy to hedge pastoral livelihoods against vulnerability to
    drought, floods and civil conflicts. Opportunities for
    diversification include value addition in livestock products through
    rural based processing industries; irrigated crop farming, mining,
    fishing, eco-tourism and cottage industries, to name but a few.
    Major interventions will be made in water provision, grazing and
    rangeland management; animal health, genetic improvement of
    livestock and marketing in order to improve livestock productivity.
    Economic diversification will be explored and supported in aspects
    such as processing of animal by-products like hides and skins,
    introduction of other livestock such as poultry and beekeeping,
    ostrich farming and game cropping and domestication and the
    introduction of camels in areas not previously rearing them such as
    Laikipia, Kajiado, Baringo and Narok. Harvesting of natural
    resources such as the *neem* tree and gum Arabic, and gum resins
    such as frankincense and myrrh could have great export potential.

Most of the wildlife-related tourism is in the semi arid and arid
districts. However, expatriates dominate in the in the hotel industry.
County Councils receive part of the entrance fees to parks and rent from
lodges, but not much of it trickles down to individual households.
Neither does it empower them in economic terms to get engaged in
tourism-related business. Campsites, nature walks and tour guiding,
community-run wildlife conservation sites, etc., will be encouraged in
order to improve income sources and strengthen community-based natural
resource and wildlife management capacities. Wild game and other
biodiversity resources in ASALs are a heritage of local communities who
should benefit from them on a high priority ranking since the existence
of such biodiversity depends on the goodwill of the local communities.
Sustainable mineral extraction (such as titanium mining in Kwale
district) will be encouraged and the government will ensure that local
communities adequately benefit from such income generating activities.
The Government in partnership with the civil society and local
authorities will encourage the formation of community development groups
which will oversee the utilisation of funds derived from exploitation of
community assets for the benefit of local communities. Local governance
and leadership issues will be a major focus in the implementation of
this policy strategy.

***1.4.7 Pursuing equitable development***: There exists a huge and
widening gap between the rich and the poor in Kenya. Only about 10% of
the population own 42% of the country's wealth while 10% of the
population compete for only 1% of the country's resources. About 65% of
the ASAL population lives below the poverty line and has very limited
access to basic social services. Government intends to reverse these
negative trends through increased budgetary allocation, streamlining
public and private investment and provision of physical and social
infrastructure as a platform for wealth and employment creation to
enhance economic recovery and growth. This will be done in a
gender-sensitive fashion.

***1.4.8 Local institutional and organizational development**:* There is
need for continuously and systematically stimulating and supporting
processes in which individuals, households and groups organize
themselves around certain common interests or problems, for which they,
based on their own analysis, want to find solutions. Community-based
organizations and institutions are an important ingredient in social
capital formation. They act as a social resource from which communities
derive "social energy" for pursuing and actualising their long-term
development and social goals. Strengthening traditional institutions and
building upon them is a key priority for empowering ASAL communities.
The Government will support the proliferation and development of
community-based organisations such as pastoral associations and farmer
co-operatives in order to mobilise the much needed community-based
institutional capacity, social and economic capital necessary for the
development and growth of the ASAL economy.

***1.4.9 Improving ASAL land tenure and land use policies***: The
Government acknowledges that pastoral life is dependent upon and bound
to livestock. The Land Act (CAP 280, Laws of Kenya) classifies most of
pastoral land under communal ownership whose use is primarily governed
by Customary Land Law. Under this law, every member of the community has
and equal right of access and utilisation of land. No individual can
individually own, sell or alienate the land without the sanctioning of
the community. One of the weaknesses of communal land tenure is that it
does not confer adequate incentives and sanctions for efficient
utilisation and management of common property resources, which leads to
what is commonly referred to as the "tragedy of the commons". This
failure to clearly define property rights has resulted in competition
and rivalry in accessing water and pasture resources. In addition,
loopholes in the land law have been exploited to hive off huge tracts of
land for private use. The government will encourage review of the land
laws as well as discourage the sub-division of group ranches and other
communal land in order to ensure that they remain economically.
Government will develop policy guidelines to halt further encroachment
onto pastoral land except where multiple land uses can be negotiated. In
places where much of the land is cultivated, seasonal transhumance
corridors and livestock access routes to pasture and water will be
mapped, marked and managed. Emergency grazing areas with water will be
gazetted and managed, as do emergency water sources, normally closed but
operated as part of a contingency plan in event of drought.

***1.4.10 Providing services to mobile pastoralists and
agro-pastoralists***: In the past, the Government has used the
difficulty of providing services to nomadic pastoralists as a reason to
encourage sedentary settlement. But the question that should be asked
is: If mobility is a sensible and necessary part of the pastoral
livelihood system, how can the right services be delivered to mobile
populations? A justification for servicing nomads is to encourage them
to stay nomadic and not settle in towns to compete for already scarce
resources and jobs and further erode the environment mainly through
overgrazing and de-vegetation in specific areas. Although many nomadic
herders are now settling and keeping their animals mobile through
children and hired labour, the need to encourage mobility still exists.
Mobility is however, not the only challenge to be solved in delivering
services to nomadic herders. The sparse human population (sometimes as
low as 1-10 persons per square km) means that that there are usually too
few people within the catchment for a primary school or clinic to
provide an economic justification for the facility, even if the
population is sedentary, let alone mobile. The Government is left with
the choice of using scarce funds to provide facilities for a very small
number of nomadic pastoralists or a much larger number of sedentary
people elsewhere. In the semi-arid districts, populations are less
mobile and this is not as big a challenge as in the arid districts.
Nevertheless, these challenges need to be addressed, albeit gradually as
more resources become available.

Recognising the diversity of the conditions in the ASALs, boarding
schools will be supported and pastoral culture inculcated among teachers
and pupils to change their attitudes to regard pastoralism as important.
Despising the nomadic culture by teachers and pupils and the notion of
looking at boarding schools as avenues for transforming nomadic children
into settled adults will be dealt with through proper orientation of
teachers and pupils. The school curriculum will be made much more
relevant to nomadic and pastoral life. Mobile schools will be introduced
and supported as appropriate. The *Duksi* system of education, where
formal education programmes are incorporated into the curriculum of the
mobile *Quranic* schools, will be tried and encouraged where these are
relevant. Other services in the human and livestock health sectors will
combine fixed and mobile facilities and will incorporate local knowledge
and specialization in order to meet the needs of pastoral and
agro-pastoral communities. In the northern parts of the country, mobile
outreach camps, pastoral association drug stores, mobile community
animal health workers and the provision of *bladder* tanks[^1] to
provide water where there is no need to construct permanent water
facilities are a few of the examples of how services could reach the
nomadic groups.

***1.4.11 Financial services for ASAL communities**:* Financial services
are not well developed in the country's ASALs. This is partly because
pastoral mobility is seen as an obstacle to normal banking procedures.
It has been argued that the cash economy is not well developed in the
ASALs. But the large capital investment a household herd owns represents
high risk despite its high potential returns. The high level of
involvement of most pastoralists with the market suggests that financial
services have a key role to play in ASAL development. The Government
will support programmes that seek to offer financial services to ASAL
communities by encouraging the development of appropriate financial
products and management procedures. Insurance schemes that seek to
buffer production against specified environmental hazards such as
droughts or floods will be encouraged. Mechanisms that support the
participation of specific ASAL community groups such as pastoral
associations, herder groups and agro-pastoral farmer groups in taking
responsibility for negotiating, managing and paying back on behalf of
their members will be encouraged.

***1.4.12 Reducing vulnerability to natural hazards:*** ASALs have
marginal and highly variable resources. Thus, droughts are common
phenomena in these areas. Those who utilize these resources face high
risks and uncertainty associated with variable weather. For example,
pastoralists may lose large numbers of livestock due to droughts or
floods, leaving them without the necessary livestock resource base to
rebuild their lives. Kenya has accumulated a considerable body of
knowledge on drought management and food security in the ASALs, mainly
through bilateral programmes, projects and government initiatives. The
Government will employ effective measures through its National Disaster
Management framework in order to ensure that lives are not lost and that
livelihoods are not devastated. The Arid Lands Resource Management
Project (ALRMP) has demonstrated that droughts and floods can be
effectively managed if proper policy and institutional structures are in
place. The Government in conjunction with development partners will
continue to support the drought Early Warning System while mitigation
and risk reduction measures will be implemented based on appropriate
contingency plans. The objective is to reduce the vulnerability of
communities to disasters and to develop their capacities in order to
withstand any subsequent disasters better. Over the next 10 years, all
the 36 districts should be under a national early warning and response
system that aims to improve the management of disasters in the country.
The National Disaster Management Institutional framework already
prepared through a consultative and participatory process of government
and development partners will be implemented with the help of bilateral
partners such as the European Union. A national drought contingency fund
supported by the EU and other donors will be operated alongside the
ALRMP initiatives, with a view to providing timely rapid response funds
at the onset of a drought in order to minimize the need for a full scale
emergency food aid programme.

***1.4.13 Conflict Management:*** In spite of the potential for
sustainable and fruitful livelihoods, violent conflicts, raiding and
clashes over land use continually undermine ASAL livelihoods and wealth
creation. The causes of social conflicts particularly in arid areas
include:

-   limited economic opportunities, poverty, and limited economic
    integration with few economic alternatives to livestock keeping;

-   proliferation of small arms i.e. availability of automatic weaponry
    from macro-level conflict in the region such as the Sudan, Somalia
    etc. leading to increased banditry and making commercial raids of
    livestock more viable. Small arms enable smaller groups of raiders
    to act regardless of community disapproval of raids;

-   unpredictable weather conditions leading to periods of hunger,
    necessitating migration for grazing which increases competition for
    limited water and pasture resources thereby exacerbating conflict;

-   weakened community sanctions on "theft" of cattle and demand for
    bride wealth from youth; and,

-   migrants from the highlands settle as crop farmers in areas (often
    on the best land) previously used for grazing, erect fences that
    block the pastoralists' migration routes and grazing fields.
    Although ASAL populations are well adapted to the harsh physical
    environment, any gains from these adaptations are continually
    undermined by violent conflict and clashes over resources.
    Insecurity causes human suffering and death, provokes spirals of
    revenge attacks and turns large tracts of land into "no-go" areas.
    This hinders the delivery of vital services such as education and
    human and animal health care. Raiding for example has a significant
    impact on animal health because it increases trans-boundary
    epizootic disease transmission and impedes the improvement of
    primary veterinary services and the livelihoods dependent on
    livestock keeping.

The Government, together with other stakeholders, will formulate
coherent approaches to contain and manage violent conflict as well as
promote ways of tackling violent conflicts. Priority areas of
intervention will include:

-   improved coordination and information sharing between the different
    actors on conflict;

-   improved police/civil authority capacity to responds to violent
    conflict;

-   strengthened role for elders in justice and peacekeeping efforts
    with communities; grazing management and negotiation of grazing
    rights with other communities;

-   encourage the formation of village peace committees to mediation of
    violent conflict;

-   promotion of coordinated trans-boundary action on weapons, raiding
    and natural resource management;

-   engender improved understanding of grazing strategies and mobile
    herding and other coping mechanisms; g) increased voice for women
    community members as peace ambassadors: challenging the culture of
    violence among youths; and,

-   provide animal health, access to market services and other
    much-needed services such as water as "peace dividends".

## 1.5 Cross-cutting Development Issues

***1.5.1 Gender and Development in the ASALs:*** Many communities in the
ASALs are in a transition from traditional to a modern way of life. This
transition has a direct bearing on gender and youth roles. For instance,
the traditional roles of men as heads of households/providers and women
as domestic caretakers are changing. Women in ASALs now have a greater
burden to carry out more work and responsibilities than were
traditionally prescribed (e.g. livestock herding). Most female tasks
(e.g. fetching wood and water) have also become more time consuming and
difficult because of the scarcity of resources and environmental
degradation. This policy document aims to improve the imbalance that
exists by creating greater gender equality by empowering women and youth
in decision-making processes and resource management and allocation.
Particular areas of concern include:

***a) Access and Ownership of Resources**:* Generally, more resources
are owned/accessed by men than by women, e.g. land, and livestock, water
facilities and financial resources. The gender imbalance that exists
needs to be re-examined. As development policies such as the subdivision
of communal lands are formulated for ASALs, gender considerations must
be taken into account while still remaining culturally sensitive to
ensure that women (including single mothers, widows and wives of
polygamous households) are given equal rights over land and other
critical natural resources.

***b) Migration and Employment**:* The current trend is that more men
than women seek employment away from home, sometimes outside the ASALs,
thereby heaping women with more responsibilities. In order to improve
the situation, greater economic opportunities for both men and women
will be created in the ASALs through human capital development,
improvement of natural resource management and alternative income
generating activities.

***c) Education**:* The goal of social development must be to provide
equitable access to such basic services as education, health, water,
nutrition, transport and communications, energy, security, etc. The
development of human resources, which is fundamental to achieving
sustainable development, depends on improved literacy and education
levels. The government recognizes that the provision of education and
literacy is a basic need and an essential prerequisite for economic
development. In the ASALs, more boys than girls are enrolled in formal
education. Problems hindering the girl child education include
traditional roles (e.g. helping overburdened mothers with domestic
tasks); high school drop out rates due to early marriage/pregnancy;
household heads' (father/male) attitude towards the education of
daughters and women and low economic and employment opportunities for
women in the ASALs. Capacity building and awareness creation will be
promoted in order to improve the enrolment and education of girls and
women in the ASALs, especially where traditional norms and attitudes
discourage their education. Education facilities for ASAL areas will be
improved with due consideration to pastoralist mobility and gender
roles.

While literacy levels have been rising in the ASALs, the process has
been slow. Over 60% of adults in Turkana and Baringo, for example, are
still illiterate while in Taita-Taveta, the proportion is about 30%.
Training in technical skills forms an important contribution to
development in general and to provision of services in particular. Youth
polytechnics will be revamped in order to enhance the development of
vocational skills in business management, agri-business, carpentry,
building, etc. while adult literacy will be encouraged for both men and
women through the implementation of the renewed policy for the promotion
of adult education. Stimulating and facilitating local community
initiatives for demand-driven programmes that meet specific needs of
people in their own settings and circumstances, in order to ensure
participation will be encouraged. Prospective adult learners will be
persuaded to participate programmes that improve their livelihood.

***1.5.2 HIV/AIDS and other Sexually Transmitted Infections:*** Although
no authoritative figures are available on the status of HIV/AIDS
prevalence among ASAL communities, there is growing evidence that
infection rates are on the increase in general terms. While
North-Eastern Province has as low as 3% infection rates, the urban
centres of other areas such as Kajiado, Samburu, Turkana and West Pokot
have as high as 14-20 % prevalence rates. There are still low levels of
awareness among ASAL communities on the pandemic and the rural --urban
migration of men from the ASALs going into towns to market livestock and
in search of wage employment is a major avenue of infection when they
return to the rural areas. In addition, certain sexual behavioural
practices amongst pastoralist groups, e.g. polygamy, wife inheritance,
unsafe circumcision practices and births (including other accepted
traditional behaviours) and \'truck\' routes through ASAL areas, pose
major risks of contracting the pandemic into areas with otherwise very
low infection rates. This situation is even bound to worsen with
improved infrastructure and increased movement of people within and
between districts.

The Government will strengthen reproductive health services through
access to quality integrated family planning services. It will also
sensitise men on family planning and focus on contraceptives for both
gender and developing specific programmes on reproductive health
targeting the youth. Theatre for development initiatives, videos and
cinema films will be promoted to improve knowledge and awareness of the
pandemic in the rural areas. Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT)
Units will be established at the district, divisional and sublocation
levels including in mobile clinics to assist in raising knowledge of
AIDS and making it a reality among the otherwise sceptical pastoralist
groups.

***1.5.3 Environmental sustainability**:* Conservation, sustainable
utilisation and management of the environment and natural resources
constitute an integral part of ASAL planning and development efforts.
All efforts will therefore be made to curb environmental degradation.
Issues of concern include rising population and declining natural
resource base; poor environmental awareness and information
dissemination; poor land use policies that promote settlement around
permanent water sources; inappropriate land use technologies that have
exacerbated soil degradation; poor integration of environmental
considerations in land use planning; low level of environmental data
collection; poor management of water catchments and riparian vegetation
and lack of enforcement of environmental laws. In order to ensure
sustainable environmental and natural resource management, and in line
with the New National Environmental Management Act (NEMA), the
Government and other stakeholders will create awareness on environmental
costs and benefits and involve communities in environmental conservation
and in natural resource management activities such as afforestation,
grazing management, development of permanent water sources in the arid
districts, rising human population issues, and the enforcement of
environmental standards and sustainability indicators. The Government
will support the carrying out of a proper natural resource inventory and
intensive research on population dynamics and the environment, and
institute policy guidelines on effective community-based land use
planning and governance measures.

***1.5.4 Research and technological development:*** Research is the
cutting edge to economic development and empowerment. Research and
extension of cost-effective and appropriate technologies are key to
growth in different sectors of our economy. As a result of the fragile
ecosystem in the ASALs, conventional technologies used in the higher
rainfall areas may not be appropriate. New agricultural and range
management technologies as well as those aimed at improving natural
resource management and utilisation, crop/wildlife/livestock
interactions, eco-tourism, livestock marketing and trade, animal health
delivery systems and new varieties of crops and pasture seeds will be
developed through research. Research institutes such as KARI in
collaboration with farmers, universities and international research
institutes such as ILRI and ICRAF, will play a leading role in crop and
livestock research. KEFRI and KEMFRI will, respectively, guide forest
and marine research. Dissemination of the new technologies will be done
through appropriate extension services, including through extension
staff of the Ministries of Agriculture and Livestock and Fisheries
Development. The Government, together with relevant stakeholders, will
revitalise and support the local research community by improving their
terms of service and facilitating their work in order to develop
appropriate technologies.

