[Chapter 10]{.smallcaps}

[Developing Resilience]{.smallcaps}

Janice Harris Lord, MSW, and Kevin O'Brien, Ed.D[^1]

*First heal yourself, and then go out and heal others.*

> ---Maya Angelou

*Although the world is full of suffering, it is also full of overcoming
it.*

> ---Helen Keller

Victim service providers come in contact with graphic descriptions of
violence, victimization, and detailed reenactments of traumatic events.
They can become vulnerable to personal negative consequences, but they
also can experience many positive rewards as they become more resilient.

This chapter describes the traits of resilience and uses research to
suggest strength-based proactive strategies to develop or strengthen
these traits in individual victim service providers. Since resilience
can be learned, adjusting to the impact of trauma work is within our
control. Resilient strategies, if employed, will result in decreased
provider distress and increased positive client outcomes.

The field of crime victim services recognizes the potential impact of
exposure to trauma. Whether performed on the streets, in police
departments, through the prosecutor's office, or in direct care
programs, victim assistance makes huge demands on staff and volunteers.
Yet, not all victim service providers are diminished by their work. In
fact, many are strengthened and energized by it. As providers help
victims integrate, strive, adjust, and move through trauma, they also
are challenged to develop personal and workplace strategies to
integrate, cope, and manage traumatic material.

A 1999 focus group of victim service providers (U.S. Department of
Justice, 1999) reported that 75 percent of their agencies recognized the
stress-related symptoms of staff and volunteers. Supervisors in these
agencies attempted to intervene by discussing stressful incidents during
staff meetings and providing individual supervision with credentialed
mental health counselors to address stress-related issues.

Other agencies have more limited resources to build resilience to the
negative consequences of trauma work, often facing high turnover, which
necessitates additional time, effort, and costs of recruiting, training,
and employing new staff and volunteers. When replacing seasoned victim
service providers with novice ones, agencies must recognize that
inexperienced providers are more likely to require one-on-one support
and supervision than more experienced colleagues (Neumann and Gamble,
1995; Pearlman and Saakvitne, 1995a). Agencies may even find themselves
legally liable for compensation to victim service providers who claim
psychological damage at work, particularly if supervisors have not
initiated preventive policies and strategies to enhance worker
performance and satisfaction (Sexton, 1999).

While acknowledging the hazards of trauma work, this chapter emphasizes
a strength-based action approach (Saleeby, 1996) to inform individual
victim service providers about resilience and to offer them strategies
to develop and strengthen resilience. A growing body of research
suggests that the negative impact of stressful situations is reduced
through the use of adaptive coping responses (Lazarus and DeLongis,
1983). Strengthening victim service providers' resilience should buffer
potential negative reactions to trauma exposure. This chapter describes
five core elements of resilience and details more specific traits and
strategies within each element. These strategies, if employed, may
result in decreased stress among victim service providers and,
therefore, increased quality services to victims of crime.

**OVERVIEW OF SELF-CARE**

As researchers have looked beyond the negative impact of trauma work,
they have increasingly discovered both positive and negative effects
(Joyce, 2004). While the focus of this chapter is on strengthening
resilience as an effective tool for self-care among victim service
providers, the potential for negative outcomes of trauma work cannot be
overlooked.

New victim service providers may be unprepared for hearing the intensely
painful experiences of persons victimized by violent crime. Providers
supply many kinds of services: short- and long-term counseling, safety
planning, education, assistance with compensation and restitution
applications, court accompaniment, and overall case management. Working
with trauma survivors involves more than simply facing traumatic events.
It means living with each victim's unique reactions to the event, as
well as walking with her or him through the various institutional and
social reactions to the crime, which can be further victimizing (Dutton
and Rubenstein, 1995). Through exposure to the trauma and the
traumatized victim, providers also become aware not only that traumatic
events *can* occur, but that they may occur again at any time and any
place (Danieli, 1985).

Efforts to identify the troubling aspects of traumatic encounters among
human services providers have resulted in numerous labels, including
*secondary stress*, *cumulative stress*, *countertransference*,
*emotional contagion*, *burnout*, *compassion fatigue*, and *vicarious
traumatization*. Many professional psychotherapists and victim service
providers say they are unsure what to call the phenomenon or how to
define it, but they know it when they see it. Such statements as, "I'm
not supposed to feel this way" and "I need to hide my feelings so I can
be strong for others" illustrate syndromes that can disrupt a person's
sense of life meaning, connections to others, personal and professional
identity, and assumptions or views of how the world works (Pearlman and
Saakvitne, 1995a).

To date, most of the professional literature on the effects of working
in the trauma field has been based on anecdotal experiences with limited
systematic research. The following research, conducted primarily on
licensed or certified professionals who work with trauma victims, yields
both positive and negative aspects of trauma work. For example:

-   A high percentage of trauma counselors working with Holocaust
    survivors report numbing defenses (avoidance, denial, distancing),
    bystander guilt, rage, shame, horror, and grief (Danieli, 1988).

-   Often, but not always, the greater the exposure of psychotherapists
    to child and adult traumatized clients, the greater their number of
    symptoms that are similar to those of their clients. These symptoms
    may include disturbed sleep, anger, fear, nightmares, flashbacks,
    irritability, anxiety, alienation, loss of control, suicidal
    thoughts, physical distress, low self-esteem, and disturbing images
    (Cornille and Meyers, 1999; Cunningham, 1996; Dalton, 2001;
    Hollingsworth, 1993; Kassan-Adams, 1994; McCann and Pearlman, 1990;
    McCann and Pearlman, 1999; Pearlman and Saakvitne, 1995b; Schauben
    and Frazier, 1995).

-   A personal history of victimization may or may not be relevant to
    psychological stress, trauma symptoms, or posttraumatic stress
    disorder (PTSD) in female sexual trauma counselors (Schauben and
    Frazier, 1995; Follette, Polunsky, and Milbeck, 1994; Johnson and
    Hunter, 1997; Pearlman and Mac Ian, 1995).

-   Positive aspects of working with traumatized victims of crime
    include increased personal satisfaction, life meaning, purpose,
    competence, spiritual well-being, and political activity; improved
    clinical skills; and deepened social relationships (Brady, Guy,
    Peolstra, and Brokaw, 1999; Joyce, 2004; Lobel, 1996; Miller, 2001;
    O'Brien, 2002; Radeke and Mahoney, 2000; Schauben and Frazier,
    1995).

-   It appears that the negative effects of trauma work, while present,
    are not only short-lived but also crucial to providers' development
    of longer-term positive effects (Lobel, 1996).

In short, these data support the need for more research. The authors
were unable to locate any reliable empirical research on staff and
volunteer victim service providers without certifications or licenses.

**DEFINING RESILIENCE**

Resilience generally refers to one's ability to return to healthy
functioning after being in a stressful situation (Luthar, Cicchetti, and
Becker, 2000; Tugade and Frederickson, 2004). Being resilient does not
mean that individuals are problem-free or unaffected by difficulties. It
does mean drawing on personal beliefs, behaviors, skills, and attitudes
to move through stress, trauma, and tragedy rather than succumb to them.
It means emerging from stressful situations feeling normal and perhaps
even stronger than before (National Center for Victims of Crime, 2005).

There are many definitions of resilience, however, and some
discrepancies in the conceptualization of resilience as a personality
trait versus a dynamic process. While *resilience* refers to a dynamic
process of adaptation to significant adversity, *resiliency* refers to a
personal trait rather than a process (Luthar et al., 2000). Following on
Masten (1994), we use the term resilience in this chapter to focus on
positive adjustment under challenging conditions---a process of specific
attitudes, behaviors, and skills that can be learned. This chapter
defines resilience as the power to cope with adversity and adapt to
challenges or change. The concept of resilience is similar to other
known constructs, such as altruism (Monroe, 1996; Luks, 1993)---the
practice of helping others without concern for oneself or what one might
get in return---and hardiness (Maddi and Kobasa, 1984; Kobasa, Maddi,
and Courington, 1981; Bartone, 1999)---the ability to endure stress
without becoming physically ill.

**RESILIENCE THEORY AND RESEARCH**

One of the first people to study resilience was Emmy Werner, a professor
of human development at the University of California at Davis, who had
survived the bombing of Germany during World War II as a child. She
began researching resilience in children in the 1950s and published a
longitudinal study of resilient children in 1982 (Werner, 1982; Werner
and Smith, 1992). Her study, which followed high-risk children from
birth through the age of 32, identified the following traits of
resilience among those who became productive and successful adults:

-   The skill needed to make and keep friends, including a sense of
    humor.

-   Problem-solving skills, which may be linked to parental
    competence---especially during the first year of life.

-   Internal locus of control or the ability to recognize that a person
    has control over much of what happens to him or her.

-   Hope, including a sense of purpose and a "success" orientation.

-   A warm, positive relationship with at least one other person.

-   Faith and prayer.

Since Dr. Werner's pioneering work, hundreds of articles have been
published on resilience among all age groups, professions, and
sociological categories. Many clinicians attest to the resilience of
humanity and the courage of the human spirit, the joy in participating
in healing another person, and the personal growth that results from
journeying with survivors of trauma (Pearlman and Saakvitne, 1995b; Guy,
2001; Schauben and Frazier, 1995).

Flach (1990) lists the following resilience traits:

-   Insight into oneself and others.

-   Self-esteem.

-   Ability to learn from experience.

-   High tolerance for stress.

-   Low tolerance for outrageous behavior.

-   Open-mindedness.

-   Courage.

-   Personal discipline.

-   Creativity.

-   Integrity.

-   Sense of humor.

-   A constructive philosophy of life that gives it meaning.

-   A willingness to dream dreams that can inspire and give genuine
    hope.

Flach observed that those who cope best with trauma are those who have
insight into the emotional impact of what they had been through and are
able to express their feelings to another about traumatizing events.
Similarly, Wolin and Wolin (1993), other pioneers in the field of
resilience research, have identified six resilience traits:

-   Insight.

-   Independence.

-   Ability to develop and maintain intimate relationships.

-   Initiative in creative problem-solving.

-   Sense of humor.

-   Morality (knowing right from wrong and being willing to take risks
    for those beliefs).

In studying personal resilient characteristics of crisis workers who did
not develop secondary PTSD, Lanning (1987) identified the following:

-   An easy-going personality and sense of humor.

-   Adequate training to perform the required tasks.

-   Religious beliefs.

-   Opportunity to train others or speak publicly.

-   Positive relationship with one's father.

-   Desire to help people.

Interest in resilience has prompted three distinct chronological waves
of inquiry. Richardson (2002) and others point out that theorists first
identified significant resilient traits, as noted previously. This wave
was followed by studies that began to investigate disruptive and
reintegrative processes of resilience during adversity. The current wave
of interest is in recognizing resilience as the primary force that
motivates or guides individuals to grow when faced with adversity and
disruption. Flach (1990), a pioneer in resilience research among adults,
states, "The real question should not be 'Why do some fall apart?' but
'Why on earth don't they all fall apart?'"

