> **Session No. 8**

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**Course Title: Coastal Hazards Management**

**Session Title: Meteorological Hazards**

**Author: Katherine Eschelbach, University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill**

**Time: 50 minutes**

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**Objectives**

> 8.1 Understand the basic natural processes that contribute to the
> following meteorological hazards: tornado, drought, severe
> thunderstorm, blizzard
>
> and wildfire

8.2 Discuss the historical impacts and destructive potential of these
hazards

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**Scope**

Sessions 8 and 9 introduce students to the major natural hazards that
can occur both inside and outside of the coastal zone. Assuming many of
the students do not have an extensive background in the earth and
physical sciences, the material is very basic. These sessions discuss
the natural processes that contribute to these major natural hazards,
where these hazards occur, the frequency of their occurrence, and the
impacts they may have on both the human and the natural environments.
The purpose of these two sessions is to give a broad overview of some
hazards that are not unique to, but which may affect, the coastal zone.

Session 8 (*Meteorological Hazards*) covers the natural processes that
contribute to five selected meteorologically driven hazards. These five
hazards include: tornado, drought, severe thunderstorm, blizzard and
wildfire.

Session 9 (*Geological Hazards*) introduces the natural processes
involved in five geologically driven hazards (earthquake, dam failure,
landslide, volcano, and sink holes). Session 9 also addresses the
impacts that these hazards may have on both humans and the environment.

The material in these sessions is intentionally introductory in nature
and will serve as a basis for understanding later sessions, when we will
discuss various regulatory, institutional and policy opportunities to
manage these impacts in the built environment.

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**Supplemental Considerations:**

The internet is a tremendous resource for background information on the
hazards discussed in both Sessions 8 and 9. Many of the federal
government websites cited in the lecture remarks below, such as the NOAA
and FEMA websites, are reliable and provide large amounts of information
for students and the public. The students should become familiar with
several of the websites as powerful resources of information.

An optional homework assignment, in addition to the student and
additional readings below, could be to assign the students these three
websites to become familiar with to summarize their favorite findings
for the class (as they pertain to the hazards in Sessions 8 and 9):

[www.noaa.gov](http://www.noaa.gov/)

[www.ncdc.noaa.gov](http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/)

[www.fema.gov](http://www.fema.gov/)

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**Readings:**

*Instructor and Student Reading:*

Abbott, P.L. 1996. *Natural Disasters*. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown
Publishers. Pp. 258-263:

> "Weather Principles", pp. 266-272: "Thunderstorms", pp. 273-277:
> "Tornadoes", pp. 287-292: "Drought", Pp.349-370: "Fire".

Reynolds, Ross. 2003. *Weather Rage.* New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Pp. 1 -- 16:

> "Chapter 1: Wind, cloud, rain and blizzard",pp. 67-88: "Chapter 4:
> Lightning, thunder, torrent and fire", pp. 89-110: "Chapter 5:
> Tornadoes".

*Additional Background Reading:*

Alexander, Grant. 1993. *Natural Disasters.* New York, NY: Chapman &
Hall, Inc. Pp. 144 153: "Drought", pp. 170-182: "Tornadoes", pp.183-185:
"Lightning and Hailstorms",

pp. 201-207: "Snow as a hazard to the urban system and Frost hazards",
pp. 296-304:

"Wildfire".

Battan, L.J. 1964. *The Thunderstorm*. New York, NY: Signet, The New
American Library of World Literature, Inc.

Eagleman, J.R. 1983. *Severe and Unusual Weather*. New York, NY: Van
Nostrand Reinhold

Company, Inc. Pp. 32-49: "Blizzards", pp. 54-91: "Severe Thunderstorms",
pp. 92-

113:"Tornadoes", pp. 114-136: "Lightning", pp.137-161: "Hail", pp.
350-353 and 354-

355:"Human Response to Severe and Unusual Weather".

Grazulis, T.P. 2001. *The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm.* Norman,
OK: University of Oklahoma Press.

Oliver, J.E. and J.J. Hidore. 2002. *Climatology: An Atmospheric
Science, 2^nd^ ed*. Upper Saddle

River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Pp. 164 --168: "Thunderstorms", pp.
168-175:

> "Tornadoes", pp. 176-177: "Drought".

Robinson, Andrew. 1993. *Earthshock: Hurricanes, Volcanoes, Earthquakes,
Tornadoes and*

> *Other Forces of Nature.* London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. pp. 117-118:
> "Thunderstorms", pp. 135-145: "Tornadoes", pp. 145- 152: "Lightning",
> pp. 199-211: "Drought", pp. 211-213: "Wildfire".

Rosenberg, N.J. 1978. *North American Droughts*. Boulder, Colorado:
Westview Press.

American Association for the Advancement of Science Selected Symposia
Series.

Tannehill, I.R. 1947. *Drought: its causes and effects*. Princeton, New
Jersey: Princeton

University Press.

Viemeister, P.E. 1961. *The Lightning Book*. Garden City, NY: Doubleday
& Company, Inc. Pp.

73-136: "Part Two, Origin and Character of Lightning".

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**PowerPoint slides:**

**Part I: Session 8**

\[**PowerPoint 8.1** Lecture Outline\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.2** Introduction: Meteorological Hazards in the Coastal
Zone\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.3** What is a Severe Thunderstorm?\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.4** What is Tornado?\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.5** What is a Blizzard?\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.6** What is a Drought?\]

\[**PowerPoint 8**.**7** What is a Wildfire?\]

\[**PowerPoint 8**.**8** Severe Thunderstorm Disaster\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.9** Tornado Disaster\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.10** Blizzard Disaster\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.11** Drought Disaster\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.12** Wildfire Disaster\]

**Handouts:**

\[**Handout 8.1** Fujita Tornado Scale\]

### 

###  \[Handout 8.2 Lightning Casualties by State\]

\[**Handout 8.3** Top Ten US Killer Tornadoes\]

\[**Handout 8.4** Blizzard Statistics\]

\[**Handout 8.5** Drought Examples\]

\[**Handout 8.6** Total US Fires & suppression costs\]

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**General Requirements:**

The Instructor should review some of the additional background reading
and prepare copies of handouts for students based on the accompanying
PowerPoint presentation.

As foundation classes, Sessions 6 through 9 will present baseline
information in a predominantly lecture format, supported by PowerPoint
slides. The slides are an essential part of this lecture series, as they
depict the natural hazards that will be discussed throughout the course.

Because sessions 8 and 9 cover natural hazards that are not solely
coastal in nature, the instructor may choose to assign the material in
these sessions as background reading, and give an abbreviated lecture
instead. The PowerPoint slides can then be used to prompt interactive
discussion of problems, issues and solutions -- drawing from theory and
seeking to develop and hone student analytical and critical thinking
skills.

The following PowerPoint slide will be used for the lecture outline for
Session 8:

> \[**PowerPoint 8.1** Lecture Outline\]

Note that the session breaks after the discussion of dam failure
disasters on Slide 8.12. The slides and discussion then continue in
Session 9 with geological hazards as Part II of the Natural Hazards
topic.
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**Objective 8.1:** Understand the basic natural processes that
contribute to the following

meteorological hazards: tornado, drought, severe thunderstorm, blizzard

> and wildfire

**Requirements:**

The content should be presented as lecture, supported by PowerPoint
slides. **Handout 8.1** is provided within the Remarks for this
objective as well as an appendix at the end of this document for
distribution.

The following slides will be used during this objective:

\[**PowerPoint 8.2** Introduction: Meteorological Hazards in the Coastal
Zone\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.3** What is a Severe Thunderstorm?\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.4** What is a Tornado?\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.5** What is a Blizzard?\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.6** What is a Drought?\]

\[**PowerPoint 8**.**7** What is a Wildfire?\]

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**Remarks:**

**II. Introduction: Other Natural Hazards in the Coastal Zone**

\[**PowerPoint 8.2** Introduction: Meteorological Hazards in the Coastal
Zone\]

1.  A natural hazard is a natural process that occurs under certain
    extreme environmental

> conditions in the atmosphere, on the earth's surface, or under the
> ground.

-   Natural hazards are often a source of astonishment and fear as well
    as respect

> for humans because of the awesome power that they contain.

2.  There are many different types of natural hazards, such as
    tornadoes, blizzards, drought,

> wildfire, volcanoes and earthquakes. ***Coastal hazards are those
> natural hazards that occur at the interface between the ocean and the
> shoreline.*** The hazards that are most uniquely tied to the coastal
> zone were presented in Sessions 6 and 7.

3.  The hazards that will be discussed in this session include several
    meteorological **hazards that are not uniquely tied to the coastal
    zone**. These hazards include: tornadoes,

drought, severe thunderstorms, blizzards, and wildfire.

*This session will focus on the natural processes that contribute to
these five meteorological hazards and their impacts*. *Session 9 will
focus on the natural processes and their impacts of geological hazards.*

**III. What is a Severe thunderstorm?**

> \[**PowerPoint 8.3** What is a Severe Thunderstorm?\]

1.  *Severe thunderstorms consist of many elements, such as torrential
    rain, high wind, hailstorm, lightning and tornado. Severe
    thunderstorms in general are discussed in this section along with
    more specifics on hailstorms and lightning. Discussion of tornadoes
    will follow on the next slide. Torrential rain and high wind were
    discussed in conjunction with hurricanes and flooding in Session 7.*

**Severe Thunderstorm**

A. Definition

1.  According to the National Weather Service, a severe thunderstorm is
    a thunderstorm which produces tornadoes, hail 0.75 inches or more in
    diameter, or winds of 50 knots (58 mph) or more.

2.  Thunderstorms are the result of convection in the atmosphere.

-   They are typically the by-products of atmospheric instability, which
    promotes the vigorous rising of air parcels that form cumulus and,
    eventually, the cumulonimbus (thunderstorm) cloud.

B. Description

1.  Instability can be caused by either surface heating or
    upper-tropospheric (\~50,000 feet) divergence of air (rising air
    parcels can also result from airflows over mountainous areas).

