**SESSION 45**

**Larry Carlson**

## Course Title: A Social Vulnerability Approach to Disasters 

## Session 45: Emergency Management for Native Americans Time: 1 hour

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**Objectives:**

At the conclusion of this session, the students should be able to:

**Objective 45.1 Outline differences between traditional Native American
views and**

**modern scientific views of nature and natural disasters.**

**Objective 45.2 Identify the advantages and shortcomings of the
traditional Native**

**American view of natural phenomenon and disasters.**

**Objective 45.3 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of tribal
solidarity and**

**sovereignty.**

Objective 45.4 Outline the problems that arise in the process of
implementing a

scientific and/or social vulnerability approach that incorporates the

traditional Native American view and offer possible solutions.

.

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Background:

According to the U.S. Census, 2000, 248,709,873 American Indian/Alaska
Natives constitute .8 percent of the population with more than more than
two-thirds of rural Native Americans live in the West Central and
Mountain regions. The U.S. government recognizes over 500 Indian tribes,
most of which have reservations west of the Mississippi River.

Indian populations are diverse, geographically dispersed, and often
economically disadvantaged. Native Americans are much more likely to
live in remote and isolated rural areas than other races in the United
States. (Refer to Supplemental Material, Objective 4.3.)

According to the 1997 U.S. Census Current Population Survey, reports
that even in comparison with other poverty-stricken minority groups,
"Native American men were found to have extremely high rates of
joblessness and little full-time work". This high rate correlates with
the fact that 32 percent of Native Americans lacked a high school
diploma.

Injury patterns among and within Tribes are strongly associated with
adverse consequences from poverty and somewhat limited access to health
and emergency services. Given lack of equipment and the remoteness of
tribal locations, Native Americans often suffer greatly during such
disasters as storms, floods and rangeland fires.

Efforts to assist tribes in their efforts to mitigate against such
disasters are not always free from complications. Since Tribal areas
have autonomous governments, the distinctions and links between tribal,
State and Federal Governments are often unclear. State and Federal
agencies continue to strive to uphold the unique
government-to-government relationships that exist between the United
States Government and sovereign Indian Nations. One of FEMA's tasks, for
example, is to diminish the procedural impediments to working directly
and effectively with tribal governments on a day-to-day basis. This task
is made easier maintaining an awareness of the social attitudes and
cultural background of Native Americans.

Bridging the cultural gap entails a greater understanding of Native
American history. Before the advent of European immigration to America,
Native Americans and other indigenous peoples knew the dangers of their
environment, and built accordingly. In the process of being relegated to
reserved areas, Native Americans often perceived Europeans as imposing
their culture and building standards on Native Americans. Lack of
cooperation and communication resulted in the inability of Native
Americans to successfully assimilate new methods of coping with
environmental problems. In many respects, Native Americans are more
socially vulnerable to disasters than other social groups in America.

To reduce such vulnerability, further efforts need to be taken in order
to ensure that a rights-based and culturally sensitive focus on
mitigation is conducted. In order to develop close relations with Tribal
Nations, State and Federal agencies are now making a greater effort to
recognize the cultural differences between Native Americans and other
races. Outside entities are striving to work in closer consultation with
tribal leaders when assisting them with the development of tribal
Emergency Operation Plans in order to ensure that the cultural
uniqueness of such plans is not lost.

Scope:

This session stresses the significance of culture when working with
Native Americans in an attempt to deal more successfully with disasters.
Such an understanding is an important aspect of any Social Vulnerability
Analysis. In particular, the session stresses the importance of
considering the traditional Native American view about the environment
in light of modern scientific and technological advances, noting the
positive contributions as well as limitations that such a view provides.

In particular, the session asks what assumptions Native Americans have
generally made in the past about nature, time, technology, people, and
society. The extent to which ancestral beliefs, based largely upon
mythology and natural religion, have persisted into present times is a
relevant issue for those wishing to take cultural assumptions into
account when working with Native Americans. Finally, the session offers
practical steps towards the development of culturally sensitive
emergency management strategies.

Readings:

Instructor readings:

1.  Blaikie, P., T. Cannon, I. Davis, and Ben Wisner. 1994. *At Risk:
    Natural Hazards, People's Vulnerability and Disasters*. London:
    Routledge.

2.  Bolin, Robert, with Lois Stanford. 1998. *The Northridge Earthquake:
    Vulnerability and Disaster*. London and New York: Routledge.

3.  Krech III, Shepard. 1999. *The Ecological Indian.* NY: WW Norton and
    Co. Ltd.

4.  Vecsey and Venables. *American Indian Environment.* 1980. New York:
    Syracuse University Press.

Student readings:

1\. Bryde, John F., PhD., *Modern Indian Psychology, Revised Ed.*
Published by Institute of Indian

Studies, Univ. of South Dakota, Vermillion, South Dakota, 1971.

2\. Harris, Stuart, G. "A Native American Perspective On Sustainable
Infrastructures*,"* Special

Science and Resources Program, Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla
Indian Reservation.

This could be passed out as a handout as part of a student reading
packet at the first

meeting. Also, students could be referred to the website on which this
paper is presented:

[http://www.iiirm.org/publications/EnvProt/SD-Cornell-2.PDF]{.underline}.

3\. "Tremor Tales - The Turtle Story" (Refer to Appendix)

This could also be passed out as a handout as part of a student-reading
packet and/or

read aloud in class by a student or the instructor. (Refer to
Supplemental Considerations for

Objective 4.1). It can also be accessed at
[http://www.topangaonline.com/nativam/turtles.html]{.underline}.

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General Requirements:

Briefly review session objectives by pointing out that Native Americans
hold a wide range of beliefs about nature and the causes of natural
disasters

The remarks in this session provide a framework for discussion.
Instructors should use their discretion when selecting questions pose
students taking individual background and knowledge into account.
Similarly, all quotes provided need not be read aloud or discussed
extensively.

Consider inviting local experts on Native American culture and/or
emergency management. FEMA provides a list of state offices and agencies
at http://FEMA.gov/FEMA/statedr.shtm.