Since Werner's early studies on children, current research on human
development and adaptation reveals that resilience in children is more
common than uncommon, supporting the theory that resilience actually
helps people grow when faced with trouble (Masten, 2001). Palmer (1997,
1999) has now identified four hierarchical degrees of resilience in
children, suggesting that resilience can be developed and strengthened:

-   Anomic survival reflects the pattern of children who live in a
    constant state of chaos or disruption.

-   Regenerative resilience reflects children's initial learning of new,
    more effective ways of dealing with challenges.

-   Adaptive resilience refers to relatively sustained periods when
    children become accustomed to using constructive and positive
    strengthening strategies.

-   Flourishing resilience is a function of self-actualized children who
    use effective and constructive coping strategies extensively and
    view their lives as meaningful and manageable, or resilient (Zastrow
    and Kirst-Ashman, 1990).

New traumatic activity can initiate a shift back to a former degree of
resilience, but "flourishingly resilient" children have gained
additional means to help them navigate through the challenge.

The last decade of empirical research on resilience has attempted to
understand the underlying protective processes of resilience that
contribute to positive outcomes (Cowen, Work, and Wyman, 1997).

One of these studies found that between 30 and 90 percent of people who
suffer some form of traumatic event eventually experience some positive
change as well (Calhoun and Tedeschi, 1999). People may change their
life philosophy, learn to appreciate each day to the fullest, and
reevaluate what really matters to them. They may believe that their
experience made them wiser or encouraged them to act more altruistically
in the service of others; they may dedicate themselves to social renewal
or political activism; or they may enhance their relationships, for
example, valuing friends and family more (Linley and Joseph, 2003).

In terms of the recovery of direct trauma survivors, phrases like
*posttraumatic growth*, *stress-related growth*, and *adversarial
growth* are becoming more common in the literature (Linley and Joseph,
2004; Ai and Park, 2005). This aspect of trauma research provides a
strong foundation for incorporating proactive strategies for victim
service providers and their agencies to counteract the potential
negative effects of trauma work. Whereas many social and biological
theories argue that most human behavior is based on self-interest, this
pessimistic perspective does not explain the many heroic acts committed
by people who risk much to help others (Finegan and Flannigan, 2004).

Some people appear to have become less resilient than they once were.
For example, resilience in children tends to be weakened by violence,
physical or sexual abuse, exposure to alcoholism, and removal from the
home (Reynolds as cited in Gorman, 2005). Among adults, previous
exposures to trauma and intensity of response to acute trauma (which may
have included neuroendocrine changes) have been shown to weaken
resilience (Yehuda, 2004). But despite any preexisting factors that may
make some more people resilient than others, **everyone can strengthen
their resilience by developing additional resilience skills** (Waite and
Richardson, 2004; Trine, 2004).

Just as resilience traits can be developed within individuals, they can
also be acquired by organizations. Fostering organizational resilience
is crucial, because when organizations strengthen victim service
providers' resilience, they also notice a consequent positive effect in
the services the providers deliver.

In many ways, a workplace functions much like a family system, and some
of the work in organizational resilience has been adapted from family
resilience literature (Patterson, 2004). Figley (1988, 1989) has
identified nine qualities of healthy family systems that may be
essential to healthy workplaces as well:

-   Acknowledgment and definition of problems.

-   Commitment to the family \[agency\] as a whole.

-   Orientation toward solutions rather than problems.

-   High tolerance for others' differences.

-   Frequent expressions of concern and affection.

-   Open and effective communication.

-   Significant and genuine concern for each other.

-   High role flexibility.

-   Absence of violence and substance abuse.

Resilience is not static, but developing resilience takes time.
Organizations and supervisors who are committed to developing resilience
may be more patient with staff and volunteers who might be slow to show
some improvement in their work. They can learn to value small emergent
strengths in victim service providers, such as more significant
connections with others and a stronger sense of coherence or meaning in
their work.

Csikszentmihalyi's (1988, 1990, 1999) concept of "flow" may also be
helpful in creating a resilient working environment. Working individuals
in flow, he suggests, balance the challenge of the work with their
ability to perform the work satisfactorily. They are able to focus more
on their work because they do not have to focus on themselves as
workers. They are "in flow" when hours have passed but it feels like
minutes. They are so focused on their work that time seems to stand
still. They enjoy their work and are energized by it because there is no
dissonance between who they are and the work they do.

**CORE ELEMENTS AND STRATEGIES FOR VICTIM SERVICE PROVIDERS TO DEVELOP
RESILIENCE**

The pioneering researchers whose works have been cited previously in
this chapter, as well as more contemporary ones, have identified
numerous strategies for building resilience. While there is still no
uniform single theory of resilience or resilient traits in the
literature, most theorists, researchers, and practitioners would likely
agree with the victim service provider who recently said, "While our
river is still flowing, we need to do things---like keep the toxins
out---to make sure it doesn't dry up at the source" (S. Roos, personal
communication, June 2006).

Resilience can be developed through attention to external supports
(organizational and community resources), inner strengths (individual
personality characteristics), and learned skills (coping skills).
Developing these resilience elements works synergistically---meaning
that improvement in one element is likely to affect improvement in the
others, and vice versa.

The characteristics of resilience identified in this chapter summarize
current resilience theory and research into five core elements:

-   Self-knowledge and insight.

-   A sense of hope.

-   Healthy coping.

-   Strong relationships.

-   Personal perspective and meaning.

Each of these five core elements of resilience has distinct components
that are presented with specific strategies for providers and
organizations to foster personal, professional, and organizational
resilience in supporting crime victims. While the majority of these
strategies are research-based, some are derived from the collective
common sense wisdom and experience of victim service providers and
leaders in the field. This chapter offers strategies to be implemented
by individual victim service providers. A later publication will address
strategies to be implemented by agencies or organizations.

## Self-Knowledge and Insight

The core trait of self-knowledge and insight simply means knowing who
you are. It is having a clear sense of what you believe and how you feel
rather than trying to be what others want you to be. It includes
identifying your strengths and weaknesses---where you are successful and
where you could use some help. Having insight into why you were drawn to
victim assistance work helps you accept its challenges and motivates
personal and professional growth. Both program directors and direct
practitioners have identified insight or self-awareness as the
top-ranked contributor to optimal functioning. Gaining strength in
self-knowledge and insight includes:

-   Building self-esteem (Flach, 1990; Wolin and Wolin, 1993; Norcross,
    2000; Waite and Richardson, 2004).

-   Developing a strong inner locus of control (Linley, 2003; Linley and
    Joseph, 2004; Waite and Richardson, 2004).

-   Becoming more independent (Flach, 1990; Wolin and Wolin, 1993;
    Trine, 2004).

**Build Self-Esteem**[^2]

Positive self-esteem means liking and respecting yourself enough that
you can focus on the needs of others, rather than on constantly seeking
someone else's approval and affirmation. Positive self-esteem
contributes to satisfying social relationships which, in study after
study, have been shown to be crucial components of resilience (Myers,
2000; Myers and Diener, 1996; Pavot, Diener, and Fujita, 1990; Waite and
Richardson, 2004; Trine, 2004). (Strong relationships are more fully
discussed later as a core resilience trait.) It is difficult to develop
and maintain intimate relationships with partners and friends or to
establish meaningful relationships with clients or supervisors without
positive self-esteem. The healing power of self-disclosure (Pennebaker,
1990) becomes possible only when you feel good enough about yourself to
reveal yourself openly and transparently to someone else.

Janice Harris Lord, an advocate who began in 1978 and is still active in
the field, says:

> You have to know that you're good. That's not saying to be arrogant,
> but you have to acknowledge the things you are good at and act on
> those strengths. None of us can do everything, but an effective
> advocate feels good enough about himself or herself to be able to lead
> without bulldozing or offending (Seymour, personal communication,
> September 2006).

**Develop a Strong Inner Locus of Control**[^3]

Some people tend to think that life just happens and there is very
little they can do about it. These people are operating out of an
"external locus of control." It is important to distinguish between
matters outside your control and those you can influence. If you have a
strong "inner locus of control," you recognize that you do have the
ability to affect many outcomes. Deciding not to expend energy on things
beyond your control frees up energy to deal successfully with problems
you can control. It takes insight to begin to recognize that most
behaviors do have expected consequences. For the most part, life doesn't
just happen. It is not all a matter of luck.

Says Roberta Roper, whose daughter Stephanie was brutally raped,
tortured, and murdered more than 20 years ago, and who is, today, one of
the nation's most respected victim advocates:

> Since I was not only a victim/survivor, but an outsider in terms of
> the justice system, I was criticized early on as simply an "emotional
> mother seeking revenge." However, I understood that if I was to make a
> difference and survive myself, I would have to acquire knowledge about
> the system, explore all perspectives on issues, research what other
> states and other advocates were doing, anticipate opponents'
> arguments...and remain positive about our priorities (Seymour,
> personal communication, September 2006).

**Become More Independent**[^4]

With high self-esteem and an internal locus of control, you will find
yourself comfortable making independent choices and relying less on
others to make decisions for you. Even when a choice is made that
results in negative consequences, there is power in knowing that you did
the best you could at the time. If you are highly independent in your
victim services work, you may not adjust well to bureaucratic structure,
and you may gravitate, with time and education, to running your own
agency, private practice, or consulting. On the other hand, you may find
yourself unable to be happy without a socially supportive setting but
still value independent and creative planning and work. Recognizing your
independent efficacy, or power to produce a desired effect, has been
shown to contribute to resilience.

Sharon English, another long-term successful advocate whose expertise is
in juvenile justice and corrections noted:

> My main mentoring came from pioneer Jim Rowland who in essence said,
> "Go TRY something---anything!" He, too, did not have the answers. He
> just knew that the system then (the mid-80s) was incomplete and
> unjust. In a way, we couldn't fail. There was nothing, so anything was
> better (Seymour, personal communication, September 2006).

**Eight Strategies To Develop Self-Knowledge and Insight**

**1. Explore your motivations for working with victims of crime.**
Obviously, this strategy is best employed before applying for your first
victim services position. However, it is never too late to do it. You
may think that working with victims will be personally strengthening to
you. This can be acceptable as long as the self-strengthening is not
your primary motivation for the work. If it is, the price may be too
high, and damage may be inflicted on victims who will likely recognize
that you need affirmation. If you are a crime victim yourself, you can
offer much to new victims as long as you are relatively free from the
need to share your own story. You should have achieved enough healing to
be able to focus primarily on other victims without becoming overwhelmed
(Catherall, 1992).

**2. Identify your own strengths and challenges.** Good supervisors
recognize that the employment interview provides a fertile opportunity
to address self-esteem and the potential for healthy social interaction
(Waite and Richardson, 2004; Trine, 2004). Therefore, it is wise to have
already explored these issues yourself, and, as noted before, it's never
too late. How many close friends do you have with whom you can be honest
and transparent? How well do you like and appreciate yourself? If you
are a victim yourself, have you engaged in professional therapy to
address it? In what areas do you still need growth? In what areas do you
feel strong and competent? Once these are identified, your supervisor
should be willing to assign you work that incorporates your strengths
and provide opportunities and activities to strengthen your weaknesses.