-   Generally, the former \"air mass\" thunderstorms form on warm-season
    afternoons and are not severe.

-   The latter \"dynamically-driven\" thunderstorms generally form in
    association with a cold front or other regional-scaled atmospheric
    disturbance.

-   These storms can become severe, producing strong winds, frequent
    lightning, hail, downbursts and even tornadoes.

2.  A typical thunderstorm may be three miles wide at its base, rise to
    between 40,000 to 60,000 feet in the troposphere, and contain half a
    million tons of condensed water.[^1]

-   Conglomerations of thunderstorms along cold fronts (with squall
    lines) can extend for hundreds of miles.

**Severe Thunderstorm -- Hail storm**

**A. Definition**

1.  Hail is precipitation in the form of odd-shaped icy lumps called
    hailstones. Hail falls from thunderstorms that contain strong
    updrafts and a large supply of super cooled water droplets.[^2] 

**B. Description**

1.  A hailstone forms when a small piece of ice is carried through
    portions of a cumulonimbus cloud that contain different
    concentrations of super cooled water droplets.

2.  As the ice pellets travel in and out of patches of water droplets,
    the water instantly freezes to it, forming layers of ice and
    increasing the hailstone\'s size.

3.  When it becomes too large and heavy to be supported by the updraft,
    the hailstone falls out of the cloud.[^3]

4.  The following map shows the average number of days per year hail
    fell in areas through the Continental United States from 1980 to
    1994.[^4] (Also shown on PowerPoint slide 8.3)

![](media/image1.png){width="4.9375in" height="3.702777777777778in"}

*Hail Distribution from 1980 to 1994*

**Severe Thunderstorm -- Lightning**

A. Definition

1.  Lightning is an electrical discharge that results from the buildup
    of positive and negative charges within a thunderstorm.

-   When the buildup becomes strong enough, lightning appears as a bolt.
    This flash of light usually occurs within the clouds or between the
    clouds and the ground.

-   A bolt of lightning reaches a temperature approaching 50,000 degrees
    Fahrenheit in a split second.

-   The rapid heating and cooling of air near the lightning causes
    thunder.[^5]

B. Description

1.  The following picture (also displayed in Slide 8.3) shows four
    different types of lightning---

-   a)sprites,

-   b\) cloud-to-ground,

-   c\) intracloud, and

-   d\) intercloud.

![](media/image2.png){width="5.372222222222222in"
height="4.013194444444444in"}

*Photo Courtesy Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory* [^6]

2.  Lightning always accompanies thunderstorms.

3.  Lightning is the most dangerous and frequently encountered weather
    hazard that most people experience each year.

-   It is the second most frequent killer in the United States with
    nearly 100 deaths and 500 injuries each year. (Floods and flash
    floods are the number one cause of weather related deaths in the
    US.)[^7]

**IV. What is a tornado?**

> \[**Power Point 8.4** What is a tornado?\]

A. Definition

1.  **A tornado is a violently rotating column of air in contact with
    the ground and extending from the base of a thunderstorm**.[^8]

2.  A condensation funnel *does not need to reach to the ground* for a
    tornado to be present; a debris cloud beneath a thunderstorm is all
    that is needed to confirm the presence of a tornado, even in the
    total absence of a condensation funnel.

3.  It is spawned by a thunderstorm (or sometimes as a result of a
    hurricane) and produced when cool air overrides a layer of warm air,
    forcing the warm air to rise rapidly.

4.  The damage from a tornado is a result of the high wind velocity and
    wind-blown debris.[^9]

### 

### B. Description

1.  The intensity, path length and width of tornadoes are rated
    according to a scale developed by T. Theodore Fujita and Allen D.
    Pearson: The Fujita-Pearson Tornado Scale*.*

-   Tornadoes classified as F0-F1 are considered weak tornadoes;

-   those classified as F2-F3 are considered strong,

-   while those classified as F4-F5 are considered violent.

## Handout 8.1: Fujita Tornado Scale

  --------------- ----------------- ---------- --------------------------------------
  **Fujita                                     
  Tornado Scale**                              

  ***F-Scale***   ***Intensity***   ***Wind    ***Type of Damage Done***
                                    Speed***   

  F0              Gale Tornado      40-72 mph  Some damage to chimneys; breaks
                                               branches off trees; pushes over
                                               shallow-rooted trees; damages sign
                                               boards

  F1              Moderate Tornado  73-112 mph Peels surface off roofs; mobile homes
                                               pushed off foundations or overturned;
                                               moving autos pushed off roads

  F2              Significant       113-157    Considerable damage. Roofs torn off
                  Tornado           mph        frame houses; mobile homes demolished;
                                               boxcars pushed over; large trees
                                               snapped or uprooted; light object
                                               missiles generated

  F3              Severe Tornado    158-206    Roof and some walls torn off well
                                    mph        constructed houses; trains overturned;
                                               most trees in forests uprooted

  F4              Devastating       207-260    Well-constructed houses leveled;
                  Tornado           mph        structures with weak foundations blown
                                               off some distance; cars thrown and
                                               large missiles generated

  F5              Incredible        261-318    Strong frame houses lifted off
                  Tornado           mph        foundations and carried considerable
                                               distances to disintegrate; automobile
                                               sized missiles fly through the air in
                                               excess of 100 meters; trees debarked;
                                               steel re-enforced concrete structures
                                               badly damaged
  --------------- ----------------- ---------- --------------------------------------

2.  Tornadoes come from the energy released in a thunderstorm. As
    powerful as they are, tornadoes account for only a tiny fraction of
    the energy in a thunderstorm.

-   *What makes them dangerous is that **their energy is concentrated**
    in a small area, perhaps only a hundred yards across.*

3.  It is generally believed that tornadic wind speeds can be as high as
    300 mph in the most violent tornadoes.

-   Wind speeds that high can cause automobiles to become airborne, rip
    ordinary homes to shreds, and turn broken glass and other debris
    into lethal missiles.

-   The biggest threat to living creatures (including humans) from
    tornadoes is from flying debris and from being tossed about in the
    wind.[^10]

4.  Tornadoes are usually preceded by very heavy rain and, possibly,
    hail.

-   If hail falls from a thunderstorm, it is an indication that the
    storm has large amounts of energy and may be severe. In general, the
    larger the hailstones, the more potential for damaging thunderstorm
    winds and/or tornadoes.[^11]

5.  A key point to remember is this: *the size of a tornado is not
    necessarily an indication of its intensity.*

-   Large tornadoes *can* be weak, and small tornadoes *can* be violent.

6.  Another consideration is the stage in the life cycle of the tornado.
    A \"small\" tornado may have been larger, and is at the
    \"shrinking\" stage of its life cycle. Large tornadoes can also be
    strong and small tornadoes can be weak.[^12]

**V. What is a Blizzard?**

> \[**PowerPoint 8.5** What is a Blizzard?\]

**A. Definition**

1.  A blizzard is a snowstorm characterized by low temperatures (usually
    below 20°F) and accompanied by winds that are at least 35 mph or
    greater.

2.  In addition, there must also be sufficient falling and/or blowing
    snow in the air that will:

-   frequently reduce visibility to 1/4 mile or

-   last for a duration of at least 3 hours.[^13]

B. Description

1.  A severe blizzard is considered to have temperatures near or below
    10°F, winds exceeding 45 mph, and visibility reduced by snow to near
    zero.

2.  Blizzard conditions often develop on the northwest side of an
    intense storm system.

-   The difference between the lower pressure in the storm and the
    higher pressure to the west creates a tight pressure gradient, which
    in turn results in very strong winds.

-   These winds combine with snow and blowing snow to produce extreme
    conditions.

3.  Storm systems powerful enough to cause blizzards usually form when
    the jet stream dips far to the south, allowing cold air from the
    north to clash with warm air from the south.

-   With the colder and drier polar air comes an atmospheric temperature
    cold enough for the development of snow, sleet, or freezing
    rain.[^14]

FREEZING RAIN

A. Definition

1.  Freezing rain or freezing drizzle is rain or drizzle occurring when
    surface temperatures are below freezing.

-   The moisture falls in liquid form but freezes upon impact, resulting
    in a coating of ice or glaze on all exposed surfaces.[^15]

B. Description

1.  Freezing rain is caused when there is a warm mass of air in the
    middle altitudes between the ground and the cloud deck, followed by
    a mass of freezing air near the surface.

-   *When the precipitation falls from the cloud, it will generally be
    snow. As it encounters the warm air, it will melt into the usual
    rain. But right before it reaches the ground it enters the
    below-freezing air and quickly turns to ice. On impact, it usually
    freezes.*[^16]

The adjacent figure helps to illustrate how freezing rain occurs:

![](media/image3.png){width="1.8888888888888888in"
height="1.5965277777777778in"}(*also included on PowerPoint slide 8.6*)

-   The red line is a temperature profile through a portion of the
    atmosphere.

-   In this example, the snowflakes completely melt and fall through a
    shallow freezing layer not allowing them to refreeze into sleet
    before reaching the ground.

-   As a result when the liquid droplets encounter exposed objects they
    freeze upon contact. [^17]

**VI. What is drought?**

> \[**PowerPoint 8.6** What is Drought?\]

# **A. Definition**

1.  ***Drought refers to an extended period of deficient rainfall
    relative to the statistical mean for a region.***

2.  Drought can be defined according to **meteorological, hydrological,
    and agricultural criteria**.[^18]

-   Meteorological drought uses long-term precipitation data to measure
    present precipitation levels against departures from normal
    precipitation levels.

-   Hydrological drought is defined by surface and subsurface water
    supply deficiencies based on stream flow, lake, reservoir, and
    ground water levels.

-   Agricultural drought occurs when there is insufficient soil moisture
    to satisfy the water budget of a specific crop, leading to destroyed
    or underdeveloped crops with greatly depleted yields.

**B. Description**

1.  Drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate, although many
    erroneously consider it a rare and random event.

