Archived Information

Learning and Social Participation by Senior Citizens in Japan:

Analysis of Major Issues from an International Perspective

# **Toshio Ohsako**

# 

#  **UNESCO**

# **Institute for Education**

## Introduction

The objective of this paper is to review from an international major
issues and challenges concerning the concept of aging, learning, and
social participation perspective of Japanese senior citizens (SCs), and
the provision and support systems rendered to them, with particular
emphasis on the age groups between 60--79. In writing this paper, the
author quotes extensively from the results of the following two survey
reports*: "International Comparison of Learning and Social Participation
by the Elderly"* (ICLSE, see Annex I*),* published by the Training
Center for Social Education of the National Education Hall in September
1997, and "*Integrated Study on Policy and Program Development for
Lifelong Learning in the Aging Society*" (ISPPD, see Annex I--2),
prepared by the National Institute for Educational Research of Japan
(NIER). The former report is an international survey report based upon
the results of the study conducted in Germany, Japan, Korea, Sweden, the
U.K. (U.K.) and the United States of America (U.S.). The latter is
basically a national report that contains some references to foreign
countries on the theories, trends, policies, and practices of education
and training for SCs. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD), European Union (EU) publications, and other research
papers were also used to review similar issues and problems in other
countries. The present paper is also a contribution to the follow up to
the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization's
(UNESCO) Fifth Conference on Adult Education (CONFINTEA V, Hamburg, July
14--18, 1997) which recommended creation of an educational environment
supporting all forms of learning for older people.

## Demography

In 1990, 14.9 million Japanese citizens above the age 65 constituted 12
percent of the entire population. The Population Census statistics in
January 1997 predict that 27.4 percent of the entire Japanese population
will be over 65 years of aged in 2025, and this age group will increase
to 32.3 percent by 2050. Although aging is a general tendency among OECD
countries, Japan is the most rapidly society in the OECD area (Hennesy
1994).

Japanese citizens' mean life expectancy is 76.4 for men and 82.8 for
women in 1995. This means that people on the average now have 15 to 20
years to live even after the age 65. This age group will constitute 32.3
percent of the entire Japanese population by 2050, although there are
also noticeable regional difference in the make up of the elderly
population.

As is the case with other countries, the Japanese aging phenomenon is
the result of a low birth rate and low morality. However, there are
other social factors contributing to this phenomenon. For example, in
geographically isolated rural areas of Japan, the migration of young
people to urban areas and the lack of brides also are causes of the
aging of local communities. (Tanaka 1990).

In 1990, according to the report on lifelong learning and aging
published by Yamamoto et al. (1996), nearly 90 percent of the elderly
were living with their children (married or not married) in the same
household, but this percentage decreased to 60 percent in 1990, 24.1
percent of the elderly live with their spouse and 10.9 percent live
alone. But there are considerable regional differences in the makeup of
older people. For example, 8 percent of SCs in Yamagata Prefecture (an
agricultural area) live with their children while only 45.1 percent of
SCs in Tokyo live separately from their children. Even if SCs live in
the same household with their children, they are increasingly
independent with their own facilities (entrance, kitchen, and
telephones, TV).

## Income, Consumption, and Employment 

The above-mentioned NIER report indicates the average annual income of
SCs over age 65 as 2,890,000 Yen (approximately 22,600 U.S. dollars).
The total income consist of pension (56 percent), income from work (32
percent), income from property (9 percent), and contributions from
family (3 percent). In addition, 3.8 percent of SCs have an income of
more than \$78,000. Their income from work represents a significant
portion of the income of Japanese SCs. Given the modest income of SCs in
Japan, their expenditure on food is considerably larger than that of
other generations on the same item. So called "social" expenses are also
quite high (17--18 percent) as their seniority status demands numerous
gifts to their children, grandchildren, their involvement in marriages,
parties, and funerals.

The results of the survey, *Employment status of the elderly* (target
age group 55--69), published by the Ministry of Labor in 1996, show that
76.6 percent of male SCs and 43.7 percent of female SCs were working.
The population of SCs' employers was also increasing (55 percent for men
and 40 percent for women). Among the nonworking SCs, 50 percent of men
and 30 percent of women expressed their wish to be employed. Thirty
percent of the unemployed SCs whose age was above 55 was still seeking
jobs.

## Free time, Leisure, and General Life Satisfaction

The NIER's ISPPD study attempted to compare the use of free time
management and leisure activities between Japanese citizens in their
twenties and those in their sixties. The data reveals that although the
elderly citizens have more free time than the younger people in their
twenties, SCs participation in social activities is lower that those
SCs' of this age group. However, SCs spend more time on TV, radio, and
newspaper than the younger group. According to a longitudinal study
conducted during 1975--1990 by the Institute for Integrated Research for
the Aged in the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, there is a shift from
passive ways to spend free time to active participation in sports and
hobby activities. The report also indicates that the time spent by SCs
in learning activities lags behind their participation in leisure and
hobbies. The

same report also demonstrates a generally high degree of life
satisfaction among SCs in Japan, but it questions whether this is
because they are really happy or their feeling of happiness is due to
the lowered exception of SCs in their senior age. Culture may perhaps
play a role in this perception.

Current Campaign

In June 1997, the Central Council for Education, an advisory body to the
Minister of Education, published a report entitled *Japanese education
in perspective of the twenty-first century*.

Underlining the importance of the issue of senior citizens, the report
asserted, "how to create a society in which men and women participate
equally in planning the future, a society in which opportunities are
guaranteed for men and women, as equal constituents of society, to
participate in all areas of their own free will."

This report emphasizes "the realization of a society, in which senior
citizens are to be encouraged to lead an independent life; yet to be
cooperative with others and to recognize the diversity of values
pertinent to their own self-actualization as well as that of others; and
to be able to feel spiritual richness and fulfillment."

In the above-mentioned ICLSE reports, several new lines of thought also
emerge on the life of senior citizens in Japan.

First, to place the emphasis on self-actualization is to challenge the
fatalistic pathological notion of the biological decay and gradual loss
of intellectual and social functioning of the individual. The concept of
active aging opens up the concept of senior citizens who can continue to
grow healthier, wiser, and socially more active.

Secondly, the Japanese SCs are encouraged to take more initiatives in
their activities and to engage in a more "individualized" mode of
thinking, life style, and professional activities. This means that the
elderly citizens are considered as important human resources capable of
contributing to the socioeconomic and cultural development of the
society, rather than portrayed as passive citizens who become social and
economic burdens on society and its younger generations.

Thirdly, Japanese society places supreme importance on the individual
citizen's spiritual richness, sense of fulfillment and happiness as an
ultimate goal of aging, from which the idea of Japanese SCs'
contributing to their country's economy naturally becomes possible.

Fourthly, the gender aspect is explicitly and clearly recognized as a
fundamental issue when dealing with all aspects of learning and social
participation by senior citizens.

Senior Citizenship in the Context of Lifelong Learning

The concept of lifelong learning proposed by UNESCO and the OECD
(recurrent education in the latter case) was introduced to Japan through
the 1960s and 1970s (Okamoto 1990). The

National Council on Educational Reform, an ad hoc committee (1984--87),
submitted a report, which emphasizes "the transfer of all education
systems to a comprehensive lifelong learning system."

The following are goals of the Council on Educational Reform for
constructing a "lifelong learning society:"

-   to overcome the "diploma-oriented society;"

-   to provide learning opportunities to respond to the growing demand
    for leisure-oriented learning activities; and

-   to continue learning to cope with social, economic, and
    technological changes.