**3. Identify themes associated with discomfort**. It is important to
identify predominant themes or personal triggers that are upsetting to
you so they can be worked through or, in some cases, avoided (Powers and
Wampold, 1994). You may discover that specific populations (children,
seniors, teenagers) or specific types of victimizations (assault, rape,
child abuse) may be more difficult for you than others because of
lingering past life influences. Knowing your "discomfort themes" allows
you to prepare for your potential reactions and to develop alternative
reactions that will not be damaging to the victims you serve. This
self-awareness also will minimize potentially negative effects on you.
For example, you may be the only victim service provider in your
community and therefore must serve all victims regardless of your level
of discomfort with them. You may realize that you become very anxious
facing angry victims. However, you can develop the ability to think to
yourself, in confronting these victims, that this is one of your
personal triggers (it helps if you can identify the reason) and that you
will use three strategies when facing anger. These strategies might be:
realizing that beneath anger is usually hurt or fear; realizing that if
you allow the victim to ventilate the anger until it runs out, it will
not last forever; and responding that you can see that he or she was
very hurt by what happened. Thinking through and planning for situations
like these is an excellent resilience strategy for dealing with your
discomfort.

**4. Clarify goals, mission, and boundaries of the organization.** You
are fortunate if your organization's board of directors has developed a
mission statement that is current, clear, concise, and known by all
staff and volunteers. For example, one of the key reasons Mothers
Against Drunk Driving has been so successful is not only that its name
is easily recognized but also that its original mission was simply
stated: "To stop drunk driving and support victims of this violent
crime." Keeping the agency's mission simple helps the community know
what to expect in terms of services. You should know your agency's
mission and, if it is indeed short and simple, memorize it. Victim
services staff and volunteers may benefit from having a framed copy of
the agency's mission in each office as a reminder of the specifics of
the mission and an encouragement to establish appropriate work
boundaries. In human services work, it is not unusual for staff and
volunteers to attempt to address victims' problems that fall outside the
mission of the agency. You need to know if your agency provides direct
services, prevention, or both. You need to know your agency's
geographical and service category boundaries. You also need clarity
about agency policies, job descriptions, and grievance and termination
policies.

**5. Know your code of ethics.** If your agency has a code of ethics, or
it is a member of a larger group or coalition that has one, you should
have thorough knowledge of it. If not, you may want to discuss this with
your supervisor. The National Advocate Credentialing Program has a code
of ethics that can be downloaded at: www.trynova.org and adapted to your
program. Supervisors also may draw from existing codes that have been
developed at the state level (e.g., Texas, Oregon, Florida, Colorado,
South Carolina) to develop guidelines for their agencies. If you are a
licensed professional such as a psychologist or social worker, your
profession has a code of ethics to which you are to subscribe. Share it
with your supervisor so that he or she will not place you in situations
that might violate your own profession's code of ethics.

**6. Recognize limits of control.** You cannot control everything.
Victim service providers are subject to work within boundaries and
policies set by government, law enforcement, and judicial, correctional,
and community agencies. In addition, you cannot control how certain
victims will or will not progress in their healing. But if you are able
to recognize the things over which you have little or no control, you
will become more resilient. The opportunity to ventilate frustration
about things over which you have no control is important, but it is also
important to move beyond frustration to positive planning about the
things over which you do have control. For example, you do have some
control over the interactions you have with a victim in your office or
on the phone; you do not have control over the victim's behavior when
your contact ends.

**7. Get adequate training.** Nothing creates more stress than being
expected to do a job you have not been trained to do. New crime victims
and new situations place new demands on both the expertise and the
personal resources of providers who may be ill prepared for this work
(Pope and Feldman-Summers, 1992). Colleges and universities are now
beginning to address professional victim services. State Victim
Assistance Academies, sponsored by the Office for Victims of Crime
(OVC), provide basic training to new advocates and are in place in 29
states. Training at the local place of employment, therefore, remains
crucial. When applying for a victim services position, you must inquire
about the training you will receive and be sure that it will be adequate
to make you feel competent to deliver the services you are to provide.
Inquire about the possibility of attending a Victim Assistance Academy
in your state or taking the 40-hour Victim Assistance Training Online
course offered by OVC. Inquire about continuing education (e.g., victim
services conferences and trainings after you become employed). It is
imperative that you learn not only to serve victims but also about
trauma and its impact on you as a provider. Training will further
develop your resilience as well as assist you in addressing emerging
problems promptly and openly (Neumann and Gamble, 1995; Lanning, 1987).

**8. Individualize services to each victim.** You will be much more
resilient if you have the freedom to consider each victim's needs on an
individual basis rather than maintain a cookie-cutter approach, treating
each victim as you did the one before him or her. Obviously, agency
policies and guidelines must be followed, perhaps more so in
bureaucracies than in grassroots groups, but within those guidelines you
should have ample opportunity for independent decision-making. This
individual approach demonstrates recognition of the uniqueness of each
victim, just as you hope to be evaluated by your supervisor based on
your own unique gifts, strengths, and challenges (Dutton as cited in
Connolly, 2003).

## A Sense of Hope 

Operating with a sense of hope means that, in most cases, you believe
that situations can get better. A positive outlook---belief that the
future will be better than the present or past---is a trait strongly
associated with resilience (Flach, 1990). If you operate out of a sense
of hope, you recognize the difficulty of the experiences of the victims
you serve, yet you maintain a positive view of the challenges of life
(Calhoun and Tedeschi, 1998). In Werner's studies of resilient children,
hope was the key factor in whether or not a child would break out of an
unhealthy living environment and become a stronger person (Werner,
1982). Operating with a sense of hope includes being optimistic (Linley
and Joseph, 2004) and strengthening one's sense of humor and ability to
have fun.

**Be Optimistic**[^5]

Optimism means the capacity to envision a solution. It means moving from
hope as an aspiration to planning for change and growth. Optimistic
people recognize problems and attempt to work through them (American
Psychological Association, 2005). They see problems as challenges rather
than catastrophes.

Research has found that hope and optimism also appear to be correlated
with immune system strengthening and to be protective against illnesses
such as hypertension, diabetes, and upper respiratory infection
(Segerstrom, Taylor, Kemeny, and Fahey, 1998). Exactly how states of
mind affect body biochemistry is still far from clear, but optimism has
been shown to lower levels of cortisol, a hormone released in response
to stress. Also, optimistic, happy people tend to take better care of
themselves than those who are more lonely or depressed. An optimistic
attitude helps people live longer and healthier lives, have better
relationships, and do better in physical tasks.

> Agnes Dill, the first American Indian woman to attend New Mexico
> Highlands University at a time when most American Indians were doing
> menial jobs, is now 91 and has never stopped trying to expand
> educational opportunities for other American Indians, especially
> women. She was eventually appointed by President Gerald Ford to his
> Council on Women's Educational Issues. Says Agnes today, "I'm very
> optimistic about life. I accept things as they happen and make them
> better if I can. Most days, I don't feel my age. I just feel pretty
> happy" (Mahoney, 2005)

**Strengthen Sense of Humor and Ability To Have Fun**

Among the consistent characteristics in studies of resilience is a sense
of humor (Flach, 1990; Wolin and Wolin, 1993; Lanning, 1987). If you are
a hopeful, optimistic person, you will be able to keep stressful
situations in perspective and laugh at your own mistakes (as long as the
mistakes are not detrimental to others). As long ago as the early 1900s,
Sigmund Freud suggested, "Humor can be regarded as the highest of the
defensive processes" (Freud, 1905/1960). More contemporary researchers
(Provine as cited in Kluger, 2005; Ong, Bergeman, and Bisconti, 2004)
point out that people seldom laugh alone; in fact, laughter is 30 times
more frequent in social settings than in solitary situations. Thus,
humor is a positive social communication tool. Humor allows for
expression of emotion without individual discomfort or unpleasant
effects on others, as long as it is not mean-spirited or demeaning. The
best humor is when we tell funny stories about ourselves.

Veteran advocate Robin Finegan has served victims and survivors
following the Oklahoma City bombing, Columbine High School shootings,
and 9/11 attacks in New York City and Pennsylvania. She writes
humorously about escorting a survivor to speak with television reporters
during the Oklahoma City trials:

> It was one of those days in court when, by the end, I had exhausted
> all attempts at humor and all efforts at politeness. Still, I thought
> I looked particularly fetching that day. I had on my favorite canary
> yellow linen dress and my hair was exactly the way I liked it, between
> perms when it was not too fuzzy or too flat. As I crawled into bed
> that night, I tried to keep my eyes open to watch the news. There I
> was in the background, waiting on the bleacher, leaning over, my chin
> resting on my hand, arm on knee CHOMPING, not chewing, but CHOMPING on
> a piece of bubble gum like I had just been out to pasture.
>
> "Oh my God! I will never chew gum again!" I swore. It's like having a
> hidden camera in your car and seeing yourself in the background of a
> Julie Roberts movie picking your nose and passing gas! (Finegan and
> Flannigan, 2004)

**Eight Strategies To Develop a Sense of Hope**

**1. Develop opportunities to succeed.** If your primary responsibility
is to provide direct services to victims of crime, you may benefit from
opportunities to engage in activities that can reap more tangible
benefits (community forums, discussions, meetings with policymakers).
Creating opportunities with more predictable beginnings, middles, and
achievable goals may help you restore a more positive outlook.

**2. Practice gratitude.** Gratitude has been found to be highly
effective in balancing negativity (Seligman, 2002; Lykken, 1999;
Lyubomirsky, Sousa, and Dickerhoof, 2006). Taking the time to appreciate
all that is good or going well can increase your personal and
professional optimism. You may decide to begin or end each day by making
three entries in a "gratitude journal." These entries can be anything
from the mundane to the profound, but the idea is to keep the practice
fresh by varying the entries as much as possible. Some believe that this
exercise helps you develop the habit of taking a mental photo of
pleasurable life moments so you will remember to write them in your
journal. You may take the practice one step further by writing thank you
notes to supervisors, mentors, or others (including victims) for whom
you find yourself grateful.

**3. Change or expand your job description.** You might also ask your
supervisor for the opportunity to change or enhance your job description
at performance evaluation time so you can address new challenges and
have more diversity in your work (Pearlman and Saakvitne, 1995b; Sexton,
1999; Catherall, 1995; Coster and Schwebel, 1997; Neumann and Gamble,
1995). You may want to engage in reading, research, teaching, or writing
projects to substitute for direct victim contact for certain periods of
time. Creating a public awareness campaign, making artwork for
brochures, or even organizing a fundraiser can allow you to experience
yourself and your colleagues in a new way. You may want to train others
or speak in the community. You may envision new and creative ways to
share knowledge and wisdom gained from your victim services work.
Learning to think outside the box and to recognize many points of view
on a particular subject helps you to adapt to almost any situation. As
you become more skilled at using analytical and creative thinking, you
will increase options for addressing stressful situations. When
supervisors and mangers can honor and support creative thinking and
projects, they go a long way toward building resilience in their staff
and volunteers (Lanning, 1987).