## 1.6 A Positive Policy Matrix for Kenya's ASALs

To summarize this chapter, a set of *problem--solution* policy
objectives and instruments for a visionary long-term and coherent policy
for the ASALs is illustrated in Table 1.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc90953651 .anchor}Table 1: Positive Policy Matrix
for Kenya's ASALs

+------------+-------------+--------------------+---------------------+
| Problem    | Solution    | Policy objective   | Policy instruments  |
+------------+-------------+--------------------+---------------------+
| Poverty    | Wealth      | Ensure access to   | Pastoral code       |
|            | Creation    | inputs (financial, | covering land,      |
|            |             | veterinary, water  | water & movement;   |
|            |             | & land);           |                     |
|            |             |                    | Privatisation of    |
|            |             | Create and develop | service provision;  |
|            |             | markets;           |                     |
|            |             |                    | Micro credit and    |
|            |             | Increase           | rural banks;        |
|            |             | productivity       |                     |
|            |             |                    | Provide affordable  |
|            |             |                    | agriculture and     |
|            |             |                    | livestock inputs;   |
|            |             |                    |                     |
|            |             |                    | Free trade zones;   |
|            |             |                    |                     |
|            |             |                    | Removal of tariffs  |
|            |             |                    | and non tariff      |
|            |             |                    | barriers            |
+------------+-------------+--------------------+---------------------+
| Margi      | Strong      | Enable strong      | Decentralisation of |
| nalization | i           | indigenous         | planning and        |
|            | nstitutions | institutions;      | spending;           |
|            |             |                    |                     |
|            |             | Special support    | Formal role for     |
|            |             | for the excluded;  | pastoralist         |
|            |             |                    | associations;       |
|            |             | Improve            |                     |
|            |             | communications     | Social safety nets  |
|            |             |                    | and affirmative     |
|            |             |                    | action;             |
|            |             |                    |                     |
|            |             |                    | Remove monopolies/  |
|            |             |                    | restrictions on     |
|            |             |                    | communication       |
+------------+-------------+--------------------+---------------------+
| D          | Service     | Improve quality of | Citizens charter    |
| eprivation | delivery    | state services;    | and service audits; |
|            |             |                    |                     |
|            |             | Improve            | Community           |
|            |             | accountability of  | contracting         |
|            |             | services;          | services;           |
|            |             |                    |                     |
|            |             | Encourage          | Privatisation of    |
|            |             | alternative        | service delivery;   |
|            |             | service providers. |                     |
|            |             |                    | Civil society       |
|            |             | Provide an         | service provision   |
|            |             | institutional      |                     |
|            |             | framework that     |                     |
|            |             | empowers           |                     |
|            |             | communities in     |                     |
|            |             | planning and       |                     |
|            |             | decision-making at |                     |
|            |             | the grassroots     |                     |
|            |             | level              |                     |
+------------+-------------+--------------------+---------------------+
| Disasters  | P           | Increased ability  | Operationalize      |
|            | reparedness | by communities and | national disaster   |
|            |             | institutions to    | management policy;  |
|            |             | withstand          |                     |
|            |             | disasters.         | Strengthen markets; |
|            |             |                    |                     |
|            |             |                    | Sustainable animal  |
|            |             |                    | health systems      |
|            |             |                    |                     |
|            |             |                    | Provide insurance   |
|            |             |                    | scheme for          |
|            |             |                    | producers and       |
|            |             |                    | businesses to       |
|            |             |                    | minimise losses     |
+------------+-------------+--------------------+---------------------+
| Resource   | Dive        | Increase           | Community managed   |
| depletion  | rsification | opportunities;     | tourism;            |
|            |             |                    |                     |
|            |             | Education and      | Improved education  |
|            |             | training;          | suited to pastoral  |
|            |             |                    | communities;        |
|            |             | Good 'exit' from   |                     |
|            |             | pastoralism, if    | Financial           |
|            |             | desired            | mechanisms for      |
|            |             |                    | remittances;        |
|            |             |                    | alternative         |
|            |             |                    | activities to       |
|            |             |                    | livestock keeping   |
|            |             |                    | to be identified    |
+------------+-------------+--------------------+---------------------+
| Conflict   | Peace       | Increase           | Micro-meso-macro    |
|            | building    | understanding and  | peace building;     |
|            |             | communication;     |                     |
|            |             |                    | Pastoral codes;     |
|            |             | Clarify tenure;    |                     |
|            |             |                    | Conflict early      |
|            |             | Rapid and          | warning system and  |
|            |             | effective response | peace committees    |
+------------+-------------+--------------------+---------------------+

Source: AU-IBAR (2002). Policy briefing paper No 8: Towards pro
pastoralist policies in Africa. CAPE Unit, AU-IBAR, Nairobi.

# CHAPTER 2: RATIONALE FOR FORMULATING AN ASAL DEVELOPMENT POLICY

This chapter provides a justification for formulating an ASAL
development policy. It also examines the history of past development
policies and approaches to underscore why they failed to bring about
real development in the ASALs as a basis for justifying a new policy.

## 2.1 Past Policies and their Inadequacies

There have been some attempts to develop policies to address ASAL
development issues recognizing that it will be difficult to achieve
overall economic growth if arid and semi arid areas are not developed
and fully integrated into the national economy. With motivation from
Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 on '***African Socialism and its
Application to Planning in Kenya***', the first ASAL policy was
formulated in 1979. While the 1979 ASAL policy attempted to address some
of the issues, it fell short because ASAL "voices" were lacking and the
policy formulators put emphasis on technical issues such as land
degradation; irrigation and the need to find solutions to the nomadic
pastoralism "menace". The policy had a technical solution to problems
that were mainly social and political. Under the 1979 policy framework,
attempts were made to settle pastoralists in irrigation schemes, group
ranches and other alternative land use systems. In 1992, it was realized
that not much was being achieved and the policy was then revised based
on the lessons that had been learnt. More than 10 years later, it is now
recognized that the 1992 policy has largely been overtaken by events. It
therefore requires major re-casting to fine-tune it to the existing
political, environmental and socio-economic realities prevailing in ASAL
areas.

The 1992 ASAL development policy had a number of major inadequacies.
First, although the policy emphasized on drought contingency planning
with the involvement of beneficiaries and local institutions in the
design, preparation and implementation of projects, it lacked a holistic
approach to development, it did not evolve from a consultative process
with the beneficiaries. Second, the policy was not adequately supported
by political goodwill. As a result, it did not enjoy adequate funding
from government. In addition, it was never debated in Parliament so that
it could be transformed into an Act upon which government decisions and
budgetary allocations are made. The policy was thus a "dry" technical
document that was not backed up by a strong resolve to address ASAL
development issues. Third, the policy did not contain a coherent vision
of what the ASALs would be in the long term. It therefore lacked an
implementation strategy. Fourth, the policy was largely put together by
officers in one government ministry (the Ministry of ASAL Development
and Wastelands at the time) and was thus highly sectoral in approach and
lacked the much needed sector-wide consultative process among all
stakeholders. Finally, the policy failed to address the rising human
population and land tenure issues clearly; it did not adequately analyse
and outline what was required for social and human capital development,
including gender equity, which are important elements of a sustainable
development strategy.

The conventional approach of Government and other development actors in
the past had been to address the symptoms of underdevelopment instead of
tackling the root causes. This has often been done through projects,
which came in attractive neat packages with tight geographical
boundaries and limited timeframes. Many of these projects were planned
in a top-down manner without adequate knowledge of the situation of the
target groups. Often, the impact of these projects was limited or even
counterproductive in the fight against impoverishment and
marginalization. The failure of past initiatives and policies in the
ASAL are explained largely by:

-   Policymakers in government and other development actors lacked a
    good understanding of ASAL livelihood systems. For example, policy
    makers failed to accept mobile herding systems as a rational and
    efficient use of dry land resources and preferred to prescribe
    "foreign" rangeland management practices and technologies;

-   The inclusion of nomadic pastoralist societies within the borders of
    states led to restriction in mobility and movement. This was further
    exacerbated by appropriation of substantial portions of strategic
    pastoral grazing land for crop farming, game reserves, military
    training and mineral exploration and extraction. Restricting the
    herds to smaller territories forces pastoralists stay in an area for
    longer periods, which results in environmental degradation;

-   Lack of involvement of ASAL communities in policy reform and
    participatory governance;

-   Neglect of participatory approaches by stakeholders and policy
    makers in dealing with pastoralist communities because it was
    assumed that they were uneducated and primitive, without capacity to
    decide what was good for them;

-   Use of blanket approaches to intervention and to policies without
    due recognition of the different livelihood systems that thrive in
    the varied ecological and livelihood zones within the ASALs;

-   Inadequate development and use of inappropriate technologies in
    pastoral development programmes;

-   Adopting sectoral approaches to development as opposed to integrated
    and multi-sectoral ones;

-   Inability to implement formulated strategies because of lack of
    voice and political clout to demand for services and development
    investment coupled with the lack of government commitment to
    pastoral areas in order to bring about change and empowerment to
    pastoral populations.

By formulating a more holistic development policy the Government seeks
to break the cycle of short-term stop-gap solutions that have proved to
be unsustainable in the past. The current policy is motivated by the
need to come up with a practical framework with short-run, medium-term
and long-term vision for ASAL development. This policy therefore focuses
on the following pro-poor growth strategies:

-   Promotion of access to markets and market opportunities for the
    poor. This requires the provision of physical infrastructure, access
    to credit, employment opportunities, etc. This will ensure that
    markets work better for the poor;

-   Improvement of the overall effectiveness of public resources geared
    towards poverty reduction and economic growth in the ASALs;

-   Enhancing the security of the poor by addressing the critical issues
    of marginalized groups and to protect vulnerable groups. This is
    important in dealing with crisis and shocks due to adverse weather
    and social insecurity;

-   Allocating increased resources targeted on human capital
    development; and,

-   Generating employment, increasing productivity and improving
    conditions in the ASALs through improved security and strengthened
    household food security.

These strategies will allow pro-poor economic growth that will directly
reduce poverty and enhance wealth creation and employment generation.

## 2.2 The Need for "Special" Treatment of the ASALs of Kenya

Historically, Kenya's ASALs have received low priority in the allocation
of development resources. This was for long justified on economic
grounds that aimed to maximize the productivity of areas with known and
proven potential. It was argued that if sufficient resources were put in
the high rainfall highlands, the resultant production would drive the
country's economic growth, which would then "trickle down" to the ASALs.
This did not work; it actually led to the neglect and marginalization
witnessed in the ASALs today. There is therefore need to allocate
resources to deal with direct problems in the arid and semi arid areas,
especially with regard to appropriate technology, human resource and
institutional development and the management of risks such as droughts
and floods. The following reasons justify the need for a separate policy
framework for the ASALs:

***2.2.1 Different livelihood systems:*** ASALs comprise of different
and largely little understood livelihood systems. For example, pastoral
production systems depend on mobile herding and present unique
requirements if the system is to be sustainable. Policies that recognize
mobile herding as viable and economically sound livelihood strategies
ought to be put in place to support such land use systems in the ASALs.
In addition, because of the persistent belief among policy makers about
the "trickle down" approach to resource allocation, experience has shown
that when ASALs are addressed under other policies, their special needs
and requirements tend to be crowded out and this makes policy
implementation difficult. A good example is in the past allocation of
both recurrent and development expenditure budgets where high rainfall
areas received up to 10 times the amounts allocated to the arid
districts because it was believed that high rainfall districts were more
productive.

***2.2.2 Historical marginalization and persistent myths about the
ASALs*:** Myths[^2] and misconceptions from the past have contributed to
ineffective approaches to development. Some of these are still prevalent
today and have consequences on the future development of ASAL
communities. A few examples would suffice.

***a) Pastoralists are primitive and inefficient users of natural
resources***: Because of this myth, over-grazing by livestock is often
seen as the main cause of land degradation. However, long term satellite
monitoring suggests that degradation is due to long-term climatic
trends. In comparison with ranching, pastoralism is more productive and
equitable and has great benefits to society. Lending, borrowing and
gifting with livestock, sharing meat and milk, and herd migration ensure
that the products of pastoralist systems are widely distributed. There
is therefore a need to advocate for policies that are not aimed at
settling or 'modernising' pastoralists.

*b) Common land will always be over-exploited and less productive than
privately owned land.* Two major consequences of this myth are first
that common resources belong to no-one and could therefore be used by
any one. Based on this, crop farmers have encroached into pastoralists
areas (even those unsuited for crop production) particularly in wetlands
that traditionally provided dry season grazing resulting in rapid
environmental degradation. The other consequence is that privatised land
has been alienated from traditional users and concentrated into the
hands of the rich leading to absentee landlords who have few links with
the local communities. It is, however, important to counteract this myth
by pointing out that rangeland pastures in Kenya are not open access
common pool resources, but rather, they are managed through customary
institutions and have controlled access, unless traditional natural
resource management systems have been undermined by external influences.

*c) The solution to periodic disasters is humanitarian aid*:
Pastoralists are becoming increasingly dependent on food aid and
humanitarian relief that attracts large numbers of people to
distribution points. This results in over-exploitation of resources
around settlement areas and the need for more food aid. This approach
rewards dependency and undermines local production and self-reliance.
The negative consequences of emergency relief are everywhere to be seen:
local producers cannot compete with free food, local service providers
go out of business and short-term thinking removes incentives for
dealing with the underlying problems.

An analysis of the consequences of these myths has been termed as the
tension between ecology and economy. A fundamental dilemma in the ASALs
is the tension between ecology and economy. Specifically, due to the low
and spatially variable nature of rainfall, there is an ecological
imperative for mobility, yet the economics of service provision militate
against this, resulting in relatively large concentrations of services
in a few locations, which have a 'pull' effect on the mobile or
semi-mobile population. This exacerbates the 'push' effect due to
drought, conflict and other shocks on the system. The net result, as is
plain to see in many ASAL areas, not just in Kenya, are miserable 'drop
outs' from the 'traditional' economy/land use strategy, who do not have
the skills or worldview to succeed in the 'modern' economy reproduced in
miniature in these satellite service centres created by the State and/or
donors. As long as these myths remain among policy makers and those
responsible for allocating resources, it will be difficult for the ASALs
to develop unless special policy arrangements equivalent to "affirmative
action" are put in place to support the need to focus special attention
to these areas.

***2.2.3 Vulnerability to natural disasters***: Droughts and floods are
a common occurrence in the arid and semi arid districts. In the past, a
major drought was expected every 10 years. But because of factors such
as global warming and other climatic changes, these are more frequent.
Major droughts now occur after every 5-7 years. This means that ASAL
livelihood systems do not adequately recover to withstand the next
drought. As a result, any small shock such as a prolonged dry spell (not
a drought because in northern Kenya, for example, a drought is defined
as the failure of 3 rainy seasons) has a much bigger impact on people's
livelihood strategies than in the past. This situation is made worse by
insecurity, rising poverty and declining asset levels (natural, human,
social, financial and physical assets). Furthermore, the ASALs are
fragile eco-systems that require very careful intervention approaches to
prevent environmental degradation and desertification. Some of the
technologies appropriate for the higher rainfall areas may not
necessarily be appropriate for the ASALs. These areas therefore require
appropriate policy instruments and frameworks to protect lives and
livelihoods as well as the natural resource base from the negative
impacts of inappropriate technologies and land use systems. The ASALs
are unique and fragile eco-systems. With rising human population and
declining livestock numbers, these areas require special attention if
they are to enhance environmental sustainability.

***2.2.4 Previous development and uncoordinated aid initiatives:***
There is need for a coherent framework for sustainable development and a
clear vision of where the Government would like the ASALs to be in the
next two decades and beyond. This is what has largely lacked in past
policies. There has always been an underlying desire in many policies to
transform rangelands into "green" and agriculturally productive areas.
This implies that current land use systems were perceived as not being
appropriate and as productive as expected, that is, their productivity
was measured with the yardstick of high rainfall areas. Efforts were
therefore put to ensure that ASALs produced more crop-based products to
close the gap in cereal production. This argument ignores the fact that
ASALs do not need to produce their own cereals. What is required is an
improvement in the balance of trade between livestock and crop-based
production systems, especially during periods of droughts, when cereals
are in short supply and livestock prices considerably decline.

The following are some of the consequences of poor approaches to ASAL
development in the past:

-   Poor livestock marketing, animal health and livestock movement
    control systems: These have not favoured ASAL areas. It is now felt
    that implementation of proper policies based on a clear
    understanding of the linkages between ASAL and non-ASAL economies
    will go a long way in improving the performance of ASAL economies;

-   Rising poverty: changes in the way of life with growing poverty for
    many, where desperate poor people resort to destroying the
    environment through deforestation, charcoal burning, etc., for
    economic survival, thereby putting the natural resource base under
    threat of degradation;

-   Rising HIV/AIDS cases in the ASALs: unemployment, traditional
    practices and breakdown of social institutions are among the factors
    contributing to rising cases of HIV/AIDS infections in ASALs;

-   Insecurity and conflicts resulting from neglect and marginalization
    are a consequence of poor policies;

-   Inadequate provision of basic services: The poor provision of
    services (both public and private) due to inadequate investment;

-   Inadequate mechanisms for effective disaster management. For
    example, the focus on providing food aid during emergencies as
    opposed to tackling the root causes of long-term vulnerability to
    food insecurity;

-   Inadequate development of ASAL human resource capacity has
    exacerbated the need for ASALs to depend on external skills and
    human power;

-   Poor local governance systems that have undermined community-based
    institutions resulting in the weakening of social structures and the
    lack of social capital development among ASAL communities;

-   The lack of a long-term structural development strategy, with
    political commitment to improve the welfare of ASAL communities; and

-   The failure to meet the MDGs of halving the proportion of people
    living in extreme poverty hunger and disease by 2015 in the ASALs
    due to macro-level problems such as corruption, mismanagement of
    public resources and poor development and socio-economic policies.

There is therefore an urgent need to develop an ASAL policy that
provides a vision and a practical framework to address the unique
developmental constraints in ASALs as highlighted in the foregoing
sections. ASALs have enormous economic potential, which if properly
harnessed could make them viable, vibrant and sustainable. By so doing,
they could contribute significantly to the national economy and uplift
the living standards of ASAL inhabitants.

## 2.3 Linkages with Other GoK Policies

There is need to ensure that there is a strong link between this policy
and other Government policies that have relevance to ASAL development.
This would ensure that this policy does not duplicate or even contradict
existing Government policies. For instance, the changes that are likely
to come up from the ongoing constitutional review process will also have
a strong bearing on the operationalization of this policy especially in
aspects such as decentralization and devolution of governance
structures. In order to avoid duplication and inconsistencies, the
drafting of this policy involved an intensive consultation process with
relevant stakeholders within and outside Government. In addition, it was
informed by an in-depth review of existing Government policy documents.
The aim was to amalgamate all issues that are specific to ASALs into a
unified policy framework that is coherent, practical and easy to
implement. This policy has also incorporated ASAL-specific issues raised
in Government policies on environmental management, education, rural
development and agriculture, water resource development and utilisation,
health, HIV/AIDS, disaster management, land tenure and ownership,
livestock development and pastoralism.

Besides International conventions, this policy has used suggestions from
various Government documents including

-   Development Policy for ASALs (September 1992)

-   Draft Constitution (2003-2004), Constitution of Kenya Review
    Commission Bomas Draft

-   Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment Creation
    (ERSWEC, 2003-2007)

-   Economic Surveys (various)

-   Livestock Development Policy and the National Food Policy (1994,
    1981)

-   Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF, September 2001

-   Mid-Term Review of Emergency Operation (EMOP) Structures in Kenya
    (June 2001)

-   Millennium Declaration (September 2000)

-   National Drought Contingency Action Plan (March 1992)

-   National Poverty Eradication Plan (NPEP)

-   Ninth National Development Plan (2002-2008)

-   Pastoralist Thematic Group on Poverty Reduction (March 2001)

-   Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP)

-   Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP, June 2001)

-   Strategy for Revitalizing Agriculture (SRA, 2004-2014)

The implementation of this policy will be done in tandem with the
existing implementation framework suggested in other Government
documents but with some modifications to suit the special needs of
ASALs. As an example, the rehabilitation of roads in ASALs will be done
within the ongoing Roads 2000 Programme; the provision of education will
follow the policy on free primary education, while health services will
be delivered in accordance with the proposed implementation framework of
the National Social Health Insurance Fund (NSHIF). It is worth noting
that most of the developmental issues that are raised in this ASAL
policy document also cut across other sectors of the economy such that
the implementation process of this policy necessarily falls under the
wider implementation framework that encompasses all sectors.