In 1988, the Social Education Bureau of the Japanese Ministry of
Education was transformed into the Lifelong Learning Bureau, in which
the Section for Social Education was established. This Section has since
then been responsible for the education of the elderly.

The notion of learning for the elderly is deeply rooted in the Japanese
concept of lifelong learning. Lifelong learning in Japan understood and
practiced among the general public is very broad, as reflect in the
above-mentioned goal. Lifelong learning reminds the Japanese of various
cultural and sporting activities to be enjoyed by people with a view to
improving the quality of daily life, filling their spare time,
satisfying their intellectual curiosity, and just having fun and
pleasure. For the Japanese, lifelong learning is basically consumption
in economic terms but not investment (Okamoto 1994).

As Okamoto points out (1994), the above mentioned third goal of lifelong
learning is understood as a theory, but the notion of linking lifelong
learning to economic development is not a supported or accepted idea.
The transformation of a predominantly leisure oriented notion of
lifelong education to one, which is more, diversified, integrated, or
economically gainful, is a big challenge for the Japanese. To grow up to
be a senior citizen, which is healthy, professionally and economically
active, and productive, and socially caring and fulfilled, is, at least
conceptually, more and more understood by the Japanese. What is
important in this process of transformation, however, may be not to lose
sight of the traditional spirit of leisure or pleasure seeking. One may
try not to go against the tradition but to use it to further develop an
active aging theory, which simultaneously satisfies the individual's
desire for leisure and pleasure oriented activities, and social and
economic needs.

Current and Future Challenges

Individual and Social Attitudes Towards Aging

It is often pointed out that the Japanese are age conscious. The reason
for this is not simply that people are curious about other's age, but by
knowing the age of a person one can determine which social and
communication codes to employ in dealing with people older or younger
than oneself---how to address, how to greet, and how to treat them. Age
carries a very strong message in Japanese society.

The first challenge is for senior citizens to develop a more positive
image of aging itself. Perhaps this is not a problem that is unique to
Japanese old people. How often do we hear people in every country
saying: "Oh, I am too old to do this." "I can't beat my age." or "This
happened because of my age." Whether old or young is not linearly
correlated with one's biological and physical changes. It is a
well-known fact that the state of mind of the individual considerably
affects one's perception of age. Feeling is, to a great extent, a
subjective matter. Self-felt oldness probably arises from our past
learning. Do optimistic attitudes disappear as people age, or is a more
or less persistent characteristic developed over years? Some
longitudinal studies indicate that human personality remains remarkably
stable (Sperry & McNeil 1996).

The second challenge related the attitudes towards aging to develop the
capacity of SCs to prioritize the activities they wish to engage in. The
elderly can optimize their level of functioning by concentrating their
efforts on things that are important for them, and by seeking to regain
some control over the direction of their lives in behavioral domains
that are improbable (Bandura 1997). The ICLSE survey asked SCs what they
consider their most important concerns were. Health was chosen most
frequently as the most important concern by Korea, Germany, Japan, and
U.K. (in order of percentage). Swedes and Americans chose "the future of
their children/grandchildren" as their first priority concern, followed
by health.

The management of free time by SCs in relation to their nonfree time (if
they have jobs) seems to be one of the crucial factors determining the
degree of their participation in individually and socially useful
activities. But it is not the amount of available free time, which
directly determines the participation of SCs, but rather the ways in
which SCs perceive time and manage to allocate and use time over
different activities. The ICLSE study demonstrates a significant fact
that in almost all countries, SCs' with a moderate amount of free time
tend to participate in learning and training activities more frequently
than those SCs who have plenty of free time.

Sense of efficacy through self-direct learning is particularly
advantageous of SCs' themselves: a sense of self-efficacy in controlling
their contents of learning, the choice of methods of learning, and types
of social activities. A sense of efficacy not only promotes health but
also aids physical and social recovery from injuries common to older
people (Bandura 1997). Both ICLSE and ISPPD reports treat this issue in
relation to support and provision policies for the learning, training,
and social participation of SCs. These reports recommend that SCs' can
benefit from leaner-centered policy and support whereby individual
differences (e.g., between beginners in learning, willing
self-supporters, expert learners, and SCs' in their eighties) are
carefully taken into consideration.

Selective dependence can supplement self-directed learning and life
management of their lives and SCs' should not hesitate to seek for
necessary and reasonable help from others. Dependency does not
necessarily indicate helplessness (Baltes 1992). Bandura in his new book
entitled *Self-efficacy* (1997) distinguishes between dependence on
others and seeking help in areas of functional limitations to preserve
one's autonomy. (p. 206).

A sense of self-worth is a contributing factor to the lives of SCs'. The
ISPPD report refers to a study conducted 10 years ago by an insurance
company on couples married for 50 years: 80 percent of the male SCs' in
this group report that they still enjoyed playing an executive role in
city councils or other autonomous public bodies, and 70 percent of
female SCs' said that they were still active chief housekeepers.
Perhaps, perceived selfworth of SCs' and perceived efficacy are mutually
facilitating factors for active aging.

Reducing social stereotypes associated with aging is another big
challenge. The general public must be convinced of the groundless nature
of some negative images associated with old age, such as being tired,
cranky, sick, weak, forgetful, and withdrawn. The optimistic images of
aging need to permeate society, treating aging as a normal developmental
process, which enables people to continue to learn and to
self-actualize, to produce and to contribute to the economic and social
sectors of society.

Variations of Aging

OECD (1996) distinguishes between individual aging (people living
longer), population aging (more older people as a consequence of
"baby-boom"), and active aging (changes in how time is spent in
different age groups). The Japanese ICLSE study focused on the third
concept---active aging for which, according to the OECD, government
policies can do much now to influence the way in which people allocate
activities over their life time (OECD 1996).

With regard to individual differences in aging, major longitudinal
studies have documented the notion of interindividual variability and
heterogeneity (Baltes & Baltes 1990).

The Japanese ICLSE study, which employed a cross-sectional analysis of
four age groups (60--64; 65--69; 70--74; and 75--79), demonstrates
several interesting interage group variations among different age levels
of SCs, such as the following:

-   there is a tendency in all countries, which participated in the
    study for senior citizens' willingness to change decrease with age
    (particular from sixties to seventies);

-   in some countries (Japan, Korea, Germany), the proportion of SCs
    reporting a sense of fulfillment and happiness decreases in their
    seventies, whereas among SCs in the U.S., the U.K. and Sweden, this
    tendency was not observed;

-   the SCs in their sixties in all countries reported that they are
    more healthy than their counterparts in the seventies;

-   the peak participation age by SCs in learning activities for all
    countries is between 60 and 64, except in Japan (65--69) and the
    participation rate decreases gradually with age (lowest between
    75--79);

-   there is an age-related steady decline in the rate of social
    participation of SCs for both job-holders and non-job-holders in all
    countries surveyed; and

-   in response to the question "who should be responsible for the
    continued learning of SCs'," the answer "don't know" increases by
    age.

Policies addressing senior citizens can take both individual and
interage group variations into consideration. The Japanese ICLSE, which
is a cross-sectional study, indicates that senior citizens have more
free time as they grown older. But they are less willing to change, less

socially active and less healthy.

Moreover, the notion of active aging, designed to identify the most
satisfying, effective and productive ways to organize and allocate time
over different age groups of SCs squarely challenges senior citizens'
resistance to change.

There is an age-related decrease in happiness and satisfaction in Japan,
Korea, and Germany. This is not true among SCs in U.S., the U.K., and
Sweden. This fact encourages thinking that people's feeling of happiness
can be sustained.

Despite the fact that people are living longer, according to ICLSE
study, Japanese SCs' peak participation in learning is between 65 and
69, whereas for SCs in other countries, it is between 60 to 64.