-   Because drought is progressive in nature and comes on slowly, it is
    often not recognized until it reaches a severe level.

2.  The underlying cause of most droughts can be related to variations
    in large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns and the locations of
    anticyclones, or high-pressure systems.

-   Sometimes, whirling masses of air separate from the main westerly
    airflow (analogous to whirlpools that form in rapidly flowing
    rivers) and effectively prevent the usual west-to-east progression
    of weather systems.

-   When these \"blocking systems\" persist for extended periods of
    time, weather extremes such as drought, floods, heat waves, and cold
    snaps can occur.

3.  The ***Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI)*** is a widely used
    measure of drought in the United States to track moisture
    conditions.

-   The PDSI is defined as "an interval of time, generally in months or
    years in duration, during which the actual moisture supply at a
    given place rather consistently falls short of the climatically
    expected or climatically appropriate moisture supply".

-   The range of PDSI is from --4.0 (extremely dry) to +4.0 (excessively
    wet), with the central half (-2.0 to +2.0) representing the normal
    or near normal conditions.

-   The PDSI is best used for long term measurements of drought. For
    short term (week to week) measurements, it is more useful to use the
    Crop Moisture Index (CMI), also developed by Wayne Palmer. [^19]

**VII. What is a Wildfire?**

> \[**PowerPoint 8.7** What is a Wildfire?\]

**A. Definition**

1.  ***A wildfire is an uncontrolled burning of grasslands, brush or
    woodlands.***

2.  The potential for wildfire depends upon surface fuel
    characteristics, recent climate conditions, current meteorological
    conditions and fire behavior.

-   Hot, dry summers and dry vegetation increase susceptibility to fire
    in the fall, a particularly dangerous time of year for wildfire.

**B. Description**

1.  Wildfires have taken place as a natural process for many thousands
    of years, playing an important role in the ecological integrity of
    our natural environment.

2.  Human settlement has significantly influenced changes in the spatial
    and temporal pattern of wildfire occurrence, as well as the risks
    associated with them for human life and property.

3.  Natural wildfires still take place on a regular basis.

-   They can be caused by human carelessness, arson or from lightning
    strikes on the ridge tops of mountains.

-   Other natural disturbances such as tornadoes and hurricanes can
    influence the structure and fuel distribution of forests, leading to
    a change in wildfire intensity and risk.

-   Occurrence and frequency of wildfire also relies greatly upon the
    type of forest community of interest.

4.  The current scale of wildfire risk conditions is measured with the
    Keetch-Byram Drought Index (KBDI).

-   The KBDI estimates the potential risk for wildfire conditions based
    on daily temperatures, daily precipitation, and annual precipitation
    levels on an index of 0 (no drought) to 800 (extreme drought).[^20]

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**Objective 8.2 Discuss the historical impacts and destructive potential
of these hazards**

**Requirements:**

The content should be presented as lecture, supported by PowerPoint
slides. **Handouts 8.2-8.6** are provided within the Remarks for this
objective as well as an appendix at the end of this document.

The following slides will be used during this objective:

\[**PowerPoint 8**.**8** Severe Thunderstorm Disasters\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.9** Tornado Disasters\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.10** Blizzard Disasters\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.11** Drought Disasters\]

\[**PowerPoint 8.12** Wildfire Disasters\]

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**Remarks:**

**VIII. Severe Thunderstorm Disasters**

\[**PowerPoint 8.8** Severe Thunderstorm Disasters\]

1.  Worst Damage Toll From A Hail Storm

> Taken from: <http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/index.asp?id=53548>

-   A hailstorm that struck Munich, Germany, in July, 1984, caused an
    estimated \$1 billion worth of damage to trees, buildings and motor
    vehicles. Trees were stripped of their bark and whole fields of
    crops were utterly destroyed. Over 70,000 buildings had their roofs
    damaged.

    1.  US Hail Storm facts

> Taken from:
> <http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/socasp/weather1/changnon.html>

-   Hail causes considerable damage to U.S. crops and property,
    occasionally causes death to farm animals, but seldom causes loss of
    human life.

-   Crop hail losses in recent years nationally are estimated at \$1.3
    billion annually, representing between 1 and 2 percent of the annual
    crop value.

-   Hail losses vary considerably regionally, representing, for example,
    1 to 2 percent of the crop value in the Midwest, 5 to 6 percent of
    the crops produced in the High Plains, and much less elsewhere in
    the nation.

-   Property losses caused be hail have been increasing with time, now
    appearing to approximate crop-hail losses in recent years with
    crudely estimated annual losses of \$1 billion.

-   The following analyses are based on the 1948(9)-1995 period:

    -   *Crop-Hail Losses*. The national annual values of insured
        crop-hail losses show ever increasing losses ranging from \$15
        million in 1948 to \$129 million in 1974, then jumping to \$265
        million in 1980, and approaching \$400 million in the early
        1990s.

    -   *Property Catastrophes*.
        [The](http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/socasp/weather1/figures/changnon3.gif)
        figure below presents two curves for the \"hail-only\"
        catastrophes during 1950-94. One curve shows the frequency of
        the hail-only catastrophes, revealing a peak in 1965-69 (30
        storms) and a minimum of 5 storms in 1955-59. The frequency
        distribution does not indicate a long-term trend upwards or
        downwards, particularly since 1960. The other curve on is based
        on the average hail-only catastrophe loss values per pentad.
        This shows peaks early, in 1950-54 and 1960-64, followed by low
        values until higher averages re-appeared in 1980-84 and 1990-94.
        The values of dollar loss per storm for these 177 hail-only
        catastrophes suggest a slight downward trend with time.

![](media/image4.png){width="4.557638888888889in"
height="3.5145833333333334in"}

1.  Lightning Facts

> Taken from:
> [http://www.srh.noaa.gov/mlb/ltgcenter/ltg_proj_ltg_stats.html#Casualties%20(Deaths%20+%20Injuries)%20per](http://www.srh.noaa.gov/mlb/ltgcenter/ltg_proj_ltg_stats.html#Casualties (Deaths + Injuries) per)

d b**[Total number of people killed/injured by lightning in the United
States in any given year:]{.underline}**\
 

  -------------------------- --------------------------------------------
  **Killed**                 **93**

  **Injured**                **300**
  -------------------------- --------------------------------------------

**Handout 8.2: Lightning Casualties by State**

**[Top 10 States with most lightning casualties (deaths + injuries),
1959 - 1994.]{.underline}**\
 

  ---------- -------------------- -----------------------------------------
  **Rank**   **State**            **\# Casualties (Deaths + Injuries)**

  **1**      **Florida**          **1523**

  **2**      **Michigan**         **732**

  **3**      **Pennsylvania**     **644**

  **4**      **North Carolina**   **629**

  **5**      **New York**         **577**

  **6**      **Ohio**             **545**

  **7**      **Texas**            **498**

  **8**      **Tennessee**        **473**

  **9**      **Georgia**          **410**

  **10**     **Colorado**         **395**
  ---------- -------------------- -----------------------------------------

From - Lightning fatalities, injuries and damage reports in the United
States, 1959 - 1994, by B. Curran and R. Holle.

**[Casualties (Deaths + Injuries) per state]{.underline}**

![](media/image5.png){width="5.264583333333333in"
height="3.1041666666666665in"}\
 From - Lightning fatalities, injuries and damage reports in the United
States, 1959 - 1994, by B. Curran and R. Holle.

**[Top 10 States with most fatalities, 1959 - 1994.]{.underline}**\
 

  -------------- -------------------------------------- ------------------
  **Rank**       **State**                              **Deaths**

  **1**          **Florida**                            **345**

  **2**          **North Carolina**                     **165**

  ** 3**         **Texas**                              **164**

  ** 4**         **New York**                           **128**

  ** 5**         **Tennessee**                          **124**

  ** 6**         **Louisiana**                          **116**

  ** 7**         **Maryland**                           **116**

  ** 8**         **Ohio**                               **115**

  ** 9**         **Arkansas**                           **110**

  **10**         **Pennsylvania**                       **109**
  -------------- -------------------------------------- ------------------

From - Lightning fatalities, injuries and damage reports in the United
States, 1959 - 1994, by B. Curran and R. Holle.\
 

**[Fatalities per state]{.underline}**

![](media/image6.png){width="5.102777777777778in" height="3.0in"}\
From - Lightning fatalities, injuries and damage reports in the United
States, 1959 - 1994, by B. Curran and R. Holle.

**[Average number of people killed/injured in Florida:]{.underline}**\
 

  ---------------------------------------------------------- ------------
  **Average Killed**                                         ** 10**

  **Average Injured**                                        ** 33**
  ---------------------------------------------------------- ------------

***Based on the above numbers, the odds are 1 in 4 that you will be
killed if struck by lightning.*** bombardment. Around 400 people were
injured.