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Objective 45.1 Outline differences between traditional Native American
views and

modern scientific views of nature and natural disasters.

Requirement:

Pass out copies of "Tremor Tales - The Turtle Story". Find and
distribute Native American tales that mythically portray the origin of
disasters. Ask students to relate similar stories from Native American
or their other cultures. Encourage students explain the relevance of
such myths to the subject of emergency management.

The PowerPoint presentation provides a simple overview of the entire
session. This may be shown either at the beginning or the end of the
session. An example has been included in the Study Assignments relating
to Objective 45.1.

A worthwhile exercise in a discussion of stereotypes and cultural
perspectives is to ask students to write down their initial thoughts
regarding Native American culture and social conditions.

Discuss the way in which the media perpetuates stereotypes.

Conversely, ask students to describe what attitudes American Indians and
Alaska Natives possibly have about non-Native Americans in the United
States. Particular emphasis can be placed upon attitudes regarding
housing, conservation and medicine.

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Remarks:

### What is the traditional Native American view towards nature and natural disasters? 

> Many of the Native American beliefs surrounding natural phenomenon and
> disasters are embodied in their stories and myths. Tales have been
> passed down from generation to generation and are generally symbolic
> in nature. In many ways they are like parables and often illustrate an
> important moral point. They often explain the importance of living in
> harmony with nature and all living things and should not be discarded
> as superstitious nonsense.

#  {#section .unnumbered}

# Native Americans hold the animistic belief that all things in nature, including 

#  mountains and rivers are alive. {#mountains-and-rivers-are-alive. .unnumbered}

> While cultures and customs varied, Native American Indian beliefs were
> universally
>
> rooted in animism. They believed that the universe was bound together
> by
>
> the spirits that permeated all natural life: plants, animals, humans,
> water, and even the
>
> earth itself. Though not always practicing conservation in a
> scientific manner, Native
>
> Americans generally tried to live in harmony with nature instead of
> squandering
>
> natural resources.

# The concept that natural phenomena could be explained by telling stories (myths) 

#  relating to spirits was widespread. To what extent the myths were meant to be taken  {#relating-to-spirits-was-widespread.-to-what-extent-the-myths-were-meant-to-be-taken .unnumbered}

#  is a matter of conjecture. In general, stories occurred outside of time and exemplified a  {#is-a-matter-of-conjecture.-in-general-stories-occurred-outside-of-time-and-exemplified-a .unnumbered}

#  general principle or moral lesson.  {#general-principle-or-moral-lesson. .unnumbered}

1.  Literary Example:

## "Tremor Tales - The Turtle Story

> This is a story the Gabrielino Indians used to tell. These Indians
> once lived in San Gabriel Valley in Southern California where
> earthquakes are common. They told this story to explain the cause of
> earthquakes and the way in which California was made." See Appendix
>
> Note: Full version of this story found as a handout at the end of this
> session.

# Native Americans gave thanks to one or more spirits in nature in order to maintain Nature's blessings and to avoid disasters. Often such rituals involved charms and dances. In general, Native Americans embraced the ethical responsibility of protecting rather than harming the earth.

# "Humans could influence, offend, and please the earth...they could also treat it with care and respect, pity as well as reverence. There was in Indian nature ethics a reciprocity akin to piety for parents. Parents bring up children; children care for old parents. For Indians the same was true for the world. The earth cared for humans and humans cared for the earth." (Vecsey and Venables, 1980, p. 22)  {#humans-could-influence-offend-and-please-the-earththey-could-also-treat-it-with-care-and-respect-pity-as-well-as-reverence.-there-was-in-indian-nature-ethics-a-reciprocity-akin-to-piety-for-parents.-parents-bring-up-children-children-care-for-old-parents.-for-indians-the-same-was-true-for-the-world.-the-earth-cared-for-humans-and-humans-cared-for-the-earth.-vecsey-and-venables-1980-p.-22 .unnumbered}

> In an effort to cope with natural disasters they developed a wealth of
> weather folklore based upon their observations:

-   Animals sought low terrain in order to be out of the wind. This
    indicated an approaching storm.

-   Restless dogs indicated an impending wind storm;

-   Lots of berries in the spring meant that the winter ahead would be
    severe.

##  D. For Discussion

######## What other races and cultures gave mythical or religious explanations for the 

########  occurrence of natural disasters such as floods?

######## Can you give examples to illustrate that there is some rational basis to weather 

########  folklore?

### How does the traditional view regard science and technology in general?

#  {#section-1 .unnumbered}

#  A. Most 21^st^ c Native Americans see the value and validity of the scientific view, but  {#a.-most-21st-c-native-americans-see-the-value-and-validity-of-the-scientific-view-but .unnumbered}

#  recognize its limitations at the same time.  {#recognize-its-limitations-at-the-same-time. .unnumbered}

> "Nature has many fascinating secrets to discover and which can be put
> to the use of man. Some people get so caught up in this kind of
> knowledge, though, that they forget about man himself. Indians too
> enjoy the conquering of nature and the use of the secrets of nature.
> The contribution of the Indians in the use of nature, however, is that
> they enjoy the uses of nature without losing their reverence for
> nature. Science, or the mastery of nature, is a strong value in the
> American culture. Indians respect this kind of knowledge, but they
> respect first of all the type of knowledge that helps people
> understand one another and get along with one another." (Bryde, 1971,
> p. 160)

Native Americans, like most Americans, see the economic and personal
benefits as well as the dangers of industrialization and its use of
technology:

> "In recent years native people have not been of one mind on resource
> issues...\[but\] few like the impact of strip-mining on landscapes,
> the contamination of groundwater, and air pollution, but many would
> like to be employed...Many people in Indian Country desire the
> trappings of middle-class American life- cars, televisions, stereos,
> jobs, money- but do not want to lose their Indianness or sense of
> belonging to place."
>
> (Krech III, 1999, pp. 227- 228)

#  B. Native Americans show a willingness to embrace the benefits connected with scientific  {#b.-native-americans-show-a-willingness-to-embrace-the-benefits-connected-with-scientific .unnumbered}

and technological advances as long as the land is respected. Although
few Native

Americans today reject scientific explanations behind the occurrence of
natural disasters

entirely, underlying traditions of respect for the land and the wish to
live in harmony with

nature need to be taken into account when encouraging Native Americans
to adopt a

technological and/or social vulnerability approach to natural disasters
and emergency

management.