### Gender Issues

The most recent report of the Central Council for Education in Japan,
recommended "creating a society in which opportunities are guaranteed
for men and women to participate equally in planning the future." Gender
is clearly a priority policy for the Japanese government.

Gender differences in patterns of learning and social participation are
greater in Japan and Korea than in European countries and the United
States.

The following are some examples from the ECLSE report:

-   more male than female SCs report that they are always "happy and
    fulfilled" in all countries (the difference is 5 percent in Korea,
    the U.K., and Germany);

-   in all countries, slightly more men than women report they are
    healthy;

-   there is a gender difference in the degree of interest manifested in
    social participation: more men scored more highly than women did in
    Japan and Korea, did, but this tendency was reversed in the U.K. In
    Japan and Korea SCs in their sixties are more interested in
    voluntary social and community affairs than their counterparts who
    are in their seventies;

-   in all countries, men read more books and magazines and participate
    more in learning activities organized by workplaces and other
    professional bodies. Women participate more than men in group circle
    activities and lectures organized by local public centers and
    schools;

-   as to the purpose for continuing learning, in all the countries
    surveyed, men tend to endorse professional skills, knowledge, and
    qualifications more than women;

-   more men than women replied "yes" to the question---"Have you
    applied what you have learned for the benefit of others and the
    society?"

-   the participation rate in social activities among male SCs' is
    generally higher than among female SCs'. The difference between the
    two sexes in the participation rate is the largest in Japan and
    Korea (15 percent each);

-   in all countries, female SCs without jobs report more than their
    male counterparts that they do not participate in social activities:
    The difference between the two sexes is the

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   largest for Japan and Korea (19.6 percent, 15 percent,
    respectively), but this difference does not exist in the United
    States, the U.K., and Sweden;

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   in all countries which participated in the study, female SCs tend to
    participate more than their male counterparts in social work, health
    promotion, and medical care; and

-   except in the United States, male SCs report more than their female
    counterparts that their social participation activities exert impact
    at local and societal levels. The impact upon themselves and their
    lives is, on the other hand, reported more frequently by female SCs.

To summarize the main findings in this section of the paper on gender
disparity: male SCs exceed female SCs in: self-rating of happiness and
fulfillment; participation in continuing learning for a professional
purpose; frequency of learning and application of their skills and
experiences in the society; and rating of impact of their social
participation on society.

Special attention and care policies are needed for those women who are
divorced, widowed, or have never married. Poverty is a real problem for
them (OECD 1996). Poverty is an additional adversity for these women. In
all the countries which participated in the Japanese study, a
significantly greater number of women (30.45 percent) than men (18.45
percent) were alone either as a result of divorce or death by their
spouse. Particular in Japan and Korea, the number of single women is
more than four times larger than that of men.

In Japan, for women who have never worked outside the home, their
husbands' retirement presents often a painful dilemma because of their
permanent presence at home. In some cases, it ends up in separation or
divorce of a couple.

With regard to the low birthrate, if Japan is to prevent a further fall,
better provision of maternity leave and child caring facilities is an
option (OECD 1998). Increased employment of the female population
including female SCs' is also a measure to cope with the labor shortage
due to the aging of the society in Japan.

Although life expectancy of women is greater, they tend at all ages to
report higher numbers of illnesses in EU countries (Anderson 1992). The
Japanese ICLSE study reported the same tendency in three EU countries
(Germany, the U.K., Sweden) and in three non-EU countries, (Korea,
Japan, and the United States). The ICLSE survey also indicates that the
participation rate of female SCs' both in learning and social activities
is lower than their counterpart male SCs'.

Korea where women's participation rate is lowest among the countries
surveyed also reported significantly fewer women than men who said they
are healthy. The relationship among several variables---gender, health,
and culture, needs to be further clarified.

> Happiness, Health, and Active Senior Citizenship

One of the significant results disclosed by the Japanese comparative
study (ICLSE) is the close relationship between the perceived individual
happiness and satisfaction of SCs and their participation in learning
and social activities. In all the countries surveyed, the results
indicate that active SCs participants are also have and fulfilled
People.

The study clearly indicates the general tendency in all countries that
healthy SCs are also active learning and social participants. In other
words, the more actively SCs participate in learning and volunteer
activities, the healthier they are result has an important implication
for health care for senior citizens. The ICLSE study model predicts the
possible reduction of medical care of 6,490 billion yen for this group
with 5 percent increase of the SC population who participate in learning
between age 60 to 79.

It may be argued that if good quality of learning programs and of social
participation activities are ensured, the society can achieve two
important goals simultaneously---increased happiness and fulfillment of
the individual senior citizen and the reduction of public burden arising
from pension and the medical care costs, which occupy a substantial
portion of the national budget.

> Time Availability

The availability of free time is an important factor affecting the
degree of participation and non participation of senior citizens in
learning, training, social, and volunteer activities. Among people who
chose the response alternative "have a lot of time," Japan ranked first
(47.2 percent), followed by Germany (43.4 percent), U.K. (42.7 percent),
United States (38.7 percent), Sweden (38.3 percent), and Korea (29.0
percent). Except in Sweden, men reported more free time than women. In
all countries, SCs' have more free time, as they grow older.

The free time available for SCs' is a basic factor, but the activities
and purposes contained in the so-called "free time" is even more
important. It is imperative to maintain people in gainful activities
longer. In order to achieve this objective, it will be necessary to
ensure that educational and training policies are adapted to the
specific needs of older workers (OECD 1996).

> The Content of Learning and Training

The following response alternatives were given to SCs to respond to the
question---"In the past 12 months, have you participated in any of the
following learning activities?":

-   job-related learning activities;

-   activities useful for family life (cooking or cleaning);

-   health-related learning activities and sports;

-   politics, economics, society;

-   literature, philosophy, history, natural sciences, foreign language
    learning;

-   arts;

-   other hobby activities; and

-   others.

The rank-order participation rate among the countries concerned are as
follows: U.K. (61.7 percent); Sweden (53.8 percent); United States (44.3
percent); Japan (39.3 percent); Germany (25.4 percent); and Korea (24.7
percent).

Sports and hobbies are the most popular activities for Japanese and
Germans and sports are most popular activities for Americans and
Koreans. U.K. SCs' most practical activities are useful for the family
life. Swedish SCs' most preferred those activities related to culture
and science.

In all countries, "job-related activities" and those corresponding to
"politics, economics and society" were endorsed more frequently by male
SCs than by females. Except in U.S., on the other hand, women endorsed
"arts" more frequently than men. In Japan. Korea, and U.S., "activities
useful for family life" are more engaged by women than by men, but
English men scored higher on this than their counterpart women.

The participation rate is higher for men than women in Japan, Korea,
U.K. and Germany and the largest gender-attributed difference (25
percent) was observed in Korea. The learning participation rate
decreases with age in Korea, United States, U.K. and Sweden. The peak
participation age for the Japanese is between 65--69 (43.4 percent).

The survey correlated the participation rate with the number of years of
education and training (ET) completed by SCs (less than 6 years; 7--9
years; 10--12 years; more than 13 years). The results show that there is
a high positive correlation across the countries between these two
variables---the longer the schooling, the more participation of SCs in
learning activities. Swedish SCs with more than 13 years of schooling
manifested 79.8 percent participation rate.

> Contents of Learning and Previous Education and Training (ET)

The study also correlated the contents of learning and number of years
of previous education and training (ET). It was found that, except in
U.K., the most frequent learning activities held by SCs with more than
13 years of ET are job-related ones (20--30 percent). In Japan, Germany,
and Sweden, the longer the ET of SCs, the less they are engaged in
"activities useful for family life" "politics, economics, and society,"
and "culture, and natural sciences" increases.