**IX. Tornado Disasters**

\[**PowerPoint 8**.**9** Tornado Disasters\]

**Handout 8.3: Top Ten US Killer Tornadoes**

Taken from: <http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/toptens.htm>

***"The United States gets about 1000 recorded tornadoes every year.
Today, only a few are killers, but that has not always been so. About
200 US tornadoes have killed 18 or more people. Of those, about 150
occurred in the 70 year period between 1879 and 1949. There have been
about 45 tornadoes since 1950 that have killed 18 or more people. In the
1950s, there were 18 tornadoes that killed 18 or more people. In the
1960s, there were 12 tornadoes that killed 18 or more people. In the
1970s, there were 11 tornadoes that killed 18 or more people. And in the
1980s, there were only 2 tornadoes that killed more than 18 people. The
1990s have seen two tornadoes that have killed more than 18 people, but
it is late in the decade, so hopefully there won\'t be more. In spite of
an ever-burgeoning population, death figures continue to go down as
improved forecasting, detection, communications, and public awareness
increase.***

![](media/image7.png){width="3.125in" height="2.0833333333333332e-2in"}

  ----------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ------------- ------------- ---------------------
  **Rank**                                                          **State(s)**                                                          **Date**   **Time**   **Dead**   **Injured**   **F-Scale**   **Town(s)**

  [1](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#1%231)      [MO-IL-IN](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#1%231)   March 18,  1:01PM     695        2027          F5            Murphysboro,Gorham,
                                                                                                                                          1925                                                         DeSoto

  [2](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#2%232)      [LA-MS](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#2%232)      May 7,     1:45 PM    317        109           F?            Nachez
                                                                                                                                          1840                                                         

  [3](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#3%233)      [MO-IL](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#3%233)      May 27,    6:30PM     255        1000          F4            St. Louis, East St.
                                                                                                                                          1896                                                         Louis

  [4](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#4%234)      [MS](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#4%234)         April 5,   8:55 PM    216        700           F5            Tupelo
                                                                                                                                          1936                                                         

  [5](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#5%235)      [GA](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#5%235)         April 6,   8:27 AM    203        1600          F4            Gainesville
                                                                                                                                          1936                                                         

  [6](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#6%236)      [TX-OK-KS](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#6%236)   April 9,   6:05 PM    181        970           F5            Glazier, Higgins,
                                                                                                                                          1947                                                         Woodward

  [7](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#7%237)      [LA-MS](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#7%237)      April 24,  11:45AM    143        770           F4            Amite, Pine, Purvis
                                                                                                                                          1908                                                         

  [8](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#8%238)      [WI](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#8%238)         June 12,   5:40PM     117        200           F5            New Richmond
                                                                                                                                          1899                                                         

  [9](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#9%239)      [MI](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#9%239)         June 8,    8:30 PM    115        844           F5            Flint
                                                                                                                                          1953                                                         

  [10](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#10%2310)   [TX](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#10%2310)       May 11,    4:10PM     114        597           F5            Waco
                                                                                                                                          1953                                                         
  ----------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ------------- ------------- ---------------------

## 

*Note to Instructor: One or two of the descriptions below can be
discussed with the class as examples based on the interest of the class.
It is not intended that all ten be discussed during the allotted time
period.*

## 

## Descriptions of the Top Ten US Killer Tornadoes

### #1: The Tri-State Tornado

![](media/image8.jpeg){width="4.166666666666667in"
height="2.3229166666666665in"}

***COUNTIES: REYNOLDS / IRON / MADISON / BOLLINGER / CAPE GIRARDEAU /
PERRY, MO / JACKSON / WILLIAMSON / FRANKLIN / HAMILTON / WHITE, IL /
POSEY / GIBSON / PIKE, IN\--***\
At About 1:01 PM on March 18, 1925, trees began to snap north-northwest
of Ellington, Missouri, and for the next three and a half hours more
people would die, more schools would be destroyed, more students and
farm owners would be killed, and more deaths would occur in a single
city than from any other tornado in U.S. history. Records would be set
for speed, path length, and probably for other categories that can\'t be
measured so far in the past. The tornado maintained an exact heading, N
69 degrees E, for 183 of the 219 miles, at an average 62mph, following a
slight topographic ridge on which a series of mining towns were built.

These towns were the main targets of the devastating winds. Between
Gorham and Murphysboro, the forward speed was a record setting 73mph. No
distinct funnel was visible through much of its path, yet for over 100
miles, the path width held uniformly at about three quarters of a mile.

After touching down 3 miles north-northwest of Ellington, Missouri, it
killed a farmer. The funnel was very wide, a double tornado, or
accompanied by downbursts as it enveloped Annapolis and a mining town
called \"Leadanna\" 2 miles south of Annapolis. Two people were killed
and 75 more were injured in that area. Losses in both towns totaled
about \$500,000. There were no injuries across most of Iron, and all of
Madison Counties. The damage track was very wide; damage was F2 in
intensity, and this may reflect a break in the tornado path, but with
downburst damage connecting the tornado damage tracks, 5 miles south of
Fredericktown. Only once more, near Princeton, Indiana, would there even
be a minor hint that this event was a tornado or tornado/downburst
family. Once out of the Ozark hills and onto the farmland of Bollinger
and Perry Counties, the death toll quickly mounted near Lixville,
Biehle, and Frohna. One child was killed in a rural wooden school, 5m N
of Altenburg, Perry County. At least 32 children were injured in two
Bollinger County schools. The event was probably a double tornado for
three miles near Biehle. Eleven probably died in Missouri, although some
lists have 13 deaths.

In Illinois, the devastation was at its worst. At Gorham, 34 people died
as virtually all of the town was destroyed. Over half of the town\'s
population was either killed or injured. Seven of the deaths were at the
school. At Murphysboro, there was the largest death toll, within a
single city, in US history. The 234 deaths included at least 25 in three
different schools. All of these schools were brick and stone structures,
built with little or no reinforcement, and students were crushed under
falling walls. Murphysboro losses totaled about \$10,000,000. Another 69
people died in and near Desoto, and the 33 deaths at the school were the
worst in US tornado history. Parrish was devastated, with 22 deaths, as
was the northwest part of West Frankfort, with \$800,000 damage. About
800 miners were 500 feet down in a mine when the tornado struck. They
knew there had been a storm, but they had lost electrical power. The
only way to get out, and find out how their families had fared, was to
go up a narrow escapement. Most of the demolished homes were miner\'s
cottages, and many of the 127 dead and 450 injured were women and
children. Also unprecedented was the rural death toll of 65 in Hamilton
and White County. There were single deaths in three different rural
White County schools. The normally weather-wise farmers were apparently
unaware of what was bearing down on them. With such a great forward
speed, and appearing as a boiling mass of clouds rolling along, rather
than a widely visible funnel, the tornado gave these people too little
time to react. Massive amounts of dust and debris also served to obscure
the storm.

In Indiana, multiple funnels were occasionally visible, as the
3/4-mile-wide path of destruction continued with no letup. At least 71
people died in Indiana. The town of Griffin lost 150 homes, and children
were killed on their way home from school. Two deaths were in a bus.
Another stretch of rural devastation occurred between Griffin and
Princeton, passing just northwest of Owensville. About 85 farms were
devastated in that area. About half of Princeton was destroyed, and
losses there totaled \$1,800,000. The funnel dissipated about 10 miles
northeast of Princeton. \$16,500,000.\

### #2: The Natchez Tornado

***COUNTIES: CONCORDIA, LA / ADAMS, MS\--***\
A massive tornado touched down at least 20 miles southwest of Natchez
and moved to the northeast. It hit the Mississippi River about 7 miles
southwest of the city and moved upriver, \"stripping the forest from
both shores.\" This long track over water contributed to the high death
toll. The central and northern part of Natchez was ripped apart by the
mile-wide funnel as \"the air was black with whirling eddies of walls,
roofs, chimneys, and huge timbers from distant ruins \... all shot
through the air as if thrown from a mighty catapult.\" The most reliable
death total listed 48 on land at Natchez and 269 on the river, most of
those in the sinking of flatboats and steamers. It was noted at the time
that the death toll on the river was probably high because of the
\"large number of transients and itinerant boatmen on the river that
day.\" A piece of a steamboat window was carried 30 miles. At least one
person died at Vidalia, Louisiana, on the opposite shore of the river.
Reports that \"hundreds\" of people were killed on plantations in
Louisiana were never confirmed, but it is quite possible that there were
many more deaths in areas away from Natchez. This was the pre-Civil War
era of slavery, and slave deaths were not always counted. \$1,260,000.
There was nothing like Natchez for another 20 years \.... not until
Comanche, Iowa was hit in 1860. The riverboat traffic on the Mississippi
River was a factor there also. More than 100 people died on farms. on
the river, and in the town of Comanche. This \"spike\" is typical of the
kind of thing that might happen in the future. Today the spike might
occur as a sporting event or a crowded suburb is hit at night.\

### #3: The St. Louis/East St. Louis Tornado of 1896

![](media/image9.jpeg){width="3.1041666666666665in"
height="3.2180555555555554in"}

***COUNTIES: ST. LOUIS, MO / MADISON, IL\--***\
This tornado, which was to be one of the deadliest in US history,
touched down about 6 miles west of the Eads Bridge in St. Louis. From
the northwest edge of Tower Grove Park, this complex combination of
tornado and downburst widened to over a mile and moved due east. It
collapsed or swept away portions of houses, factories, saloons,
hospitals, mills, railroad yards, churches, and caused a total of over
\$10,000,000 in damage. In most areas, roofs and trees were not carried
away, but thrown to the ground. In other areas, homes were swept away.
The 36-acre Lafayette Park was turned into \"a wasteland of stripped
trees and stumps.\" On the east end of the Eads Bridge (built as tornado
proof after the 1871 event in the same place) a 2-inch by 10-inch white
pine plank was driven through the 5/16\" thick wrought iron plate. No
significant damage was done to the steel span of the bridge, but this
remains a remarkable example of a tornado\'s ability to generate
missiles. There were 137 people killed at St. Louis. The tornado was
apparently at maximum intensity when it crossed the Mississippi River
into East St. Louis, Illinois. Buildings and homes along the river were
completely swept away, and about a quarter of the buildings in the town
were destroyed or damaged. A much smaller area of damage occurred at
East St. Louis, with a damage total of about \$2,000,000, but the great
intensity resulted in 118 deaths. As many as 35 people died in the
Vandalia railroad freight yards at East St. Louis. The death total
probably does not include the loss of life to people living on shanty
boats, whose bodies were washed down river.\