**4. Give praise.** Just as you identify positive gains and strengths in
the victims you serve, likewise affirm the successes of other staff and
volunteers. This positive attention will come back to you a hundredfold.
Most staff and volunteers appreciate peers who help them maintain
perspective, a framework for living, and values that help them set
priorities, make judgments, and determine appropriate actions. Every
staff member and volunteer wants to feel that his or her work matters.
Supervisors are primarily responsible for fulfilling that role, but they
don't always do it. Even when they do, having that praise supplemented
by the positive attitudes of peers goes a long way toward building a
positive workplace attitude for everyone.

**5. Diversify client types.** If your agency specializes in a certain
crime area, that particular traumatic material may be difficult to keep
in perspective. For some crimes and some victims, getting better is a
long and torturous experience. The opportunity to work with a variety of
cases, victims, and situations may help you experience more successes in
less-demanding cases. You may find yourself feeling more hopeful and
balanced if your caseload includes a variety of clients (Dutton and
Rubenstein, 1995).

**6. Seek advanced professional development.** Another strategy to
enhance optimism is to increase your exposure to others in the field.
Join local and regional coalitions. Obtain advanced education. Attend
national conferences as well as local workshops and seminars. Meeting
with other victim service providers expands your possibilities for
personal growth and exposes you to new treatment approaches. Developing
relationships with successful and productive victim service providers
reduces isolation and increases personal optimism. You may need to set
aside personal funds to engage in these opportunities, and you will be
fortunate if you have a supervisor who is committed to professional
staff development and seeks financial support and scholarships for
continuing education, formal academic education, subscriptions to
journals and newsletters, and memberships in professional organizations.

**7. Decorate your office.** A homey and cheerful office suited to your
tastes can also brighten your mood and support creativity (Neumann and
Gamble, 1995). This can include adding comfortable chairs, art, soft
music, and lamps or other preferred lighting methods. Electrical outlet
room fresheners or scented candles can make a room much more inviting.
Desks may be positioned where they are most comfortable and, hopefully,
you will be allowed to keep your door open or closed as long as
confidentiality with victims is preserved.

**8. Find appropriate ways to have fun.** Even if your supervisor or
office manager does not schedule them, you can organize picnics and
away-from-the-office social gatherings that incorporate sensitive use of
humor and fun, giving you and your colleagues an opportunity to relax
and get to know each other outside the work environment. Noncompetitive
games or crafts usually create laughter and release stress. If allowed
in your office, send appropriate jokes or cartoons to staff and
volunteers by e-mail or place cartoons on bulletin boards in the kitchen
or break room.

## Healthy Coping

Healthy coping, another key in fostering resilience, means moving beyond
attitudes and feelings to deliberately putting skills and abilities in
action to balance the negative aspects of your work with positive
activities. It means paying attention to your physical, emotional,
mental, and spiritual needs and doing something about them. Healthy
coping strategies include building on skills and abilities, planning,
and addressing negative feelings proactively.

**Build on Your Skills and Abilities**

Earlier, this chapter addressed assessing your personal strengths and
weaknesses. This strategy moves beyond that to building on your
strengths and continually developing new skills. This is not as easy as
it sounds. Learning a new skill is often harder than just changing an
attitude.

Says Roberta Roper:

> Early on, I learned so much from Marlene Young and John Stein at
> National Organization for Victim Assistance (NOVA), which offered
> week-long trainings in direct services, advocacy, and administration.
> They provided convincing evidence to teach us to avoid negative
> advocacy. But the lessons I learned from real life experiences were
> even more convincing. Another victims group in my state erected a
> billboard that read, "Criminals kill victims---and the House Judiciary
> Committee kills victims' rights!" This billboard earned them enduring
> punishment at the Capitol. All that learning came together for me in a
> way that helped me develop successful positive legislative strategies
> (personal communication, September 2006).

**Plan**

Keeping one's body fit and finding ways to get through the day with
energy left over for the family is a huge challenge in trauma work. You
may sometimes feel overwhelmed with the enormity of your work and the
multilevel tasks you face. Effective planning means analyzing tasks to
break them down into small, manageable steps that will ultimately reach
a goal. As you identify small steps and follow though on them, you will
see daily progress and feel more successful.

Janice Harris Lord says that for years she has kept two "to do" lists:

> I use one list to write down broad tasks and goals as I identify them.
> It may take me a long time to achieve some of them (like writing a
> book), but I like to jot the idea down when I have it. My other "to
> do" list is revised every day and includes a manageable list of tasks
> for the day. I find it very satisfying to mark off these small steps
> one by one. When I find that I am not caring for myself well, I \[make
> sure\] that my list includes things like "Take a long, hot bath
> tonight" or "Offer to keep the grandkids this evening." When adding
> these things means that a job-related task or two doesn't get
> completed that day, I simply move them to the next day's list
> (personal communication, 2006).

**Address Negative Feelings Proactively**[^6]

Reframing difficult or negative experiences into growth-promoting
experiences helps create a sense of balance in your work (Tebes, Irish,
Puglisi Vasquez, and Perkins, 2004). It means learning to nurture
yourself proactively and to avoid destructive shortcut ways to relieve
stress such as drug or alcohol use or hostile behavior toward others.

In her book *Tragedy to Triumph: Lessons of Recovery and Hope,* Krista
Flannigan shares how her trauma work following the 9/11 terror attacks
helped her reframe a negative experience in her personal life into
positive action. Krista writes about the dream that she and her husband
Joe shared of having children and then learning, after four
miscarriages, that because of an illness she inherited from her mother,
she would not be able to become pregnant. Says Krista:

> We grieved over our loss as we said goodbye to our dream of a child
> with my red curly hair and Joe's green eyes. For awhile I convinced
> myself that without fulfilling this chapter in my life, the rest of my
> life couldn't fall in place. ...Then, in December 2001, my heart ached
> for a mother and daughter as I watched them walk hand-in-hand through
> the Family Assistance Center in New Jersey and timidly apply for a
> death certificate for their cherished husband and father. The
> surviving duo, comforting and strengthening each other, affirmed for
> me the value of family, no matter what form it takes. Exiting the Red
> Cross tent, they left me a nugget of clarity. Red curly hair could be
> black Asian hair, and green Irish eyes could be slanted brown eyes. In
> February 2002, Joe and I greeted Lily, our infant Chinese daughter. As
> a survivor once told me, "The bond that links true family is not blood
> but joy and respect in each other's lives."

**Eight Strategies to Develop Healthy Coping**

**1. Learn to identify your physical stress reactions.** You may have
been appropriately hired but later realize that you are having
difficulty with your work. You must learn to identify your own
stress-related physiological and emotional symptoms (e.g., headaches,
nausea, eating too much or too little, sleeplessness, intrusive imagery,
emotional numbing and flooding, sexual difficulties). You must also
acknowledge the interaction between pressures in your personal life and
those in your work as a victim service provider. Learn to name these
pressures and articulate them accurately. You may need to remind
yourself that you need appropriate support to reduce the negative
reactions to your work.

**2. Balance your life.** You must carefully balance your work with
leisure activities, play, and other things you enjoy that do not involve
trauma. Activities that distance you from trauma and reaffirm the
goodness of life---whether other work or play---can restore energy. You
probably entered human services work because you genuinely wanted to
make the world a better place. Operating from this philosophy, it is
easy to ignore your need for solitude and play and take on more victims
or invite more graphic trauma material than you are prepared to manage
(Pearlman and Saakvitne, 1995a). Evidence suggests that disorientation
and disruption in self-care patterns are common in those who work with
trauma (Parkes, 1972). This, in turn, results in marked increases in the
use of sedatives, hypnotics, alcohol, and tobacco as soothing
strategies, further depleting physical and emotional resources to cope
(Clayton, 1990). Likewise, healthy protective behaviors (e.g., rest,
nutrition, exercise) contribute to physical well-being (Powers and
Wampold, 1994). Behavioral change in this arena is difficult and may
require rather rigid scheduling to assure balance until it becomes more
routine.

**3. Get adequate sleep.** In the absence of ample sleep, you will find
your personal resources rapidly deteriorating. In his book *The*
*Chemistry of Conscious States*, Harvard psychiatrist and
neurophysiologist Allan Hobson (1994) contends that of all the practices
known to be associated with good health, sleep is the most fundamental.
Sleep not only restores the balance of neurotransmitters essential for
daytime alertness but also enhances immune functions. Although 7.5 hours
is a useful average, according to Hobson, you may function well with
fewer hours, or you may need 9 or 10 hours. A good sleeping environment
is a cool room (about 68 °F), an excellent quality mattress and pillow,
no lights (including illuminated clocks), and no television. Your
bedroom should be attractive and used only for sex and sleep. For some
people, soft, meditative music enhances sleep, particularly if it begins
with guided relaxation and imagery instruction.

**4. Develop calming and modulation techniques.** You may find it
extremely beneficial to learn deep breathing and relaxation techniques
that calm tension in the body and rejuvenate the spirit. Sometimes,
talking out negative experiences can increase frustration rather than
mediate it. You will have to learn for yourself when talking about
something helps and when it hurts. Often, separating yourself from your
work for a while by walking outside, breathing in fresh air, focusing on
nature, or observing children at play helps put things back in
perspective. Identify the best techniques to help you redirect your
thoughts to nonvictim related material, and then engage in them.

**5. Change the pace.** You may be able to change the pace of your daily
routine by walking to work rather than riding or by deciding to phone
rather than answer an e-mail (and vice versa). On a broader scale, you
may choose to consult a life coach or engage in therapy for a while.
Consider engaging in expressive therapies such as art therapy or
movement therapy (Pearlman and Saakvitne, 1995b; Danieli, 1994; Schauben
and Frazier, 1995). You may seek a retreat format. Just be sure that
whatever you engage in is strength-based and encouraging. Regardless of
the method, you will benefit from changing your pace to help you regain
perspective and rekindle creativity.

**6. Assess safety in your work environment.** Sometimes, going to and
from work becomes so routine that you fail to realize the stress
associated with driving in rush hour traffic or your fears as you walk
to and from your vehicle. Safety is a primary concern for many victims
and victim service providers, particularly those who work in family
violence situations. Safety concerns can limit your ability to
effectively cope or solve problems. You may decide that you are better
able to relax if you take public transportation to and from work. You
may ask your supervisor to investigate the possibility of hiring
security in the parking lot or even in the workplace to reduce your risk
of physical harm. Additional considerations may include the use of post
office boxes, automated door entry codes, safety glass in windows, and
danger signals for each desk.