> Methods of Learning

The questions concerning the methods of learning focused on the
following aspects:

-   learning and training activities organized at workplaces and by
    professional bodies agricultural associations, unions);

-   lectures and seminars organized by local public bodies and community
    centers;

-   reading books and magazines;

-   TV, radio programs, video;

-   learning with friends, and colleagues, family members in group
    circles at the local level in work­places and schools;

-   private lessons;

-   attending university courses (including correspondence courses);

-   non-university correspondence courses;

-   others; and

-   "I don't know."

SCs in six countries were asked to select their top three methods of
learning. Japanese SCs chose "group circle" activities as the most
frequently used method. For the SCs in Korea, the United States, U.K.,
Germany, Sweden, reading books and magazines was their first choice.
Especially, 89 percent Americans and more than 70 percent of Britons and
Swedes chose this item as their first choice.

In all countries, men read books, and magazines, and participate more in
learning activities organized in workplaces and professional bodies than
women. However, women participate more in group circle activities and
also in lectures organized by public offices and schools.

SCs in Japan and Sweden, as they grow older, engage themselves more in
learning activities organized in workplaces, whereas their learning
activities in group circles decrease. In Sweden, there is a remarkable
age related increase for those SCs' who read books and magazines.

From these findings, one may be able to infer that the longer the years
of previous ET, the more SCs tend to participate in more activities
organized by professional bodies.

> Methods and Contents of Learning

There is a tendency among Japanese SCs to have sports and hobby
activities as a group activity, and Americans and Britons tend to engage
themselves in an individual mode of learning such as reading books and
magazines. In general, reading is a typical individualistic activity.
Japanese and Korean SCs' engage in this activity much less frequently
than their counterparts in European and North American countries.
Japanese SCs' read much less than their counterparts even when they
engage themselves in cultural and science learning activities and those
activities useful for family life, for which reading is an easily
available mode of learning.

> The Purpose of SCs' Participation in Specific Learning Activities

The SCs were asked to choose three of the following response
alternatives in order of importance:

-   for professional purposes and qualifications;

-   to maintain good health and improved physical condition;

-   obtain sense of well being, pleasure, and fun;

-   for a better family life;

-   for the acquisition of knowledge and better education;

-   to gain acquaintances and friends; and

-   for hobbies.

In most countries, male SCs learn more for professional and
qualification and for better knowledge and education than female SCs.
Men in Japan, United States, and U.K. tended to report, more than women,
the item "for well-being, pleasure, fun. English and Swedish men
endorsed more than their women the item "better family life." Women in
most of the countries had a high rate of endorsing "health" reasons.

> Purpose of Learning and Previous Education and Training (ET)

In Japan, the longer the duration of ET, SCs tend to endorse the purpose
"knowledge and better education" less than their counterparts who had a
shorter period of education. This group with the longest duration of
education (more than 13 years) also endorse less the purposes, such as
health and friends. The longer the previous ET of American SCs', the
less likely they endorse gaining friends as a purpose of learning.

> The Relationship Between the Methods of Learning and its Purpose

SCs' tend to regard workplace as a place of professional training aimed
at higher level of competence and qualification, and public centers and
schools as a place for fun and pleasure. The high rate of SCs across the
concerned countries indicated that "individualized" learning through
books, magazines, TV, and radio, is mainly for fun and for the
acquisition of better knowledge.

The SCs in Korea and Japan tend to regard activities carried out in
group serving as a means to promote health, but European and North
American SCs manifested a tendency to perceive group activities as fun
and pleasure.

The survey results also show that among those SCs of U.K., Germany, and
Sweden, who reported their engagement in practical activities useful for
family life (but not those of Korea and Japan) tend to indicate
pleasure, fun-seeking as the purpose of their learning, rather than the

utility attached to practical activities for the family life. It may be
suggested that in these countries, when the practicality of activities
are combined with fun and pleasure, SCs' learning can probably more
efficiently be pursued?

> The Application of Acquired Learning Experiences

There were four alternative responses to the question "Have you used or
applied what you have learned for the benefit of others and the
society?:" (1) Yes; (2) No, but I wish I could; (3) No, and I wouldn't
do it; (4) I don't know.

The "Yes" answer appeared very high among United States and German SCs,
followed by Sweden, U.K., Japan, and Korea. Both U.K. and Swedish SCs
were also high in the third response "No, and I wouldn't do it."

In all countries, more men answered "Yes" than women to this question
and men scored higher than women in the item indicating "I wish I
could."

In all countries, the "Yes" answer for SCs with more than 13 years of
previous ET was significantly higher than other SCs with shorter ET. But
in Japan, an interesting fact is that a good number of this age group
endorsed also "No, and I wouldn't do it" answer. In the Korean sample,
there is a clear cut positive correlation between the duration of
previous ET and the portion of SCs responding "Yes."

SCs of all countries reported that they have applied their acquired
knowledge for the society. The 70 to 80 percent of the senior citizens
surveyed in the United States, U.K., Germany, and Sweden reported the
usefulness of their learning for their professional activities. It is
also noteworthy that in the following categories of learning, SCs
expressed their reservations for the application of what they have
learned: hobby areas (Japan); political, economical, social cultural,
and natural science areas (U.K.); and culture and natural science areas
(Sweden).

> The Reasons of Nonparticipation in Learning Activities

The reasons for non participation for the last 12 months were
investigated. There were 12 alternative responses: (1) "don't like it;"
(2) "no opportunity around me;" (3) "no friends to do things with;" (4)
"too expensive;" (5) "no time;" (6) "don't know where to find;" (7) "no
support from my family;" (8) "don't know what to do;" (9) "not healthy
enough to learn;" (10) "other reasons;" (11) "no particular reasons;"
and (12) "don't know."

Except SCs in Germany, SCs pointed out "no time" as a main reason for
their nonparticipation. In particular, this rate amounted to 30 percent
of the total nonparticipation responses.

In Japan, Korea, and the U.K., approximately 20 percent of SCs reported
health reasons for non- participation. In Korea, the responses "don't
know what to do" and "don't know where to find" are more frequently
compared to their counterparts in other countries. Twenty five percent
of

Americans answered "don't like learning." More than 20 percent of German
SCs endorsed each the categories of the following answers: "don't like
it," "don't know what to do," and "no particular reasons."

To summarize the main findings on the participation of SCs in learning
and training is as follows: there are significant gender differences in
learning participation of senior citizens, male SCs participate more;
they also participate in professional or job-related activities more
than women; and they apply what they have learned more than women.
Culture seems to intervene in the methods of learning: there is a
tendency among Japanese and Korean SCs who prefer group sports and hobby
activities, whereas their European and American counterparts prefer a
more individualistic mode of learning, such as reading books and
magazines; and Koreans and Japanese tend to regard group activities as a
means to promote health, but their American and European counterparts
regard it as an activity associated with having fun and pleasure. There
is a clearcut tendency in all countries that the longer the previous ET
schooling, the more active participation their SCs have. The main reason
for nonparticipation is non availability of time. The time-management of
SCs stands out as a crucial factor determining the participation of
lifelong learning of senior citizens.

> Types of Social Participation

What types of social and community volunteer work do senior citizens
participate in? The following question was posed: "During the 12 months,
have you participated in any social and community activities (excluding
your job), which are useful to the society?"

There were nine alternative responses from which they could choose as
many as alternatives: (1) clean the planet activities; (2) environmental
protection and recycling; (3) cultural activities and sports; (4) social
work, health, and medical care; (5) traffic safety, crime prevention,
disaster prevention, disaster relief; (6) international exchange and
activities; (7) other; (8) no particular activities; and (9) I don't
know.