1\. In general, mining, dumping toxic wastes, building nuclear
facilities, logging, oil

drilling, etc., have been perceived as threats to the natural terrain or
acts of

exploitation. Such activities may have been represented in mythic terms
as potentially

angering the spirits. Indeed, it is sometimes believed that disasters
arise from a failure

to live in harmony with nature.

> "Most if not all, American Indian tribes regarded certain natural
> places as especially
>
> sacred. \[This belief\] continues today...Since conquest, many acres
> of private and
>
> public land...have been damaged as a result of logging, dam building,
> farming,
>
> ranching, road building, mining, development, and waste
> disposal...American
>
> Indians warned that the harm done to the environment would have dire
>
> consequences. For the most part, the colonizers ignored these warning
> or regarded
>
> them as primitive superstitions."
>
> (Keoke, Dean and Porterfield, 2002, p. 96)

2\. Graphic display:

> Print and distribute copies of a map indicating existing or proposed
> threats to Native Lands in Western North America.
> (<http://www.alphacdc.com/treaty/mp_thrts.html>).
>
> Alternatively, this map may be viewed in the PowerPoint presentation.
> Note that
>
> Native Americans have mixed feelings about the widespread presence of
> technology
>
> on or near tribal areas. Those living on reservations may be
> understandably reluctant to give a free rein to outsiders who attempt
> to develop resources, implement

conservationist practices or modify the infrastructure in an effort to
mitigate against

disasters:

> It is imperative, then, that Native Americans be given more voice
> about the changes to the land, to infrastructure and to society. One
> speaker at a convocation of Indian scholars stated that the biggest
> single issue that of the exploitation of natural resources. "It's one
> that is going to have to be reviewed very, very carefully by the
> people making the decisions in terms of what it is going to cost them
> in the long run, as opposed to what they will appear to gain in the
> short run\... ...the Indians themselves living on reservations must
> make these decisions." (Costo, 1974, pp.121-2)

#  D. For discussion: {#d.-for-discussion-1 .unnumbered}

1\. Cite an example in which corporations have exploited nature or
failed to

follow basic conservationist practices with unfortunate results.

2\. Why would Native Americans be reluctant to empower those outside
their reservations

to alter the land or make changes to infrastructure such as bridges,
roads and power

lines? What might they have to gain or lose?

3\. Many tribes have been relegated to remote and forlorn areas. Once
nomadic, many

Native Americans were simply unable to maintain the relationship they
had with the

land. Surrounded by a society that maintains vast farm tracts, sprawling
superhighways

and huge shopping malls, the traditional view of living in harmony with
the land seems

largely forgotten and untenable. Given these conditions, how can
Non-Native American

emergency management specialists gain the trust and cooperation of
Native Americans

in order to develop effective emergency management plans?

### III. How does science and technology regard the traditional view? {#iii.-how-does-science-and-technology-regard-the-traditional-view .unnumbered}

A. Scientists have been wary of traditional Native American views.

# We realize that erosion results when we strip the soil of foliage and that acid rain is connected with excessive pollution of the air. On the other hand, many scientists today have trouble following the cause and effect relationships drawn by some Native American tribes or scoff at narrative mythical explanations of natural phenomena. Unfortunately, this cultural gap has added to the tendency for some technologists to deride conservationist concerns by depicting them as primitive superstitions. Emergency management personnel may likewise be reluctant for similar reasons to consider Native American views regarding the best way to mitigate against disasters in their tribal areas. {#we-realize-that-erosion-results-when-we-strip-the-soil-of-foliage-and-that-acid-rain-is-connected-with-excessive-pollution-of-the-air.-on-the-other-hand-many-scientists-today-have-trouble-following-the-cause-and-effect-relationships-drawn-by-some-native-american-tribes-or-scoff-at-narrative-mythical-explanations-of-natural-phenomena.-unfortunately-this-cultural-gap-has-added-to-the-tendency-for-some-technologists-to-deride-conservationist-concerns-by-depicting-them-as-primitive-superstitions.-emergency-management-personnel-may-likewise-be-reluctant-for-similar-reasons-to-consider-native-american-views-regarding-the-best-way-to-mitigate-against-disasters-in-their-tribal-areas. .unnumbered}

**B. Environmentalists and emergency management personnel are becoming
more aware**

that traditional Native American views are valuable aids in conserving
nature and

militating against ecological disasters.

> "The reverence for nature that runs through the cosmogonies and
> religions of 'native' peoples is often held up as an ideal from which
> Judeo-Christian and atheistic industrial societies have departed, with
> dire consequences of the natural world... Modern industrial societies
> would be well advised to examine and incorporate much of the
> socio-environmental ethics espoused by pre- and nonindustrial peoples
> in their current systems of values. (Schnaiberg and Gould, 1994,
> pp.22-24)
>
> The modern science of ecology owes a debt to the holistic thinking and
> practices of American Indians. In November 1995 President Bill Clinton
> gave credit where it was due in a proclamation... "Living in harmony
> with nature instead of seeking domination, American Indians have shown
> us how to be responsible for our environment, to treasure the beauty
> and resources of the land and water for which we are stewards, and to
> preserve them for the generations who will come after us." (Keoke,
> Dean and Porterfield, 2002, p. 97)

**C. For discussion:**

> 1\. Why might corporations that are intent upon acquiring and
> developing resources be
>
> unduly haste in dismissing traditional Native American views of
> nature?
>
> 2\. Do young Native Americans generally have a more scientific
> understanding of nature
>
> and natural disasters than did their grandparents and great
> grandparents?