**7. Use regular supervision.** Regular, supportive supervision is
essential to help you keep your victim work in perspective and to
confirm your ethical commitment to the victims you serve. A negative
experience with supervision can deter you from seeking the supervision
you need. Therefore, the supervision must afford a safe exchange in
which both cases and your reactions to your work with victims can be
addressed without shame or fear that your problems will be noted in
performance evaluations. Time within individual supervision sessions may
be set aside specifically for sharing feelings related to the work. If
you are a victim yourself, and are now a victim service provider, it is
especially important for you to have at least one person with whom you
can acknowledge your own victimization and explore its interaction with
your trauma work. In addition to individual supervision, case
conferences and peer process groups may be particularly useful to you
(Pearlman and Saakvitne, 1995b; Schatzow and Yassen, 1991; Neumann and
Gamble, 1995). If you do not have a supervisor who can provide this
level of quality supervision, you may need to engage a mentor elsewhere
for supervision and consultation. It will be worth it, even if you have
to pay for it.

**8. Use technology and resources wisely.** Technology that is current
and working properly goes a long way in helping you use your skills and
abilities and, thereby, strengthen resilience. You should have adequate
computers and software to simplify research and communication within and
outside the agency. On the other hand, unnecessary use of e-mail, cell
phones, pagers, and other portable information devices (PIDs)
dramatically restricts the time you could be doing more important things
or restoring yourself with some solitude. Although you may sometimes
have to be on call, your supervisor should continually assess the
necessity of requiring it. A screening process for crisis calls at the
workplace often reveals that many victims can wait until the next
workday for services rather than speaking with you at your home or in
your car.

## Strong Relationships

Resilience rests on relationships. The desire to belong is a basic human
need, and positive connections with others lie at the very core of
psychological development. Building personal networks of support reduces
isolation. People in supportive and loving relationships are more likely
to feel healthy, happy, and satisfied with their lives and less likely
to have physical or emotional difficulties (Pavot et al., 1990). As a
victim service provider, it is crucial for you to feel that you are part
of an extended social network at home, at work, and in the community.

Tom Rath, who heads the Gallup Organization's Workplace Research and
Leadership Consulting Division, points out that only 20 percent of
workers are at companies or agencies that recognize the value of
on-the-job-friendship. Rath maintains that "without a best friend at
work, the chances of being engaged in your work are one in twelve." He
also found that those "with at least three close friends at work" were
96 percent more likely to be extremely satisfied with their lives as a
whole (personal communication, September 2006).

You can enhance relationships by learning to identify obstacles to
effective communication and communicate more effectively. Your
relationships will also be strengthened as you become more responsible,
flexible, and dependable. Strong relationships are fostered by
developing close attachments to others and learning to seek support when
needed.

**Develop Attachment to Others**

The value of friendship in strengthening resilience cannot be
underestimated. Still, a national survey of nearly 1,500 Americans, more
than 20 years ago, found that they had an average of only three close
friends. When the survey was recently repeated, respondents said they
had only an average of two close friends (Smith-Lovin, 2006). One
explanation for the decline of friendships may be that adults are
working more hours with less time for socializing outside of work.
Victim service providers' workloads are so demanding that building and
maintaining friendships within the workplace can be difficult. It takes
time, effort, and skill to develop close friendships, but it may be one
of the most important tasks you can undertake in developing resilience.

While loneliness has been linked to stress, depression, and loss of
cognitive ability, friendship seems particularly protective for women.
Shelley Taylor (2002), a researcher at the University of California at
Los Angeles (UCLA), has found that, under stress, women most likely
"tend and befriend," while men tend to go into "flight or flight."
According to Taylor, although both males and females produce the hormone
oxytocin under stress, estrogen tends to enhance its effect and
testosterone tends to diminish its effect. High oxytocin levels make
people calmer, more social, and less anxious. It is important for you to
identify those people who help you feel relaxed and who are affirming
without being demanding. Watch how they operate. They will generally
have the ability to focus on others more than themselves. Practice these
skills, even though they may be uncomfortable at first. Just as you
learn to be genuinely interested in the lives of the victims you serve
and focus on them more than yourself, you can learn to use these same
skills to attach to persons socially. Friendships not only fight stress
but also may explain why women tend to outlive men. For example:

> Marie and Lilly Clifford, in North Dakota, are 100 years old and are
> among the world's oldest twins. Both earned teaching certificates.
> Neither ever married (not yet, anyway) and have always considered each
> other as their best friend. Marie doesn't see very well, so Lily helps
> her out. Lilly doesn't hear very well, so Marie is their spokesperson.
> They have long chats together and enjoy each other's company whether
> watching old Bonanza reruns together in their Assisted Living facility
> or going to Mass (Mahoney, 2005).

**Seek Support When You Need It**

No matter how well you have learned to be independent and
self-sufficient, there are times when you need help. You cannot do it
all. You must learn to take advantage of the knowledge and skills of
other colleagues, organizations, and experts. You must also have the
courage to ask for help when needed. Learning to seek support can be as
simple as asking directions or asking for a ride, or as complex as
focusing on a particularly volatile situation, or even solving a complex
and difficult victim issue.

Says Angie McCown, victim services director for the Texas Department of
Public Safety:

> When I took this job, everyone seemed to assume that I would know what
> to do, so I didn't get much instruction. Therefore, I tried to attend
> as many meetings, task forces, and trainings as I could, but it was 4
> years before I attended my first National Victim Assistance Academy,
> which was my first structured training. Before that, I relied on
> mentors to guide me. Anne Hutchison taught me how to work within the
> system on the victim's behalf and to never stop fighting for more.
> Janice Lord helped me appreciate the value of having both clinicians
> and grassroots providers in our field. Kathi West helped me transition
> from a local provider to a state provider and introduced me to
> national leaders. Anne Seymour, particularly in her dedicated work
> with Mark Lunsford, reminded me of the importance of the victim's
> voice, without which we would likely be nowhere (personal
> communication, September 2006).

**Eight Strategies to Develop Strong Relationships**

**1. Enhance communication skills.** Relationships are fostered through
effective communication. Whether at home or at work, relationships
thrive on honest and open communication. Self-help literature,
magazines, the Internet, and even television provide useful tips for
effective communication with others. Learning how to express your
emotions, how to state your needs clearly, and how to describe your
reactions to individuals and situations is essential in maintaining
healthy relationships.

**2. Learn boundaries of confidentiality.** Agency confidentiality
policies must be clear (e.g., distinguishing confidentiality as an
ethical issue from privileged communication as a legal issue); at the
same time, they should allow for ample case consultation and
supervision. Knowing the appropriate boundaries of your interactions
with victims (see module on ethics) can help you relate appropriately to
them, as well as to your colleagues and your family. Identifying what
you can and cannot say about your work allows you to express your
concerns in healthy ways without infringing on victim-provider
confidentiality. Without clarity about this issue, you may not know how
to discuss your reactions or worries about your work.

**3. Collaborate.** Effective victim service providers do not operate
alone. When organizations work together, victims have more and easier
access to services. Communication and collaboration make much more
effective use of community resources, result in more efficient services,
and can solve complex problems. You can develop collaborative
relationships informally or through formal contracts, interagency
agreements, or memoranda of understanding (MOUs). These relationships
take effort, but developing linkages with adjunct services (e.g.,
self-help groups, medical services, compensation programs) not only
provides more services to victims but also reduces your own workload and
sense of isolation as well.

**4. Discuss cases.** Agencies should value warm, collegial
relationships among staff and volunteers. Weekly staff meetings where
cases are discussed can be very beneficial (Wasco, Campbell, and Clark,
2002). If compassionate problem solving toward victims becomes common
throughout the workplace, with similar attitudes among staff and
volunteers, your agency as a whole will reap significant long-term
benefits in terms of productivity and commitment (Dutton as cited in
Connolly, 2003).

**5. Seek inclusivity and diversity.** Another aspect of positive
relationship development is ensuring that you are inclusive and diverse.
Diversity increases our capacity for living with others in the real
world. Inclusiveness means that the staff and volunteer forces represent
the gender, racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic constituents of the
community and that all of these different groups are welcome and
appreciated. This image of the agency encourages more potential
providers to apply for positions or to volunteer. Furthermore, when
victims view your agency as inclusive and representative of themselves,
they will be more likely to seek the agency's services. When victims
have providers of similar race, ethnicity, gender, language, or sexual
orientation, they are likely to be more comfortable; this comfort, in
turn, will reduce your stress and enhance your resilience (Barak, 2000).

**6. Foster a team approach.** Another strategy to support strong
relationships is to foster a team approach. Perhaps your supervisor has
not considered allowing cases to be worked by teams rather than
individuals. Teams enhance the social networking aspect of building
resilience. Teams are internal efforts of collaboration that provide
additional resources for victims as well as a training ground for better
external collaboration. Teams may also be better able to identify
creative and innovative means of delivering services for particular
victims; however, innovative strategies must always be discussed with
supervisors before implementation (Schauben and Frazier, 1995;
Coman-Diaz and Padilla, 1990; Munroe et al., 1995; Neumann and Gamble,
1995). Working as a member of a team allows you significant creative
independence and may decrease your need for supervision because you have
more resources from which to gain different perspectives on your cases.
Working in teams can help you develop a sense of mutual responsibility
and, thereby, develop stronger cohesion among yourselves. Teams increase
personal accountability, as other team members may challenge you if they
see boundary problems or other issues that may harm you or the victims
you serve. Team meetings also provide the opportunity to identify, work
through, and resolve destructive divisions within the team itself.

**7. Address conflict resolution proactively.** Sometimes,
organizational dynamics contribute to stress within an agency. At other
times, misunderstandings and conflicts arise that are difficult to
address. When this happens, you might suggest to your supervisor that a
consultant be brought in from outside the agency to assess the problem
objectively and offer solutions (Pearlman and Saakvitne, 1995a; Neumann
and Gamble, 1995). This visible manifestation of concern for the
providers as well as for the agency's mission as a whole is key in
restoring social relationships within the agency. Resilient providers
and administrators acknowledge the negative when they see it but value
moving beyond it to successful strategies.

**8. Strive to be genuine, empathetic, and warm.** Genuineness, empathy,
and warmth have long been recognized as the core conditions of the
counseling and psychotherapy relationship. Research has shown that if
you have the ability to develop genuine rapport with your clients, you
will consistently get better outcomes (Traux and Carkuff, 1967). You are
a genuine provider if you are aware of and open about your own strengths
and limitations and, therefore, are not defensive. You are empathetic if
you can identify with another's perspective and understand and
communicate that understanding. You are warm if you are able to be
friendly, considerate, and deeply respectful of your client's
experience. Expressing genuineness, empathy, and warmth is a foundation
for building a trustful, therapeutic relationship, which is strongly
related to client change (Grencavage and Norcross, 1990). Regardless of
the techniques being used, if a good relationship does not exist,
parents will not be able to persuade their children to do their
homework, salespersons will be less likely to convince their customers
to buy an expensive product, and you may not be able to help victims
evaluate their problems or change their behavior (Lampropoulos, 2002).
These qualities strengthen all of our relationships and interactions.