The participation rate volunteer activity participation by countries is
as follows: United States (52.8 percent); the U.K. (50.0 percent);
Sweden (46.5 percent); Japan (41.7 percent); Korea (25.7 percent); and
Germany (24.7 percent). These figures are based on multi-response of the
above mentioned items.

"Clean the planet" and "environmental protection and recycling" are the
most popular activities among SCs' of all countries. Twenty-eight point
seven percent and 33.6 percent of Americans endorsed these items,
respectively.; 25.1 percent of Japanese SCs endorsed "clean the planet"
and so did 26.5 percent of Swedish SCs.

> The Relationship Between Learning and Social Participation

In all countries, the survey data show that the more learning activities
a senior citizen engages himself/herself in, the more he/she is an
active participant in social and community activities.

Particularly highly popular voluntary activities among active learning
participants are cultural, social, health promotion, and medical care.
In America, those active participants in learning were also active
participants in "clean the planet" activities, but, on the contrary, the
less active participants in learning have higher participation rates in
this activity in Germany.

> Previous Education and Training (ET)

In all countries; the longer the period of SCs' Previous ET, the more
they participated in volunteer activities. There is a significantly
large difference (25.8 percent) on the rate of social participation
between SCs with 13 years or more education and training, and those with
less than 6 years of ET. The Japanese and German data indicate that the
rate of SCs participating in "clean the planet" activities decrease with
longer level of schooling. On the contrary, in Japan, the United States,
and Germany, SCs with more than 13 years of ET tend to participate more
in activities associated with culture, social work, health, and medical
care.

> Job and Social Participation

Are nonjobholders more active volunteer workers than jobholders because
they have more free time? No, there is a general tendency that SCs
without jobs participate less in social activities than job holders.

However, the regional differences are large on this score. On the
average 40 to 45 percent of SCs without jobs in Japan, Korea, Germany,
and Sweden reported that they do not participate in social activities.
On the other hand, no job holders in Sweden, the U.K., and United States
reported less than a 30-percent rate of social participation (34.1
percent, 32.6 percent, 31.4 percent, respectively).

In all countries, female SCs without jobs reported more
"no-participation" in social activities than their counterpart male SCs.
On the other hand, among SCs in Japan and Korea having both jobs and
participating in social activities, there is a large gender difference
(the difference between females and males for the two countries: 19.6
percent, 15.5 percent, respectively), but there is almost no difference
on this score among males and females in the United States, U.K., and
Sweden. However, in all countries, as SCs grow older, there is a steady
decline in both the job holders and nonjobholders' social and community
work. In Japan, SCs social participation without jobs, however, start to
increase in their late sixties and this tendency continues until their
late seventies.

> Sponsor of Social Work

Who was the sponsor(s) of your social work? The following list of
sponsors was given to SCs:

\(1\) public bodies such as community centers run by local public
bodies---museums; (2) town councils or other autonomous bodies; (3)
religious bodies; (4) voluntary bodies; (5) private sectors such as
business firms; (6) on my own; (7) other; and (8) I don't know.

For Korean and Japanese SCs, town councils and autonomous bodies are
their primary sponsors of activities, whereas, their American, German,
and Swedish counterparts indicated that the primary sponsors were
themselves (on their own). However, for Americans, public bodies were
equally frequently reported as their sponsors.

The male SCs from Japan, Korea, and Germany tend to engage in activities
sponsored by public bodies than their female counterparts. The rate of
self-sponsored activities is higher among female Korean and U.S.
citizens than among their male citizens, but this tendency is reversed
in the U.K.

> Previous ET and Social Participation

In Japan, Korea, the U.K., and Sweden, the more ET they have, the more
active they are in voluntary social activities. For those SCs in the
United States and the U.K. with more than 13 years of ET, the
participation rate in self-sponsored volunteer activities decreases.

> Perceived Impact of Social Participation

SCs were also asked about their opinions on the impact of their social
participation. There were three main levels: local and society level;
level of family members and friends; and at the level of themselves.

In all countries, the impact at the local and society levels was the
most frequent answer among SCs. But the Swedish and American SCs also
reported a relatively high rate of impact at the individual level. Only
15 percent of Koreans and Japanese reported the impact of the level of

their family members and friends, where as the rate of endorsement on
this item among other countries ranged between 50 percent to 80 percent?

A gender difference was observed. Except in the United States, male SCs
reported more the impact at the local and society levels than female
SCs. The impact on themselves was selected more frequently by female SCs
in most of the countries.

To summarize the following factors seem to be associated with active
participation of senior citizens in volunteer activities: SCs with
moderate amount of free time; SCs' who are healthy, socially interested,
and open to change; SCs with active neighbor relations; SCs active
learning participation; SCs who are married; SCs with longer ET; male
SCs than female SCs; and SCs with jobs.

Finally, there are interesting cultural differences in the attitudes of
social and community work between Japanese SCs and those from European
and American counterparts. The Japanese SCs' indicated less preference
for less individualized modes of activities and less individually
initiated social work. The authors of the ICLSE report argues that the
motive for social participation is more externally driven (e.g.,
importance of volunteer work) than individually driven (e.g., useful
activities for SCs themselves). The ICLSE report defined the Japanese
volunteer work as a "social service-oriented" model and its Western
model as "self­ actualization" model. The focus of control of one's
learning and social participation will probably occupy one of the
priority concerns in the years to come in Japan.

> SCs' Opinion on the Support System for Learning

In Japan in December 1995, the Fundamental Law for the Aging Society
came into effect, followed by the publication of the General Principles
for the Aging Society. A few European countries have now also
legislation which supports the provision of adult education (Norton
1992).

*Who Should Be Responsible for the Learning Activities of SCs?*

There were five response alternatives: (1) governments (national and
local); (2) private sectors; (3) partnership between government and
private sectors; (4) volunteer service of senior citizens; and (5) don't
know.

Thirty-six point five percent of Japanese SCs asserted that learning
should be their own responsibility (volunteer service), followed by the
partnership formula by the government and

private sectors (24.8 percent). In the United States, and Sweden, the
partnership is the most preferred option (35.3 percent and 44.5 percent,
respectively). The first choices of Korean and U.K. citizens was
governmental responsibility (34 percent for both countries).

There is a general tendency among SCs of all countries who endorse the
partnership scheme between the government and private sectors more than
among those SCs who do not participate in learning at all in all
countries. The Japanese active participants in learning who supported it
significantly higher (the difference is 13 percent). Twenty-four point
five percent of Japanese non-participants of learning gave "don't know
answer."

In their late seventies, the U.K. SCs' preference for governmental
responsibility increases (41.8 percent) for the support of their
learning. In all countries as SCs grow older. Particularly in their
seventies, the reply "don't know" increases.

In Japan, SCs with more than 13 years of ET choose most frequently
volunteer service as their first choice. In the U.K., as SCs grow older,
the opinion of the government as sole responsible body for learning
decreases and the idea of partnership increase. For the U.S., SCs with
less than six years of schooling, their best choice is governmental
responsibility (55.6 percent).

*What Do SCs Expect from the Support System (Priority Concerns)?*

There were ten alternatives for this question: (1) availability of
training programs and lectures; (2) easy access to information and to
counseling; (3) availability of insurance for injury and damage of
properties; (4) good transport and easy access to facilities; (5) social
recognition of the results of activities; (6) financial aid to cover
minimum expenses; (7) financial aid to the activity circles and bodies;
(8) co­operative participation among the members of activity groups; (9)
others; and (10) don't know.