# CHAPTER 3: ASAL RESOURCE BASE AND LIVELIHOOD SYSTEMS

## 3.1 The ASAL Districts

Eleven out of 72 districts in Kenya are classified as arid, 19 as
semi-arid and another six as those with high annual rainfall but with
pockets of arid and semi-arid conditions. A total of 36 districts fall
under ASALs. These districts cover about 467,200 square kilometres or
about 80% of the country's total landmass. Table 2 provides information
on the classification of different ASAL districts based on the degree of
aridity.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc90953652 .anchor}Table 2: ASAL Districts
Classified by Extent of Aridity

  ------------- ---------------------------------------------- -----------
  Category      Districts                                      \% Total
                                                               ASAL

  A. 100% ASAL  Turkana, Moyale, Marsabit, Isiolo, Wajir,      62%
                Mandera, Garissa, Ijara                        

  B. 85-100%    Kitui, Makueni, Tana River, Taita Taveta,      25%
  ASAL          Kajiado, Samburu                               

  C. 50-85%     Machakos, Mwingi, Mbeere, Tharaka, Laikipia,   8%
  ASAL          West Pokot, Kwale, Kilifi, Baringo, Meru North 

  D. 30-50%     Lamu, Narok, Transmara, Malindi, Keiyo,        3%
  ASAL          Marakwet                                       

  E. 10-25%     Nyeri (Kieni), Rachuonyo, Suba, Kuria, Thika,  2%
  ASAL          Koibatek                                       
  ------------- ---------------------------------------------- -----------

Source: Adapted from the 1992 ASAL development policy

***3.1.1 Climate**:* Based on moisture index, there are 30 districts
with an evapo-transpiration of more than twice the annual rainfall in
30% of the district's area. Another six districts have small pockets of
arid and semi arid conditions making up to 2 % of the total ASALs.

***3.1.2 Arid districts**:* The arid districts are characterised by high
ambient temperatures with a wide diurnal range. In most districts,
evapo-transpiration rates are more than twice the annual rainfall. These
districts receive low and erratic bimodal rainfall that is highly
variable both in space and time. In most cases, rain falls as short high
intensity storms that produce considerable runoff and soil erosion.
Average rainfall figures are deceptive in these circumstances because
there tends to be a few years of rainfall well above average whilst the
probability of occurrence is low. Approximate rainfall expectancy in the
arid districts ranges from 150-450 mm in a year. The soils are highly
variable. They are generally shallow, of light to medium texture, with
low fertility and are subject to compaction, capping and erosion. Only a
few areas have volcanic soils and alluvial deposits which are suitable
for crop production. Heavy clays also occur, but cultivation is
difficult due to their poor workability as well as problems with
salinity and sodicity. Water availability and accessibility is highly
variable and is a considerable constraint to production.

The arid districts are mainly inhabited pastoralists and agro
pastoralists. Large areas of the arid districts are suitable only for
nomadic livestock production. These pastoralists/agro-pastoralists own
about 50% of the national cattle and small ruminant herd and 100% of the
camel population. Pastoralist systems contain huge amounts of critical
human (language, indigenous technical knowledge, culture) and natural
(uniquely adapted breeds) capital.

***3.1.3 Semi-arid districts:*** These districts receive between 500 and
850mm of rainfall annually. They are characterized into four categories,
namely, a) semi-arid areas with mixed rain-fed and irrigation
agriculture and high economic and political disparities; b) semi-arid
areas with encroaching agro-pastoral use by marginalized smallholders;
c) semi-arid areas with predominantly pastoralist use in the economic
and political periphery; and, d) semi arid areas that include protected
areas and their surroundings. Examples include Kajiado, Narok and
Transmara, Laikipia, Baringo, parts of Samburu, parts of Marakwet and
West Pokot, parts of Meru north and central, Tharaka, Mbeere, Mwingi,
Kitui, Machakos and Makueni. Also covered under this category is the
entire coast, except Tana River district and some small part of central
Kenya. These districts fall into two agro-ecological zones (AEZ); AEZ IV
and AEZ V-VI.

In AEZ IV, the main farming system is mixed crop-livestock production.
Crops are grown to meet household subsistence needs and surplus is sold
for cash to supplement household income. Local breeds of livestock
predominate, with bulls mainly being used as a source of draft power for
ploughing and transportation. Livestock are, in general, an insurance
against crop failure and are usually allowed to graze fields after
harvest. Some farmers also use animal manure on their fields. Inadequate
rainfall and a high incidence of pests pose high risks. To minimise
these risks farmers keep livestock, practice mixed cropping, and plant
more drought tolerant crops such as cow and pigeon peas.

In AEZ V-VI, the main farming system is the maize/cowpea/pigeon pea.
This system is practiced in the low-lying areas which have been rapidly
settled and sub-divided into family farms in the last one or two
decades. Almost all the farmers grow maize, but the rate of failure is
very high. Soil erosion, low fertility and frequent droughts are the
major production constraints. The zone is ideally suited for sorghum and
millet but maize is increasingly grown. Ownership of livestock,
especially goats, is widespread, a quarter of the households own no
livestock and depend primarily on subsistence cropping and the provision
of labour. Where they exist, animals are grazed communally and are moved
away from the homestead during the dry season. Examples under this zone
include parts of Keiyo, Marakwet, Tharaka, some parts of Kilifi, parts
of Baringo and West Pokot.

Semi-arid areas also host most of the protected areas such as game
reserves, national parks and forest areas. These areas include parts of
Laikipia, Baringo, Nakuru, Kajiado, Narok, Transmara, Samburu, Meru
North, Makueni, Mwingi, Marakwet and West Pokot. Other districts include
Marsabit, Isiolo and Turkana.

Livelihoods of both arid and semi arid lands depend upon available
natural resources, particularly soil and water. Due to ecological and
climatic constraints, the main source of livelihood for ASAL inhabitants
is extensive livestock production.

***3.1.4 Human Population**:* According to the 1999 human population
census, 9.86 million people (or 34.36% of the country's population) were
living in arid and semi arid areas of Kenya. Of these, an estimated
13.15% lived in the arid districts of Turkana, Moyale, Marsabit, Isiolo,
Wajir, Mandera, Garissa and Ijara[^3]. The population density in ASALs
varies from a low of 2 persons per square kilometre in Marsabit to a
high of 329 persons per square kilometre in Thika district. The low
population density coupled with the migratory nature of the inhabitants
creates difficulties in the provision of essential social services such
as schools and health facilities. With increased population pressure in
the high rainfall districts, however, significant immigration is
currently taking place particularly in districts that are 50-85% ASAL.
For example, Machakos district's population density has increased from
50 persons per square kilometre in 1979 to 144 persons per square
kilometre in 1999. The ASAL human population is rising due to natural
growth and immigration from densely populated areas thereby putting
extra pressure on existing resources.

***3.1.5 Production and Land Use Systems***: Table 3 presents the
characteristics of production and livelihood systems of the ASALs of
Kenya.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc90953653 .anchor}Table 3: Characteristics of ASALs
Based on Agro-Ecological Zones

+--------------------+--------------------------+----------------------+
| *                  | **Arid lands**           | **Semi arid lands**  |
| *Characteristics** |                          |                      |
+--------------------+--------------------------+----------------------+
| Agro ecological    | 6 & 7                    | 4 & 5                |
| zones              |                          |                      |
+--------------------+--------------------------+----------------------+
| Area of Kenya      | 352,000 Km^2^ (68%)      | 114,000 Km^2^ (20%)  |
+--------------------+--------------------------+----------------------+
| Rainfall           | 200 -- 550 mm            | 550 -- 850 mm        |
+--------------------+--------------------------+----------------------+
| Agricultural       | **Zone 5 -- 6            | **Zone 4:**          |
| production system  | transition:**            |                      |
|                    |                          | Maize, beans &       |
|                    | Sorghum, millet, cowpea  | cotton (improved     |
|                    | & green gram with        | seeds & limited use  |
|                    | communally grazed herds  | of chemical          |
|                    | of animals. Labour       | fertilizer) with     |
|                    | demand for bird scaring, | local breeds of      |
|                    | weeding & livestock      | cattle, goats, sheep |
|                    | keeping                  | & poultry (use of    |
|                    |                          | crop residues);      |
+--------------------+--------------------------+----------------------+
|                    | **Zone 6 & 7:**          | Use of animal manure |
|                    |                          | & ox ploughing;      |
|                    | Pastoralism predominates | seasonally high      |
|                    | especially browsing      | demand for labour    |
|                    | animals: goats & camels; | (weeding &           |
|                    | mobile lifestyle in      | harvesting).         |
|                    | search of pasture &      |                      |
|                    | water.                   | **Zone 5:**          |
|                    |                          |                      |
|                    | Exchange livestock for   | Maize, cowpea &      |
|                    | grain & other consumer   | pigeon pea (millet & |
|                    | goods. Also cultivation  | sorghum would be     |
|                    | (increasing cereal       | more appropriate);   |
|                    | cropping in areas with   | goats reared (25% do |
|                    | adequate moisture),      | not own livestock)   |
|                    | hunting & gathering      |                      |
+--------------------+--------------------------+----------------------+
| Production         | Erosion, infertile soils | Inadequate rainfall, |
| constraints        | and inadequate rainfall. | pests, soil erosion, |
|                    |                          | low fertility &      |
|                    |                          | frequent droughts.   |
+--------------------+--------------------------+----------------------+

Source: Jaetzold, R. and Schmidt, H. (1983). Farm Management Handbook
for Kenya. Vol IIB, Ministry of Agriculture, Nairobi.

## 3.2 Natural Capital

ASALs are well endowed with stocks of natural capital. For instance,
they occupy over 80% of the country's landmass, which caters for a
diverse range of flora and fauna. Although they receive low and erratic
rainfall, these areas have a comparative advantage for livestock and
game production based on natural pasture.

Various mining and quarrying activities also take place in the ASALs.
This includes sand or gravel production for urban construction,
prospecting for gold and precious stones, and marble quarrying. The
potential for mineral exploitation e.g. titanium, limestone, soda ash,
and oil exploration still exists. The sale of soda ash from Lake Magadi
for instance, contributes significant revenue to the national economy,
in addition to providing substantial opportunities for employment to
local communities.

## 3.3 Physical Capital

Due to years of neglect, ASALs suffer from lack of physical capital --
roads, schools and health facilities. The few roads that were
constructed decades ago are poor in condition and urgently need repair.
With scattered and mobile settlements and low purchasing power, markets
are poorly developed. ASAL districts also lag behind in terms of access
to safe drinking water, electricity and telecommunication facilities. In
fact, very few ASAL districts to date receive radio and television
coverage even after the recent liberalisation of the airwaves. Since
independence, the government has continued to provide essential social
services such as security, health, education and local governance.
However, these are still limited. In order to turn the ASAL economy
around, substantial resources will be needed to develop physical capital
as a basis for more long-term investment in human and financial
capitals.

## 3.4 Social Capital

Owing perhaps to their continuous exposure to hardship and distress,
ASAL communities maintain a strong social system of resource sharing,
borrowing, lending and gifting. For instance, there exist well-designed
and extensive institutional cooperative frameworks for sharing resources
and redistributing livestock when some members of the community lose
their livestock herds to drought, disease or theft. Most of the ASAL
population is organized into extended families and clans, which provide
important support during times of hardship. The role of government in
this case is to create an enabling environment to preserve the rich
cultures of diverse ethnic groups in ASALs.

## 3.5 Financial Capital

Strictly speaking, pastoral communities own little financial capital.
Much of their financial capital is in form of livestock, which is
regarded as both a "living bank" and a medium of exchange. The vast
majority of ASAL inhabitants have not yet been fully integrated into the
cash economy. In many areas, barter trade still dominates business
transactions. Pastoralists have successful traditional loaning and
insurance schemes and working institutions for redress and debt
collection. Lack of education and exposure to the wider society limits
pastoralists' access to financial resources and services such as
banking. Indeed, the few banks found in ASAL districts only service the
needs of the elite.

It does not mean, however, that pastoralists operate entirely on barter
trade. Most of them sell their animals to obtain the cash for the
purchase of goods (e.g. clothing and food) and services (e.g. schooling,
medical care and veterinary services) produced outside the pastoral
sector. The market therefore creates an intimate interdependence between
ASAL and non-ASAL production systems. High transaction costs due to low
education, poor road, telecommunication and marketing infrastructure,
however, tilt the terms of trade underlying such interdependence in
favour of non-ASAL production system.

## 3.6 Human Capital

Human capital is poorly developed in ASAL districts. For instance, the
literacy level for Maasai in Kajiado and Somali in Mandera is 3%
compared with a national average of 79.3%. Several reasons have been
attributed to the low human capital development in ASALs. One, there is
a general lack of schooling facilities for both children and adult
learners. In addition, the available facilities are not sensitive to the
nomadic lifestyle of most ASAL inhabitants. Two, most of the pastoral
communities are usually not willing to send their children to school.
They prefer instead to send their children to look after the family's
stock of wealth, livestock. Even where parents allow their children to
attend school, they usually prefer educating boys to girls. Three, early
marriages and traditional rites of passage increase school drop out
rates. Lastly, but not the least, there is apprehension among the
pastoralists that once their children go to boarding schools they are
usually reluctant to return to their traditional lifestyles after
graduating. Community-oriented education that incorporates relevant
content for skills development and the use of appropriate teaching aids
would greatly raise the human capital of pastoral communities.
Pastoralists and agro-pastoralists, however, have enormous indigenous
knowledge about their environment and animals. For instance, they know
how to predict drought, where to find pastures and water, and how to
diagnose, prevent and treat livestock diseases.

## 3.7 Livelihood Systems

*3.7.1 Pastoralism:* Pastoral production systems are defined as those in
which 50% or more of household gross revenue comes from livestock or
livestock related activities. Pastoralists' livelihood is solely
dependent on animal products such as milk, blood, meat, hides and skins.
Pastoralists' herds consist of different species each with its own
feeding and water requirements. Cattle, sheep and donkeys graze; camels
and goats browse. The herd composition differs according to the climate,
vegetation and soil type of the range. There are major differences among
pastoralist groups: some are very mobile (in the driest areas) while
others are more sedentary (in wetter drylands). A central strategy of
pastoralists is herd maximization, which is their best mechanism of
dealing with unreliable and varying availability of natural resources.
Pastoralists use dryland natural resources sustainably where other
land-use systems cannot thrive. Key elements of this production system
are opportunistic management of the rangelands and mobility of the
herds. This enables pastoralists to make use of the natural resources,
water and fodder, the availability of which varies so widely in time and
space. Pastoralists migrate huge distances often crossing boundaries and
borders but following strict rules between different ethnic groups and
clans.

***3.7.2 Agro-pastoralists**:* These are more settled pastoralists with
permanent crop fields close to their homesteads largely due to the land
tenure systems. They keep large herds, which enable them to survive when
crops fail, as they regularly do. Such large herds also act as food
security during severe dry seasons and for strategic continuity purposes
for those that survive the drought. Growing crops is mainly the women's
task while men move away with their herds in search of pasture.
Agro-pastoralists may also use cropping as a conscious strategy to
prevent small farmers encroaching into pastoral territory. Any surplus
from cropping is invested in livestock. Table 4 shows livestock
population in the 15 arid and semi arid districts and the rest of Kenya.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc90953654 .anchor}Table 4: Livestock Population in
Kenya

+---------------+------------+---------------------+------------------+
| **Livestock   | **Pastoral | **Rest of the       | **Total national |
| species**     | area       | country**           | herd (Million)** |
|               | (          |                     |                  |
|               | Million)** | **(Million)**       |                  |
+---------------+------------+---------------------+------------------+
| Dairy cattle  | Negligible | 3                   | 3                |
+---------------+------------+---------------------+------------------+
| Other cattle  | 4          | 5                   | 9                |
+---------------+------------+---------------------+------------------+
| Goats         | 6          | 6                   | 12               |
+---------------+------------+---------------------+------------------+
| Hair sheep    | 4          | 3                   | 7                |
+---------------+------------+---------------------+------------------+
| Wool sheep    | Negligible | 1                   | 1                |
+---------------+------------+---------------------+------------------+
| Camels        | 1          | Negligible          | 1                |
+---------------+------------+---------------------+------------------+
| **Total**     | **15**     | **18**              | **33**           |
+---------------+------------+---------------------+------------------+

Source: Pastoralist Thematic Group's contribution to the Poverty
Reduction Strategy Paper, April 2001

***3.7.3 Fisher folk**:* A few specialised groups practice fishing. This
is confined to lakes and rivers such as Tana and Athi. Fish can be
farmed in reservoirs behind large dams and if water is seasonal, fish
species that mature quickly can be used. However, the supply of
fingerlings is difficult and fisheries may compete with the need of
pastoralists to access the few water resources in the dryland areas.
Other problems include diminishing stock levels in the natural water
bodies and high siltation due to soil erosion causing turbidity and low
productivity e.g. lake Baringo and Turkana, and river Tana.

### 

***3.7.4 Pastoralists in Transition**:* In recent times, pastoralists
are beginning to shift to agro-pastoralism and cropping. Children who go
to school often abandon the pastoral life and do not learn how to manage
livestock. They have few appropriate skills to contribute to the local
community, and this weakens social fabric. Diets are changing too, as
sedentary pastoralists switch from their traditional milk and blood to
maize meal and other foodstuffs. With the increasing population of the
arid districts, pastoral families can no longer cope with a purely meat
and milk diet. Cultivation, land adjudication and wildlife management
have also contributed to a continuous decline in especially the dry
season grazing areas available to pastoralists, and as a consequence
have decreased the possibilities to subsist on the pastoral system.
There has therefore been a significant decline in the general size of
herds in relation to the number of people supported, probably by a ratio
of about 5 cattle per person.

These changes have affected the traditional structure of pastoralist
societies. The age base of the internal organization has been weakened.
Today, school going youths see themselves differently from their *Moran*
age mates. Many conflicts, which were usually settled by the traditional
ruling of age-set leaders nowadays end up in court and the traditional
system is no longer held in any regard. Residential patterns and
relations are also increasingly changing. *Manyattas* housing more
families are slowly disappearing and giving way to one one-family
homesteads, most noticeably in Maasailand where it has been influenced
by increasing individual ownership. Consequently, most pastoral
societies are caught in a process of societal differentiation. A
propertied elite has emerged, who own more livestock and, in some cases
more pasture land (mainly in Kajiado, Transmara, Narok and Samburu).

The process of wealth stratification has been made abundantly clear in
many pastoral areas of Kenya and the trend appears to be that the rich
remain rich while the poor are rarely able to escape from the poverty
trap. Rich pastoralists are able to invest more in the education of
their children, which has always been relatively costly, as most of the
children have to go to boarding schools. As a result their children will
be in a better position to earn extra income from employment after
school. An unfortunate development is that the sons of the poorer folks
will continue to supply herding labour to the rich.

***3.7.5 Urban Destitute/Urban Populations and reliance on trade*:** An
increasing number of ASAL populations living around urban centres are
turning to trade in such centres in a bid to supplement their incomes.
Local agricultural produce such as fruits and vegetables is ferried to
the centres for this purpose. There are also some who opt to move to
nearby urban centres and other towns in search of better livelihoods and
employment opportunities as a result of extreme climatic conditions,
punctuated by frequent droughts in ASALs. Where these expectations have
not been fully realised, such people have ended up in the urban informal
settlements, further complicating the already unfavourable living
conditions in such settlements. Many survive out of hawking foodstuffs,
household goods, fruits and vegetables or depend on unreliable casual
work. Others even resort to street begging and when this is not
sustainable, they opt into theft and other anti-social behaviour,
complicating further the deteriorating urban security problem. It is
hoped that with a recovered and vibrant economy, many opportunities for
business, trade and employment will open up, with subsequent rise in
living standards for the urban poor and the general population in the
ASALs.