## Personal Perspective

Recognizing or acknowledging the personal meaning you attach to your
work helps you remain more consistently resilient. Personal perspective
means identifying your personal points of view and weighing the costs
and losses associated with victim services work. These personal
perspectives evolve over time as life experiences shape us. Using your
personal perspective to enhance resilience includes cultivating your
individual morality and integrity into your work (Flach, 1990),
exploring spirituality in yourself and the victims you serve (Flach,
1990; Lanning, 1987; Linley and Joseph, 2003), and developing a coherent
meaning for life (Linley and Joseph, 2004; Tugade et al., 2004).

## *Cultivate Morality and Integrity*[^7]

Morality and integrity begin with recognizing right from wrong, having
low tolerance for outrageous behaviors, and developing the courage to
take risks in the face of adversity. While related to insight as a key
component of resilience, morality and integrity move beyond that insight
to action. Healthy human beings are apparently wired with an innate
sense of knowing when something "just isn't right," but the nonresilient
person may spend too much time worrying about it and not enough time
doing something about it. Personal morality and integrity have inspired
people to change religious beliefs, choose or change careers, make
decisions about family, address health problems, or simply decide to
spend more energy on certain areas of work and personal life. For
example:

> Ninety-four-year-old Jess Lord attributes some of his longevity to
> clean living ("Í don't smoke. I eat right. I exercise. I'm faithful to
> my wife."). More than that, however, he has always taken a stand for
> what he thinks is right and engaged in work for which he had a
> passion. As a young man, he started out as a bricklayer and eventually
> became a contractor whose word was trusted with a handshake. Later, he
> became an American Airlines pilot and flew the first blood plasma to
> Paris after it was liberated in World War II. In his late fifties, he
> decided to go to college and stuck with it through his bachelor's,
> master's, and doctorate degrees, reaching his goal to teach sociology
> at the University of Texas at Arlington. Since a young boy, he has
> stood for the rights of the oppressed. In recent years, he became a
> recognized Southwest potter and, when his arms got too weak to throw
> pottery, he started painting and writing. In his eighties, he
> published two books and still writes a letter to the editor every few
> weeks on how he thinks America could become a safer and more sane
> place.

## *Explore Spirituality*[^8] 

Intrinsic spirituality and religious practices have been shown to
correlate with many aspects of mental health, including resilience. More
than 1,000 scholarly articles on the relationship between religion or
spirituality and mental health were published between 2000 and 2002
(Koenig, 2002; Koenig as cited in Paul, 2005). Benefits of intrinsic
spirituality and religious manifestation of spirituality through
worship, prayer, and other practices have been correlated with social
support, the avoidance of risky and stressful behaviors, and a sense of
purpose and meaning in life (Benson, 1996). In 100 studies that examined
the relationship between the positive emotions of joy, hope, and
optimism, 79 found that religious persons had significantly greater
well-being in all three areas (Koenig, 2002). Even the religion
antagonist Sigmund Freud acknowledged that, "Only religion can answer
the question of the purpose of life. One can hardly be wrong in
concluding that the idea of life having a purpose stands and falls with
the religious system" (Freud, 1930).

Krista Flannigan says that until the Oklahoma City bombing trials were
moved to Denver and she became involved with the victims, she had no
formal relationship with religion, although she considered herself
spiritual. Skeptical at first, she began to recognize the genuine
spirituality of Father Gary, her officemate in the Church of the Holy
Ghost, where the victims' Safe Haven was housed, as well as that of Jack
Poe, the chaplain of the Oklahoma City Police Department, who came to
Denver for the trials since he had befriended so many of the victims.
Krista now honors Jack's quiet wisdom and spirituality as he said:

> People ask me, "Where was God at 9:02?" I tell them that He was in the
> same place as He was at 9:01 and 9:03. I do believe that in my whole
> ministry, I never saw God any clearer than I saw Him as He walked with
> us through those days. He really became flesh and dwelt among us as He
> was personified by the help and love and care that came our way
> through the hundreds of people who came to help us. That's where God
> was. He was in the lives of the people living out their faith in
> practice, reaching out with a cup of cold water, with a hug, or with a
> shoulder to cry on (Finegan and Flannigan, 2004).

## *Develop Coherent Life Meaning*[^9] 

Life meaning may or may not be spiritual. Coherent life meaning implies
that you begin with identifying personal values and then engage in
behaviors that manifest those values. For example, numerous studies have
shown correlations between resilience and work that persons find
meaningful (Trine, 2004; Waite and Richardson, 2004). You may find
meaning in the work itself, or you may take pride in your agency's
mission (Thottam, 2005). In the best of circumstances, the work becomes
an extension of what you naturally want to do. That way, you are the
same person at home, at work, and in the community. All is integrated
and coherent.

Veteran victim service provider Sharon English says, "What a person
needs to lead in this field is consistent behavior that earns
recognition from others. We must be looked to not only for correct
information but for our passion and reputation for following through."

**Eight Strategies to Develop Personal Perspective**

**1. Assess your personal values.** It is important for you to explore
and clarify not only your personal, foundational beliefs but also your
attitudes about others and the world. You probably developed most of
your values in your own family. Some may have changed positively through
family and social contexts, education, or spiritual growth, while some
may have changed negatively through exposure to trauma or other painful
life experiences. Identifying values such as personal freedom and
commitment to ending social injustice will influence your daily behavior
and keep you grounded and focused on your goals.

**2. Integrate new understandings of your work.** It is possible to
create or discover meaning in your work that may not have been readily
apparent at first. For example, you may have taken your position simply
because you needed a job, and your supervisor may not have screened or
interviewed you in depth. You may not have realized that creative and
helpful victim services work is so difficult. You may feel discouraged
at the end of a day because none of the interventions you suggested to
the victims you served seemed to have much meaning for them. However, if
you begin to realize that change comes in small steps and that with each
phone call or visit you are providing your client some tools for change,
that is sufficient for deciding that you are an effective provider. As
in a game of checkers, the next move is the victim's, and over time, you
may indeed see positive change. The meaning of your victim services work
must derive from what you give, not what you receive. Some victims of
crime return to express gratitude for the help they received, but most
do not.

**3. Assess your perspective of suffering.** Victims' stories of human
cruelty can challenge your personal faith, yet spirituality can enhance
your ability to bear witness to significant human suffering. If you
reexamine your beliefs about evil, suffering, and justice, you may
stimulate growth into more mature beliefs that can help you keep your
work in perspective. Developing a deeper spiritual life means something
unique to each victim service provider, but doing so can establish a
connection to something larger than yourself, whether by connecting with
the best of human experience or with a spiritual entity. Spirituality
can enhance realistic optimism and hopefulness in the face of trauma
(Pearlman and Saakvitne, 1995b; Munroe et al., 1995; Brady et al.,
1999).

**4. Question old beliefs.** McCann and Pearlman's (1990) work on
vicarious traumatization may serve well in helping you rethink old,
naive beliefs. If you have become spiritually or philosophically
disillusioned, you may be able to rework former beliefs to accommodate
your trauma work experiences rather than to totally discard them.

**5. Foster altruism.** Altruism (Monroe, 1996; Luks, 1993) in resilient
victim service providers tends to come naturally because they feel
energized rather than depleted by helping. If you came into the work
more to get your own needs fulfilled than to help others, you will have
more difficulty in this area. However, you can learn to engage in
altruistic practices. Whether you feel like it or not, you can practice
kindness both randomly (as you recognize a need) and systematically (as
you decide to bring a coworker a cup of coffee every day). You can make
it a habit to reach out to others with personal inquiry, to listen
intently with eye contact (if it is culturally appropriate), and to
practice giving just for the sake of giving.

**6. Engage in social activism.** Some victim services agencies provide
topical "brown bag" lunches with outside speakers to create and foster
dialogue on issues of social concern. Some show movies or develop book
clubs that allow people to discuss the meaning, value, and perspectives
of the broader aspects of victim services work. Others provide bulletin
boards that offer opportunities for staff to engage in programs that
support their values of morality and integrity such as faith-based
activities, homeless shelters, or community youth organizations.

**7. Include spirituality in assessment of victims' strengths.** Without
using religious language, you may ask assessment questions like the
following:

-   What is most important to you in your life now?

-   What has been meaningful and helpful to you as you have tried to
    live with your victimization?

-   What has strengthened you as you have dealt with this?

-   What kinds of support systems are helping you?

Victims who use their spirituality as a source of their own personal
resilience will likely bring it up in response to questions like these.
When they do bring it up, it is appropriate to ask, "Would you like for
us to incorporate your spirituality into the work we do together?" The
issue is not *your* spirituality, but *the spirituality of the victim
you are serving*. With that perspective, you may develop a greater
comfort level with victims' spiritual issues, especially if you also
develop a referral list of skilled faith leaders who have a good
knowledge of victim issues and will not impose their own spirituality on
victims or revictimize them with religion. Instead, they will guide
victims to develop their own spirituality within the framework of their
own victimization.

**8. Discard activities that are not coherent with values.** Sometimes,
you may find yourself being asked to act in ways that are counter to
your values or beliefs. With thoughtful self-assessment you may realize
that the way you are doing things or expressing yourself no longer fits
in with your current values. This lack of coherence may require you to
work with your supervisor to change aspects of the work that is
currently required of you, or it may even require that you look for
employment somewhere else. Sometimes the values of an agency change when
a new administrator is hired or the board of directors turns over and
changes the mission or priorities. If you no longer feel that the
personal meaning of your life is in sync with the work you are expected
to do, you will find yourself experiencing more and more stress until
either you or the agency changes.

# REFERENCES

Ai, A. L., and C. L. Park. 2005. "Possibilities of the Positive
Following Violence and Trauma: Informing the Coming Decade of Research."
*Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 20*(2): 242--250.

American Psychological Association. "Fostering Resilience in Response to
Terrorism: A Fact Sheet for Psychologists Working with Adults."
Retrieved June 2, 2005, from www.apaHelpCenter.org.

Barak, M. E. July 2000. "The Inclusive Workplace: An Ecosystems Approach
to Diversity Management." *Social Work 45*(4): 339--354.

Bartone, P. T. 1999. "Hardiness Protects Against War-related Stress in
Army Reserve Forces." *Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and
Research* 51: 72--82.

Benson, H. 1996. *Timeless Healing: The Power and Biology of Belief.*
New York: Scribner.

Bonano, G. A. 2004. "Loss, Trauma, and Human Resilience: Have We
Underestimated the Human Capacity to Thrive After Extremely Aversive
Events?" *American Psychologist* 59(1): 20--28.

Brady, J. L., J.D. Guy, P. L. Poelstra, and B. F. Brokaw. 1999.
"Vicarious Traumatization, Spirituality, and the Treatment of Sexual
Abuse Survivors: A National Survey of Women Psychotherapists."
*Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 30*(4): 386--393.

Calhoun, L. G., and R. G. Tedeschi. 1998. "Posttraumatic Growth: Future
Directions." In *Posttraumatic Growth,* eds. R. G. Tedeschi, C. L. Park,
and L. G. Calhoun Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 215--238.