The top two choices of each country were as follows:

-   Japan: cooperative participation; and easy access to information and
    to counseling;

-   Korea: good transport; and financial aid to the activity circles and
    bodies;

-   Germany: good transport and easy access to facilities; and social
    recognition of the results of activities;

-   Sweden: easy access to information and to counseling; and
    cooperative participation;

-   United States: good transport facilities; and availability of
    training programs and lectures; and

-   U.K.: easy access to information; and good transport to facilities.

The results indicate that good transport and easy access to information
and facilities are crucial factors determining the level of
participation of SCs in learning.

In Sweden and Japan, the longer SCs previous ET, the more they endorse
such items as: the availability of programs, easy access to information
and co-operative participation. Extremely high among American SCs (75
percent) with less than 6 years of schooling is "good transport" as
their first choice.

> SCs' Opinions on the Support Systems of Social Activities

A question was raised: Who do you think should be responsible for
promoting the social participation of senior citizens at the local and
societal levels? In Japan, the United States, Germany, two major
replies---partnership or volunteer service---equally divided the
opinions of SCs. Swedish endorsed more strongly partnership approach
rather than social participation being

initiated by SCs themselves (52.7 percent vs. 17.4 percent). In Japan,
U.K. and Sweden, in their seventies, the choice of partnership decreases
and the choice of the government's responsibility tends to increase.

In most countries with longer periods of previous education and
training, the rate of endorsing partnership option increases. In Korea,
the United States, and Sweden, the choice of governmental responsibility
decreases.

In all countries, the partnership option is endorsed more by SCs who are
active in social participation than those who are not. On the contrary,
in Korea, the United States, and U.K., the governmental option is more
endorsed by nonsocial participants than by participants.

In summary, according to ICLSE study, individual volunteer service,
government, and private organizations are main bodies responsible for
the provision and support for the learning of SCs. Partnership is more
strongly supported by those active participants of learning than those
nonparticipants. In the United States SCs with less than 6 years of ET
indicated a strong preference for governmental responsibility.
Accessibility to facilities and information and to guidance services,
good transportation means, are crucial factors affecting the
participation of SCs in learning activities.

In the sphere of social participation of SCs in social activities, the
availability and accessibility to information and service facilities are
important factors substantially affecting SCs social activities.
Partnership between the government and private sector is a preferred
approach to advance social participation, and the support for this
approach increases with longer previous ET. In some countries, as SCs
grow older (in their seventies), the governmental option increases. A
healthy and more active citizen with good neighbor relations and family
members are socially active.

> Current Programs and Strategies for Active Aging

These programs can be described from four main angles:

> 1\. Networking and information databank;

2\. Use of existing infrastructure and opportunities;

> 3\. Interactive intergenerational education and training; and
>
> 4\. Partnership approach to promote active aging.
>
> Networking and Information Data Banks: From Awareness to Action

The ICLSE demonstrated that active aging is a liable and beneficial
option in Japan. Active aging helps older people to enjoy life
activities in general, better health, a greater degree of well being,
and psychological satisfaction. Above all, active citizenship benefits
all age groups in society and makes significant contributions to the
society, economically, and socially.

Lifelong education is well understood and rooted idea in Japan. Thanks
to the concerted campaign over the last 2 decades by the government,
researchers, institutes, voluntary workers and various lifelong and
adult learning bodies, active aging scheme is also capturing the mind of
Japanese people. However, the strategies of how to conceptualize and
contextualize active aging in the framework of lifelong education must
be further clarified and developed. Information development and
dissemination to SCs on this topic as well as to all age groups is an
important step to understand this theme.

Active aging campaigns are now facing a new challenge, the one which is
moving from basically an awareness-building stage to collection and
dissemination of a more usable information gathering, in order to
empower SCs with all the necessary skills---professional, social,
health, and technology.

One of the most successful ongoing networking projects is so called
"Volunteer data bank for lifelong learning," supported by the Ministry
of Education within the framework of its support program for the
promotion of volunteer activities for lifelong learning. Education and
training activities for the elderly in Japan often build in various
volunteer projects.

The volunteer bank, intended for mutual information support among SCs
and the concerned bodies and individuals, is used to disseminate the
registered names of SCs volunteers and bodies, information on
co­ordination centers, and information on the sponsors and organizations,
which provides learning activities and voluntary social and community
work for SCs. The networks created by volunteer data banks can also have
a role of the social network for SCs. The NIER's ISPPD report points out
the tendency of Japanese SCs increasing need for affiliation with
others, and, in fact, the social network can meet such a need. This is
one of the reasons for the importance of training programs in
computerization for SCs because the computer (e.g., how

to use Internet) is a useful means not only for obtaining information in
general, but also for strengthening social connections, encounters, and
interaction of SCs', which can go beyond local, regional, and national
boundaries.

The lifelong education research team at the National Institute for
Educational Research (NIER), headed by Yamamoto, upon review of users
opinion on the data bank, reported the following future tasks in order
to improve the project (1997):

-   need for more publicity;

-   need to stimulate local needs and to develop a wider range of data
    bank users;

-   need for more courses, programs, and activities sponsored by public
    bodies;

-   reinforced training for the registered volunteers;

-   need for a more selective registration of volunteers in order to
    obtain good quality volunteers and users;

-   more information production designed to stimulate autonomous
    activities of volunteers; and

-   schools should be more encouraged to use locally registered
    volunteers.

Finally the Yamamoto team endorses the need for the networking of
volunteer center at different sectors which currently spread out in
prefectural and municipal boards of education, various social welfare
centers, public community halls, universities, and enterprises. This is
one of the future priorities of the information activities to promote
active aging in Japan.

> Use of Existing Infrastructure and Opportunities

The existing schools, universities, learning centers, and conference
rooms of companies are offered for the education and training for the
elderly learners, and the number of such facilities is steadily
increasing. The courses are offered for SCs in school classrooms and
higher education extension courses are provided to the elderly as
universities are willing to agree with increased enrolment quota for
elderly students. There have been some key factors which determine the
degree of participation of SCs in university extension courses: flexible
attendance

hours (part-time, and night courses); modest tuition; easily available
transport; the availability

of correspondence courses; easy access to the facilities; understanding
teaching staff; availability of quality information and guidance service
to meet the needs of the elderly; and availability of interesting and
relevant programs to SCs. The community resources and infrastructures
are used for the education and training of SCs.

Local experts and specialists are participating in it. The Community
Learning Centers (Kominkan), run by the municipal education authorities
and supported by the national/prefectural education authorities is the
largest. Seventeen thousand Kominkans are established in all

municipalities and attended by 7.5 million people per year covering more
than 50 percent of all public education supplies in Japan (Okamoto,
1997). There are also other centers run by NGOs, enterprises,
foundations, clubs, and cultural centers.

The use of and cooperation with existing infrastructure and
opportunities to promote learning and social participation is
economically advantageous in view of mobilizing local resources. Another
advantage of creative and flexible use of existing infrastructures and
resources is the partnership it can create among the formal education
sector, nonformal education sector (Shakai Kkyoiku), and private and
public sectors. It is a means to promote various local and regional
cooperative programs to promote SCs' learning and social participation
throughout the nation.

> Interactive Intergenerational Education and Training

One of the growing ideas in Japan about the education and training of
SCs is reflected in the programs designed to promote intergenerational
relationships. We are witnessing millions of SCs volunteer tutors
working in public schools in the United States and similar other
innovations from other countries seem to convince us that older people
and young people can effectively interact with each other.