### #4: The Tupelo Tornado

***COUNTIES: LEE / ITAWAMBA\--***\
This tornado was probably a member of a tornado family beginning near
Coffeeville, Yalobusha County. Little attention was paid to any part of
the track except that through Tupelo. As plotted here, this massive
funnel moved east-northeast across central Lee County, passing through
residential areas in the northern half of Tupelo. Unlike the
Gainesville, Georgia event, the next morning, this tornado missed the
downtown business district. The tornado leveled over 200 homes, many of
good construction on the west side of town. It completely swept away
poorly constructed homes several miles to the west of town, and on the
northeast side of town. Entire families were killed, up to 13 in a
single home. When the official death toll of 216 was set, there were
still over 100 people in hospitals in three states. Many were in serious
or critical condition. The Mississippi State Geologist estimated the
final death toll at 233. Since only the names of the white injured were
published in newspapers, it is not possible to follow up on the fate of
the black injured. This racial aspect of tornado documentation was
common until the late-1940\'s, and occasionally present, in some form,
until the mid-1950\'s. About 150 box cars were brought to town as
temporary housing. A movie theatre was turned into a hospital with the
popcorn machine used to sterilize instruments. This tornado may have
been of greater intensity than the Gainesville event, which produced a
similar death toll by striking the multi-story downtown area buildings
at the start of the business day. \$3,000,000.\

### #5: The Gainesville Tornado

***COUNTY: HALL\--***\
A massive pair of tornadoes moved east-northeast through downtown
Gainesville at the start of the work day. This event consisted of two
large funnel clouds which struck the city of Gainesville after a smaller
tornado hit north of town. The course of one of the funnels led into the
city from the southwest, just west of the Atlanta highway. The other
came in from the west along the Dawsonville highway. These two paths
came together west of Grove Street, and a four-block-wide area was laid
waste across the entire city, beyond which separate courses of
destruction appeared again. The wreckage was astounding, with debris
filling the streets up to 10 feet deep. About 750 houses were destroyed
and 254 were badly damaged. Damage totaled \$12,500,000. The largest
death toll in a single building for any US tornado occurred at the
Cooper Pants Factory. The multi-story building, crowded with young
workers, collapsed and caught fire, killing about 70 people. At the
Pacolet Mill, the funnel was seen in the southwest, and the 550 workers
ran to the northeast corner of the building, thus averting an even
greater tragedy. Many people, especially high school students, sought
shelter in Newnan\'s department store. The building collapsed, killing
about 20 people. The wreckage was so deep and swept by fires that it was
not possible to determine how many people were killed in which
buildings. At the time that the 203 person death toll was listed, 40
persons were still missing. In the downtown area, few buildings were
swept away, as the multi-story businesses and factories were blown over
or collapsed. Letters from Gainesville, Georgia were dropped onto
Anderson, South Carolina. \$13,000,000.\

### #6: The Woodward Tornado

![](media/image10.jpeg){width="3.4166666666666665in"
height="2.5416666666666665in"}

***COUNTIES: GRAY / ROBERTS / HEMPHILL / LIPSCOMB, TX / ELLIS / WOODWARD
/ WOODS, OK / BARBER / KINGMAN, KS\--***\
What is now considered as clearly a family of tornadoes moved northeast
and north-northeast from northwest of Pampa to near St. Leo, Kansas.
After the White Deer Tornado turned to the north and dissipated, this
event formed 5 miles northwest of Pampa and cut a historic path of
destruction across three states. The funnel passed northwest of
Canadian. Along much of its path in Texas and Oklahoma, it was reported
to have been from one to two miles wide. The entire town of Glazier, and
much of Higgins were destroyed. The generally accepted death totals are
17 at Glazier and 51 at Higgins. Injury totals were 40 and 232,
respectively. According to dubious national press reports, two people
reportedly together at Glazier were found three miles apart. The
property damage in Texas was \$1,500,000. Passing into Ellis County,
Oklahoma, the tornado killed six more people as it passed near Shattuck,
Arnett, Gage and Fargo, destroying dozens of farms and ranches. Ellis
County losses were put at \$1,264,000. At Woodward, the tornado killed
at least 107 people, mostly in the northern half of town, where about
1,000 people were injured, over 100 city blocks were devastated, and
over 1000 homes were damaged or destroyed. The damage was two miles wide
and losses totaled over \$6,000,000. Cleanup at Woodward was made even
more miserable by cold and even snow. The rain immediately after the
tornado did suppress fires. Moving into Woods County, the tornado began
turning to the north-northeast, passing west of Alva. Due west of Alva,
at White Horse, 30 people were injured as 36 homes were destroyed. The
official death toll at Woodward is 95, but historical research by Dr.
Donald Burgess, of the National Severe Storms Laboratory, clearly shows
that the 95 total is too low. His total of 107 is used here. In Barber
County, Kansas, the storm passed just west of Hardtner and continued to
the north-northeast. West of Medicine Lodge, and as far to the north as
St. Leo, no single damage track is in evidence. F1 and F2 damage is
scattered in a zone about 10 miles wide through \"Gerlane,\" Pixley,
Hazelton, Sharon, Zenda, Nashville and several other small communities.
Paper debris from Woodward, and from homes north of Arnett, fell \"in
quantity\" in southwest Barber County, about 15 miles west of this
damage area. Kansas losses were \$200,000. Most of the Kansas damage may
be downburst-related. The path in Oklahoma may have been made up of five
or more distinct tornadoes.\

### #7: The Amite/Pine/Purvis Tornado

***COUNTIES: LIVINGSTON / ST.HELENA / TANGIPAHOA / WASHINGTON, LA /
MARION / LAMAR / FOREST / PERRY / WAYNE, MS\--***\
This major tornadic event touched down near \"Weiss,\" in northwest
Livingston Parish, and moved east-northeast. Two people were killed at
\"Dennis Springs.\" In St. Helena Parish, two were killed near
Montpelier. The worst damage in Louisiana took place at Amite,
Tangipahoa Parish, where the path was said to have been over two miles
wide. At least 29 people were killed in the town of Amite, and four
others died south of Wilmer. Eleven people were injured in the
Aurora-Franklinton area of Washington Parish, and nine people were
killed near Pine. Crossing into Mississippi near Balltown, the tornado
killed two people in Marion County. In Lamar County, 55 of the 60 deaths
occurred as most of the town of Purvis was leveled to the ground. Only
seven of 150 homes in town were reported standing, as losses totaled
over \$500,000, and 400 people were injured. Four more people were
killed in Forest County, 8 miles south of Hattiesburg near McCallum,
when a railroad work crew hid from the approaching storm in box cars.
The box cars were thrown 150 feet and torn apart. Seven people died in
each of two families, southwest of Richton.\

### #8: The New Richmond Tornado

![](media/image11.jpeg){width="4.260416666666667in"
height="3.0416666666666665in"}

***COUNTY: ST. CROIX\--***\
This tornado originated as a rather spectacular waterspout on Lake St.
Croix, about 5 miles south of Hudson. The funnel moved to the northeast,
east of Hudson, in the direction of New Richmond. Three people were
killed at two locations as farms were leveled near Burkhardt and
Boardman. The tornado passed through New Richmond on a day in which
about 1000 extra people had come from surrounding villages to watch a
circus. The circus had ended about 1630 (4:30 PM). Passing through the
very center of town, the tornado leveled all types of buildings. The
massive amount of flying debris resulted in multiple deaths in at least
26 different families. Six families had four or more deaths. Over 300
buildings were damaged or destroyed. A 3000 pound safe was carried a
full block. The damage was estimated at \$300,000. The good visibility
of the funnel may have prevented an even higher death total. While not a
massive type of tornado, the combination of time and position was
unfortunate.\

### #9: The Flint Tornado

***COUNTIES: GENESEE / LAPEER\--***\
Moved east-northeast and east from 2 miles north of Flushing,
devastating the north part of Flint, ending 2 miles north of Lapeer. The
tornado virtually obliterated all homes on both sides of Coldwater Road
for about a mile. It was there that the damage swath was over a half
mile wide, and most of the deaths occurred. There were multiple deaths
in at least 20 families. This was the last single tornado, as of this
writing, to cause over 100 deaths in the United States. \$19,000,000.\

### #10: The Waco Tornado

***COUNTY: MCLENNAN\--***\
This massive tornado leveled a home near Lorena, passed near Hewitt,
moved north-northeast, devastating downtown Waco, then lifted east of
Axtell. Homes were \"leveled\" both north and south of Waco, but
detailed information is difficult to obtain. All reports centered on the
disaster in Waco. About 200 business buildings were destroyed and 400
were damaged. The most publicized damage was to large brick buildings in
the downtown area, especially the collapse of a six-story furniture
store. Bricks from the store filled the street to a depth of up to five
feet. Five people were killed in two of the cars crushed in the street.
At least 30 people, mostly employees, were killed in the furniture
store. Survivors were buried for up to 14 hours and several days were
needed to remove the bodies buried under the tons of rubble. About 150
homes were destroyed and 700 damaged to some degree. Over 2000 cars were
damaged or destroyed. \$41,000,000.

**X. Blizzard Disasters**

\[**PowerPoint 8.10** Blizzard Disasters\]

**Handout 8.4: Blizzard Statistics**

1.  **Some of The Biggest Blizzards are \...\
    **

Taken from:
<http://www.oars.utk.edu/volweb/Schools/sumnercs/ellism/ink8.htm>

**\
- 1888 March 11-14 in the Eastern U.S\...400 people died\
- 1940 November 11-12 Midwest U.S\...144 people died\
- 1956 Feb. 1-29 West Europe \...1,000 people died\
- 1958 Feb. 15-16 North Eastern U.S \...171 people died\
- 1967 Dec. 12-20 Southwest U.S \...51 people died\
- 1988 in New York \... 400 people died\
- 1993 March 13-14 Eastern U.S \...200 people died\
- 1996 Jan. 7-8 Northeastern U.S\... 100 people died\
- 1996 Aug. 22 Himalayas India \...239 people died**

2.  Several example blizzards

Taken from: <http://nsidc.org/snow/blizzard/storms.html>

#### January 1922

The \"Knickerbocker Storm\" dumped over two feet of heavy snow on
Washington D.C. causing the roof of the Knickerbocker Theatre to
collapse, killing nearly 100 people.

#### December 1947

A post-Christmas storm caught New York residents by surprise, dropping
two feet of snow in 24 hours.

#### January 1967

A series of record-breaking storms battered the west coast of Lake
Michigan, hitting Chicago the hardest, shutting nearly everything down.
Looting of the unattended stores became rampant, and it took the city
over two weeks to clear the major highways and roads.