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Objective 45.2 Identify the relevance of the traditional Native American
view of science

and technology to emergency management.

Requirement:

The instructor should explain that emergency management personnel could
more effectively assist Native Americans by increasing their awareness
of the benefits of science and technology.

Students should discuss and perhaps display (charts, drawings, collages,
etc) the progress that science and technology have made over the
centuries in attempting to explain and minimize the effects of
disasters. Possible topics include the Aztecs, divine wrath, astrology,
Thor's Hammer, and rain dances.

Stress the point that a positive attitude towards science and technology
is conducive to the development of social cohesion and effective
emergency management planning. If science and technology are seen as
agents that can increase community resilience to disasters, tribal
members will be more willing to modify their present state of
preparedness. On the other hand, if the devastation that results from
disasters is seen as the inevitable and direct result of technological
exploitation, it is not very likely that individuals will see the
necessity for developing an emergency management plan based upon
scientific principles or comprehend the rationale for working together
in as a community to achieve other survival goals!

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Remarks:

I. Are traditional Native American views beliefs about natural events
and disasters

incompatible with more scientific views?

A. Although traditional Native American myths fail to understand more
scientific

concepts about the causes of natural phenomena, we should not forget
that before

the discoveries of modern science (Koch, Pasteur) that the average
person in Europe

linked the origins of natural disasters, like those of diseases, with
evil spirits, chance

and other irrational sources that are now viewed as nothing more than
myth and

superstition. There is no evidence that Native Americans were less
rational than any

civilization. Indeed, they constructed belief systems that incorporated
the information

that was available to them at the time in an effort to live in harmony
with nature.

> B. To what extent are Native Americans willing to adopt more
> scientific views about
>
> conserving and controlling the environment in an effort to avert
> erosion, floods
>
> and other disasters?
>
> Though generally upholding the sacredness of the land and the need to
> respect it, Native Americans did not always uphold scientifically
> sound ecological practices in the modern sense. Contrary to idealized
> representations of Native Americans as a people who always conserved
> wildlife and other natural resources, this was not always the case:
>
> "Not fully understanding the long-term systemic consequences of their
> actions, or unable or unwilling to take corrective action in time to
> forestall environmental degradation, people moved where resources were
> more promising, or disappeared...Many believed that animals returned
> to be killed, sometimes in virtually infinite numbers, as long as
> hunters demonstrated proper respect. Waste and overkill were
> apparently largely foreign concepts...\[but\] Indians soon embraced
> them as alternative ways of explaining the decline of deer and by
> avoiding waste and overkill, they soon adopted alternative ways of
> righting depleted animal populations." (Krech III, 1999, pp. 212-13)

Thus, upon being introduced to ecological views based upon science,
Native Americans

quickly adopted them.

II\. How does the traditional Native American view the relationship
between people and the

land?

> People are viewed as needing to live in greater harmony with nature in
> order to avoid disasters. Respect, gratitude and reciprocation were
> key points in that relationship. Respect for the land meant not
> polluting or dramatically altering it. Interfering with the land had
> its consequences. Since most tribes perceive interrelatedness among
> all things, many feel that disturbing an ecosystem may start a chain
> reaction of flooding, species extinction, or cancer.
>
> Janet McCloud, a direct descendent of Chief Seattle and a spokesperson
> for Nisqually fishing rights explains
>
> \"We have these earthquakes and other natural disasters because people
> are poisoning
>
> their Mother the Earth, they are poisoning her bloodstreams and
> cutting off her hair.
>
> They\'re not following the laws about caring for the Earth.\" (Katz,
> 1995, p. 282)

## III. Does the traditional Native American view take a social vulnerability approach that 

**encourages people to actively address problems associated with natural
shortages or**

**hazards before they develop?**

A. The traditional view often led to active efforts to consider future
events.

> Once the cause and effect relationship is grasped, Native Americans
> are quick to take the steps necessary to ensure future survival and
> well being. Native Americans are noted for their resourcefulness in
> making use of all of the parts of the buffalos that have been killed
> in the hunt. Less nomadic tribes relying heavily upon agriculture were
> mindful of future crop supplies as they picked fruits and vegetables.
> Social cohesion was strong and in many cases decreased group
> vulnerability to disaster.
>
> "Native people understood full well that certain actions would have
> certain results; for example, if they set fire to grasslands at
> certain times, they would produce excellent habitat for buffaloes one
> season or one year later. Acting on their knowledge, they knowingly
> promoted the perpetuation of plant and animal species favored in the
> diet." (Krech III, 1999, p. 212)

B. People are resilient and can resist disasters by working as a
community.

1\. Native Americans themselves are well known for their sense of
community and are able

to work well in an emergency in order to cope with disasters. One
notable

characteristics of a Native American is that he/she "faces hard things
...without

showing fear." (Bryde. 1971, p. 96)

2\. Native Americans, given time, are able to establish the networks
necessary to deal with

disasters. "Native Americans work well together in that "they have an
awareness of the

feeling of the groups as a whole...they have a strong sense of sticking
with the group.

This is their form or practice of getting along with others...and this
is adjustment to

nature." (Bryde, 1971, p. 62)

C. Family networks, in particular, are important. The elders are the
most respected in the

community and viewed as being wise. Traditional Native-Americans look up
to the elders

in a community as people who have much to teach. The elders teach how to
act and not

act, and their survival techniques. Families are also important. Kinship
ties are very strong

and the family often extends to other families so that each family tends
to embrace the

entire community and serves as an focal point for maintaining
accountability and

responsibility. Strong leadership and social ties can increase community
resilience to

disasters when properly organized.