Calhoun, L. G., and R.G. Tedeschi. 1999. *Facilitating Posttraumatic
Growth: A Clinician's Guide.* Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Catherall, D. R. January 1992. "Warrior Therapists: Vets Treating Vets."
*Journal of Traumatic Stress* 5(1): 19--36.

Catherall, D. R. 1995. "Preventing Institutional Secondary Traumatic
Stress Disorder." In *Compassion Fatigue: Coping with Secondary
Traumatic Stress Disorder in Those Who Treat the Traumatized,* ed. C.
Figley. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 150--177.

Clayton, P. J. 1990. "Bereavement and Depression." *Journal* *of
Clinical Psychiatry* 51: 34--40.

Coman-Diaz, L. and A.M. Padilla. 1990. "Countertransference in Working
with Victims of Political Repression." *American Journal of
Orthopsychiatry*. 60: 125--134.

Connolly, M. December 2003. "Research Finds That a Little Work
Compassion Goes a Long Way." *Science and Theology News.*

Cornille, T. A. and T.W. Meyers. 1999. "Secondary Traumatic Stress among
Child Protective Service Workers: Prevalence, Severity, and Predictive
Factors." *Traumatology* 5: 1--17.

Coster, J. S. and M. Schwebel. 1997. "Well-functioning in Professional
Psychologists." *Professional Psychology: Research and Practice* 28:
5--13.

Cowen, E. L., W. C. Work, and P.W. Wyman. 1997. In *Developmental
Psychopathology: Perspectives on Adjustment, Risk, and Disorder,* eds.
S. S. Luthar, J. A. Burack, D. Cicchetti, and J. R. Weiz. New York:
Cambridge, 527--547.

Cunningham, M. 1996. "Vicarious Traumatization: Impact of Trauma Work on
the Clinician." Doctoral dissertation, Adelphi University, 1996.
*Dissertation Abstracts International* 57: 4130.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. 1988. "Introduction." In *Optimal Experience:
Psychological Studies of Flow in Consciousness,* eds. M.
Csikszentmihalyi and I. S. Csikszentmihalyi. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 3--14.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. 1999. "If We Are So Rich, Why Aren't We Happy?"
*American Psychologist* 54(10): 821--827.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. 1990. *Flow: The Psychology of* *Optimal
Experience.* New York: Harper and Row.

Dalton, L. E. 2001. "Secondary Traumatic Stress and Texas Social
Workers." Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Arlington, TX: University
of Texas.

Danieli, Y. 1985. "The Treatment and Prevention of Long-term Effects and
Intergenerational Transmission of Victimization: A Lesson from Holocaust
Survivors and their Children." In *Trauma and Its Wake: The Study and
Treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder,* ed. C. R. Figley. New
York: Brunner Mazel, 295--313.

Danieli, Y. 1988. "Confronting the Unimaginable: Psychotherapists'
Reactions to Victims of the Nazi Holocaust." In *Human Adaptation to
Extreme Stress,* eds. J. P. Wilson, Z. Harel, and B. Kahana. New York:
Plenum, 219--238.

Danieli, Y. 1994. "Countertransference, Trauma, and Training." In
*Countertransference in the Treatment of PTSD,* eds*.* J. P. Wilson and
J. D. Lindy. New York: Plenum, 368--388.

Dutton, M. A. and F. L. Rubenstein. 1995. "Working with People with
PTSD: Research Implications." In *Compassion Fatigue: Coping with
Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder,* ed. C. R. Figley. New York:
Brunner Mazel, 82--98.

Figley, C. R. 1988. "A Five-Phase Treatment of PTSD in Families."
*Journal of Traumatic Stress* 1(1): 127--139.

Figley, C. R. 1989. *Helping Traumatized Families.* San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.

Finegan, R. F. and K. Flannigan. 2004. *Tragedy to Triumph: Lessons of
Recovery and Hope*. Indiana: Prairie View Publishing.

Flach, F. 1990. "The Resilience Hypothesis and Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder." In *Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Etiology, Phenomenology,
and Treatment,* eds. M. E. Wolf and A. D. Mosnaim. Washington, DC:
American Psychiatric Press, 36--45.

Follette, V. M., M.M. Polunsky, and K. Milbeck. 1994. "Mental Health and
Law Enforcement Professionals: Trauma History, Psychological Symptoms,
and Impact of Providing Services to Child Sexual Abuse Survivors."
*Professional Psychology: Research and Practice* 25: 275--282.

Frederickson, B. L., M.M. Tugade, C.E. Waugh, and G. R. Larking. 2003.
"What Are Positive Emotions in Crisis? A Prospective Study of Resilience
and Emotions Following the Terrorist Attacks on the United States on
September 11th, 2001." *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology*
84(2): 365--376.

Freud, S. 1960. "Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious." In *The
Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud,
vol. 8.,* ed. and trans. J. Strachey. London: Hogarth Press, 225--233.
(Original work published 1905)

Freud, S.. 1930. "Civilization and its Discontents." In *The* S*tandard
Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud,* ed. and
trans. J. Strachey*.* London: Hogarth Press. (Original work published
1930)

Gorman, C. January 17, 2005. "The Importance of Resilience." *Time,*
A53.

Grencavage, L. M. and J. C. Norcross. 1990. "Where are the Commonalities
among the Therapeutic Common Factors?" *Professional Psychology*:
*Research and Practice* 21: 372--378.

Guy, J. D. 2001. *The Personal Life* *of the Psychotherapist.* New York:
Wiley.

Hobson, J. A. 1994. *The Chemistry of Conscious States: How the Brain
Changes its Mind.* New York: Little, Brown.

Hollingsworth, M. 1993. "Responses of Female Therapists to Treating
Adult Female Survivors of Incest." Doctoral dissertation, Western
Michigan University, 1993. *Dissertation Abstracts International*
54:3342.

Johnson, C. N. E. and M. Hunter. 1997. "Vicarious Traumatization in
Counselors Working in New South Wales Sexual Assault Service: An
Exploratory Study." *Work and Stress* 11(4): 319--328.

Joyce, E. 2004. "The Other Side of Darkness: Working through Trauma with
Victims of Crime. *Networks* 19(2--3). Washington, DC: National Center
for Victims of Crime.

Kassan-Adams, N. 1994. *The Risks of Treating Sexual Trauma: Stress and
Secondary Trauma in Psychotherapists.* Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, University of Virginia.

Kluger, J. January 17, 2005. "The Funny Thing about Laughter." *Time,*
A2.

Kobasa, S. C., S.R. Maddi, and S. Courington, 1981, Personality and
Constitution as Mediators in the Stress-Illness Relationship." *Journal
of Health and Social Behavior* 22: 368--378.

Koenig, H. G. 2002. *Spirituality in Patient Care: Why, How, When, and
What.* Philadelphia: The Templeton Foundation.

Lampropoulos, G. K. 2002. "A Common Factors View of Counseling
Supervision Process." *The Clinical Supervisor* 21(1): 77--95.

Lanning, J. 1987. "Posttrauma Recovery of Public Safety Workers for the
Delta 191 Crash: Debriefing, Personal Characteristics, and Social
Systems." Unpublished manuscript.

Lazarus, R., and A. DeLongis, 1983, "Psychological Stress and Coping in
Aging," *American Psychologist* 38: 245--254.

Linley, P. A. 2003. "Positive Adaptation to Trauma: Wisdom as Both
Process and Outcome." *Journal of Traumatic Stress* 16(6): 601--610.

Linley, P.A., and S. Joseph. 2003. "Trauma and Personal Growth." *The
Psychologist* 16(3):135.

Linley, P. A., and S. Joseph. 2004. "Positive Change Following Trauma
and Adversity: A Review." *Journal of Traumatic Stress* 17(1): 11--21.

Lobel, J. 1996. "The Vicarious Effects of Treating Female Rape
Survivors: The Therapist's Perspective." Doctoral dissertation,
University of Pennsylvania. *Dissertation* *Abstracts International* 57:
7230.

Luks, A. 1993. *The Healing Power of Doing Good.* New York: Ballantine.

Luthar, S., D. Cicchetti, and B. Becker. May/June 2000. "The Construct
of Resilience: A Critical Evaluation and Guidelines for Future Work."
*Child Development* 71(3): 543--562.

Lykken, D. 1999, *Happiness.* New York: Golden Books.

Lyubomirsky, S., L. Sousa, and R. Dickerhoof. 2006. "The Costs and
Benefits of Writing, Talking, and Thinking about Life's Triumphs and
Defeats." *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology* 90: 692--708.

Maddi, S. R. and S. Kobasa. 1984. *The Hardy Executive: Health Under
Stress.* Homewood, IL: Dow Jones-Irwin.

Mahoney, S. July/August 2005. "10 Secrets of a Good, Long Life." *The
AARP Magazine* 48--49.

Masten, A. S. 1994. "Resilience in Individual Development: Successful
Adaptation Despite Risk and Adversity." In *Educational Resilience in
Inner City America: Challenges and Prospects,* eds. M. C. Wang and E. W.
Gordon. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 3--25.

Masten, A. S. 2001. "Ordinary Magic: Resilience Processes in
Development. *American Psychologist* 56(3): 8.

McCann, I. L. and L. A. Pearlman. 1990. "Vicarious Traumatization: A
Framework for Understanding the Psychological Effects of Working with
Victims. *Journal of Traumatic Stress* 3: 131--149*.*

McCann, I. L. and L. A. Pearlman. 1999. *Psychological Trauma and the
Adult Survivor: Theory, Therapy, and Transformation.* New York: Brunner
Mazel.

Miller, L. A. 2001. "Impacts of Treating Torture Survivors on
Psychotherapists' Personal and Professional Lives." Doctoral
dissertation, The Wright Institute. *Dissertation Abstracts
International* 61:6713.

Monroe, K. R. 1996. *The Heart of Altruism.* New York: Harper Collins.

Munroe, J. F., J. Shay, L. Fisher, C. Makary, R. Rapperport, and R.
Zimering. 1995. "Preventing Compassion Fatigue: A Team Treatment Mode."
In *Compassion Fatigue: Coping with Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder
in Those Who Treat the Traumatized,* ed. C. Figley. New York:
Brunner/Mazel, 207--23.

Myers, D. G. January 2000. "The Funds, Friends, and Faith of Happy
People." *American Psychologist* 55(1): 56--57.

Myers, D. G. and E. Diener. May 1996. "The Pursuit of Happiness."
*Scientific American* 274: 54--56.

National Center for Victims of Crime. 2005. *Reach In. Reach Out.
Finding Your Resilience.* Washington, DC: Author.

Neumann, D. A., and S. J. Gamble. 1995. "Issues in the Professional
Development of Psychotherapists: Countertransference and Vicarious
Traumatization in the New Trauma Therapist." *Psychotherapy* 32:
341--346.

Norcross, J. C. 2000. "Psychotherapist Self-Care: Practitioner-tested,
Research-informed Strategies." *Professional Psychology: Research and
Practice* 31(6): 7028--7035.

O'Brien, K. M. 2002. "Beliefs, Assumptions, and Expectations of
Therapists Supporting the Traumatically Bereaved." Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, George Washington University.