One of the most successful innovations receiving considerable attention
from the public is an interactive intergenerational method of learning
and teaching which was originally arranged by the Fukuoka Prefecture
(south of Japan). The main scheme of "senior-citizen as a voluntary
teacher" project is to have graduate degree holders of SCs teacher at
elementary and junior high schools. During 1993--94, 75,000 SCs with a
graduate university degree participated in the project as teachers. In
this intergenerational program, the travel expenses are borne by the
concerned. Prefectural bodies but teaching involves no remuneration. The
majority of participating teachers are aged 60--80, but a few teachers
in their eighties joined this project.

This project has been evaluated by the Yamamoto team (1997) to indicate
the following advantages:

-   SCs' enjoys teaching, interaction, and communication with younger
    generations;

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   pupils enjoy learning with elderly teachers who possess expertise
    and life experiences;

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   pupils from a nucleus family (without grandparents) can learn from
    the elderly

> experts;

-   young teachers particularly profit from SCs' teachers' life and
    professional

> experiences, particularly from their knowledge on historical and
> cultural aspects of the
>
> local community; and

-   utilization of local community human resources.

The Yamamoto team (1997), upon their extensive review of the "senior
citizen as a voluntary teacher," suggested the following suggestions to
future improvement of the project:

-   improved coordination with the overall school curriculum and
    reinforced;

-   efforts should be made with a view to enlightening teachers about
    lifelong learning, voluntary activities and the meaning of "open"
    schools; and

-   methods of teaching and guidance by the elderly teachers to promote
    the pupil's self-direction and initiatives in learning activities.

There are a large number of institutions, community centers, and
business enterprises that offer similar programs such as the ones
offered in the University of Third Age in Europe and U.S..

"Volunteer Learners University" established in 1985 in Shimizu City
(neighbor Prefecture of Tokyo) is an interesting innovation. The
University lectures are given mostly in Public Community Halls
(Kominkan). In this scheme, the volunteer professor makes a proposal
pertaining to the course content and plans of teaching in general. Once
the teaching proposal is approved by the University authorities, it is
up to him/her to determine the teaching methods and learning experiences
for SC learners. There is no age limit both for professors and students.
The majority of the male students are in their sixties but there are
more and more female students who are in their seventies. The majority
of students are women. The male-female enrollment ratio is 1 to 4. Most
of professors are in their sixties but the age range of professors vary
between forties and eighties. The University received a Prime Minister's
Award for its outstanding contribution as a volunteer higher learning
institute. This University is popular because: it imposes no age limit;
requires low tuition; learning is conducted at an individual pace, free
class atmosphere; motivated volunteer teaching staff; and abundant
opportunity to make friends.

The "Silver University" in Tochigi Prefecture, whose President is the
Governor, offers courses on the society in general, hobby and family
life, health, social welfare, local, and community work.

Utsunomiya City (near Tokyo) is actively engaged in supporting the
learning activities of SCs. This city possesses a Social Welfare Center,
a Lifelong Education Center offering courses for SCs, a Federation of
Associations for the Elderly, a "Silver" Human Resource Development
Center, and several cultural centers run by private business
enterprises. The Municipal Boards of Education of Utsunomiya City is
providing these educational and social activities for the elderly, and
the free provision of the courses for SCs' is realized and efforts have
been made to improve the facilities and equipment built-up for the
elderly learner.

> Partnership to Promote Active Aging

This partnership is involving different levels and types of cooperation
and role structures.

Among public authorities, this process involves coordination and role
distribution among the national education authorities, the schools, the
prefectural education authorities and the

municipal education authorities. There is an issue of cooperation and
coordination between the public and private sectors working in the field
of education and training for SCs.

As regards the coordination among different bodies of lifelong learning
in municipalities (cities, towns, and villages), the NIER report by
Yamamoto reveals that only 5.6 percent of the municipalities possess
such coordinating mechanisms and 16.8 percent of them have future plans
to establish. There is also interministerial co­ordination and
cooperation. Each level of the public authorities forms partnership with
the private sectors---private enterprises, private cultural centers, and
associations and clubs. The report also stresses the great potential of
NGOs and

nonprofit organizations, particularly its role as agent to identify
consumer needs of SCs (which is usually a low priority for industries)
for the promotion of commercial products for SCs.

The final report prepared by a team from NIER (Yamamoto) on their study
on volunteer data banks can give the following concrete example of
partnership between different levels of the public authorities.

The Ministry of Education provides funds to different Prefectural Boards
of Education, coordinates their work through the project promotion
committees and the establishment of main objectives and main line of
work and strategies. The concrete activities carried out by the
Prefectural Boards of Education under this partnership are:
identification and registration of users of volunteers; volunteer bank
establishment and dissemination of information and

consultant service for voluntary activities and volunteers; development
of the volunteer curriculum and its dissemination to the concerned
bodies; training of volunteers; and establishment of volunteer centers
for lifelong education.

Referring to the public-private sectors cooperation, the NIER's ISPPD
report stresses the public sectors' financial and material support for
the establishment of the infrastructure of education and training
facilities, but the content and methods of learning and social
participation should be largely left in the hands of adult education
communities, associations, and industries and individual SCs. Strong
"volunteerism" manifested as a motive of learning among Japanese SCs'
reported in the ICLSE report can also be sustained through this
approach.

Finally, there is the industry-education sectors cooperation. A most
important issue relating to this type of cooperation is how to
effectively identify needs of SCs consumers. The NIER report argues that
marketing by business firms can be aided by lifelong education research,
which can provide a broadly based consumer psychology of SCs. Research
indicates, for example, that SCs choice of consumer goods is often
influenced by the opinions of their family members. Business investment
and production of consumer goods, hardware, and software for SCs is
growing fast.

It is, in this sense, an advantage for industry sectors, if it is to
satisfy a multiple-faceted need of senior citizen
consumers---psychological, economic, social cultural, health, and
sports, to form an alliance with the lifelong education and training
sector.

Looking to the future, the ISPD report recommends: the need for
strengthened partnership between the public authorities and individual
volunteers and their bodies; the need for volunteer centers (currently
the half of the Prefecture is equipped) and the coordinator for these
centers; networking of voluntary centers; multifaceted assessment system
of volunteer activities; volunteer insurance and remuneration for
volunteer work; and promotion of volunteer activities at home, school,
and local community and the linkage and networking between these agents.

##### Conclusion

The seriously alarming pressure on government budget for pension
benefits and medical costs must be taken seriously in adult education
for senior citizens. To reduce this budget pressure, OECD (1998)
proposed some measures in economic terms: prolonged retirement scheme
(60 to 65); private-sector investment of the state pension funds;
reduced pension benefits and reduced

contributions; more private contributions from the income of the elderly
and to their health and nursing care expenses; and increased birthrate
through better provision of maternity leave, improved child care
facilities.

Active aging scheme, in which individual differences and needs of SCs'
are fully taken into consideration, is a major option for Japan. The
ICLSE and ISPPD studies demonstrated some key factors to be taken into
consideration in order for SCs' themselves and their partners to
effectively support learning and social participation of individual
citizens.