#### February 1969

New York City became trapped under a foot-and-a-half of snow. Commuters
became stranded in their cars, schools closed, and travelers were stuck
at airports, which were also forced to close. To make matters worse,
many of the snow plows had become buried by snow in their storage lots
and had to be dug out before they could be used. The city and outlying
suburbs were forced to hire 10,000 shovelers and workers to clear the
streets.

#### February 1977

Ontario, Canada and western New York state were slammed by a storm that
killed 28 people and shut down the city of Buffalo for over a week.
Highways were clogged with thousands of stranded vehicles, and people
became trapped at schools, stores and offices, where they were forced to
spend the night because they could not make it home through the
blizzard.

#### March 1993

The \"Blizzard of the Century\" ravaged the southern mid-Atlantic states
from Alabama to Massachusetts, accompanied in other states by severe
weather disturbances such as tornadoes, thunderstorms, and floods. Snow
fell at rates between an inch and two inches an hour in some areas, and
many locations experienced record-breaking snowfalls and record snow
depths.

#### January 1996

The [Blizzard of 1996](http://nsidc.org/snow/blizzard/index.html) was
responsible for over 100 deaths and brought much of the eastern United
States to a complete halt. Schools, offices and airports were closed for
several days in some areas as roads were impassable. Compounding
problems, two subsequent storms blasted the same areas within the
following week-and-a-half.

**XI. Drought Disasters**

\[**PowerPoint 8.11** Drought Disasters\]

1.  Drought examples:

**Handout 8.5: Drought Examples**

Taken From: <http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0886145.html>

**1930s**

> **Many states:** longest drought of the 20th century. Peak periods
> were 1930, 1934, 1936, 1939, and 1940. During 1934, dry regions
> stretched solidly from N.Y. and Pa. across the Great Plains to the
> Calif. coast. A great "dust bowl" covered some 50 million acres in the
> south-central plains during the winter of 1935--1936.

**1955**

> **Aug. 31--Sept. 7, Los Angeles:** 8-day run of 100°-plus heat left
> 946 people dead.

**1972**

> **July 14--26, New York City:** 891 people died in 14-day heat wave.

**1980**

> **June--Sept., central and eastern U.S.:** an estimated 10,000 people
> were killed during the summer in a long heat wave and drought. Damages
> totaled about \$20 billion.

**1982--1983**

> **worldwide:** El Niño caused wildly unusual weather in the U.S. and
> elsewhere throughout 1983. Drought in the western Pacific region led
> to disastrous forest fires in Indonesia and Australia. Overall loss to
> world economy was over \$8 billion. Similar event in 1997--1998
> resulted in estimated loss of \$25--33 billion.

**1988**

> **Summer, central and eastern U.S.:** a severe drought and heat wave
> killed an estimated 5,000--10,000 people, including heat
> stress-related deaths. Damages reached \$40 billion.

**1995**

> **July 12--17, Chicago:** 739 people died in record heat wave.

**1996**

> **Fall 1995--summer 1996, Tex. and Okla.:** severe drought in southern
> plains region caused \$4 billion in agricultural losses; no deaths.

**1998**

> **Summer, southern U.S.:** severe heat and drought spread across Tex.
> and Okla., all the way to N.C. and S.C. At least 200 were left dead
> and \$6 billion to \$9 billion of damage was estimated.

**1999**

> **Summer, eastern U.S.:** rainfall shortages resulted in worst drought
> on record for Md., Del., N.J., and R.I. The state of W.Va. was
> declared a disaster area. 3.81 million acres were consumed by fire as
> of mid-Aug. Record heat throughout the country resulted in 502 deaths
> nationwide.

**2000**

> **Spring--summer, southern U.S.:** severe drought and heat killed an
> estimated 140 people. Damages were estimated at \$4 billion.

**2003**

> **May--June, southern India:** a month-long intense heat wave claimed
> more than 1,500 lives.
>
> **Aug., Europe:** drought conditions and a heat wave, one of the worst
> in 150 years, covered Europe, broke temperature records from London to
> Portugal, fueled deadly forest fires, ruined crops, and caused
> thousands of deaths. (French fatalities estimated at more than
> 14,000.)

**XII. Wildfire Disasters**

\[**PowerPoint 8.12** Wildfire Disasters\]

**Handout 8.6: Total US Fires & suppression costs**

Taken from: <http://www.nifc.gov/stats/wildlandfirestats.html>

**Total Fires and Acres 1960 - 2002**\
These figures are based on end-of-year reports compiled by all wildland
fire agencies after each fire season, and are updated by March of each
year. The agencies include: Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Indian
Affairs, National Park Service, US Fish and Wildlife Service, USDA
Forest Service and all State Lands.

  ---------- ------------ ------------------------------------------------------------ ---------- -------------- -----------
  **Year**   **Fires**    **Acres**                                                    **Year**   **Fires**      **Acres**

  2003       85,943       4,918,088                                                    1981       249,370        4,814,206

  2002       88,458       [**\*                                                        1980       234,892        5,260,825
                          6,937,584**](http://www.nifc.gov/fireinfo/2002/index.html)                             

  2001       84,079       3,555,138                                                    1979       163,196        2,986,826

  2000       122,827      8,422,237                                                    1978       218,842        3,910,913

  1999       93,702       5,661,976                                                    1977       173,998        3,152,644

  1998       81,043       2,329,709                                                    1976       241,699        5,109,926

  1997       89,517       3,672,616                                                    1975       134,872        1,791,327

  1996       115,025      6,701,390                                                    1974       145,868        2,879,095

  1995       130,019      2,315,730                                                    1973       117,957        1,915,273

  1994       114,049      4,724,014                                                    1972       124,554        2,641,166

  1993       97,031       2,310,420                                                    1971       108,398        4,278,472

  1992       103,830      2,457,665                                                    1970       121,736        3,278,565

  1991       116,953      2,237,714                                                    1969       113,351        6,689,081

  1990       122,763      5,452,874                                                    1968       125,371        4,231,996

  1989       121,714      3,261,732                                                    1967       125,025        4,658,586

  1988       154,573      7,398,889                                                    1966       122,500        4,574,389

  1987       143,877      4,152,575                                                    1965       113,684        2,652,112

  1986       139,980      3,308,133                                                    1964       116,358        4,197,309

  1985       133,840      4,434,748                                                    1963       164,183        7,120,768

  1984       118,636      2,266,134                                                    1962       115,345        4,078,894

  1983       161,649      5,080,553                                                    1961       98,517         3,036,219

  1982       174,755      2,382,036                                                    1960       103,387        4,478,188
  ---------- ------------ ------------------------------------------------------------ ---------- -------------- -----------

  ------------- --------------- --------------- -------------- ------------ --------------- ---------------------
  Suppression                                                                               
  Costs for                                                                                 
  Federal                                                                                   
  Agencies                                                                                  

  **Year**      **Bureau of     **Bureau of     **Fish and     **National   **USDA Forest   **Totals**
                Land            Indian          Wildlife       Park         Service**       
                Management**    Affairs**       Service**      Service**                    

  1994          \$ 98,417,000   \$ 49,202,000   \$ 3,281,000   \$           \$ 678,000,000  **\$ 845,262,000**
                                                               16,362,000                   

  1995          \$ 56,600,000   \$ 36,219,000   \$ 1,675,000   \$           \$ 224,300,000  **\$ 340,050,000**
                                                               21,256,000                   

  1996          \$ 96,854,000   \$ 40,779,000   \$ 2,600       \$           \$ 521,700,000  **\$ 679,167,600**
                                                               19,832,000                   

  1997          \$ 62,470,000   \$ 30,916,000   \$ 2,000       \$ 6,844,000 \$ 155,768,000  **\$ 256,000,000**

  1998          \$ 63,177,000   \$ 27,366,000   \$ 3,800,000   \$           \$ 215,000,000  **\$ 328,526,000**
                                                               19,183,000                   

  1999          \$ 85,724,000   \$ 42,183,000   \$ 4,500,000   \$           \$ 361,000,000  **\$ 523,468,000**
                                                               30,061,000                   

  2000          \$180,567,000   \$ 93,042,000   \$ 9,417,000   \$           \$              **\$1,362,367,000**
                                                               53,341,000   1,026,000,000   

  2001          \$ 192,115,00   \$ 63,200,000   \$ 7,160,000   \$           \$ 607,233,000  **\$ 917,800,000**
                                                               48,092,000                   

  2002          \$204,666,000   \$109,035,000   \$15,245,000   \$           \$              **\$ 1,661,314,000**
                                                               66,094,000   1,266,274,000   

  2003          \$151,894,000   \$ 96,633,000   \$ 9,554,000   \$           \$              **\$ 1,326,138,000**
                                                               44,557,000   1,023,500,000   
  ------------- --------------- --------------- -------------- ------------ --------------- ---------------------

**Appendix A: Handouts**

## Handout 8.1: Fujita Tornado Scale

  --------------- ----------------- ---------- --------------------------------------
  **Fujita                                     
  Tornado Scale**                              

  ***F-Scale***   ***Intensity***   ***Wind    ***Type of Damage Done***
                                    Speed***   

  F0              Gale Tornado      40-72 mph  Some damage to chimneys; breaks
                                               branches off trees; pushes over
                                               shallow-rooted trees; damages sign
                                               boards

  F1              Moderate Tornado  73-112 mph Peels surface off roofs; mobile homes
                                               pushed off foundations or overturned;
                                               moving autos pushed off roads

  F2              Significant       113-157    Considerable damage. Roofs torn off
                  Tornado           mph        frame houses; mobile homes demolished;
                                               boxcars pushed over; large trees
                                               snapped or uprooted; light object
                                               missiles generated

  F3              Severe Tornado    158-206    Roof and some walls torn off well
                                    mph        constructed houses; trains overturned;
                                               most trees in forests uprooted

  F4              Devasting Tornado 207-260    Well-constructed houses leveled;
                                    mph        structures with weak foundations blown
                                               off some distance; cars thrown and
                                               large missiles generated

  F5              Incredible        261-318    Strong frame houses lifted off
                  Tornado           mph        foundations and carried considerable
                                               distances to disintegrate; automobile
                                               sized missiles fly through the air in
                                               excess of 100 meters; trees debarked;
                                               steel re-enforced concrete structures
                                               badly damaged
  --------------- ----------------- ---------- --------------------------------------

**Handout 8.2: Lightning Casualties by State**

**[Top 10 States with most lightning casualties (deaths + injuries),
1959 - 1994.]{.underline}**

  ---------- -------------------- -----------------------------------------
  **Rank**   **State**            **\# Casualties (Deaths + Injuries)**

  **1**      **Florida**          **1523**

  **2**      **Michigan**         **732**

  **3**      **Pennsylvania**     **644**

  **4**      **North Carolina**   **629**

  **5**      **New York**         **577**

  **6**      **Ohio**             **545**

  **7**      **Texas**            **498**

  **8**      **Tennessee**        **473**

  **9**      **Georgia**          **410**

  **10**     **Colorado**         **395**
  ---------- -------------------- -----------------------------------------

From - Lightning fatalities, injuries and damage reports in the United
States, 1959 - 1994, by B. Curran and R. Holle.