***3.7.6 Hunters and gatherers***: In periods of extreme drought a few
communities turn to wild fruits and leaves in a bid to cushion
themselves from starvation. This happened in some parts of Baringo
district in 2003 where severe drought and lack of food proved a big
challenge for relief initiatives, which could not cope with the big
population in dire need. Hunting and gathering could be said to be
extreme activities in today's world but the reality is that these still
act as last options for the poor in ASALs, especially when life is
threatened by lack of food and water. Unfortunately, this happens to
vulnerable people-groups living in the ASALs.

## 3.8 Significant Cross-cutting Issues in ASAL Livelihood Systems

***3.8.1 Gender issues***: In order to eliminate gender disparities in
control and access of productive assets such as financial resources,
livestock, land, credit, etc. this policy favours the creation of equal
economic opportunities for both women and men. The promotion of girls'
education is a first step in addressing socio-economic disparities
between men and women. Access to credit facilities and other financial
services as well as providing an enabling environment for women to own
property and to access and control productive assets will be supported
through legislation and appropriate institutional arrangements. The
collection of gender disaggregated data and dissemination of
gender-sensitive extension materials will be promoted. Social and gender
profiles will be undertaken prior to implementation of any interventions
in order to ensure to they address the needs of each gender. Support and
development of women\'s networks and groups such as *Maendeleo ya
Wanawake* will be encouraged.

Other gender-related issues in the ASALs concern the usage and abuse of
substances such as alcohol and *Miraa* (*khat*), early marriages and
teenage pregnancies, female genital mutilation and domestic violence.
Substance abuse is probably related to poverty and frustration due to
poor income generation and low development activities. Strategic
interventions through appropriate partnerships in public education will
be developed in a bid to address these challenges. The Government
recognizes that many civil society organizations have good capacity in
these aspects and partnerships with government will be established to
strengthen these capacities.

***3.8.2 Droughts and Flood hazards**:* Drought is a common occurrence
in the ASALs. Caused by rainfall deficit, it leads to shortage of water
and crises in vegetation cycles. It reduces vegetation cover and affects
the nutritive quality and quantity of rangeland vegetation. These
changes inevitably alter the structure and size of pastoral herds and
affect cropping in semi arid districts. Drought alone, however, cannot
explain all the changes in ASALs. Political and economic changes, which
pattern the contours and define the outcomes of ecological phenomena,
play an equally significant role. In 1998/99, the *El Nino* floods
wreaked havoc in the ASALs, causing loss of grazing land and livestock.
This resulted in severe human suffering and death, and the stagnation of
the ASAL economy. The arid districts are usually the most vulnerable to
droughts, floods and insecurity which undermine the long-term viability
of development initiatives in these areas.

There is need to solve the perennial and expensive drought-related food
crises through long-term structural development. Managing droughts is
expensive undertaking. For example, during the 2000/2001 fiscal year,
the Government spent Kshs 10.5 billion on food relief (excluding World
Food Programme's and other stakeholders' contributions). In the UN and
GoK joint appeal in May 2000, USD 121,029,702 was raised which was spent
by the end of that financial year. Another appeal was made in February
2001 for an additional amount of USD 122,650,146. It is now estimated
that had there been a long-term structural development programme in the
ASALs, not all of this amount would have been required. In fact, with a
quarter of this amount, the Government could put in place a more
effective, efficient and sustainable system that addresses long term
food insecurity in the ASALs. In addition, a greater use of livestock,
abundantly found in the ASALs during droughts, e.g., slaughtering and
feeding back to the population through emergency livestock off takes,
would not only help to provide market for livestock during such times
but also save enormous resources currently used in sourcing protein and
pulses from overseas. In view of the above, the Government will build on
the lessons and experiences gained in implementing drought management
initiatives in arid districts over the last 15 years. It will also
expand this to the semi arid areas as well.

***3.8.3 Insecurity and conflicts:*** Social insecurity and conflicts
are endemic in ASALs and are increasingly undermining the socio-economic
development of these areas. Insecurity and conflicts also limit pastoral
livelihoods and exacerbate the vulnerability of ASAL inhabitants to
external shocks such as drought and floods. In order to control social
insecurity and conflict, the government will encourage working with
traditional institutions such those that Oxfam GB has been working with
in North Eastern Province. Getting ASAL policies right will also involve
giving pastoralists a greater voice in the development of policies that
affect them. Furthermore, social-cultural change will need to take place
alongside changes in the economic and policy environments. In
conclusion, there is a strong case for sensitively tackling conflict
issues between pastoral groups, including improving the mechanisms for
handling cross-border livestock raiding.

# CHAPTER 4: PRIORITY SECTORS FOR INVESTMENT

This chapter focuses on priority sectors for investment, both in the
arid and in the semi arid districts. It analyses each sector and
outlines priority areas that Government and other stakeholders would
consider investing in. The framework suggested in this policy document
will allow for a pro-poor growth strategy that emphasizes sustainable
poverty reduction and economic growth accompanied with appropriate
economic policies and adequate investments in these considerably
marginalized and vulnerable regions. Since economic growth, poverty
reduction and inequality are inextricably related, this policy document
promote changes in resource distribution enhancing equity and access to
economic resources while providing viable incentives to pastoralists,
agro-pastoralists, small-scale farmers and traders in the ASALs. This
strategy underpins the fact that growth policies without effective
resource distribution will have limited impact on poverty reduction. At
the same time, the growth process may not yield expected results if it
is not accompanied with adequate wealth and resource distribution
measures. This policy framework focuses attention on:

-   The need to facilitate the restructuring of the pastoral economy
    over time towards a market driven economy, where key inputs are
    accessed through the markets rather than through social networks as
    is the case currently;

-   A better understanding of pastoralist and mobile herding livelihood
    systems while accepting mobile herding systems as a rational and
    efficient use of dry land resources;

-   Improving natural resource management and utilisation by
    strengthening pastoral land tenure systems;

-   Reducing ASAL populations relying on livestock through human capital
    development and diversification of income sources;

-   Improving pastoral productivity by upgrading both the environment
    and the genetic composition of livestock through selection and
    improved animal husbandry practices;

-   Improving markets and providing social services to ASAL communities;

-   Providing financial services such as appropriate credit facilities
    to traders, pastoralists and farmers;

-   Reducing and managing risks due to drought, floods, food and human
    insecurity;

-   Engaging ASAL communities in policy reform and the enhancement of
    participatory governance; and,

-   Encouraging stakeholders and policy makers to undertake
    participatory policy formulating based on objective analysis and
    research.

This policy provides a framework to reverse the situation in the ASALs
districts from one of despair, poverty and need to one of hope and a
bright future. The Government will undertake measures that facilitate
the realignment of public expenditure towards investment. The strategy
is to improve public investment in the ASALs by taking advantage of the
renewed Government commitment to the development of the ASALs. This
public investment will hopefully encourage private investment and human
capital development in the ASALs. Public expenditure will be targeted to
ASAL priorities in order to improve the quality of expenditure and to
ensure that the priorities are achieved in an effective and efficient
fashion. The following investment priorities are targeted for investment
both in the short- and medium- terms.

## 4.1 Investment in Arid Districts

Pastoralism predominates as a livelihood system in most arid districts
such as Turkana, Marsabit, Isiolo, Wajir, Mandera, Garissa, Ijara, Tana
River, Samburu and Baringo. These arid districts (occupied predominantly
by pastoralists) comprise areas with the highest incidence of poverty in
the country. During the participatory poverty assessments that preceded
the preparation of the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP, 2001),
pastoralists ranked the main drivers of poverty in their areas as:

-   poor livestock marketing opportunities;

-   droughts and high levels of household food insecurity;

-   improper land tenure and natural resource management;

-   inadequate infrastructure development, especially with regard to
    road network and communication;

-   bad governance;

-   inter-ethnic and inter-clan conflicts, banditry and livestock
    rustling;

-   livestock monoculture;

-   poor and inappropriate education and facilities;

-   unemployment;

-   HIV/AIDS; and,

-   drug and substance abuse such as alcoholism and *miraa* (Khat)
    chewing.

The Government is committed to reversing these negative development
challenges in the arid districts to make them more vibrant and
prosperous. Measures to address achieve this include:

***4.1.1 Development of physical infrastructure**:* Components of
physical infrastructure include electricity, solar energy, transport
network, telephone systems, schools, health centres and shelter that
promote human capital development. Investment in physical infrastructure
is needed to achieve the overarching objectives of sustainable
development, innovation and production in ASAL areas. It is envisaged
that investment in physical infrastructure will create opportunities for
economic rejuvenation and growth in the arid districts by:

-   Reducing transaction costs to facilitate trade flows within and
    across borders;

-   Enabling economic actors - individuals, firms and government - to
    respond to demand for services;

-   Lowering the cost of inputs used in the production of goods and
    services;

-   Opening up new opportunities for entrepreneurs, or making existing
    businesses more profitable;

-   Creating opportunities for promoting gainful employment;

-   Enhancing human capital formation and development, for example,
    through improved access to school and health facilities;

-   Improving environmental conditions for improved livelihoods, better
    health and reduced vulnerability of the poor.

While the above benefits are feasible, spending on physical
infrastructure in Kenya has not always contributed to pro-poor growth.
Benefits have often been less than anticipated, especially because of
inadequate attention to governance and institutional frameworks. "White
elephant" structures are a common eye sore in many rural areas and are
exacerbated by high levels of corruption, weak and/or lethargic
institutions and ineffective internal control systems. These have
hindered the capitalisation of ASALs, distorted public investment
choices, diverted benefits from the poor and encouraged neglect and
maintenance of existing infrastructure.

The Government recognises that because of dispersed populations, low
traffic density and low levels of economic activity, the cost of
building an adequate infrastructure are extremely high. But given the
critical role of infrastructure in development, the Government will work
with development partners to invest in basic infrastructure that will
support economic and social development in the ASALs. Adequate
infrastructure provides an enabling environment that promotes trade and
commerce. For example, it is noted that when "*a distributor of
industrial spare parts and machinery in Nairobi saw his business expand
35% after additional telephone lines were installed. This allowed him to
hire six more employees and add three vehicles to his fleet*[^4]". Lack
of electricity and power blackouts, voltage fluctuation,
telecommunication failure, poor roads, lack of industrial space, water
supply, poor waste disposal and commercial trucking all affect trade and
commerce.

The Government, in partnership with development partners and the private
sector, will construct key trunk roads while others will be
rehabilitated in order to link feeder roads to the national road
network. Reforms in the telecommunication industry (e.g. privatisation
of Telcom-Kenya, commissioning of another mobile phone provider) will
hopefully enhance access to telecommunication services in the ASALs. The
rural electrification program is already underway and it targets to
provide electricity to both ASAL and non-ASAL rural districts. Although
the locally generated hydro-electric power is not adequate to meet our
energy needs, plans are at an advanced stage to tap power from surplus
neighbouring countries by 2007. Opportunities for solar power
utilisation will also be explored in order to spur industrial
development.

***4.1.2 Livestock Development**:* Livestock production is the main
economic activity in the pastoral areas, employing up to 80% of the ASAL
population. Individual pastoral families try to realise the value of
livestock through subsistence utilisation of their stock. Although the
off-take of pastoral livestock is low, pastoral areas have captured a
large proportion of the market mainly because they have a comparative
advantage in red meat production compared with other parts of the
country. However, since 1985, official statistics on livestock show that
Kenya is effectively a meat deficit country. Prices have not shot up,
however, probably because neighbouring countries have penetrated the
Kenyan market. By 2000, nearly 100,000 head of cattle from Somalia were
sold in Kenya through Garissa and a similar number from Ethiopia through
Moyale. Tanzanian cattle, which enter Kenya through Namanga and
Isebania, were even higher in number. Presently, the off-take from
Kenya's pastoralist areas is about 6-14% for cattle, less than 3% for
camels, and between 4-10% for sheep and goats. These ratios are low but
it is possible to double the off-take without threatening the breeding
stock.

In order to improve livestock production in the ASALs, three main issues
need to be addressed. The first concerns improvement of natural pasture
and water management. The second issue concerns disease control while
the third one involves improving livestock productivity, marketing and
trade. In order to do this, a proper livestock census needs to be
urgently undertaken to determine the size of the livestock resource for
effective planning.

The provision of animal health services in the ASALs has continued to be
a major challenge. First, the areas to be covered are vast, while
government services have continued to decline due to structural
constraints and decreasing budgetary allocations. Second, the economics
of providing animal health services through private veterinarians has
not been attractive to private practitioners, primarily due to their
expectations of living standards, which are considered low in the ASALs.
Third, the demand for veterinary drugs and clinical services are subject
to constant seasonal variability due to the mobility of pastoralists.
There is need to maintain systems that will continue to provide
sustainable animal health services in the ASALs.

Priority areas in the provision of animal health in ASALs will be to:

-   strengthen disease control measures in partnership with regional
    animal health programmes such as African Union Inter African Bureau
    for Animal Resources (AU/IBAR). There is need to review the
    justification for movement permits, branding of stock, restriction
    of night movements and no-objection permits from producing areas and
    validity of the Contagious Bovine Pleuro-Pneumonia (CBPP) quarantine
    line;

-   maintain annual vaccination campaigns for notifiable diseases such
    as anthrax, rinderpest, Foot & Mouth Disease (FMD), CBPP and
    Contagious Caprine Pleuro Pneumonia (CCPP);

-   increase cross-border disease surveillance since pastoralists
    sometimes cross international borders in search of water and
    pastures for their livestock;

-   support decentralized animal health approaches being practiced in
    the country by communities with support from Government, NGOs and
    other service providers,

-   revise legislation, policy and practice to allow veterinarians to
    stock drugs and community-based animal health workers to treat their
    livestock, under supervision by a veterinarian; including listing
    the animal health service activities that community-based animal
    health workers and other non-vets may provide and guidelines for
    supervision and linkage between community-based animal health
    workers and relevant government staff at district level. Training,
    supervision and certification of community-based animal health
    workers by the Kenya Veterinary Association (KVA) and the Kenya
    Veterinary Board (KVB) will be encouraged.

Livestock marketing and handling infrastructure such as stock routes and
holding grounds will be developed. Access to credit will promoted to
livestock marketing groups and associations and the development of
medium sized abattoirs in strategic locations such as Isiolo, Garissa
and West Pokot. Provision of reliable and appropriate communication
systems such as mobile phones and VHF radio communication systems will
lead to the provision of accurate market information to enhance trade.
Avenues for legitimate cross-border trade in livestock and
livestock-based products will be explored and utilized in order to
increase the contribution of pastoral livestock and livestock products
to the GDP. In this regard, a coherent livestock marketing policy and
strategy will be developed while access of external markets for
livestock will be piloted with backing from studies on the development
of livestock export and disease-free zones. Fisheries development for
example in Marsabit and Turkana, as well as in relevant coastal
districts (e.g. Tana River) will be enhanced to ensure that the fisher
folk improve their livelihoods as a result of improved fishing
technologies and facilities.

The Sanitary and Phyto-sanitary (SPS) Agreement of the World Trade
Organization assigns additional responsibility to national veterinary
services to establish effective surveillance and monitoring systems to
provide accurate and timely animal disease information in exporting
countries. This information is important to importing countries for
assessing zoonotic risk. The Department of Veterinary Services lacks
adequate resources (manpower, equipment, finances, etc) to fully comply
with the requirements of the SPS thereby restricting the possibility of
the country to export livestock and livestock products. This not only
denies livestock producers access to more lucrative markets but also
deprives the country of vital foreign currency earnings.

It is essential that Kenya improves its veterinary status through the
development of disease-free zones that meet OIE (International Office of
Epizootics) requirements - a strengthened national veterinary system
consisting of a mix of public/private provision linked closely with
community-based veterinary approaches. Until Kenya has established OIE
approved animal disease zones, export markets for livestock and
livestock products will have to be sought in countries with less
stringent demands public health requirements.

***4.1.3 Water resource management and development:*** Water
availability, its appropriate development and use are key in the
development of the ASALs. The development of surface water through
appropriate community-owned water harvesting structures such as pans and
dams will be emphasised while ground water will be developed based on
social and environmental sustainability criteria. The drilling of new
boreholes and their equipping with high maintenance pumping equipment
such as generating sets etc. will only be undertaken but with thorough
environmental impact assessments and consensus reached and agreed upon
by communities and all relevant stakeholders. Emphasis will be laid on
rehabilitating and operationalizing already existing boreholes as
opposed to drilling new ones. The potential for irrigation, especially
in the semi-arid areas will be explored based on studies and relevant
policies that have already been formulated by the Ministry of Water
Resource Management and Development.

Historically, the provision of water as a basic necessity has either
been done free or at very subsidized levels. Sustaining this policy has
been difficult and a majority of Kenyans in the ASALs lack access to
clean water for domestic consumption. The poor management of existing
water works and non-existent or poor sewerage systems has further
compounded this. The Government efforts to provide clean water are being
supplemented by various actors including the private sector, local
authorities and NGOs. To meet the objectives of providing water and
sanitation, priority actions will include the protection and management
of water catchment areas, the promotion and encouragement of
community/private sector based water projects and the expansion of water
development and management by privatised arms of Local Authorities and
other private entities. Government will explore the rehabilitation of
existing water and sewerage schemes through cost sharing, and the full
implementation of the new Water Act. In remote areas where privatisation
may not be feasible, community groups will run water facilities with the
Government providing back-up services, especially during emergencies.

***4.1.4 Natural resource and environmental management**:* Pastoralists
and agro-pastoralists have over the years developed highly resilient
production systems that are well adapted to the hostile climatic
environment in the arid districts. However, high population growth rates
and skewed distribution has played a key role in land degradation. In
the 1999 population and housing census, Kenya had a population of 28.4
million people. Seventy percent of this population lived in 20% of the
country, which is suitable for rain-fed cultivation. Increased
population in recent decades has led to excessive pressure on arable
land in high rainfall areas with subsequent spill-over into marginal
areas, pasture and forest lands, and steep slopes. This excessive human
pressure on fragile ASAL ecosystems has accelerated land degradation
through deforestation, poor land use and inappropriate farming
practices. Increased human population has meant that the traditional
cultivation and grazing systems, which allowed land to 'rest' and regain
fertility, have collapsed and fallow periods have progressively been
getting shorter with disastrous results on land productivity. Other
factors such as climatic change, aridity, poor knowledge and awareness
on proper management of natural resources and poverty have also
contributed to the declining natural resource base in the ASALs.

Conservation, sustainable utilisation and management of the environment
and natural resources form an integral part of ASAL development
planning. All efforts will be made to curb environmental degradation.
Issues to be addressed include rising population and poverty in the
ASALs, sedentarization of mobile herding households, especially around
permanent water sources, poor land tenure systems, low levels of
environmental data collection, poor management of water catchment and
riparian vegetation and the lack of enforcement of environmental laws.
In addition, communities in ASALs have not been enabled through proper
land tenure systems and local governance structures to effectively and
adequately participate in the management of natural resources and the
environment. The practice of traditional range management principles has
thus been slowly eroded, with elders and grazing management committees
wielding less and less authority over traditional natural resource
management and the enforcement of laws and regulations.