D. For discussion:

#  1. Natural disasters such as floods and earthquakes were traditionally seen as the  {#natural-disasters-such-as-floods-and-earthquakes-were-traditionally-seen-as-the .unnumbered}

#  work of angry spirits. Is it likely that many of the Native Americans who subscribed to  {#work-of-angry-spirits.-is-it-likely-that-many-of-the-native-americans-who-subscribed-to .unnumbered}

#  the traditional explanation of natural disasters adopted the attitude that there  {#the-traditional-explanation-of-natural-disasters-adopted-the-attitude-that-there .unnumbered}

#  is little that can be done in a practical sense to prepare for and respond to natural  {#is-little-that-can-be-done-in-a-practical-sense-to-prepare-for-and-respond-to-natural .unnumbered}

#  disasters? {#disasters .unnumbered}

> 2\. What is the importance of family and neighborhood ties for
> emergency management
>
> efforts?

#   {#section-2 .unnumbered}

## IV. Does the traditional Native American view of nature and natural disasters encourage 

**people to actively address and prepare for hazards?**

A.  Case Study suggesting that the traditional Native American view of
    nature encouraged tribal members to recover from as well as to
    prepare for disasters:

#  Not all Native Americans were entirely concerned with survival on a day-to-day  {#not-all-native-americans-were-entirely-concerned-with-survival-on-a-day-to-day .unnumbered}

basis. Tribal members often worked well together in an effort to prepare
for disasters,

> especially those which recurred on a regular basis. Traditional
> attitudes and beliefs were particularly helpful after disasters had
> actually struck. Relocation was often the most effective means of
> recovering from a disaster. Although Native Americans are often said
> to have a high awareness of the importance of living in harmony with
> the land, they were able to nevertheless able to recognize the
> importance of "moving on" when the land became unprofitable or
> inhabitable. Strong social ties enabled tribes to recover from natural
> disasters in an orderly manner.
>
> A case in point is that of the Chacoans who were forced to move
> because of extended droughts:
>
> "It is believed that around A.D. 1130 a series of droughts began which
> would eventually last over fifty years, causing critical water and
> food shortages. \[However,\] when environmental changes caused the
> system to collapse, there was no panic, violence, or mass suicides.
> The towns were evacuated in an orderly manner. People took their
> personal belongings and other possessions that would serve them in
> their new life. The Chacoans simply developed a new set of rules by
> which to live. This act of will allowed them to shift their social and
> religious priorities to meet the challenges of survival in a changing
> world, just as Native Americans have been doing since they first
> appeared in North America. (Ballantine, 1993, pp. 76-77)

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**Objective 45.3 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of tribal
solidarity and**

sovereignty.

Requirement:

It is all too easy to assume that the goals of equal opportunity and
universal minimum standards of living are more than ideals that are yet
to be reached in America. Require students to give examples of
situations where race, poverty and geographical location have created
social vulnerability by leading to a disparity in the ability of a
minority group to adequately cope with inclement weather and disasters
such as fires, floods, tornados, and earthquakes.

Two important aspects of social resilience to disasters are those of
cooperative planning and mutual assistance. It may be helpful, for
instance, to illustrate the concept of cooperation and its role in the
struggle for survival and progress by discussing the meaning and
application of such common expressions as "many hands make light work"
(John Heywood) or "Coming together is a beginning, staying together is
progress, and working together is success." ([Henry
Ford](http://www.cyber-nation.com/victory/quotations/authors/quotes_ford_henry.html)
).

Taking it a step further, require students to recall, write about,
and/or enact real or imaginary situations that illustrate the idea that
cultural/racial differences can diminish the ability of people to
prepare for and respond to problems and disasters. They may remember an
incident, for example, in which people could did not react effectively
to a crisis because of a language barrier. Follow up with discussions
about the ways in which conflict may have been avoided and thus
disasters dealt with in a more effective manner.

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**Remarks:**

### I. Have cultural and racial differences in combination with the physical isolation of tribal  {#i.-have-cultural-and-racial-differences-in-combination-with-the-physical-isolation-of-tribal .unnumbered}

###  communities left many reservations socially vulnerable to disasters? {#communities-left-many-reservations-socially-vulnerable-to-disasters .unnumbered}

###  {#section-3 .unnumbered}

###  A. The nature of social vulnerability and its connection with the poverty and ethnicity.  {#a.-the-nature-of-social-vulnerability-and-its-connection-with-the-poverty-and-ethnicity. .unnumbered}

Impoverished minority groups are often at highest risk because they
cannot afford or do not

have access to better, safer land, transportation, dwellings, roads,
etc.

> "Vulnerability concerns the complex of social, economic, and political
> conditions in which people's everyday lives are embedded that
> structure the choices and options they have in the face of
> environmental hazards. The most vulnerable are typically those with
> the fewest choices, those whose lives are constrained, for example, by
> discrimination, political powerlessness, physical disability, lack of
> education and employment, illness, the absence of legal rights, and
> other historically grounded practices of domination and
> marginalization." (Bolin and Stanford 1998, pp. 9--10)
>
> "Poor and minority populations are impacted disproportionately by
> natural disaster agents, whether these agents appear in the form of
> hurricanes, tornados, earthquakes, or floods...Disadvantaged minority
> households are more likely to live in inadequate and poorer quality
> housing that may well be subject to greater damage \[during a
> disaster\]." (Peacock and Girard, 1997, p. 172-3)

####  B. Native Americans are socially vulnerable because of their psychological and 

####  physical isolation. 

> The relegation of Native Americans to reservations has left Native
> Americans socially vulnerable. They are less prepared for and less
> able to mitigate against disasters. Response is generally less
> coordinated than in other geographical areas and reservations are less
> likely to benefit from relief measures during the recovery phase.
>
> "Mainstream prosperity does not trickle down to reservations, for the
> most part.
>
> Most reservations have been relegated to poor remote lands that are a
> fraction of
>
> their original size and many tribes are unwillingly selling off
> remaining natural
>
> resources in order to buy basic necessities. In the past, reservations
> have often been
>
> the last in line to receive technology improvements just because they
> are remote and

politically invisible." (Harris,1999, p.6)