The following implications can be drawn, particularly in view of the
current Japanese efforts to meet the learning requirement of SCs in the
changing world:

-   Education and training is an investment, which can help to reduce
    the budgetary pressure on pensions and medical care of the aging
    society. Education and training (ET) for SCs' involves ET for all
    about senior citizenship among SCs themselves, all generations, and
    all partners (government, NCIOs, Community Centers, the general
    public);

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   ET for SCs' in Japan needs to be built in their philosophy and
    practices of lifelong education, which is a major guiding principle
    of Japanese education: ET about and for senior citizenship can start
    early in life as an integral part of the human developmental scheme
    of learning and teaching;

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   ET for senior citizenship needs to be focused on the unique need and
    empowerment of the individual learner: each senior citizen is unique
    and may aspire to different needs, and when each senior citizen
    feels empowered with self-efficacy, self-direction, and self-
    control, ET for SCs' become an effective course of action. The
    policies, support systems and other helping efforts of partners for
    active senior citizenship can be geared towards satisfying the
    individual needs of SCs;

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   SCs' and younger generations need more opportunities to learn about
    the importance of self-management of free time with and without
    employment: techniques of how to use and apply multimedia
    technologies to the benefit of their life, work, leisure, and social
    activities. Developing learning and social networks with the aid of
    such technologies opens up unlimited horizons of their life;

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   While meaningful and enriching partnerships between women and men
    are essential ingredients of active aging, gender disparities in
    learning and social participation of SCs can be narrowed,
    particularly by encouraging more the participation of female SCs in
    higher level of education, employment, professional training, and
    health management.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   The childcare facilities should be improved and other institutional
    obstacles can be

> removed to make both female and male SCs' learning and social
> participation easier and more accessible;

-   ET about and for health is an important priority concern for active
    aging. Self-directed ET for health care starts early in life and can
    be sustained throughout life. People are more and more convinced by
    the idea that active learning and social participation do

> improve our health, which, in turn, make possible more active learning
> and social
>
> participation of SCs;

-   Effective and flexible partnership and resource mobilization efforts
    among different individuals, bodies of SCs, different public bodies
    and ministries, between national and local bodies---is a key to
    promote acting aging scheme of the society and any assessment
    attempts of such partnership and coordination must be learner
    focused; and

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Current practices and innovations designed to promote
    intergenerational interactive communication and cooperation,
    pleasurable and mutually beneficial intercommunity programs,
    curricula, and learning opportunities, are key ET issues for active
    senior citizenship.

Finally, international comparative studies, exchange, and dissemination
of information is a useful means to promote, stimulate, and review
innovations and practices of senior citizenship of one's country from a
global perspective.

References

Albert, S. and Cattle, M. 1994. *Old age in global perspective.* New
York: Human Relations Area

Files, Inc.

Anderson, R. et al. 1992. *The coming of age in Europe.* London: Age
Concern England.

Bandura, A. 1997. *Self efficacy: The exercise of control.* New York:
WH. Freeman and

Company.

Bengston, V. (ed). 1996. *Adulthood and aging: Research on continuities
and discontinuities.*

New York: Springer Publishing Company.

BaIts, B and Baits, M, (eds). 1990. *Successful aging: Perspective from
the behavioral sciences.*

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Belanger, P and Valdivielso, S. (eds). 1997. *The emergence of learning
societies: who*

*participate in adult learning?* Oxford: Pergamon and Hamburg, UNESCO
Institute for

Education.

Bel anger, P. 1992. L' Education *des adultes et le vieillissment des
populations: tendences et*

*enjeux**.*** Revue internationale de pedagogie, 38(4), 343--362,
Hambourg: Institut de

l'UNESCO pour L'education.

Central Council for Education. 1996. *The model for Japanese education
in the perspective of the*

*21^st^ Century.* First report.

Durkin, K. 1995. *Developmental social psychology.* Cambridge: Blackwell
Publishers.

Japanese Association for Lifelong Education. 1990. *Shogai gakushu
jiten* (Dictionary of Lifelong

Education). Tokyo: Tokyo Shoseki Publishing Ltd.

Keith, J. et al.1994. *The aging experience: Diversity and commonality
across cultures.* SAGE

Publications: London & New Delhi.

Midwinter, E. (ed). 1997. *Older adults as helpers in learning
processes.* Barcelona: Report of the

European Association for the Education of Adults.

Rowe, J.W. and Kahn, R.L. 1998. *Successful aging.* Pantheon Books.

Sperry, L. and Prosen, H. (eds). 1996. *Aging in the twenty-first
century: a developmental*

*perspective.* New York and London: Garland Publishing, lnc.

National Education Hall. *1997. Koreishakai no gakushu shakaisanka
katsudo no kokU.S.i hikaka*

(International Comparison of learning and social participation by the
elderly).

OECD. 1996. *Aging in OECD countries: A critical policy challenge.* OECD
Social Policy

Studies No.20.

OECD. *Japan population aging.* Observer No. 209, December 1997/January
1998.

---------*Aging populations and government budgets. Observer* No. 197,
December 1995/January

1996\.

---------*Who looks after the elderly? Observer No.* 188, June/July
1994.

Okamoto, K. 1994. *Lifelong learning movement in Japan.* Tokyo: Sun
Printed Ltd.

Senuma, Y. (Ed). 1990. *Network ka no chosen* (Challenge of networking).
Tokyo: Gyosei

Publishing Ltd.

Tanaka, Y. 1990. *Semarikuru chokorei shakai to gakushu network*
(Emerging aging society and

learning network) in Senuma Y. (Ed). Challenge in networking. Tokyo:
Gyosei

Publishing, Ltd.

UNESCO. *The Hamburg Declaration & the Agenda for the Future.* Fifth
International

Conference on Adult Education 14--18 July 1997.

United Nations. 1994. *Social aspects and country reviews of population
aging.* Economic

Studies No.6, Report of UN Economic Commission for Europe and UN
Population Fund.

New York: United Nations.

Yamamoto, Y. 1997. *Shikuchoson ni okeru volunteer bank no kaseika ni
kansuru kenku* (Field

empirical study on the vitalization of data banks of lifelong learning
in local

communities). Tokyo: Report of the National Institute for Educational
Research of Japan.

Yamamoto, Y. et al. 1996. *Korei shakai ni taio shita shogaigakushu no
seisaku program no*

*kaihatsu ni kansuru sogoteki kenkyu* (Integrated study on policy and
program

development for lifelong learning to cope with aging society). Tokyo:
National Institute

for Educational Research.

Walker, A.(Ed). 1996. *The new generational contract.* London: UCL Press
Limited.

Weil, A., 1996. *Spontaneous healing.* New York: Ballantine Books.

World Health Organization. 1998. *Aging and Health Program.* Geneva:
Rev.1/February.

#### 

#### Annex I

1\. The survey "International Comparison of Learning and Social
Participation by the Elderly" (ICLSE) commissioned by the Japanese
Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture and was conducted during
1995--1997 in Germany, Japan, Korea, Sweden, U.K., U.S.. The project
interviewed individuals (age group: 60-79, N=approximately 1,000 in each
country) and also surveyed the public bodies responsible for education
and training for SCs in the following cities responsible for public
policies and facilities for education and training for the elderly.

-   Germany: Frankfurt

-   Japan: Utsunomiya city

-   Korea: Seoul City

-   Sweden: Stockholm

-   U.K.: Leicester County

-   U.S.: Phoenix

2\. Sampling, interviews, and data analysis were conducted by:

-   Germany: MARPLAN

-   Japan: New Information Center Co., Ltd. (Shin Joho Center)

-   Korea: Korea Survey (Gallop) Polls Ltd.

-   Sweden: SIFO Research AB

-   U.K.: BMRB International

-   U.S.: Kane, Parsons, & Associates, Inc.

3\. The report "Integrated Study on Policy and Program Development for
Lifelong Learning in the Aging Society" (ISPPD) was based upon a survey
conducted during 1994--1996, commissioned by the Japanese Ministry of
Education, Science and Culture by the lifelong education group of
National Institute for Educational Research of Japan (NIER-Chief
Researcher Yoshihiro Yamamoto). This research employed interviews with
the elderly, individuals, and bodies responsible for education and
training for the aged, systematic review of statistical data on aging,
policy, and project review both in Japan and a selected number of
foreign countries, expert meetings.