This policy favours a community-driven approach to rangeland management
and utilisation. Government will support efforts aimed at strengthening
traditional rangeland resource use in order to effectively and
efficiently utilise natural resources in a sustainable manner. Land
tenure issues will be addressed to ensure that ownership and utilisation
of rangelands is clear and effective. To ensure proper environmental
management and conservation, and in line with the National Environmental
Management Act, the Government and other stakeholders will create
awareness on the dangers of a degraded environment. The Government will
involve communities in environmental management activities such as
rehabilitation of degraded areas, reforestation and the development and
enforcement of environmental standards and sustainability indicators. An
intensive natural resource inventory coupled with research on the
interaction of human population dynamics and the environment will be
undertaken to ensure that natural resources in the ASALs are utilized in
a sustainable fashion.

***4.1.5 Support to irrigated farming in the ASALs***: Agriculture is
the mainstay of the country's economy. It constitutes the main source of
livelihood for most Kenyans. Agriculture contributes 26% of GDP and 60%
of the total export earnings. Moreover, through linkages with
manufacturing, distribution and service-related sectors, agriculture
indirectly contributes a further 27% of the country's GDP and employs
about 80% of Kenya's population. Kenya's agriculture is predominantly
rain-fed. It is concentrated in 20% of the country, which is classified
as high to medium potential. The remaining 80% of the country is ASAL,
an area of low moisture content. In view of the large land area of the
country with low moisture content, Kenya's agricultural potential can
substantially be enhanced through appropriate irrigation development.
Over the years, availability of high potential cropland has declined
with the growth of population and the expansion of competing uses for
such land, forestry, wildlife conservation and urban development, among
others.

Current estimates indicate a potential of 540,000ha for irrigation. As
at 1999, only 1.5% of cultivated area (about 82,000ha) was under
irrigation, which was about 14% of the potentially irrigable area.
Private farmers cultivate 40% of irrigated land for horticulture and
export crops, and smallholder farmers and government-managed schemes
cultivate 42% and 18% of the irrigated land, respectively, for food
crops and vegetables. However, irrigation efficiency and yield per acre
are still low. This is because of use of outdated irrigation
technologies and a general lack of institutional and financial support
systems to farmers. Land use policies and practices such as introduction
of cultivation and new cropping systems, sub-division of land,
settlements and related activities, irrigation schemes, and sedentary
farming and livestock management have often been promoted with little
regard to their impacts on the environment and on social-cultural and
livelihood systems of the local people. Their impacts are now being seen
in form of widespread land degradation, failed large irrigation schemes,
land use conflicts between pastoralists and farmers, unsustainable use
of resources, loss of biodiversity, soil erosion and increasing
household food insecurity etc.

The policy direction is to develop the potential of sustainable
irrigated agriculture, fisheries and livestock development in order to
strengthen the country's overall agricultural performance. However,
while large scale irrigation schemes have been tried in districts such
as Tana River and Turkana with poor results, potential exists for small
and opportunistic rain-fed schemes together with small-scale irrigated
agriculture along the Ewaso Nyiro basin, the Kerio, Tana and Turkwell
rivers that flow through arid districts. Where communities have already
adapted this livelihood strategy, support will be provided to ensure
that they maximise their produce from such schemes. However, technical,
social, environmental and economic sustainability of such schemes will
be an important consideration in irrigation development in these areas
and strict control will be applied in order to prevent e.g. land
degradation and poor water management. Where such schemes are supported,
emphasis will be put on drought tolerant and early maturing crop
varieties of sorghum, cassava, pigeon pea and beans. In addition, it
would be important to ensure that pastoralists have access to the rivers
to water their animals.

***4.1.6 Reviewing land tenure systems*:** Land tenure arrangements have
constrained social and economic development in ASAL areas. The
management of land (use, access, control) is, for example, central to
pastoral production systems but is poorly recognised in current land
tenure arrangements. Land holding arrangements are currently in three
legal categories as follows: Government land, Private land and
Trustland. In pastoral areas, Trustland is the dominant tenure
arrangement. Trustlands are vested in County Councils who hold the land
on behalf of residents. However, under the Trustland Act, rights and
interests of local communities under customary law are irremediably
extinguishable at will through the use of statutory laws. As a result,
there has been a trend of giving away Trustland piecemeal through local
adjudication processes and continual allocation of chunks of land to
individuals or government institutions. Pastoralists have lost land to
irrigation schemes, wildlife conservation, military exercise grounds and
other uses. If the 'common property rights approach' to utilisation of
resources is abandoned, the vast majority of pastoralists stand to lose,
as present livestock numbers cannot be maintained unless access is
assured to spatially and temporally variable resources. However, at the
same time, the current land tenure arrangements are failing and risk
further loss of life and property and intensifying conflict. Land tenure
and land ownership among ASAL communities should be adequately resolved
through appropriate legal frameworks in order to diffuse inter-ethnic
conflicts, competition over critical communal resources and to provide
an effective system through which the natural resource base can be
improved and managed on a sustainable basis by the communities
themselves. Sorting out these land tenure issues in the ASALs is a
delicate, intricate, and long-term challenge, which must be faced and
resolved at all costs.

The following areas will be given priority in resolving land tenure
problems in the ASALs:

-   As a first step, inventory of the nature of land tenure
    arrangements, resource planning and use will be undertaken and
    databases availed for public inspection and reference;

-   Legislation pertaining to land tenure arrangements that are
    favourable to ASAL livelihoods will be enacted;

-   The government will declare a moratorium on all trust land to stop
    groups trying to privatise crucial grazing areas;

-   Establishment of accountable land boards that are acceptable and
    respected by the local communities;

-   Regulation of land sales based on the need to protect livelihoods to
    avoid future conflicts, and

-   Community participation in land tenure arrangements will be promoted
    through strengthening community capacities to manage their own lands
    and to decide how best the land will be owned and managed.

***4.1.7 Social and community development**:* The ability of a country
to sustain development is determined to a large extent by the capacity
of its people and institutions to fully appreciate and efficiently
manage complex environment, land tenure and other development issues.
This requires technological, scientific, managerial, and institutional
capacities. Knowledge and skills at the individual and institutional
levels are necessary for policy analysis, institutional building, and
efficient resource management. There is need to expand training
programmes and strengthen institutional capacity in ASAL management.
This will require a participatory strategy involving the public and
private sectors, NGOs and local communities at all levels. The
Government will support the determination of the capacity and capability
requirements and identify priorities. The capability of training
institutions such as pastoral training institutes, universities and
colleges will be strengthened for them to fulfil their mandate with
regard to ASAL development concerns and sustainable development.
Development and maintenance of human resource capacities will be
undertaken while the coordination and implementation of human resource
development policies will be supported. The enhancement of technology
transfer and the promotion of technical cooperation between Kenya, and
both regional and international communities on ASAL development will be
promoted. Capacity will be build within government and the private
sector for a better understanding of the ASALs, with a view to
integrating them fully into national development agenda.

Support to local institutional and organizational development will be
emphasised in order to mobilise human and social capital. The key
strategy is to encourage the development of human and social capital
through the development of community groups and associations and
business development groups, e.g., livestock marketing and farmers
cooperatives, that could benefit from credit facilities and the
procurement of agricultural and livestock production inputs. Skills
improvement and training of farmers, business people, especially the
youth, will go a long way in improving the productive capacity of the
population in these areas. Special attention will be given to the
development of practical skills and training school leavers in order to
equip them to better compete in the labour market and to start their own
businesses. Provision of credit through appropriate credit schemes will
be explored and implemented. Improved local governance will be
encouraged in order to enable communities to take charge of their own
destiny through effective participation in decision-making on
development issues. This is because ASAL communities have the right to
education and health and an adequate livelihood including food, water
and shelter, to just and favourable conditions of work, to security and
freedom from violence. They cannot access these rights when their voices
are not heard, when they are discriminated against, or when the state is
not accountable for its human rights obligations.

***4.1.8 Education:*** Education plays an important role in human
development through the process of empowering people to improve their
well-being and participate actively in nation building. However, the
ASALs, particularly the arid districts, have shown a significant lag,
not only in national examination performance, but also with respect to
enrolment rates compared to the gross enrolment ratio (GER). ASALs
suffer shortages of primary schools, secondary schools, and other
training institutions including teacher-training centres. Facilities,
where available, are inadequate for the number of children eligible for
enrolment and are under-resourced. The persistent shortage of school
teachers is due to low number of people trained from the pastoral areas,
coupled with the reluctance of teachers from other parts of the country
to work in areas they consider a harsh and hostile environment. Mobile
households represent a special challenge for educational policy makers.
In addition, current curricula are not relevant to or sensitive to the
needs of pastoralist lifestyles and livelihoods. Conditions for girl
students are even worse; many of them drop out of school before class
five due to a host of factors including early marriages/pregnancy.
Without a decent education, those living in the pastoralist sector are
virtually doomed to occupy the lowest ranks of the employment ladder in
the country. As the national situation will only become more competitive
in future, improvement in education is imperative if those from the
ASALs are able to compete with the rest of the Kenyan population.
Education is crucial as a pathway for diversified pastoral livelihoods.

In order to address the challenges facing education in the ASALs, the
following areas will be addressed:

-   Initiate out of school programmes for pastoralist children and
    continue testing out the mobile school approach

-   Develop linkages and equivalencies so that pastoralist children
    receiving non-formal education can move to the formal system at
    various levels

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-   Initiate bursary schemes for children in pastoral areas

-   Provide resources for infrastructure development to improve
    schooling facilities and equipment

-   Strengthen boarding institutions to cater for nomadic pupils

-   Reduce school drop out rates and urban migration by providing food
    and resources to schools particularly those in remote areas

-   Strengthen the capacity of local authorities and school committees,
    to ensure better planning and management of schools

-   Train more local teachers and recruit them in ASALs to reduce the
    chronic shortage of teachers in these areas as people from other
    areas view ASALs as hostile and hardship prone

-   Revise the education curricula to address practical issues of
    lifestyle, means of production, sources of income, the social and
    physical environment, and prepare the youth to face future
    challenges. Curricula should adapted to the herding lifestyle and
    school timetables should be geared towards the labour demands of the
    pastoral calendar

-   Introduce an Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) education system
    for pastoralists. This system has shown promise elsewhere and will
    be explored to try out its viability and application in the Kenyan
    context.

***4.1.9 Health:*** Good health is a pre-requisite for the
socio-economic development of any society. Kenya has recorded positive
health indicators since independence due to the progress made in the
provision of public health and promotion of primary health care.
However, the current trends in health indicators are less optimistic.
Childhood and maternal mortality rates have continued to increase while
life expectancy has decreased. The onset of HIV/AIDS has had a profound
negative impact on the health of the population. Major health sector
problems include: declining health standards and increased re-mergence
of previously controlled diseases such as tuberculosis; emergence of new
diseases such as cancers, diabetes and hypertension due to changes in
diet, lifestyle and climate among other factors; unavailability and high
cost of drugs; lack of access to health care; HIV/AIDS, inadequate
funding and a generally high cost of health care. One of the main
objectives of the National Health Sector Strategic Plan is to enhance
equity, quality, accessibility and affordability of health care through
better targeting of services to the poor. With regard to the ASALs,
health resources will be shifted away from curative services to
preventive/promotive rural health services. Health resources will be
re-directed to those areas that provide maximum benefits to the majority
of the vulnerable groups who form a big proportion of our society.

In addition, health programmes need to be adapted to the peoples\' needs
and lifestyle. Provision of static health facilities should be balanced
with the need to provide mobile clinics. Health facilities will need to
be made more accessible, properly stocked with drugs and other
equipment, properly staffed and improved in terms of infrastructure
relevant to the social and physical environment. In this regard, the
Government and relevant stakeholders will:

-   Strengthen preventive and promotive health care through malaria
    control, expanded programme on immunization, integrated management
    of childhood illnesses, control and prevention of environmentally
    related communicable diseases and encouraging improved nutrition

-   Strengthen curative health care services to manage the top ten
    killer diseases through provision of health personnel, drugs and
    equipment

-   Strengthen community-based health care programmes: development of
    specific curricula and approaches for community health workers and
    traditional birth attendants in pastoral areas, better linkage
    between them and government staff, increase provision for training
    and equipping them

-   Promote mobile outreach clinics for remote areas

-   Ensure that drugs and equipment meant for health facilities reach
    the intended destinations

-   Intensify immunisation of vulnerable children and other members of
    the community and strengthen district capacity to detect and contain
    epidemics

-   Put up health facilities in remote areas where private facilities
    are not available

-   Provide public health education to communities for preventive and
    curative health care

-   Work with the proposed National Social Health Insurance Fund (NSHIF)
    and the private sector to expand coverage and access to health
    insurance for the whole population.

***4.1.10 Trade, Tourism and Industry***: In ASALs, most of the
activities in the informal sector involve trade and commerce rather than
manufacturing. Demand for goods and services depend on local needs and
purchasing power. Unemployment and disasters such as drought constrain
purchasing power, thereby making it difficult for manufactured goods to
find market locally. In addition, the number and types of traded goods
are conditional on the natural resource base. Fruits, vegetables, and
grains, livestock products, handicrafts, items made from raw materials
such as mats, pots, baskets, straps and bricks all rely on the bounty of
the natural environment. Income generating activities are more developed
in the semi arid districts than in arid areas mainly due to a higher
population and slightly better infrastructure. The basic banking
facilities, which have rapidly expanded in the ASALs over the last two
decades are now in place but still not many mobile herders are able to
utilize these services because of difficulties in obtaining credit due
to lack of collateral and other loan securities required by banks. This
has led to poor investment in the ASALs.

Although the potential for industrial development in these areas is
limited, major investments in eco-tourism and livestock-based cottage
industries such as livestock feed formulation factories, abattoirs and
leather-tanning industries could create employment and raise personal
incomes. Much of Kenya's diverse wildlife is preserved in the pastoral
areas. There exists a symbiotic relationship between wildlife and the
pastoral production system as national parks cannot hold all the
wildlife and therefore these are dispersed all over pastoralist lands.
However, with rising human population in pastoralist areas and with
escalating poverty, co-existence is becoming a more complex issue.
Restrictions imposed in the utilisation of national parks and game
reserves by pastoralists has reduced flexibility in co-existence between
pastoralists and wildlife. Conflict is bound to rise.

Key priorities that will encourage private sector investment and
increased trading and business include:

-   Inclusion of wildlife and tourism under enterprise development. Some
    of Kenya's wildlife resources, mainly national parks and reserves,
    and some of the tourist infrastructure are to be found in the ASALs.
    As a result these districts contribute to the tourism income
    realised by the country. Despite the significant contribution to
    tourism, many districts still remain underdeveloped. Mechanisms will
    be put in place in which such districts could benefit directly from
    income realized from tourism and improved employment opportunities
    for local communities;

-   Encourage communities to develop community-owned eco-tourism
    businesses;

-   Improve infrastructure, especially the road network and the
    telecommunication system to facilitate free movement of goods and
    services;

-   Facilitate the establishment of livestock-based industries in the
    ASALs;

-   Review trade-inhibiting policies such as permanent quarantines
    against livestock movements;

-   Provide incentives such as tax rebates and reduced insurance
    premiums for private investors that do not have negative consequence
    on pastoral land;

-   Provide micro-and macro-financing facilities appropriate for ASALs.
    Careful study of various options of suitable credit systems will be
    undertaken in an effort to design credit facilities appropriate for
    pastoral production systems. The concept of village banks and the
    use of new collateral mechanisms that are not land-based such as
    group lending for smallholders will be tried and replicated in order
    to provide the much-needed capital for investing in enterprises such
    as livestock marketing;

-   Strengthen community-based wildlife conservation approaches and
    other innovative approaches through which wildlife can benefit ASAL
    communities directly in order to motivate them to conserve and
    accommodate wildlife in their production systems.

***4.1.11 Integration of Agro-pastoralism***: In the arid areas,
potential exists to cultivate certain areas during favourable seasons,
including in sites such as isolated ranges and hilltops, sheltered
valleys where runoff accumulates, river basins, and plains of better
soils where crops may be planted after exceptionally good rains. Crop
production in these areas can strengthen pastoralist food security. As
the overall production is limited, farms are scattered. In addition,
these farms keep shifting about over the years. In the past little
attention has been given to this type of crop production. However, as
the population increases and families intensify their utilisation of the
land, a growing number of pastoral households are engaging in
crop-farming during high rainfall seasons. Large-scale potential exists
for crop production in a few areas or along major river basins such as
Tana, Turkwell and Ewaso Ngiro. Developing the potential of such basins
through irrigation has been encouraged in a number of areas by
government and donor agencies. Indeed, the government in partnership
with development partners is exploring possibility of investing an
initial Kshs 24 billion in sugarcane production in the Tana River delta.
Irrigation development could create alternative employment for
pastoralists who occupy the river basins, although the government has up
to now seen the irrigation potential in terms of settling surplus
populations from the highland regions. However irrigation and
large-scale agriculture developments have tended to alienate land and
water from pastoralists as a result of lack of an integrated approach to
land use development in the pastoral areas.

Key priority areas in encouraging cropping and irrigation development in
the arid districts include:

-   Development of irrigation schemes along river basins and on isolated
    mountain areas for the benefit of ASAL population. This need to be
    preceded by participatory land use planning; and,

-   Extension assistance and supply of implements to improve cultivation
    in dry lands, including finding the right crop species for such
    areas like quick maturing varieties such as sorghum, cow peas and
    pigeon peas.

## 4.2 Investment in Semi arid districts and in Districts with Pockets of ASAL

The semi-arid districts and those with pockets of ASAL comprise 25
districts of the 36 districts classified as ASALs. These districts
receive between 500mm and 850mm of rainfall annually. In zone IV, the
main farming system is maize/beans/cotton, which predominates in lowland
Machakos and parts of Kitui, Mbeere, Meru North and Baringo districts.
Cattle, sheep and chicken are of local breeds. In this zone the link
between livestock and crop production is complex. Livestock are usually
allowed to graze in the fields after harvest. Some farmers also use
animal manure on their fields and oxen for ploughing. Livestock in
general are an insurance against crop failure. Inadequate rainfall and a
high incidence of pests pose high risks. To minimise these risks farmers
keep livestock, practice mixed cropping, and plant more drought tolerant
crops such as cow and pigeon peas.

In zone V-VI, the main farming system is the maize/cowpea/pigeon peas.
This system is practiced in the low-lying areas that have been rapidly
settled and sub-divided into family farms in the last two decades (since
1980s). Maize is grown by almost all the farmers, but the rate of
failure is high. Soil erosion, low fertility and frequent droughts are
the major production constraints. The zone is ideally suited for sorghum
and millet but maize is increasingly grown. Ownership of livestock,
especially goats, is widespread. A quarter of the households does not
own livestock and depend primarily on subsistence cropping and the
provision of labour to livestock keeping households. Where they exist,
animals are grazed communally and are moved away from the homestead
during the dry season. Examples under this zone include parts of Keiyo,
Marakwet, Tharaka, parts of Kilifi and Baringo and West Pokot.

Areas of intervention in the semi arid districts include:

***4.2.1 Support mixed farming**:* Mixed farming is the commonest
livelihood production system in these areas. The major farming risks are
related to inadequate rainfall and a high incidence of pests. To improve
agriculture and livestock production the government will encourage the
use of appropriate soil and water management techniques for irrigated
agriculture as well as the promotion of better crop husbandry practices
such as early planting and the use of improved drought tolerant crop
varieties of cereals and legumes. Extension services will be improved
under the new approach of extension service provision developed by the
Ministry of Agriculture and other stakeholders. Improved breeds of
livestock, especially dairy goats and cross-bred cattle will be
encouraged in order to improve production. The provision of credit
facilities through farmer-friendly mechanisms will be sought in order to
boost investment in small-scale irrigated agriculture and in livestock
production. The potential for establishing livestock export zones in
districts such as Narok and Laikipia will be explored through
appropriate feasibility studies.