> "Do minority citizens suffer more physical harm because they live in
> more vulnerable locations or less hazard-resistant dwellings? Or do
> minorities perceive danger and understand warning messages in
> fundamentally different ways and thereby behave in a fashion more
> likely to result in injury? Ultimately, it is likely that both social
> structural and social psychological variables contribute to outcome
> differences.." (Perry and Mushkatel 1986, p.2).
>
> It is unfortunate that minority groups in particular do not always
> play the roles expected
>
> of them by emergency management personnel when a disaster strikes. It
> cannot be
>
> assumed that all members of a community will respond in the way in
> which they are
>
> expected.
>
> It cannot be assumed, for instance, that all citizens will be able to
> understand the disaster warning or preparedness message itself, "that
> the emergency personnel who issue the message are seen by citizens as
> a credible source of threat-relevant information whose primary
> interest is public safety", or that "all citizens' views of the
> disaster threat will at least be somewhat consistent with that of the
> community authorities and that they will act upon the officially
> recommended protection actions." (Perry and Mushkatel, 1986, p. 7)
>
> "Some population groups may view natural hazards---and the emergency
> planning process---in fundamentally different ways from (majority
> group) community authorities, depending upon their cultural
> perspective\...Among members of some urban ethnic/racial minority
> groups in the United States, public safety personnel... are not
> necessarily viewed in positive terms or as sources from whom to expect
> help and protection...they may disagree with the nature of actions
> that should afford protection from the threat...Emergency managers are
> faced with the task of educating people about the role of authorities
> in emergency response and enhancing basic knowledge of environmental
> hazards" (Perry and Mushkatel,1986, p. 153).

**C. Native Americans are often not living under equitable conditions.**

> "In North America it has been shown that poor and ethnic minority
> communities (including native Indian reservations) are more likely to
> have toxic waste sites and hazardous chemical plants nearby as they
> lack the political power to resisting decisions. Corporations often
> target such communities specifically because the assumption is made
> (often incorrectly) that the poor will welcome the hazardous
> facilities as sources of employment. Low income and ethnic minority
> communities in the US are also less likely to be targeted for
> environmental remediation by federal toxic waste clean-up and
> pollution control programs than are wealthier communities...Low income
> households may lack the means to prepare for hazardous environments
> and likewise lack the necessary resources to cope with the effects of
> disaster. Income can clearly influence a household's ability to make
> necessary repairs and reconstruct heavily damaged residences. Low
> income and ethnic minority communities in the US are also less likely
> to be targeted for environmental remediation ...Racial and ethnic
> discrimination in relief has been documented in recent US disasters,
> and a persistent class preference exists in the federal programs
> privileging middle-class homeowners over renters and the homeless."
> (Bolin and Stanford, 1998, p. 46-47)

## II. What existing differences between tribal leaders and governmental agencies hinder 

**efforts to develop the policies and infrastructure needed to mitigate
against natural**

**disasters?**

Although few Native Americans in the 21st century believe that
earthquakes and

> rivers are caused by angered spirits inhabiting mountains and rivers,
> the Native American

approach towards government and the land still differs significantly
from that of the

dominant White approach. This difference results in divergent value
systems and inhibits

efforts to develop the infrastructure of Native American Tribes.
Attempts to alter the

landscape or improve the infrastructure of tribal reservations often
leads to conflict between

the ecological values of Whites and those of Native Americans. Such
conflict highlights the \\

need to develop programs in a considerate manner and cooperative spirit.

> "There is both a need to sustain resources and to sustain
> infrastructure through more robust design and a continual process of
> repairs that functions without much attention (or despite) changing
> politics... However, this issue is more complex than merely providing
> a few grants to tribes or building a few schools...European concepts
> of infrastructure may not match tribal values with respect to natural
> resource exploitation. " (Harris,1999, p. 17)

### III. To what extent have conflicts between technological ventures exploiting the land for  {#iii.-to-what-extent-have-conflicts-between-technological-ventures-exploiting-the-land-for .unnumbered}

###  resources and Native American desires to conserve land formations led to the reluctance  {#resources-and-native-american-desires-to-conserve-land-formations-led-to-the-reluctance .unnumbered}

###  of tribal leaders to welcome proposals to modify the environment in order to secure  {#of-tribal-leaders-to-welcome-proposals-to-modify-the-environment-in-order-to-secure .unnumbered}

###  tribal areas against the devastation of disasters.  {#tribal-areas-against-the-devastation-of-disasters. .unnumbered}

When addressing hazard risk on tribal reservations it is important not
to overemphasize the

scientific approach at the neglect of the wider encompassing social
vulnerability approach.

Indeed, efforts to network concerned groups is facilitated when members
of vulnerable

communities participate in the planning process. To increase awareness
of hazards and

opportunities for mitigation, planners should communicate and consult
with those at risk. This

may entail sharing the decision making with Native leaders and community
inhabitants so that

they feel a sense of ownership, responsibility and empowerment regarding
the choice of

mitigation strategies.

> "The technocratic approach that invests heavily in engineered hazard
> abatement and
>
> geohazard mapping tends to see risk solely in terms of location-based
> physical
>
> exposure, neglecting the underlying social and economic dimensions
> that compound
>
> the risks people face." (Bolin and Stanford, 1998, p. 46) 

###  {#section-4 .unnumbered}

########  C. For Discussion

######## 

########  1. What other reasons might be given to explain the discrepancy that often exists 

########  between the abilities of the rich and the poor to withstand the impact of disasters?

between those living in urban and remote rural areas? between racial
groups?

2\. What problems might arise for tribal areas seeking outside
assistance in their

attempts to become more secure against disasters?

> Note to the instructor: Discussion might cover such topics as
> intergovernmental
>
> cooperation, social attitudes, cultural traditions, emergency
> operations plans and the
>
> effectiveness of visiting emergency management personnel.

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Objective 45.4: Problems and solutions in the process of implementing a
more scientific

and social vulnerability approach that incorporates positive aspects of

the traditional view.