Ong, A. D., C.S. Bergeman, and T.L. Bisconti. 2004. "The Role of Daily
Positive Emotions During Conjugal Bereavement." *Journal of Behavioral,
Psychological, and Social Sciences* 59(4):1 68--176.

Palmer, N. August 1997. "Resilience in Adult Children of Alcoholics."
*Health and Social Work* 22(3): 201--209.

Palmer, N. 1999. "Fostering Resilience in Children: Lessons Learned in
Transcending Adversity." published simultaneously in *Social Thought*
19(2):69--87 and *Raising Our Children Out of Poverty* 69--87.

Parkes, C. M. 1972. *Bereavement Studies of Grief in Adult Life,* 2nd
ed. New York: International Universities Press.

Patterson, J. M. 2004. "Understanding Family Resilience." *Journal of
Clinical Psychology* 58(3):233--246.

Paul, P. January 17, 2005. "The Power to Uplift.' *Time,* A46.

Pavot, W., E. Diener, and F. Fujita. 1990. "Extraversion and Happiness"
*Personality and Individual Differences.*11: 1299--1306.

Pearlman, L. A., and P.S. Mac Ian. 1995. "Vicarious Traumatization: An
Empirical Study of the Effects of Trauma Work on Trauma Therapists."
*Professional Psychology: Research and Practice* 26(6):558--565.

Pearlman, L. A., and K.W. Saakvitne. 1995a. *Trauma and the Therapist:
Countertransference and Vicarious Traumatization in Psychotherapy with
Incest Survivors.* New York: Norton.

Pearlman, L. A., and K. W. Saakvitne. 1995b. "Treating Therapists with
Vicarious Traumatization and Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorders." In
*Compassion Fatigue: Coping with Secondary Traumatic Stress disorder in
Those Who Treat the Traumatized,* ed. C. Figley. New York: Brunner
Mazel, 150--177.

Pennebaker, J. 1990. *Opening Up: The Healing Power of Confiding in
Others,* New York: Morrow.

Pope, K. S. and S. Feldman-Summers. 1992. "National Survey of
Psychologists' Sexual and Physical Abuse History and Their Evaluation of
Training and Competence in These Areas." *Professional Psychology:
Research and Practice* 23: 353--361.

Powers, L. E. and B. E. Wampold. 1994. "Cognitive-Behavioral Factors in
Adjustment to Adult Bereavement." *Death Studies* 18: 1--24.

Radeke, J. T. and M. J. Mahoney. 2000. "Comparing the Personal Lives of
Psychotherapists and Research Psychologists." *Professional Psychology:
Research and Practice* 31: 82--84.

Richardson, G. E. 2002. "The Metatheory of Resilience and Resiliency."
*Journal of Clinical Psychology* 58(3): 307--321.

Saleeby, D. 1996. "The Strengths Perspective in Social Work Practice:
Extension and Caution." *Social Work* 4:296--305.

Schatzow, E. and J. Yassen. 1991. "Specialized Treatment Models for
Clinicians with a History of Trauma." Workshop presentation at the
Seventh Annual Convention in the International Society for Traumatic
Stress Studies, Washington, DC.

Schauben, L. J. and P.A. Frazier. 1995. "Vicarious Trauma: The Effects
on Female Counselors on Working with Sexual Violence Survivors."
*Psychology of Women Quarterly* 19: 49--64.

Segerstrom, S. C., S. Taylor, M.E. Kemeny, and J.L. Fahey.
1998."Optimism Is Associated with Mood, Coping, and Immune Change in
Response to Stress." *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology*
74(6): 1646--1655.

Seligman, M. 2002. *Authentic Happiness.* New York: The Free Press.

Sexton, L. August 1999. "Vicarious Traumatization of Counselors and
Effects on their Workplaces." *British Journal of Guidance and
Counseling* 27(3): 393--403.

Smith-Lovin, L. June 2006. "Social Isolation in America: Change in Core
Discussion Networks over Two Decades." *American Sociological Review*
71: 353--375.

Taylor, S. 2002. *The Tending Instinct: How Nurturing Is Essential to
Who We Are and How We Live.* New York: Henry Holt, and Company.

Tebes, J. K., J.T. Irish, M.J. Puglisi Vasquez, and D. V. Perkins.
2004. "Cognitive Transformation as a Marker of Resilience." *Substance
Use and Misuse* 39(5): 769--788.

Thottam, J. January 17, 2005. "Thank God It's Monday." *Time,* A60.

Traux, C. B. and R.R. Carkuff. 1967. *Toward Effective Counseling and
Psychotherapy.* Chicago: Aldine.

Trine, W. 2004. "How Can Young People's Resilience Be Enhanced?
Experiences from a Clinical Intervention Project." *Clinical Child
Psychology and Psychiatry* 9(2): 167--183.

Tugade, M. M. and B.L. Frederickson. 2004. "Resilient Individuals Use
Positive Emotions to Bounce Back from Negative Emotional Experiences."
*Journal of Personality and Social Psychology*. 86(2): 320--333.

Tugade, M. M., B.L. Frederickson, and L.F. Barrett. 2004. "Psychological
Resilience and Positive Emotional Granularity: Examining the Benefits of
Positive Emotions on Coping and Health." *Journal of Personality.*
72(6): 1161--1190.

U.S. Department of Justice. 1999. *Vicarious Trauma Training: Developing
a Model Training Program for Victim Care Providers Suffering Secondary
Traumatic Stress (*Development of Training Units). Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for Victims of
Crime, 33--59.

Waite, P. J. and G.E. Richardson. 2004. "Determining the Efficacy of
Resilience Training in the Work Site." *Journal of Allied Health* 33(3):
178--183.

Wasco, S. M., R. Campbell, and M. Clark. 2002. "A Multiple Case Study of
Rape Victim Advocates' Self-Care Routines: The Influence of
Organizational Context." *American Journal of Community Psychology*
30(5): 731--760.

Werner, E. 1982. *Vulnerable But Invincible: A Longitudinal Study of
Resilient Children and Youth.* New York: Adams, Bannister, and Cox.

Werner, E. and R. Smith. 1992. *Overcoming the Odds: High Risk Children
from Birth to Adulthood.* New York: Cornell University Press.

Wolin, S. J. and S. Wolin. 1993. *The Resilient Self: How Survivors of
Troubled Families Rise Above Adv*e*rsity.* New York: Villard Books.

Yehuda, R. 2004. "Risk and Resilience in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder."
*Journal of Clinical Psychiatry* 65(Suppl. 1): 29--36.

Zastrow, C. and K. Kirst-Ashman. 1990. *Understanding Human Behavior and
the Social Environment,* 2nd ed. Chicago: Nelson Hall.

[^1]: The authors of this chapter are Janice Harris Lord, Arlington, TX;
    and Kevin O'Brien, Ph.D., National Center for Victims of Crime,
    Washington, DC.

[^2]: F. Flach, 1990, "The Resilience Hypothesis and Posttraumatic
    Stress Disorder," in Posttraumataic Stress Disorder: Etiology,
    Phenomenology, and Treatment, eds. M.E. Wolf and A.D. Mosnaim,
    Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 36--45; S.J. Wolin, and
    S. Wolin, 1993, The Resilient Self: How Survivors of Troubled
    Families Rise Above Adversity, New York: Villard Books; J.C.
    Norcross, 2000, "Psychotherapist Self-Care: Practitioner-tested,
    Research-informed Strategies," Professional Psychology: Research and
    Practice 31(6): 7028--7035; P.J. Waite and G.E. Richardson, 2004,
    "Determining the Efficacy of Resilience Training in the Work Site, "
    Journal of Allied Health 33(3): 178--183.

[^3]: P.A. Linley, 2003, "Positive Adaptation to Trauma: Wisdom as Both
    Process and Outcome," Journal of Traumatic Stress 16(6): 601--610;
    P.A. Linley and S. Joseph, 2004, "Positive Change Following Trauma
    and Adversity: A Review," Journal of Traumatic Stress 17(1): 11-21;
    P.J. Waite and G.E. Richardson, 2004, "Determining the Efficacy of
    Resilience Training in the Work Site, " Journal of Allied Health
    33(3): 178--183.

[^4]: F. Flach, 1990, "The Resilience Hypothesis and Posttraumatic
    Stress Disorder," in Posttraumataic Stress Disorder: Etiology,
    Phenomenology, and Treatment, eds. M.E. Wolf and A.D. Mosnaim,
    Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 36--45; S.J. Wolin, and
    S. Wolin, 1993, The Resilient Self: How Survivors of Troubled
    Families Rise Above Adversity, New York: Villard Book; W. Trine,
    "How Can Young People's Resilielce Be Enhanced? Experiences from a
    Clinical Intervention Project," Clinical Child Psychology and
    Psychiatry 9(2): 167--183.

[^5]: P.A. Linley and S. Joseph, 2004, "Positive Change Following Trauma
    and Adversity: A Review," *Journal of Traumatic Stress* 17(1):
    11--21.

[^6]: M.M. Tugade, B.L. Frederickson, and L.F. Barrett, 2004,
    "Psychological Resilience and Positive Emotional Granularity:
    Examining the Benefits of Positive Emotions on Coping and Health,"
    *Journal of Personality,* 72(6): 1161--1190; M.M. Tugade and B.J.
    Frederickson, 2004, "Resilient Individuals Use Positive Emotions to
    Bounce Back from Negative Emotional Experiences," Journal of
    Personality and Social Psychology, 86(2): 320--333.

[^7]: F. Flach, 1990, "The Resilience Hypothesis and Posttraumatic
    Stress Disorder," in *Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Etiology,
    Phenomenology, and Treatment*, eds. M.E. Wolf and A.D. Mosnaim,
    Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 36--45; S.J. Wolin and
    S. Wolin, 1993, *The Resilient Self: How Survivors of Troubled
    Families Rise Above Adversity,* New York: Villard Books.

[^8]:
    ##  F. Flach, 1990, "The Resilience Hypothesis and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder," in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Etiology, Phenomenology, and Treatment, eds. M.E. Wolf and A.D. Mosnaim, Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 36--45; S.J. Wolin and S. Wolin, 1993, The Resilient Self: How Survivors of Troubled Families Rise Above Adversity, New York: Villard Books; J. Lanning, 1987, "Posttrauma Recovery of Public Safety Workers for the Delta 191 Crash: Debriefing, Personal Characteristics, and Social Systems," unpublished manuscript; P.A. Linley and S. Joseph, 2004, "Positive Change Following Trauma and Adversity: A Review," Journal of Traumatic Sterss 17(1): 11--21. 

    []{.mark}

[^9]: P.A. Linley, 2003, "Positive Adaptation to Trauma; Wisdom as Both
    Process an Outcome," *Journal of Traumatic Stress* 16(6): 601--610;
    (Linley, 2003; M.M. Tugade and B.L. Frederickson, 2004, "Resilient
    Individuals Use Positive Emotions to Bounce Back from Negative
    Emotional Experiences," *Journal of Personality and Social
    Psychology*, 86(2): 320--333.