***4.2.2 Environmental conservation**:* Soils in semi arid areas are
generally low in organic matter due to low plant density and fast
microbial activity. They have poor fertility and are inherently shallow,
permitting only limited water retention capacity. The soils are highly
erodable due to poor soil structure and texture, low vegetation cover,
and high rain intensity. This increases their susceptibility to
degradation. Specific soil and water conservation and organic farming
techniques will be supported in order to improve soil fertility and to
prevent land degradation. Agro-forestry will be supported while mixed
farming will continue to be encouraged. Land tenure and ownership is a
key area of intervention. Land adjudication has only been done in a few
ASAL districts. The ongoing review on land ownership and land tenure
should tackle problems of land ownership and therefore increase the
motivation of farmers to invest in their land.

***4.2.3 Water resource development**:* As a result of inadequate
rainfall for cropping, water availability is one of the main factors
limiting the pace of development in semi arid areas. The development of
both surface and ground-water sources will be emphasised. Proven ASAL
water harvesting and supply technologies that are sustainable and
environment-friendly will be given priority. The strategy is to provide
water in sufficient quantities and quality for human and livestock
consumption, crop farming and agro-forestry. The priority will be set by
the communities but with technical input of professionals in this field.
The use of indigenous technical knowledge and locally available
materials in the development of water harvesting and irrigation
facilities will be a key consideration.

Key priorities in the water sector in semi arid districts will include:

-   Discourage the development of permanent water sources such as
    boreholes in the ASALs, which encourage permanent settlements and
    therefore interfere with migratory pastoralist resource use. Instead
    priority should be given to rehabilitating existing ones and
    training community groups to manage these facilities on a
    sustainable basis.

-   Build local capacity for the water facility rapid response teams to
    be financed by the communities and respective local authorities.

-   Levies and cess on livestock sold should be made available to
    maintain the rural boreholes by the rapid response teams.

-   Privatize urban water systems in semi arid districts, while taking
    care of the interests of the poor.

-   Establish institutional mechanisms to facilitate proper handing over
    of public water supplies to communities, the private sector or other
    appropriate entities.

-   Strengthening local institutions/user groups to manage
    community-based resources such as rural water supply systems and
    natural resources. Small dams, water pans and boreholes are the
    major sources of water for livestock in semi arid areas. ASALs are
    considered to have limited water resources with poor distribution.
    They are also characterised by low ground water resources, which are
    exploited using archaic equipment. Most of the latter are now
    obsolete and need to be completely overhauled.

-   De-silting of dams/pans. Most of the recently constructed dams were
    poorly designed and poorly constructed and tend to silt up quickly.
    Almost all the urban water supplies in semi-arid districts are
    non-operational due to poor maintenance. Other small towns depend on
    unsafe sub-surface dams that tend to dry up after the rainy season,
    leading to costly water trucking. Preventable water-borne diseases
    are prevalent in these areas due to lack of water treatment.
    Opportunities for the treatment of available water resources will be
    explored.

***4.2.4 Household food security and drought management**:* Household
food security remains a key challenge in semi-arid districts. As
outlined above in the case for the arid districts, measures will be
taken to boost production through irrigation development and improved
crop and animal husbandry. In addition, drought management initiatives,
currently being implemented in arid districts, will be extended to the
semi arid districts in order to improve drought preparedness and
mitigation measures. Aspects of preparedness such as the stockpiling of
cereals through cereal banks, emergency livestock purchase schemes and
insurance schemes for farmers and agro-pastoralists will all be
supported. Post-harvest technologies will be encouraged in order to
minimise post-harvest losses.

***4.2.5 Social and community development**:* Population increase is
intensifying pressure on social services and land and accelerating the
rate of permanent settlement and urbanization. Demographic growth
signifies the need to diversify income sources and livelihoods. This
requires improved provision of education and training in semi arid
districts just like in the arid districts. The key strategy is to
encourage the development of human and social capital through the
development of community-based groups and associations, business
development groups and the formation of small-scale farmer cooperatives
that could benefit from credit facilities for the procurement of
agricultural and livestock production inputs. Skill improvement and
training of farmers, business people, especially the youth, will go a
long way in improving the productive capacity of the population in these
areas. Special attention will therefore be given to the development of
practical skills and training for school leavers in order to equip them
to better compete in the labour market and to start their own
businesses.

***4.2.6 Other relevant sectors*:** Other relevant sectors include
health, education, infrastructure, trade and industry are similar to the
approach for the arid districts.

# CHAPTER 5: POLICY IMPLEMENTATION FRAMEWORK

## 5.1 Overview of Policy Implementation

This policy provides a framework for the development of the ASALs of
Kenya based on a vision that seeks to address the adverse conditions
that have undermined the long-term development of these areas. It has
been formulated on the basis of the need to have a coherent development
plan for ASALs that is informed by a new understanding of the different
livelihood systems and the causes of poverty in these areas. It is also
based on experiences and lessons learned on ASAL development over the
last decade or so. This policy identifies critical areas and sectors
where investment will immediately stimulate economic growth and
capital/asset accumulation such that wealth is created and poverty and
long-term vulnerability to insecurity and disasters are significantly
reduced by the next 10-15 years. Specifically, the policy builds on the
principles of the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP, 2001) and the
pillars of the Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment
Creation (ERSWEC, 2003-2007).

The principles promulgated in the PRSP include:

-   giving a voice to the poor through a consultative development
    process;

-   participation and ownership of the development process through
    consensus building;

-   transparency, openness and accountability in all aspects of nation
    development planning and prioritization of development initiatives;
    and,

-   equitable distribution of national resources and development
    initiatives.

The four pillars of ERSWEC include:

-   macro-economic stability by enhancing revenue collection,
    expenditure restructuring and establishing an effective monetary
    policy;

-   strengthening institutions of governance through reforms in public
    administration, national security and law enforcement;

-   rehabilitation and expansion of physical infrastructure, namely,
    roads, telecommunication, railway, air transport, electricity and
    water; and,

-   investment in human capital development through provision of free
    primary education, increasing bursaries in secondary schools,
    provision of improved health services and continuing the fight
    against HIV/AIDS.

The main thrusts in implementing this ASAL development policy are:

-   Improving natural resource management in order to maintain
    environmental sustainability;

-   Reducing food and human insecurity/banditry;

-   Providing basic social services and improving infrastructure and
    communication systems;

-   Supporting the growth and development of community-based
    organisations such as pastoral associations and farmers co-operative
    unions in order to mobilise much needed community-based
    institutional capacity and socio-economic capital necessary for the
    development and growth of the ASAL economy;

-   This will be achieved through decentralised planning and decision
    making through enhanced local governance; and,

-   Supporting the diversification of livelihood strategies and private
    sector investment and development.

## 5.2 Framework for Policy Implementation

The operational framework for this policy is guided by the following
overall goal:

> **Poverty reduction and wealth and employment creation in the ASALs is
> achieved and the contribution of the ASAL economy to national
> development objectives, as expressed in the Poverty Reduction Strategy
> Paper (PRSP, 2001) and the Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and
> Employment Creation (ERSWEC, 2003-2007).are realized.**

This goal is only achievable if the policy's immediate objective of
enhanced food security, improved living standards and reduced dependency
on food aid by the ASAL population is met. The figure below illustrates
the policy implementation framework.

The verifiable indicators for the achievement of this policy goal
include:

-   Provision of basic social services (education and health facilities)
    and physical infrastructure (roads, telecommunication, water and
    electricity) by 2010;

-   Reduction in insecurity (both food & human) in the ASALs by 2015 in
    line with the Millennium Development Goals;

-   Improved natural resource management -- on a continuous basis;

-   Establishment of national planning and funding framework for ASALs
    by 2005; and

-   Diversification of pastoral livelihood strategies through increased
    private sector investment by 2010.

This policy recognises the following crosscutting themes in its
implementation:

-   The necessity of gender equity in the development of the ASALs. Both
    women and men must participate in development and be given equal
    opportunities in resource allocation and in decision-making in
    matters that affect their development and future;

-   The impact of HIV/AIDS especially on household food security and
    income generation needs to be dealt with as a matter of urgency;

-   Peace building and conflict management need to be given due
    consideration in the fight against poverty in the ASALs;

-   Effective environmental conservation and management ought to be
    given important consideration in the ASAL;

-   Drought and flood management in order to reduce their negative
    impacts will be strengthened; and,

-   The role of research and technology development with specific
    attention to ASALs' unique circumstances.

All interventions implemented in ASALs will ensure that these aspects
are considered and mainstreamed into the national budget and development
planning programmes.

## 5.3 Policy Guidelines to Facilitate Implementation

The following guidelines will facilitate the implementation of this
policy:

-   Implementation of interventions will be based upon the varied
    ecological and livelihood systems in ASALs;

-   An acceptance of the principle of subsidiarity. For example, where
    ASAL communities and policy makers disagreed on any major policy
    issue (destocking, livestock taxation) hindsight has usually shown
    that communities were right. The Government will give opportunity to
    communities, whose lives are affected most by policies, to have a
    voice on policies and any decisions emanating from them;

-   Policies should be 'appropriate'. This policy will seek to enhance
    ASAL communities" strengths and institutions rather than replace
    them. Entrepreneurship, trading networks, mobility, flexibility,
    courage, independence and individualism are some of the strengths of
    ASAL communities that many previous interventions have ignored or
    undermined;

-   Interventions will adopt an integrated and multi-sectoral approach
    as opposed to purely sectoral ones;

-   Include appropriate and adaptable technologies for accelerating
    development programmes (learning from other arid and semi arid areas
    of the world); and,

-   A regional approach: The people living in the ASALs live across
    borders and that policies related to disease surveillance, livestock
    marketing and conflict resolution should reflect this;

## 5.4 Principles for Policy Implementation

The following principles need to be considered in the implementation of
this policy:

**Co-ordination:** This policy will take into account other policies of
the Government to ensure consistency across different ministries and
sectors. Where ministries have developed clear implementation
strategies, this policy should support such initiatives instead of
seeking to "re-invent" the wheel. The implementation approach of this
ASAL policy will be both **integrated** and **coordinated**. Elements of
these two approaches include:

+---------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| **Integrated approach**         | **Coordinated approach**           |
+---------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| -   Pastoral livelihood         | -   Problem oriented: combining    |
|     systems;                    |     donor and Government of Kenya  |
|                                 |     resources;                     |
| -   Agro pastoral livelihood    |                                    |
|     systems;                    | -   Multi disciplinary teams;      |
|                                 |                                    |
| -   Marginal agriculture        | -   Community participation; and   |
|     livelihood systems;         |                                    |
|                                 | -   Cost sharing.                  |
| -   An understanding of risk    |                                    |
|     and vulnerability; and      |                                    |
|                                 |                                    |
| -   An understanding of         |                                    |
|     conflict dynamics;          |                                    |
+---------------------------------+------------------------------------+

**Participatory processes**: Community, Government, Civil Society
Organizations and other partners' participation is key to successful
implementation of this policy.

**Flexibility**: Implementation of this policy should be based on
experience and lessons learned from the past, with due attention given
to indigenous and traditional knowledge and approaches of ASAL
communities.

**Adaptation to local and changing realities:** The ASAL environment is
very dynamic and circumstances change very quickly. Policy
implementation will be sensitive to this in order to ensure that the
policy serves the short-term as well as medium and long-term needs of
ASAL communities.

**Appropriate service provision**: Provision of services as outlined in
earlier chapters is key to facilitating development in the ASALs. These
services should be sensitive to the needs of mobile herding families or
groups, especially with regard to education, health and water
facilities.

**The need for income diversification:** Human population is rising
while the resource base and assets in the ASALs continue to decline.
This policy will be implemented in a fashion that supports the
diversification of incomes and livelihoods in order to allow some form
of "human off take" from the ASALs to other livelihood strategies.

**Improving the human and institutional capacity of development agents
in the ASALs**: Ultimately, development is about people and their
institutions and not about activities and production *per se*. Due
attention will be given to the development of human and social capital.

**Being aware of the degree of constraints facing development efforts in
these areas:** The challenges of ASAL development are real. They need to
be approached carefully through evolutionary rather than "quick fix"
solutions that may be too radical to be sustainable. Development is a
process that should be spearheaded by the communities themselves; it
must go at their pace.

**Implementation will build on good examples** that have been successful
in semi arid rural development programmes. For example, success has been
realized with a change from focusing on district-wide interventions to
"geographic concentration areas" by strengthening community
self-management with the aim of achieving participatory planning at the
grass roots level. These geographic concentration areas are based on
livelihood zones that include both ecological zones as well as economic
production zones.

**Regional approach -- cross-border co-operation**: Many of the key
issues are best addressed when considered at a regional level. This is
the case for livestock marketing, livestock disease control, food
security/drought & conflict management, and cross-border trade.
Institutional arrangements are already in place in the form of existing
forums such as the AU/IBAR programme, FEWS-NET, the East African
Co-operation and IGAD, among others. This policy will take advantage of
these avenues where appropriate.

**Decentralized services with concentrated strategic investments**: The
ASAL policy needs to reconcile the need for cost-effective delivery of
services in mobile and semi mobile livelihood systems commonly found in
ASALs. Privatization of public services such as provision of animal
health and livestock marketing will ensure increased access of these
services in the ASALs. Recent research with pastoral communities shows
that an intermediary economic scale is required between the household
and relief distribution sites, which are in most cases restricted to the
provincial capitals. When pastoralists venture into such areas they get
caught up in low-income work (such as *Askaris*, trading on their
reputation for ferocity) and never return to mobile livestock keeping.
This represents a loss of highly specialized and difficult to acquire
livelihood skills, rather like the loss of biodiversity. It is also a
loss to the national economy.

## 5.5 A Suggested Approach to Provision of Services in the ASALs

The Government proposes the creation of 'oases of services and asset
rebuilding' as a buffer between the rural and urban economies. This has
existed throughout history in the ASALs of Africa in the form of
physical oases, which served as nodes of dense trading networks. These
networks connected the Islamic world to sub-Saharan Africa and produced
considerable wealth and facilitated the flow of technical and
administrative innovations. Research into Kenya's pre-colonial economy
reveals integrated and dense trading networks based on comparative
advantage. This was, however, distorted by the colonial experience,
which sequestered the mobile livestock sector to native reserves and
frontier provinces, and focused service provision on the highlands. The
ramifications of this 'two track' colonial development policy can be
felt up today.

A new model for the development of Kenya's ASALs should involve
decentralized service provision and asset rebuilding opportunities to
mitigate against the pull of large centers where ASAL community skills
are not needed. Such a model should involve investing not so much in
particular technologies or programs but rather it should take a
**'strategic geographic approach'**. This would reflect current trade
networks, transport corridors, service centers, areas of reliable
grazing, water points, local economic resources, concentration of local
skills and zones of insecurity. It should also examine the current logic
of the way in which the ASAL area interacts with itself, the highlands
and the neighboring markets.

The approach would identify areas where meager government and donor
resources could be deployed with greater effectiveness than simply
responding to emergency situations or the most promising technology or
even according to greatest need but not necessarily the absorptive
capacity. Such an idea draws on the strengths of area-based Integrated
Development Programs that were popular in the 1970s but which proved to
be too complex, centralized, resource intensive and geographically
limited.

This policy proposes the identification of the most promising **entry
points** in the ASAL geography. This essentially is about location - of
grass, water, transport, markets, enemies, services, etc -- and building
the capacity of local agents with a higher level of education and/or
experience to assist their fellows in skill development, marketing,
credit provision, formal education, veterinary services, stock
rebuilding through dry season fodder enclosures based on water
harvesting, dry land gardens based on solar pumping for low cost drip
irrigation. Insurance, asset rebuilding, service provision and skill
upgrading nodes would be linked through an improved network of secondary
or tertiary roads. The equipment for the maintenance of roads would also
be used for soil and water conservation structures when not in use.

There is a fundamental disconnect between ASAL policy to date and the
socio-economics of these areas. Given the low population densities of
these areas, the only logical way to provide services, while maintaining
the traditional land use strategy, is to decentralize them. In fact,
this would mimic what was created largely by the private sector in the
development of rural areas in most developed countries. This can be done
virtually, through radio and/or through mobile services where justified,
and/or through a network of service points, as suggested above. An
advantage of the latter would be increased security, currently a major
impediment to the development of ASALs. Service provision would also
have to be localized. This would need to take place in the context of
devolution of decision-making and resource allocation in order to ensure
local relevance, as well as through institutionalizing local conflict
resolution mechanisms, without losing a coherent and long term vision
and an emphasis on the **connectedness to the rest of the economy**.

## 5.6 Challenge of Implementation Capacity

In ASALs, the biggest challenge to public administration and the
delivery of services is probably the lack of adequate implementation
capacity. Corruption, lethargy, inadequate skills in participatory
development and administration among extension workers and other civil
servants, lack of recurrent budgetary provisions due to slow and poor
economic growth and a generally non-responsive civil service are the key
problems. Most parastatals are ineffective and are spending taxpayers'
money but offering almost nothing in return. The extension service has
almost come to a standstill for lack of resources and the District Focus
for Rural Development structure is almost obsolete for lack of
resources, leadership and innovation.

The Government of Kenya has over the last two decades been transferring
responsibility (especially in water development and animal health
sectors) for maintaining facilities and providing services to
communities. This is mainly due to lack of adequate resources and the
realisation that some of these services are best when provided by the
private sector. As local economies in the ASALs are still incapable of
supporting private enterprises, this means that responsibility is
largely being transferred to community-based institutional structures.
The transfer of this responsibility has in most cases been done
haphazardly and without adequate preparation on the part of communities
to assume their new role. As services still need to be provided and
facilities maintained, NGOs and religious-based organizations have
stepped in to support communities.

Government will redefine its role, that, from being a service provider
to being a quality controller, facilitator and regulatory partner.
Aspects such as the establishment of an effective and sustainable food
security and drought management institutional framework, the maintenance
of basic infrastructure like roads and communication systems, disease
surveillance and district-level technical advisory services will however
be undertaken by Government.

Retraining of civil servants including provincial administrators and
especially policy makers and extension workers should aim at improving
participatory development skills among them so that they can effectively
facilitate community participation with ASAL communities' involvement in
development processes. In addition, the strengthening of institutions
for fighting corruption (e.g. the establishment of the Civil Servant
Wealth Declaration exercise, the Kenya Anti-Corruption Authority with
power to prosecute and the enactment of the Protection of Witnesses
Bill) will go a long way in ensuring that public resources meant for
ASAL development reach their target beneficiaries.

## 5.7 Proposed Points of Institutional Arrangements for Policy Implementation

Development programmes and projects will be implemented in an integrated
multi-sectoral approach. In addition, strong co-ordination and
collaborative mechanisms among stakeholders will be encouraged in order
to improve efficiency in implementation. The following guidelines will
be applied during the preparation and implementation of projects and
programmes:

1.  Projects and programmes will be undertaken within the District Focus
    Strategy, but with emphasis on sub-contracting to the most suited
    agency on the ground. In other words, implementing partners can be
    the GoK, CBOs, NGOs, private sector institutions or any other agency
    or association with the capacity to implement in a specific location
    in the district. Where institutions like pastoral associations
    already exist such as in Wajir district, implementation contracts
    will be awarded to them. As far as possible, decision-making will be
    devolved to the divisional and village levels. The approach used in
    food aid targeting and distribution exercise during the 1999-2001
    drought relief programme in which communities were actively involved
    in decision making and implementation should be adopted. Priority
    will be given to those agencies that already have an on-going
    relationship with target communities depending on their previous
    performance. Farmers' membership organizations and pastoral
    associations will be encouraged to apply for such implementation
    contracts.