Requirement:

Discuss Native American stereotypes such as those presented in movies
and advertisements with particular emphasis upon their relationship with
nature. Discuss the presence of Native Americans in your locality.
Become familiar with the materials found on the websites mentioned.
Recent and topical news clippings, audiotapes or videos may assist the
instructor in painting a realistic picture of the state of American
reservations, both now and in recent decades.

Students should collect, discuss and display their own examples from
various sources that illustrate advancements and setbacks towards
greater cooperation between Native and non-Native Americans with regards
to such issues as education, vocational opportunity, living conditions,
grants, land use, conservation, disaster response, and post-disaster
assistance,

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Remarks

######## I. Why do State and Federal agencies seeking to increase resilience to disasters by 

########  modifying tribal infrastructures need to be attuned to Native American cultural beliefs 

########  and social behavior?

**A. Considerations should be made for the aesthetic sensibilities of
communities, means**

**of transportation, pollution factors including noise.** Engineers need
to consider such

basic issues as the location of Emergency Operations Centers, the
mobility of inhabitants,

the likely congestion of roads during evacuations. Furthermore, social
networks need to be

considered during evacuations. Such basic questions as "Who is going to
look after

whom? Who needs to be contacted? Who will be in charge?" need to be
answered

before a disaster strikes. Answers to these and similar questions will
be answered

in accordance with local traditions, beliefs and social patterns.

##### 

**B. It important to show respect for Native American land if government
personnel are**

> going to work cooperatively with tribal leaders. More care needs to be
> taken when
>
> planning highways such as the one through the Petroglyph National
> Monument, an ancient
>
> tribal information repository. Mining companies must take into account
> the possible
>
> negative effect that mining operations will have on the health of
> Native residents. Navajo
>
> uranium mining operations, for instance, caused tremendous adverse
> health repercussions.
>
> "Tribal representatives continue to express frustration with federal
> agency actions that seem to be inconsistent with federal trust and
> treaty responsibilities. Tribal representatives remark that program
> and policy decisions are still being made and implemented without
> consideration of federal commitments to tribes and without
> incorporating tribal cultural information into these decisions that
> affect reservation lands... Barriers to cultural understanding also
> hinder communication and collaboration. These include an incomplete
> understanding by federal agency personnel and tribal representatives
> about the resource restrictions, knowledge base, and cultural tenets
> that determine the priorities and capabilities of each party."
> (TallBear, 2001, p. 8)
>
> "One *social* value that is fundamental to the idea of sustainability
> is the value it places on participation of at-risk communities in
> planning to reduce vulnerability. Sometimes those most at risk are the
> poor, the group most likely to live in hazard areas because they
> cannot afford better, safer land. To increase awareness of hazards and
> opportunities for mitigation, planners must communicate and consult
> with those at risk. This may entail decentralizing some decision
> making to give neighborhoods more control over the choice of
> mitigation strategies and to promote responsibility among individuals
> and organizations." (Godschalk, Kaiser, and Berke, 1998, pp. 88-89.)
>
> "There is a growing recognition on the part of disaster relief workers
> that reconstruction planning has to begin by rebuilding many other
> times than broken walls, roads, or water pipes. Confidence and trust
> may need to be established. Institutions need to be formed.
> Industries, such as the building industry (which may have manifestly
> failed), may need major rehabilitation, and inequitable patterns of
> landownership may need to be changed. There is a growing acceptance
> that many of these 'enabling structures' can be 'built' in parallel
> with visible reconstruction, and it is vital to take action while
> there is the political will to commit resources."
>
> (Blaikie et al., 1994, p. 216)

**C. Assisting tribes with emergency management plans, positions,
resources and**

**education as it relates to the Native American** and other minority
ethnic populations is a

vision that is in the process of being fulfilled, but there is a long
way to go before tribes

reach a standard that matches that afforded mainstream America.

> At the 24th Annual Hazards Research and Applications Workshop attended
> by Army and FEMA representatives, Lorna Jarrett stated that "Emergency
> management should consider the need to diversify by reaching people
> that are most vulnerable and by figuring out ways to include people
> from other ethnic backgrounds. Those involved with developing higher
> education programs need to consider different cultures and try to
> learn from them. Native Americans and people of other cultures do not
> want to be told by others how to prepare for disasters, but want to be
> included in the decision process." (Jarrett, 1999, para. 5)
>
> "Employment, income, legal status, and ethnicity all bear directly on
> where people live, the kinds of structures they live in, and whether
> they have the resources to cope with untoward events in their lives."
> (Bolin/Stanford 1998, p.15)
>
> "Questions of environmental justice and sustainable development are
> linked to issues raised in vulnerability analysis to place disasters
> in the context of contemporary society-environment concerns."
> (Bolin/Stanford 1998, p. 24)
>
> Ultimately, the social vulnerability of Native Americans is a
> historical byproduct of their isolation. It is hoped that private as
> well as governmental agencies at all levels will ultimately bridge the
> gap by providing tribal areas with the available resources that they
> need and deserve in a manner that is culturally sensitive and
> respectful.

D. For Discussion:

> 1\. Read the following quote:
>
> "If the origins and causes of vulnerability lie in social and economic
> and political forces beyond people's control, then any attempt at
> reducing vulnerability must involve empowering people, if it is to be
> truly effective." (Maskrey, 1989, p. 35)
>
> Require students to explain the importance of involving and empowering
> community
>
> members as much as possible in attempts to improve community
> resilience to disasters.

Supplemental Considerations

######## Objective 45.1

A. Some of these stories were not entirely irrational and had
counterparts in White

society.

######## Predictors of rain included:

######## Rabbits playing in a dusty road .

######## Any animal turning its back to the wind. 

######## Hogs carrying a piece of wood in its mouth.

Indeed, early Americans tried to bring rain through a variety of methods
including

######## Hanging a dead snake over a fence, belly side up. 

######## Submerging a cat in water.

######## Burning used motor oil on top of a hill during the night.

**Objective 45.3**

> **A. A general overview of the differences between Native American and
> non-Native American views of disasters** and the importance of making
> modifications to policies and infrastructures.