**[Casualties (Deaths + Injuries) per state]{.underline}**

![](media/image5.png){width="3.25in" height="1.9159722222222222in"}

 From - Lightning fatalities, injuries and damage reports in the United
States, 1959 - 1994, by B. Curran and R. Holle.

**Handout 8.3: Top Ten US Killer Tornadoes**

Taken from: <http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/toptens.htm>

"The United States gets about 1000 recorded tornadoes every year. Today,
only a few are killers, but that has not always been so. About 200 US
tornadoes have killed 18 or more people. Of those, about 150 occurred in
the 70 year period between 1879 and 1949. There have been about 45
tornadoes since 1950 that have killed 18 or more people. In the 1950s,
there were 18 tornadoes that killed 18 or more people. In the 1960s,
there were 12 tornadoes that killed 18 or more people. In the
1970s,there were 11 tornadoes that killed 18 or more people. And in the
1980s, there were only 2 tornadoes that killed more than 18 people. The
1990s have seen two tornadoes that have killed more than 18 people, but
it is late in the decade, so hopefully there won\'t be more. In spite of
an ever-burgeoning population, death figures continue to go down as
improved forecasting, detection, communications, and public awareness
increase.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ------------- ------------- ---------------------
  **Rank**                                                          **State(s)**                                                          **Date**   **Time**   **Dead**   **Injured**   **F-Scale**   **Town(s)**

  [1](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#1%231)      [MO-IL-IN](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#1%231)   March 18,  1:01PM     695        2027          F5            Murphysboro,Gorham,
                                                                                                                                          1925                                                         DeSoto

  [2](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#2%232)      [LA-MS](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#2%232)      May 7,     1:45 PM    317        109           F?            Nachez
                                                                                                                                          1840                                                         

  [3](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#3%233)      [MO-IL](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#3%233)      May 27,    6:30PM     255        1000          F4            St. Louis, East St.
                                                                                                                                          1896                                                         Louis

  [4](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#4%234)      [MS](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#4%234)         April 5,   8:55 PM    216        700           F5            Tupelo
                                                                                                                                          1936                                                         

  [5](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#5%235)      [GA](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#5%235)         April 6,   8:27 AM    203        1600          F4            Gainesville
                                                                                                                                          1936                                                         

  [6](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#6%236)      [TX-OK-KS](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#6%236)   April 9,   6:05 PM    181        970           F5            Glazier, Higgins,
                                                                                                                                          1947                                                         Woodward

  [7](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#7%237)      [LA-MS](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#7%237)      April 24,  11:45AM    143        770           F4            Amite, Pine, Purvis
                                                                                                                                          1908                                                         

  [8](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#8%238)      [WI](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#8%238)         June 12,   5:40PM     117        200           F5            New Richmond
                                                                                                                                          1899                                                         

  [9](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#9%239)      [MI](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#9%239)         June 8,    8:30 PM    115        844           F5            Flint
                                                                                                                                          1953                                                         

  [10](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#10%2310)   [TX](http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm#10%2310)       May 11,    4:10PM     114        597           F5            Waco
                                                                                                                                          1953                                                         
  ----------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ------------- ------------- ---------------------

**Handout 8.4: Blizzard Statistics**

**Some of The Biggest Blizzards are \...**

Taken from:
<http://www.oars.utk.edu/volweb/Schools/sumnercs/ellism/ink8.htm>

**\
- 1888 March 11-14 in the Eastern U.S\...400 people died\
- 1940 November 11-12 Midwest U.S\...144 people died\
- 1956 Feb. 1-29 West Europe \...1,000 people died\
- 1958 Feb. 15-16 North Eastern U.S \...171 people died\
- 1967 Dec. 12-20 Southwest U.S \...51 people died\
- 1988 in New York \... 400 people died\
- 1993 March 13-14 Eastern U.S \...200 people died\
- 1996 Jan. 7-8 Northeastern U.S\... 100 people died\
- 1996 Aug. 22 Himalayas India \...239 people died**

**Several example blizzards**

Taken from: <http://nsidc.org/snow/blizzard/storms.html>

#### January 1922

The \"Knickerbocker Storm\" dumped over two feet of heavy snow on
Washington D.C. causing the roof of the Knickerbocker Theatre to
collapse, killing nearly 100 people.

#### February 1969

New York City became trapped under a foot-and-a-half of snow. Commuters
became stranded in their cars, schools closed, and travelers were stuck
at airports, which were also forced to close. To make matters worse,
many of the snow plows had become buried by snow in their storage lots
and had to be dug out before they could be used. The city and outlying
suburbs were forced to hire 10,000 shovelers and workers to clear the
streets.

#### February 1977

Ontario, Canada and western New York State were slammed by a storm that
killed 28 people and shut down the city of Buffalo for over a week.
Highways were clogged with thousands of stranded vehicles, and people
became trapped at schools, stores and offices, where they were forced to
spend the night because they could not make it home through the
blizzard.

#### March 1993

The \"Blizzard of the Century\" ravaged the southern mid-Atlantic states
from Alabama to Massachusetts, accompanied in other states by severe
weather disturbances such as tornadoes, thunderstorms, and floods. Snow
fell at rates between an inch and two inches an hour in some areas, and
many locations experienced record-breaking snowfalls and record snow
depths.

#### January 1996

The [Blizzard of 1996](http://nsidc.org/snow/blizzard/index.html) was
responsible for over 100 deaths and brought much of the eastern United
States to a complete halt. Schools, offices and airports were closed for
several days in some areas as roads were impassable. Compounding
problems, two subsequent storms blasted the same areas within the
following week-and-a-half.

**Handout 8.5: Drought Examples**

Taken From: <http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0886145.html>

**1930s**

> **Many states:** longest drought of the 20th century. Peak periods
> were 1930, 1934, 1936, 1939, and 1940. During 1934, dry regions
> stretched solidly from N.Y. and Pa. across the Great Plains to the
> Calif. coast. A great "dust bowl" covered some 50 million acres in the
> south-central plains during the winter of 1935--1936.

**1955**

> **Aug. 31--Sept. 7, Los Angeles:** 8-day run of 100°-plus heat left
> 946 people dead.

**1972**

> **July 14--26, New York City:** 891 people died in 14-day heat wave.

**1980**

> **June--Sept., central and eastern U.S.:** an estimated 10,000 people
> were killed during the summer in a long heat wave and drought. Damages
> totaled about \$20 billion.

**1982--1983**

> **worldwide:** El Niño caused wildly unusual weather in the U.S. and
> elsewhere throughout 1983. Drought in the western Pacific region led
> to disastrous forest fires in Indonesia and Australia. Overall loss to
> world economy was over \$8 billion. Similar event in 1997--1998
> resulted in estimated loss of \$25--33 billion.

**1988**

> **Summer, central and eastern U.S.:** a severe drought and heat wave
> killed an estimated 5,000--10,000 people, including heat
> stress-related deaths. Damages reached \$40 billion.

**1995**

> **July 12--17, Chicago:** 739 people died in record heat wave.

**1996**

> **Fall 1995--summer 1996, Tex. and Okla.:** severe drought in southern
> plains region caused \$4 billion in agricultural losses; no deaths.

**1998**

> **Summer, southern U.S.:** severe heat and drought spread across Tex.
> and Okla., all the way to N.C. and S.C. At least 200 were left dead
> and \$6 billion to \$9 billion of damage was estimated.

**1999**

> **Summer, eastern U.S.:** rainfall shortages resulted in worst drought
> on record for Md., Del., N.J., and R.I. The state of W.Va. was
> declared a disaster area. 3.81 million acres were consumed by fire as
> of mid-Aug. Record heat throughout the country resulted in 502 deaths
> nationwide.

**2000**

> **Spring--summer, southern U.S.:** severe drought and heat killed an
> estimated 140 people. Damages were estimated at \$4 billion.

**2003**

> **May--June, southern India:** a month-long intense heat wave claimed
> more than 1,500 lives.
>
> **Aug., Europe:** drought conditions and a heat wave, one of the worst
> in 150 years, covered Europe, broke temperature records from London to
> Portugal, fueled deadly forest fires, ruined crops, and caused
> thousands of deaths. (French fatalities estimated at more than
> 14,000.)

**Handout 8.6: Total US Fires & Suppression Costs**

Taken from: <http://www.nifc.gov/stats/wildlandfirestats.html>

**Total Fires and Acres 1960 - 2002**\
These figures are based on end-of-year reports compiled by all wildland
fire agencies after each fire season, and are updated by March of each
year. The agencies include: Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Indian
Affairs, National Park Service, US Fish and Wildlife Service, USDA
Forest Service and all State Lands.