2.  In the arid districts, the co-ordination, facilitation and
    implementation of programmes will be done by the District Steering
    Groups (DSGs) since they already exist. These DSGs will ensure that
    adequate targeting, assessments and appraisals are undertaken and
    that communities get involved in the design and planning of
    projects. Monitoring and evaluation will be developed with
    communities based on appropriate project cycle, management
    procedures and norms. In the semi-arid districts, the relevant
    sub-committee of the District Development Committee (DDC), the
    equivalent of DSGs, will be responsible for co-ordination,
    facilitation and implementation. Appropriate Programme
    Implementation Plans (PIPs) that stipulate the implementation
    process will be development by the DSGs or their equivalents.

3.  Funding will be disbursed from National Treasury to the Districts
    via the national authority responsible for ASAL development.
    Government departments at the district level will receive their
    normal recurrent budgets from parent ministries. Development funds
    will disburse to the district in one block earmarked for specific
    sectors. The DSGs will appoint four signatories who will be
    responsible for signing for funds that will be disbursed to
    different community projects based on a transparent and accountable
    system. Within two weeks of receipt of funds, the district
    authorities will ensure that the total funding received by the
    district per sector is displayed at the district, divisional and
    locational levels. This is meant to inform the public on the amount
    of development funds received while at the same time requesting
    proposals from communities and prospective implementing agencies.
    Once different programmes and projects have been approved, the same
    communication channels will be used to inform the public on the way
    the funds have been allocated for different activities and
    geographical locations.

4.  The role of Government departments at the district level will be to
    provide technical advice to communities and implementing agencies
    and to participate in monitoring and evaluation exercises to ensure
    appropriate implementation standards. Where technical expertise is
    not available from departments and among implementing agencies, this
    may be contracted from the private sector to ensure that programmes
    are technically sound.

5.  At the national level, an ASAL development forum, possibly from
    members currently making up the Kenya Food Security Meeting (KFSM),
    will be established with representation from key relevant
    ministries, UN agencies, NGOs and donor representatives. This forum
    will form the national focal point that will liaise with the
    districts in overseeing the implementation of the programmes in the
    ASALs. This forum will be coordinated by the Office of the President
    and will provide information and advice to the Inter-Ministerial
    Committee (or Authority) on ASAL development to be formed.

6.  Within the DSGs, sectoral teams (working groups) will be formed to
    oversee the design, planning and approval of projects and programmes
    in different sectors. For example, the water sector will have a
    working group that specifically focuses on the sector and provides
    technical support and advice to implementing agencies and
    communities. This working group will comprise of members from
    Government departments, civil society organisations and key
    community and religious representatives. The sectoral working groups
    are technical advisory groups to the DSGs. Where appropriate,
    integrated or multi-sectoral approach to programming will need to be
    undertaken.

7.  At the community level, the implementing agency will establish a
    project or programme implementation committee comprising of
    community members, community-based organisations and local leaders.
    These committees will work with the appointed implementing agency to
    ensure that implementation is effective, efficient and timely. In
    many respects, this will be a watchdog committee for the community.
    Communities and local institutions will play a leading role in all
    stages of project preparation and design. Their full participation
    in the implementation, monitoring and evaluation will be ensured.

8.  Ecological, social, livelihood and economic appraisal criteria will
    be applied to ensure sustainability of project/program activities.
    Community contributions, both financial and in kind, will be sought
    in order to enhance ownership of outputs. Special consideration will
    be given to criteria related to environmental concerns, gender
    equity, poverty reduction and wealth and employment creation, income
    generation and risk reduction.

Recognising that cause and effect relationships in terms of ecological,
social and economic issues are usually not restricted to a given
district and that interactions exist between districts, avenues will be
sought for effecting symbiotic exchange of resources and products
between ASAL and non-ASAL districts. In addition, cross-border and
regional programming will be undertaken, especially in aspects such as
livestock disease surveillance and control as well as in conflict and
disaster management initiatives.

# CHAPTER 6: INVESTMENT PROPOSALS

## 6.1 Resource Mobilization

The Government will seek to develop genuine partnerships with
communities residing in the ASALs, the private sector and development
partners in order to provide an enabling environment for meaningful
development in ASALs. More than ever before, the Government will commit
more financial resources through its Medium Term Expenditure Framework
(MTEF) process to develop basic infrastructure and social services that
will enhance the development of natural, social and economic capitals in
the ASALs. It will encourage investments and contributions from the
private sector, especially from sectors and institutions that benefit
directly from the ASALs such as the tourism sector. In addition, the
government will seek help from national and international partners
interested in sustainable development of the ASALs.

The Government, through working groups in relevant Ministries, has come
up with investment proposals based on estimates that can effectively
address the needs in each sector. The approach adopted in the allocation
of these resources engenders implementation of interventions based on
collaboration among partners in each sector. For example, the investment
proposals in the water sector have been aggregated based on estimates
from Irrigation and Drainage Department, the Ministry of Livestock and
Fisheries Development, the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of
Water Resources Management and Development. This means that funding for
water development comes under one unified sector and not divided among
different ministries, as is the case currently. It is hoped that by
taking this approach, development in each sector will be much more
co-ordinated, effective and efficient, as long as different ministries
and other relevant stakeholders work together.

The Government is committed to the revitalisation of arid and semi arid
areas. Towards this end, the Government will invest Kshs 217 billion in
ASAL development over the next 10 years. Seventy five percent of this
budget will go towards improvement of roads, water resources, livestock,
agriculture and communication. The remaining 25% will be spent in
health, education, disaster and conflict management as well as in
enhancing ASAL food security.

## 6.2 Investment Priorities

In accordance with the proposals expressed in the ERSWEC, the following
are the key priority areas for investment in ASALs:

-   **Roads and telecommunication**: All major roads in ASALs such as
    Isiolo-Moyale; Garissa-Mandera, Narok-Ilkerin, Emali-Loitoktok,
    Bura-Garsen and Kapenguria--Lodwar will be rehabilitated and
    bituminised in the ongoing Roads 2000 Program. In addition,
    Wajir-Moyale, Isiolo-Modogashe and Maralal-Chemolingot roads will be
    gravelled into all weather roads. Landline telephone network will be
    extended to cover remote areas while cell phone service providers
    will be encouraged to cover all ASAL districts. The commissioning of
    the third mobile phone provider will hopefully lower mobile
    telephone tariffs to make them more affordable by the rural
    communities.

-   **Livestock and Agriculture**: Disease control measures, improved
    livestock production, husbandry and marketing, strengthening of
    range management and rehabilitation of degraded land, water
    harvesting and the development of emerging livestock such as ostrich
    farming, beekeeping. The possibilities of exporting livestock and
    livestock products, especially the camel, to external markets will
    be explored. Livestock-based factories e.g. abattoirs, milk and
    leather factories will be developed close to producing areas. The
    area under cultivation will be increased through irrigation
    development, water harvesting for crop production, drought tolerant
    crops and improved extension services. Credit facilities for
    pastoralists and farmers will be developed and access to markets
    enhanced through better infrastructure and communications.

-   **Water**: Existing water facilities will be rehabilitated and new
    water points will be put up where they are seen not to damage the
    environment.

-   **Environment:** Emphasis on environmental management in order to
    enhance environmental sustainability will be pursued.

-   **Disaster Management**: Disasters such as drought, conflict, floods
    and disease epidemics in the ASALs will be managed effectively
    through development and implementation of a disaster management
    policy and establishment of community-based drought early warning
    systems in all ASAL districts to provide accurate and timely
    information to decision makers at all levels.

-   **Health:** Provision of appropriate health facilities and services
    in the ASALs will be undertaken while HIV/AIDS will be fought
    against. In addition Reproductive health services, especially among
    youth will be improved. More doctors, nurses and clinical officers
    will be posted to the ASALs.

-   **Education**: Boarding institutions will be strengthened, bursary
    schemes will be initiated and food will be provided to pastoralist
    children. Mobile schools will continue to be piloted. More teachers
    will be posted to the ASALs to reduce the chronic shortage. Negative
    attitudinal biases against nomadic herding and pastoralism will be
    fought against.

-   **Tourism, Trade and Industry**: Support will be given to the
    development of community-owned eco-tourism and wildlife
    conservation. Revenue sharing and management of funds accruing from
    wildlife collected by county councils on behalf of communities will
    be improved. There is also need to strengthen community-based
    wildlife conservation and other approaches through which wildlife
    can benefit pastoralists directly so as to motivate them to conserve
    and accommodate wildlife in their production systems.

-   **Rural Electrification and Solar Energy Development** -- The
    ongoing rural electrification programme will be extended to ASAL
    districts. The provision of electricity will provide the power
    necessary for the efficient functioning of telecommunications in
    addition to creating employment opportunities in small-scale
    processing and manufacturing businesses in ASAL. The use of solar
    energy in institutions such as hospitals and schools will be
    explored while wind energy will be developed for irrigation
    purposes.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc90953655 .anchor}Table 5: Summary Matrix for ASAL
Investment Plan (2005--2014) -- Arid Districts

+------+---------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| ###  | **Approach**  | **Investment priority | **Expected results &  |
| # Se |               | areas**               | Outputs**             |
| ctor |               |                       |                       |
+------+---------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Dev  | -Bituminize   | -Bituminize           | -More trade, more     |
| elop | major         | Garissa-Mandera Road, | interaction between   |
| ment | strategic     | Bura-Garsen,          | ASAL districts and    |
| of   | trunk roads;  | Kitale-Lodwar, and    | non-ASALs; improved   |
| the  | make others   | Moyale-Isiolo.        | security;             |
| road | all-weather;  |                       |                       |
| net  |               | -Rehabilitate other   | -Improved tourism;    |
| work | -Improve      | strategic and         | reduced transport     |
| and  | c             | security roads to all | costs; ASAL areas     |
| co   | ommunications | weather.              | much more accessible  |
| mmun | through       |                       | to markets; cheaper   |
| icat | telephone and | -Use human labour as  | communication and     |
| ions | radio.        | much as possible in   | improved information  |
|      |               | order to create       | exchange.             |
|      |               | employment in the     |                       |
|      |               | ASALs.                |                       |
|      |               |                       |                       |
|      |               | -Improve telephone    |                       |
|      |               | network and support   |                       |
|      |               | cell phone services.  |                       |
+------+---------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| L    | -Invest in    | -Develop              | -Reduced              |
| ives | appropriate   | decentralised animal  | disease-related       |
| tock | disease       | health care systems   | livestock losses      |
| &f   | control and   |                       | among pastoralists;   |
| ishe | surveillance  | -Abattoir development |                       |
| ries | systems;      | in 3 strategic sites; | \- Improved livestock |
| pr   |               |                       | off-take from 5%      |
| oduc | -Develop      | -Strengthened         | -12%;                 |
| tion | regional and  | drought-related       |                       |
| and  | cross-border  | livestock marketing;  | -Prices of livestock  |
| m    | livestock     |                       | raised due to         |
| arke | production    | -Livestock            | competitive           |
| ting | systems;      | disease-free zones    | marketing;            |
|      |               | established;          |                       |
|      | -Improve      |                       | \- Improved household |
|      | livestock     | -Community-based      | food security and     |
|      | marketing     | animal health workers | asset accumulation    |
|      | in            | service provision is  | and investment;       |
|      | frastructure; | streamlined and is    |                       |
|      |               | effective;            | -Livestock disease    |
|      | -Promote      |                       | free zones            |
|      | camel         | -Annual vaccinations  | established for       |
|      | development   | against key           | export purposes       |
|      |               | notifiable diseases   |                       |
|      | -Explore      | effected.             |                       |
|      | possibilities |                       |                       |
|      | for livestock |                       |                       |
|      | and livestock |                       |                       |
|      | product       |                       |                       |
|      | exports.      |                       |                       |
+------+---------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| W    | -Conservation | -Rehabilitate         | -Improved soil and    |
| ater | of            | permanent water       | water conservation    |
| dev  | environment;  | sources e.g. wells &  |                       |
| elop |               | boreholes;            | \- Quantity and       |
| ment | -Consider     | construction of small | quality of domestic   |
|      | nomadic       | & medium sized dams;  | water improved        |
|      | nature of     |                       |                       |
|      | pastoralists; | -Capacity for rapid   | \- Hectares under     |
|      |               | maintenance response  | rain-fed and          |
|      | -Low cost     | teams;                | irrigated agriculture |
|      | 'appropriate' |                       | significantly         |
|      | technologies; | -Develop community    | improved;             |
|      |               | capacity to manage    |                       |
|      | -Charging     | water supplies in an  | \- Community capacity |
|      | user fees --  | effective and         | to maintain water     |
|      | urban         | sustainable manner    | supply systems and to |
|      | supplies      |                       | run them on a         |
|      | operated by   | -Develop water for    | sustainable basis     |
|      | private       | irrigation            | strengthened          |
|      | enterprises;  |                       |                       |
|      |               | -Develop water and    | -Water and sanitation |
|      |               | sanitation systems    | systems in major      |
|      |               |                       | centres developed and |
|      |               |                       | improved              |
+------+---------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| E    | Invest in     | Train more teachers   | -Improved facilities  |
| duca | appropriate   | from arid districts;  | for free primary      |
| tion | facilities    |                       | education;            |
|      | and           | Supporting boarding   |                       |
|      | approaches to | facilities in settled | -Enrolment in primary |
|      | improve       | areas                 | school improved by    |
|      | primary level |                       | 50%                   |
|      | education;    | Encourage improved    |                       |
|      |               | enrolment rates       | -Nomadic and mobile   |
|      |               | through provision of  | education for         |
|      |               | lunch for children    | pastoralist children  |
|      |               |                       | fully operational and |
|      |               | Support mobile        | effective;            |
|      |               | schools for nomadic   |                       |
|      |               | children              | -Performance in       |
|      |               |                       | primary level         |
|      |               | Provide bursary funds | examinations          |
|      |               | for secondary and     | significantly         |
|      |               | college students.     | improved;             |
|      |               |                       |                       |
|      |               |                       | -Practical and        |
|      |               |                       | relevant skills among |
|      |               |                       | youths                |
|      |               |                       |                       |
|      |               |                       | -Adult literacy       |
|      |               |                       | levels improved by at |
|      |               |                       | least 60%             |
|      |               |                       |                       |
|      |               |                       | -Access to            |
|      |               |                       | post-primary          |
|      |               |                       | schooling and         |
|      |               |                       | training              |
+------+---------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| He   | Investment in | -HIV/ A\|IDS          | \- Declining numbers  |
| alth | health for    | component to include  | of HIV/AIDS           |
|      | economic      | TB;                   | infections;           |
|      | development   |                       |                       |
|      | (WHO);        | -Health facilities    | -Availability and     |
|      |               | (mobile & static)     | access to health      |
|      |               | with radio connection | facilities by         |
|      |               | for referrals;        | semi-nomadic          |
|      |               |                       | pastoralists          |
|      |               | -Strengthen primary   | significantly         |
|      |               | health care among     | improved;             |
|      |               | nomadic and           |                       |
|      |               | semi-nomadic          | -Low mortality rates  |
|      |               | communities           | among children under  |
|      |               |                       | five yrs;             |
|      |               | -Invest in human      |                       |
|      |               | resource capacity     | \- Improved health of |
|      |               | e.g. training of      | majority of           |
|      |               | personnel from        | population;           |
|      |               | pastoralist areas     |                       |
|      |               | e.g. nurses, COs,     | -Life expectancy      |
|      |               | etc.                  | raised by 5-10 years  |
|      |               |                       |                       |
|      |               | -Strengthen public    |                       |
|      |               | health and education  |                       |
|      |               |                       |                       |
|      |               | -KEPI vaccination     |                       |
|      |               | campaigns             |                       |
|      |               |                       |                       |
|      |               | -Provide medicines    |                       |
|      |               | and equipment in      |                       |
|      |               | strategic             |                       |
|      |               | dispensaries and      |                       |
|      |               | health centres        |                       |
+------+---------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| H    | -Investment   | \- Improve skills     | -Local people taking  |
| uman | in adult      | development in        | charge of their own   |
| reso | literacy,     | aspects such as       | development;          |
| urce | village       | farming, pastoralism, |                       |
| and  | polytechnics  | agribusiness;         | -Skills development   |
| so   | and in the    |                       | through vocational    |
| cial | development   | -Improve management   | training resulting in |
| cap  | of management | of development        | diversification of    |
| ital | capacities    | initiatives by        | income sources;       |
| dev  | among the     | locals;               |                       |
| elop | adult         |                       | \- Adult literacy     |
| ment | population,   | \- Encourage the      | results in improved   |
|      | support local | growth and            | in post-literacy      |
|      | governance    | development of local  | activities            |
|      | and local     | institutions such as  |                       |
|      | institutional | farmers'              | \- A literate         |
|      | development   | cooperatives,         | population develops a |
|      | and growth.   | livestock marketing   | voice to be heard and |
|      |               | groups, pastoral      | improves local        |
|      |               | associations etc. in  | governance,           |
|      |               | order to mobilize     | transparency and      |
|      |               | local resources.      | accountability.       |
+------+---------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
|      |               |                       |                       |
+------+---------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Nat  | -Strengthen   | -GIS mapping of       | \- Improved access to |
| ural | community-led | resources in all the  | pastures and water    |
| reso | natural       | 11 districts for      |                       |
| urce | resource      | improved planning and | -Improved             |
| &    | management,   | utilisation;          | understanding in      |
| e    | including the |                       | resource utilisation  |
| nvir | utilisation   | -Facilitation of      | and in land ownership |
| onme | of            | community discussions | rights                |
| ntal | cross-border  | and agreements over   |                       |
| ma   | grazing and   | utilisation of        | -Reduced              |
| nage | browse        | resources by          | resource-based        |
| ment | resources     | different clans and   | conflicts among       |
|      | through       | tribes                | different users       |
|      | collaborating |                       |                       |
|      | with          | \- Land tenure issues | -Improved production  |
|      | neighbouring  |                       | from livestock        |
|      | countries.    | -Cross-border natural |                       |
|      |               | resource management   | -Increased access to  |
|      |               | initiatives           | dry season grazing    |
+------+---------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Tour | -Provide      | -Encourage investment | -Products fetch more  |
| ism, | enabling tax  | in the development of | in the market and     |
| T    | rebate system | livestock-based       | improve local incomes |
| rade | for           | processing factories  | for poverty           |
| and  | interested    | such as rural         | reduction;            |
| Indu | private       | dairies, tanneries,   |                       |
| stry | sector        | beekeeping factories  | -Employment is        |
|      | investors     | etc. in order to add  | created through       |
|      |               | value to products     | factory establishment |
|      | -Eliminate    | near source;          |                       |
|      | insecurity    |                       | -Security provides an |
|      |               | -Improve security by  | enabling environment  |
|      | -Improve risk | working with local    | for investment        |
|      | management    | communities and by    |                       |
|      |               | re-training police    | -Less losses of       |
|      | -Develop      | force/administrators; | livestock and other   |
|      | eco-tourism   |                       | assets leads to asset |
|      | sector        | -Reduce risks of food | accumulation and      |
|      |               | insecurity and loss   | eventual              |
|      |               | of assets to droughts | diversification       |
|      |               | and floods            |                       |
|      |               |                       | -Managing risks saves |
|      |               | -Streamline           | money and makes it    |
|      |               | eco-tourism sector to | available for         |
|      |               | benefit communities.  | structural            |
|      |               |                       | development instead   |
|      |               |                       | of being used on food |
|      |               |                       | aid                   |
|      |               |                       |                       |
|      |               |                       | -Earnings from        |
|      |               |                       | tourism ploughed back |
|      |               |                       | to community          |
|      |               |                       | development           |
+------+---------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc90953656 .anchor}Table 6: Summary Matrix for ASAL
Investment Plan (2004-2013) -- Semi Arid Districts