  ---------- ------------ ------------------------------------------------------------ ---------- -------------- -----------
  **Year**   **Fires**    **Acres**                                                    **Year**   **Fires**      **Acres**

  2003       85,943       4,918,088                                                    1981       249,370        4,814,206

  2002       88,458       [**\*                                                        1980       234,892        5,260,825
                          6,937,584**](http://www.nifc.gov/fireinfo/2002/index.html)                             

  2001       84,079       3,555,138                                                    1979       163,196        2,986,826

  2000       122,827      8,422,237                                                    1978       218,842        3,910,913

  1999       93,702       5,661,976                                                    1977       173,998        3,152,644

  1998       81,043       2,329,709                                                    1976       241,699        5,109,926

  1997       89,517       3,672,616                                                    1975       134,872        1,791,327

  1996       115,025      6,701,390                                                    1974       145,868        2,879,095

  1995       130,019      2,315,730                                                    1973       117,957        1,915,273

  1994       114,049      4,724,014                                                    1972       124,554        2,641,166

  1993       97,031       2,310,420                                                    1971       108,398        4,278,472

  1992       103,830      2,457,665                                                    1970       121,736        3,278,565

  1991       116,953      2,237,714                                                    1969       113,351        6,689,081

  1990       122,763      5,452,874                                                    1968       125,371        4,231,996

  1989       121,714      3,261,732                                                    1967       125,025        4,658,586

  1988       154,573      7,398,889                                                    1966       122,500        4,574,389

  1987       143,877      4,152,575                                                    1965       113,684        2,652,112

  1986       139,980      3,308,133                                                    1964       116,358        4,197,309

  1985       133,840      4,434,748                                                    1963       164,183        7,120,768

  1984       118,636      2,266,134                                                    1962       115,345        4,078,894

  1983       161,649      5,080,553                                                    1961       98,517         3,036,219

  1982       174,755      2,382,036                                                    1960       103,387        4,478,188
  ---------- ------------ ------------------------------------------------------------ ---------- -------------- -----------

  ------------- --------------- --------------- -------------- ------------ --------------- ---------------------
  Suppression                                                                               
  Costs for                                                                                 
  Federal                                                                                   
  Agencies                                                                                  

  **Year**      **Bureau of     **Bureau of     **Fish and     **National   **USDA Forest   **Totals**
                Land            Indian          Wildlife       Park         Service**       
                Management**    Affairs**       Service**      Service**                    

  1994          \$ 98,417,000   \$ 49,202,000   \$ 3,281,000   \$           \$ 678,000,000  **\$ 845,262,000**
                                                               16,362,000                   

  1995          \$ 56,600,000   \$ 36,219,000   \$ 1,675,000   \$           \$ 224,300,000  **\$ 340,050,000**
                                                               21,256,000                   

  1996          \$ 96,854,000   \$ 40,779,000   \$ 2,600       \$           \$ 521,700,000  **\$ 679,167,600**
                                                               19,832,000                   

  1997          \$ 62,470,000   \$ 30,916,000   \$ 2,000       \$ 6,844,000 \$ 155,768,000  **\$ 256,000,000**

  1998          \$ 63,177,000   \$ 27,366,000   \$ 3,800,000   \$           \$ 215,000,000  **\$ 328,526,000**
                                                               19,183,000                   

  1999          \$ 85,724,000   \$ 42,183,000   \$ 4,500,000   \$           \$ 361,000,000  **\$ 523,468,000**
                                                               30,061,000                   

  2000          \$180,567,000   \$ 93,042,000   \$ 9,417,000   \$           \$              **\$1,362,367,000**
                                                               53,341,000   1,026,000,000   

  2001          \$ 192,115,00   \$ 63,200,000   \$ 7,160,000   \$           \$ 607,233,000  **\$ 917,800,000**
                                                               48,092,000                   

  2002          \$204,666,000   \$109,035,000   \$15,245,000   \$           \$              **\$ 1,661,314,000**
                                                               66,094,000   1,266,274,000   

  2003          \$151,894,000   \$ 96,633,000   \$ 9,554,000   \$           \$              **\$ 1,326,138,000**
                                                               44,557,000   1,023,500,000   
  ------------- --------------- --------------- -------------- ------------ --------------- ---------------------

**Appendix B: Course Developer References**

[Frazier, 1979]{.underline}

[http://weathereye.kgan.com/expert/tstorms/hazard.html]{.underline}

[http://weathereye.kgan.com/expert/tstorms/hazard.html]{.underline}

<http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/hazard/totalthreat.html>

<http://www.fema.gov/hazards/thunderstorms/thunder.shtm>

<http://www.lightningsafety.com/nlsi_info/4_different_types.html>

<http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/researchitems/lightning.shtml>

[National Weather Service definition]{.underline}

[http://www.fema.gov/hazards/tornadoes/tornado.shtm](http://www.fema.gov/hazards/tornadoes/tornado.shtm  )

<http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/edu/tornado>

<http://www.ncem.org/PIO/00swaw/TORNADOF.htm>
<http://www.tornadoproject.com/fscale/fscale.htm>

<http://www.weather.com/encyclopedia/winter/blizzard.html>

<http://www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/winpns1.htm>

<http://www.komotv.com/asksteve/story.asp?ID=21879>

<http://www.srh.noaa.gov/shv/FzRain.htm>

[http://www.ncwater.org/water_supply_planning/drought_monitoring_council/](http://www.ncwater.org/water_supply_planning/drought_monitoring_council/   %0D            typesofdrought.shtml)

[typesofdrought.shtml](http://www.ncwater.org/water_supply_planning/drought_monitoring_council/   %0D            typesofdrought.shtml)

<http://www.drought.noaa.gov/palmer.html>

<http://tncfire.org/resource/keetch.htm>

<http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/index.asp?id=53548>

<http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/socasp/weather1/changnon.html>

[http://www.srh.noaa.gov/mlb/ltgcenter/ltg_proj_ltg_stats.html#Casualties%20(Deaths%20+%20I]{.underline}

[njuries)%20pe]{.underline}

<http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/toptens.htm>

<http://www.oars.utk.edu/volweb/Schools/sumnercs/ellism/ink8.htm>

<http://nsidc.org/snow/blizzard/storms.html>

<http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0886145.html>

<http://www.nifc.gov/stats/wildlandfirestats.html>

**Appendix C: Power Point Graphics Citations**

**Part I: Session 8**

**PowerPoint 8.1:** Lecture Outline

-   (Source: http://www.nasa.gov/)

**PowerPoint 8.2** Introduction: Other Natural Hazards in the Coastal
Zone

-   (Source: NOAA Photo Library)

-   (Source: National Weather Service)

**PowerPoint 8.3** What is a Severe Thunderstorm?

-   (Source: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory )

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   (Source: NOAA)

**PowerPoint 8.4** What is a Tornado?

-   (Source: NOAA Photo Library)

-   (Source: http://www.germantown.k12.il.us/html/tornado.html)

-   (Source: Dr. T. T. Fujita, University of Chicago)

**PowerPoint 8.5** What is a Drought?

-   (Source: <http://www.drought.unl.edu/dm/monitor.html>)

**PowerPoint 8.6** What is a Blizzard?

-   (Source: http://wintercenter.homestead.com/photoindex.html)

-   (Source: NOAA)

**PowerPoint 8.7** What is a Wildfire?

-   (Source: http://mofire.1wh.com/.%5CASPages%5Cmofire11.asp)

**PowerPoint 8.8** Tornado Disasters

-   (Source: http://www.tornadoproject.com/toptens/topten3.htm)

**PowerPoint 8.9** Drought Disasters

-   (Source: NOAA)

-   (Source: http://www.weatherstock.com/droughtcat2.html)

**PowerPoint 8.10** Severe Thunderstorm Disasters

-   (Source:
    http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/socasp/weather1/changnon.html)

-   (Source: National Weather Service Forecast Office)

-   (Source: http://www.weatherstock.com/hailcat2.html)

**PowerPoint 8.11** Blizzard Disasters

-   (Source: NOAA Photo Library)

-   (Source: Chicago Public Library)

**PowerPoint 8.12** Wildfire Disasters

-   (Source: http://www.wtv-zone.com/techniguy/calfires/)

**References from text:**

[^1]: [Frazier, 1979]{.underline}

[^2]: [http://weathereye.kgan.com/expert/tstorms/hazard.html]{.underline}

[^3]: [http://weathereye.kgan.com/expert/tstorms/hazard.html]{.underline}

[^4]: <http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/hazard/totalthreat.html>

[^5]: <http://www.fema.gov/hazards/thunderstorms/thunder.shtm>

[^6]: <http://www.lightningsafety.com/nlsi_info/4_different_types.html>

[^7]: <http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/researchitems/lightning.shtml>

[^8]: [National Weather Service definition]{.underline}

[^9]: [http://www.fema.gov/hazards/tornadoes/tornado.shtm](http://www.fema.gov/hazards/tornadoes/tornado.shtm  )

[^10]: <http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/edu/tornado>

[^11]: <http://www.ncem.org/PIO/00swaw/TORNADOF.htm>

[^12]: <http://www.tornadoproject.com/fscale/fscale.htm>

[^13]: <http://www.weather.com/encyclopedia/winter/blizzard.html>

[^14]: [http://www.weather.com/encyclopedia/winter/blizzard.html](http://www.weather.com/encyclopedia/winter/blizzard.html )

[^15]: <http://www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/winpns1.htm>

[^16]: <http://www.komotv.com/asksteve/story.asp?ID=21879>

[^17]: <http://www.srh.noaa.gov/shv/FzRain.htm>

[^18]: [http://www.ncwater.org/water_supply_planning/drought_monitoring_council/](http://www.ncwater.org/water_supply_planning/drought_monitoring_council/   %0D            typesofdrought.shtml)

    [typesofdrought.shtml](http://www.ncwater.org/water_supply_planning/drought_monitoring_council/   %0D            typesofdrought.shtml)

[^19]: <http://www.drought.noaa.gov/palmer.html>

[^20]: <http://tncfire.org/resource/keetch.htm>