+-------+-----------------+--------------------+-----------------------+
| #     | **Approach**    | **Investment       | **Expected results &  |
| ### S |                 | priority areas**   | Outputs**             |
| ector |                 |                    |                       |
+-------+-----------------+--------------------+-----------------------+
| Na    | -Strengthen     | -Invest in         | -Improved             |
| tural | community-led   | resolving land     | environmental         |
| res   | natural         | tenure issues      | conservation at the   |
| ource | resource        |                    | household and         |
| &     | management,     | -Support           | community level in    |
| env   | including the   | appropriate        | all the 25 districts. |
| ironm | development of  | farming practices  |                       |
| ental | improved        |                    |                       |
| manag | agro-forestry   | -Encourage tree    |                       |
| ement | practices       | planting and       |                       |
|       |                 | afforestation      |                       |
|       |                 |                    |                       |
|       |                 | -Establish         |                       |
|       |                 | locational,        |                       |
|       |                 | divisional and     |                       |
|       |                 | district           |                       |
|       |                 | environmental      |                       |
|       |                 | management         |                       |
|       |                 | committees.        |                       |
+-------+-----------------+--------------------+-----------------------+
| Water | -Conservation   | -Rehabilitate      | -Improved soil and    |
| d     | of environment; | permanent water    | water conservation    |
| evelo |                 | sources e.g. wells |                       |
| pment | -Low cost       | & boreholes;       | -Quantity and quality |
|       | 'appropriate'   | construction of    | of domestic water     |
|       | technologies;   | small & medium     | improved              |
|       |                 | sized dams;        |                       |
|       | -Charging user  |                    | -Community capacity   |
|       | fees -- urban   | -Develop community | to maintain water     |
|       | supplies        | capacity to manage | supply systems and to |
|       | operated by     | water supplies in  | run them on a         |
|       | private         | an effective and   | sustainable basis     |
|       | enterprises;    | sustainable manner |                       |
|       |                 |                    | -Water and sanitation |
|       |                 | -Develop water for | systems in major      |
|       |                 | irrigation         | centres developed and |
|       |                 |                    | improved              |
|       |                 | -Develop water and |                       |
|       |                 | sanitation systems |                       |
+-------+-----------------+--------------------+-----------------------+
| Mixed | -Encourage      | -Encourage private | -Improved milk and    |
| fa    | privatized      | AI schemes and     | meat production from  |
| rming | veterinary      | small scale milk   | the semi arid         |
| (a    | service         | processing         | districts;            |
| gricu | provision in    | factories;         |                       |
| lture | clinical        |                    | -Improved household   |
| &     | services;       | -Establish farmers | food security and     |
| lives |                 | associations and   | asset accumulation    |
| tock) | -Increase area  | groups to enable   | and investment;       |
|       | under           | them procure       |                       |
|       | cultivation     | credit and         | -Livestock disease    |
|       | through small   | agricultural       | free zones            |
|       | scale           | inputs as well as  | established for       |
|       | irrigation      | improve marketing  | export purposes       |
|       | development;    | of their produce.  |                       |
|       |                 |                    |                       |
|       | -Develop        |                    |                       |
|       | insurance       |                    |                       |
|       | schemes for     |                    |                       |
|       | farmers and     |                    |                       |
|       | ag              |                    |                       |
|       | ro-pastoralists |                    |                       |
|       |                 |                    |                       |
|       | -Develop        |                    |                       |
|       | appropriate     |                    |                       |
|       | drought         |                    |                       |
|       | resistant crop  |                    |                       |
|       | varieties       |                    |                       |
|       |                 |                    |                       |
|       | -Improve post   |                    |                       |
|       | harvest         |                    |                       |
|       | technologies    |                    |                       |
|       |                 |                    |                       |
|       | -Provide credit |                    |                       |
|       | facilities for  |                    |                       |
|       | farming inputs  |                    |                       |
+-------+-----------------+--------------------+-----------------------+
| H     | Investment in   | -HIV/ A\|IDS       | -Declining numbers of |
| ealth | health for      | component to       | HIV/AIDS infections;\ |
|       | economic        | include TB;        | -Availability and     |
|       | development     |                    | access to health      |
|       | (WHO);          | -Rehabilitate and  | facilities by         |
|       |                 | equip health       | community members;    |
|       |                 | facilities         |                       |
|       |                 |                    | -Low mortality rates  |
|       |                 | -Strengthen        | among children under  |
|       |                 | primary health     | five yrs;             |
|       |                 | care among farmers |                       |
|       |                 | and                | -Improved health of   |
|       |                 | agro-pastoralists  | majority of           |
|       |                 |                    | population;           |
|       |                 | -Invest in human   |                       |
|       |                 | resource capacity  | -Life expectancy      |
|       |                 | e.g. training of   | raised by 5-10 years  |
|       |                 | personnel from     |                       |
|       |                 | semi-arid areas    |                       |
|       |                 | e.g. nurses, COs,  |                       |
|       |                 | etc.               |                       |
|       |                 |                    |                       |
|       |                 | -Strengthen public |                       |
|       |                 | health and         |                       |
|       |                 | education;         |                       |
|       |                 |                    |                       |
|       |                 | -KEPI vaccination  |                       |
|       |                 | campaigns          |                       |
|       |                 |                    |                       |
|       |                 | -Provide medicines |                       |
|       |                 | and equipment in   |                       |
|       |                 | strategic          |                       |
|       |                 | dispensaries and   |                       |
|       |                 | health centres     |                       |
+-------+-----------------+--------------------+-----------------------+
| Educ  | -Invest in      | -Train more        | -Enrolment in primary |
| ation | appropriate     | teachers from      | school improved by    |
|       | facilities and  | semi-arid          | 50%\                  |
|       | approaches to   | districts;         | -Performance in       |
|       | improve primary |                    | primary level         |
|       | level           | -Encourage         | examinations          |
|       | education;      | improved enrolment | significantly         |
|       |                 | rates through      | improved;             |
|       | -Invest in      | provision of lunch |                       |
|       | village         | for children       | -Practical and        |
|       | polytechnics    |                    | relevant skills among |
|       | for improved    | -Provide bursary   | youths                |
|       | practical       | funds for          |                       |
|       | skills          | secondary and      | -Adult literacy       |
|       | development;    | college students.  | levels improved by at |
|       |                 |                    | least 60%             |
|       | -Support adult  |                    |                       |
|       | literacy and    |                    | -Access to            |
|       | learning        |                    | post-primary          |
|       | programmes      |                    | schooling and         |
|       |                 |                    | training              |
+-------+-----------------+--------------------+-----------------------+
| P     | -Improve road   | -Tarmac            | -Road conditions      |
| ublic | network in the  | Narok-Loita Road   | improved for faster   |
| infr  | 25 semi-arid    |                    | travelling;           |
| astru | districts       | -Tarmac            |                       |
| cture | (including      | Emali-Loitoktok    | -Improved road        |
| &     | districts with  | Road               | network for improved  |
| com   | pockets of      |                    | produce marketing and |
| munic | ASAL) using     | -Make at least     | trade;                |
| ation | labour          | 6000 km of road to |                       |
| ne    | intensive       | all weather        | -Improved number of   |
| twork | systems.        | conditions through | tourists and local    |
|       |                 | gravelling         | visitors to the       |
|       | -Support        |                    | semi-districts;       |
|       | te              | -Provide telephone | improved power supply |
|       | lecommunication | services in all    | and emergence of      |
|       | systems and     | divisional         | local processing      |
|       | rural           | headquarters;      | industries.           |
|       | electrification | improve cell phone |                       |
|       | programmes.     | network to the     |                       |
|       |                 | location level;    |                       |
|       |                 |                    |                       |
|       |                 | -Implement rural   |                       |
|       |                 | electrification    |                       |
|       |                 | programme          |                       |
+-------+-----------------+--------------------+-----------------------+
| Human | Develop and     | Raise the level of | An enlightened and    |
| res   | implement civic | human capacity     | knowledgeable         |
| ource | education       | among community    | population that is    |
| de    | programmes      | members to enable  | actively involved in  |
| velop | appropriate to  | them participate   | development           |
| ment; | conditions      | effectively in     | programming,          |
| D     |                 | matters that       | implementation,       |
| evelo | Support growth  | affect their       | monitoring and        |
| pment | and development | lives. This will   | evaluation.           |
| and   | of CBOs         | be achieved        |                       |
| str   |                 | through improved   |                       |
| ength | Improve farming | information        |                       |
| ening | and business    | sharing and        |                       |
| of    | development     | exchange through   |                       |
| comm  | skills of       | radio programmes,  |                       |
| unity | communities     | training, exchange |                       |
| in    |                 | visits and tours,  |                       |
| stitu | Improve gender  | gender             |                       |
| tions | equity in       | mainstreaming,     |                       |
|       | resource        | improved local     |                       |
|       | allocation and  | governance and the |                       |
|       | in              | active involvement |                       |
|       | decision-making | of communities in  |                       |
|       |                 | community          |                       |
|       |                 | development        |                       |
|       |                 | initiatives.       |                       |
+-------+-----------------+--------------------+-----------------------+
| Food  | Address         | -Ensure            | -Improved wildlife    |
| secu  | conflicts       | availability of    | conservation and      |
| rity; | between farmers | adequate food      | management            |
| con   | and wildlife;   | stocks in          |                       |
| flict |                 | commercial centres | -Improved interaction |
| and   | Extend EWS to   | and in food        | with the rest of the  |
| dis   | the semi-arid   | reserves by        | country               |
| aster | and design      | providing relevant |                       |
| manag | appropriate     | information to the | -Improved social and  |
| ement | response        | public;            | trade networks within |
|       | mechanisms and  |                    | country               |
|       | institutional   | -Develop adequate  |                       |
|       | framework       | policy on          |                       |
|       |                 | human/wildlife     |                       |
|       |                 | conflicts          |                       |
|       |                 |                    |                       |
|       |                 | -Develop and       |                       |
|       |                 | implement          |                       |
|       |                 | appropriate human  |                       |
|       |                 | conflict           |                       |
|       |                 | resolution and     |                       |
|       |                 | peace-building     |                       |
|       |                 | interventions      |                       |
+-------+-----------------+--------------------+-----------------------+
| Pr    | -Provide        | -Provide enabling  | -Improved volume of   |
| ivate | appropriate     | tax and policy     | trade;                |
| s     | credit          | environment for    |                       |
| ector | facilities      | private sector     | -Improved local       |
| d     |                 | investment;        | incomes resulting     |
| evelo | -Encourage      |                    | from better trading   |
| pment | economic        | -Improve revenue   | environment           |
|       | diversification | sharing for        |                       |
|       | and investment  | earnings from      | -Accelerated private  |
|       |                 | tourism.           | investment in the     |
|       | -Support        |                    | semi-arid districts   |
|       | tourism         |                    | resulting in better   |
|       | development by  |                    | service provision     |
|       | local groups    |                    |                       |
|       | and             |                    |                       |
|       | communities.    |                    |                       |
|       |                 |                    |                       |
|       | -Support        |                    |                       |
|       | locally-based   |                    |                       |
|       | factories to    |                    |                       |
|       | process and     |                    |                       |
|       | package local   |                    |                       |
|       | products e.g.   |                    |                       |
|       | leather         |                    |                       |
|       |                 |                    |                       |
|       | -Strengthen     |                    |                       |
|       | women           |                    |                       |
|       | involvement in  |                    |                       |
|       | private sector  |                    |                       |
|       | investment      |                    |                       |
|       | programmes      |                    |                       |
+-------+-----------------+--------------------+-----------------------+

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc90953657 .anchor}Table 7: Government Investment
Proposals for ASALs (Billion Kshs)

+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| **Sector**                                 | *     | **Semi  | **    |
|                                            | *Arid | Arid**  | Total |
|                                            | D     |         | B     |
|                                            | istri | **Di    | udget |
|                                            | cts** | stricts | (BKs  |
|                                            |       | (B      | hs)** |
|                                            | *     | kshs)** |       |
|                                            | *(Bks |         |       |
|                                            | hs)** |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| **Public Infrastructure (Roads,            |       |         |       |
| Electricity, Solar & Telephone)**          |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 1\. Rehabilitate Lodwar-Kitale Road (300   | 12.0  |         |       |
| km)                                        |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 2.Tarmac Isiolo - Moyale Road (600 km)     | 20.0  |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 3.Tarmac Garissa - Mandera Road (600 km)   | 20.0  |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 4\. Tarmac Bura -- Garsen Road (100 km)    | 4.0   |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 5.Tarmac Rumuruti - Maralal Road (200 km)  | 8.0   |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 6.Tarmac Narok - Loita Road (500km)        |       | 24.0    |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 7.Tarmac Emali - Loitoktok Road (350 km)   |       | 16.0    |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 8.Upgrade an extra 6000 km to all weather  | 4.0   | 9.0     |       |
| status                                     |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 9.Install telephone systems to divisional  | 1.0   | 2.0     |       |
| headquarters                               |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 10.Rural Electrification Programme and     | 1.0   | 2.0     |       |
| Solar Energy (start with Hola and Ijara)   |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| **Total for Infrastructure**               | **7   | *       | **12  |
|                                            | 0.0** | *53.0** | 3.0** |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
|                                            |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| **Water Development**                      |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 1\. Rehabilitation of permanent water      | 2.0   | 1.5     |       |
| sources e.g. wells & boreholes             |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 2\. Dam construction                       | 2.0   | 2.0     |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 3\. Building capacity of Rapid Response    | 1.6   | 0.5     |       |
| Teams                                      |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 4\. Community capacity building for water  | 2.0   | 1.5     |       |
| supply maintenance                         |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 5.Irrigation development                   | 1.0   | 2.0     |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 6.Improvement of water and sanitation      | 1.0   | 0.5     |       |
| systems in urban centres                   |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| **Total for Water Development**            | **    | **8.0** | **1   |
|                                            | 9.6** |         | 7.6** |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
|                                            |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| **Livestock & Fisheries Development**      |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 1\. Support decentralized animal health    | 1.9   |         | 1.9   |
| services                                   |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 2\. Support cross-border disease           | 2.0   |         | 2.0   |
| surveillance interventions                 |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 3\. Support annual vaccination campaigns   | 3.0   |         | 3.0   |
| for livestock                              |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 4.Establish abattoirs to promote livestock | 3.0   |         | 2.0   |
| marketing                                  |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 5\. Establish livestock disease free zones | 2.0   |         | 2.0   |
| for export markets                         |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 6.Undertake drought-related livestock      | 2.0   |         | 2.0   |
| marketing                                  |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 7\. Support rangeland development and      | 2.0   |         | 2.0   |
| extension services                         |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| 8\. Support fisheries development in the   | 1.0   |         | 2.0   |
| ASALs                                      |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
| **Total livestock development and          | **1   |         | **1   |
| fisheries**                                | 6.9** |         | 6.9** |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+
|                                            |       |         |       |
+--------------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+

  -------------------------------------------- ----------- ---------- -----------
  **Mixed farming (Agriculture & Livestock)**                         

  1\. Encourage establishment of farmer                    2.0        
  associations to access credit                                       

  2\. Support the growth and development of                1.0        
  private AI services                                                 

  3\. Improve agriculture and extension                    2.0        
  services                                                            

  4\. Develop marketing of agricultural                    2.0        
  produce                                                             

  **Total for mixed farming in semi arid                   **7.0**    **7.0**
  districts**                                                         

                                                                      

  **Human health**                                                    

  1.Strengthen HIV/AIDS campaign               1.0         1.0        

  2\. Rehabilitate health facilities           1.5         0.5        

  3.Provide medicines and equipment            1.5         1.5        

  4\. Train medical personnel from these areas 1.5         1.0        
  and post them back                                                  

  5\. Strengthen public health and education   0.5         1.0        

  6.Improve immunization services for children 1.0         1.5        
  in ASALs                                                            

  7\. Strengthen primary health care services  0.5         0.5        

  8\. Provide health facilities (radio         2.0         1.0        
  communication etc.)                                                 

  **Total for Human Health**                   **9.5**     **8.0**    **17.5**

                                                                      

  **Education**                                                       

  1\. Train more primary school teachers and   1.5         0.5        
  post them to the ASALs                                              

  2.Encourage higher enrolment through         1.5         1.0        
  provision of lunch                                                  

  3\. Provide bursaries to successful children 2.0         2.4        

  4\. Support boarding facilities to encourage 3.0         1.0        
  increased enrolment                                                 

  5.Support mobile education services in       0.5         0.1        
  nomadic communities                                                 

  **Total Education**                          **8.5**     **5.0**    **13.5**

                                                                      

  **Human Resource Development**                                      

  1\. Strengthen community institutions and    0.3         1.0        
  organizations                                                       

  2\. Implement training through radio         0.5         0.5        
  programs                                                            

  3\. Exchange visits and tours                1.5         0.5        

  4\. Improve gender mainstreaming             0.3         0.5        

  5\. Support adult education                  0.2         0.2        

  6\. Improve local governance through civic   0.4         0.4        
  education and training                                              

  7\. Strengthen communities\' own development 0.4         0.8        
  initiatives                                                         

  **Total for Human Resource Development**     **3.6**     **3.9**    **7.5**

                                                                      

  **Conflict and Disaster Management**                                

  1\. Develop appropriate policy on            0.075       0.5        
  human-wildlife conflict                                             

  2\. Support conflict resolution measures     0.075       0.5        

  3\. Develop appropriate disaster/drought     0.5         1.0        
  management measures                                                 

  4\. Ensure availability of adequate food     2.5         1.5        
  reserves and stocks during crises                                   

  **Total for Conflict & Disaster Management** **3.5**     **3.5**    **7.0**

                                                                      

  **Tourism, Trade and Industry**                                     

  1\. Provision of an enabling tax policy      2.5         2.0        
  environment                                                         

  2\. Improve revenue sharing of earning from  1.5         2.0        
  tourism                                                             

  **Tourism, Trade and Industry**              **4.0**     **4.0**    **8.0**

                                                                      

  **GRANT TOTAL**                              **124.6**   **92.4**   **217.0**
  -------------------------------------------- ----------- ---------- -----------

[^1]: Bladder tanks are 10,000 litre tanks made of rubber and are
    critical water storage facilities especially during the drought and
    in locations where there is pasture but no water. These ensure that
    permanent water sources are not constructed and it discourages
    permanent settlement in dry season grazing areas.

[^2]: For more details refer to AU-IBAR policy briefing paper No 7: Dry
    land myths: Policies that hurt pastoralists.

[^3]: Ijara district is excluded in the 1999 population and housing
    census report.

[^4]: World Bank (2001)
    http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/strategies/chapters/psi/PSI0531.pdf.