  ------------------ -------------------- --------------------------------
  **Infrastructure   **"White" Approach** **Traditional Native American
  element**                               Approach**

  *Governance*       Institutionalized    Traditional decision making
                     political structure  processes

  *Information       Reliance on          Elders as guides and
  repository*        technological        repositories of information
                     networks.            

  *Science and       Science and          Traditional Environmental
  Technology*        technology often     Knowledge and environmental
                     geared towards       management science

  *Education*        Emphasis upon        Oral history, direct
                     preparation for      observation.
                     careers. Much        
                     information is       
                     highly abstract.     

  *Land Ethic*       Emphasis upon        Stewardship and kinship versus
                     domination. Often    dominion; equality of all
                     exploitative.        species

  *Commerce*         Commodity economy.   Trade networks; "Intangibles"
                     High emphasis upon   worth as much as commodities.

  *Energy*           Energy sources often Fuel usage follows biological
                     highly pollutive.    distribution patterns
  ------------------ -------------------- --------------------------------

(Harris, 1999, p. 8, Adapted from chart)

B. Native Americans are much more likely to live in isolated, rural
areas.

![](media/image5.wmf)

1997 U.S. Census Current Population Survey

## Objective 45.4

> Specific steps that Local, State and/or Federal agencies take to
> assist Native American Tribes in their efforts to cope with disasters:

-   Check census data to glean information about age, income levels,
    type of residence, family size, ethnicity, etc. to determine who is
    most at risk for what types of disasters.

-   Clarify who responds initially if a disaster declaration occurs and
    what happens when a disaster does not qualify for a FEMA disaster
    declaration. Partnerships need to be established and clarified.

-   Recognize and commit to a government-to-government relationship with
    Native Alaskan Villages and American Indian Nations.

```{=html}
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```
-   Eliminate or diminish procedural impediments to working directly and
    effectively with tribal governments.

    -   Recognizes the trust relationship between the Federal Government
        and American Indian Nations.

    -   Get disaster information from and out to the tribal community.

    -   Perform a preliminary damage assessment by establishing a point
        of contact between the tribal emergency manager and the State.

    -   Reassess the community disaster plan and other mitigation
        measures in light of what is found within the community's
        population.

    -   Bring members of the potentially affected population into the
        planning process. A task force or advisory group is a starting
        point.

    -   Develop tribal emergency operations plans and provide ongoing
        support.

    -   Conducting risk assessments with tribal organizations to
        identify the hazards that impact tribal lands.

    -   Improve tribal record keeping.

    -   Develop a hazard mitigation plan: a plan that prioritizes the
        mitigation projects that need to be accomplished to reduce or
        eliminate disasters on tribal lands.

    -   Revitalize or discard old tribal plan for the sake of new
        priorities but keep cultural uniqueness in tribal plan.

    -   Consult with tribal governments to ensure tribal rights and
        concerns are addressed.

    -   Conduct exercises to operate the plans that were developed and
        provide training programs that include tribal members on
        location.

    -   Relocate houses in potentially dangerous areas.

    -   Develop a plan for temporary housing as needed.

    -   Assist with ongoing mitigation efforts, e.g., building tornado
        shelters.

    -   Map tribal lands.

    -   Extend knowledge of a community's demographic structure by
        becoming more aware of the living patterns of relevant ethnic
        minority groups, including their language, customs and rituals.

    -   Ensure that Non-tribal personnel attend tribal cultural
        sensitivity training.

    -   Disseminate public assistance literature such as the Public
        Assistance Guide.

    -   Implement pre-disaster and post-disaster programs (The National
        Flood Insurance Program helps build structures safely if there
        is a significant community risk to flooding disaster.)

    -   Provide technical assistance and advice when developing the plan
        on an ongoing basis so that the plan is updated regularly.

    -   Offer cost-share on disaster programs and day-to-day
        preparedness programs that promote preparedness through
        planning, training, and exercises.

    -   Provide resource support to tribal nations during emergency
        situations.

-   Provide funding assistance for establishing tribal emergency
    management positions.

    -   Provide immediate needs funding within days after a disaster.

    -   Clarify eligibility for funding, what happens when tribes cannot
        afford to match FEMA funding, and whether tribes should receive
        reimbursement for tribal funds expended for emergency
        situations.

    -   Ensure that rebuilding funds and grants are spent on housing and
        infrastructure that actually offer safety and resilience.

    -   Clarify insurance issues and strive for fair and equitable
        distribution of reimbursement and assistance.

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Student Assignments:

## Relating to Objective 45. 1

1.  Ask students to relate stories or superstitions relating to
    disasters or the weather.

Note that some may have a degree of scientific truth behind them.

2.  Ask students to relate stories that teach a lesson about living in
    harmony with nature

> and/or being prepared for disasters. For example, Aesop's tale, The
> Grasshopper and the

Ant", relates the importance of being prepared for winter by stocking up
beforehand.

3.  Ask students to brainstorm by making a list of three natural
    disasters. For each disaster, write down as many causes as possible.
    Distinguish between those causes that are largely man-made and those
    that are not. Then determine the extent to which race, income,
    housing, infrastructure and geographical location might be factors
    in the determination of vulnerability.

4.  Similarly it might be useful to discuss the student's own attitude
    towards science and technology, the nature of superstition, and the
    role of the supernatural in disaster phenomena.

######## 

######## Relating to Objective 45. 2

######## Although some tend to think that disasters are the natural result of some wrongdoing that they or others have done to nature, Native Americans have the benefit of a cultural heritage that encourages them to work together as a community when dealing with emergencies. Ask students to describe ways in which they, as visiting government Emergency Managers, would encourage community members to avoid a defeatist attitude and work together cooperatively in an effort to prepare for disaster events before, during and after they occur.

**Relating to Objective 45.3**

######## Ask students to describe situations tribal members were not self-sufficient enough to cope with disasters on their own and would benefit by working closely with government and private agencies outside the reservation. 

**Relating to Objective 45.4**

######## Given that Native Americans have particular learning traits such as receptiveness to hands-on instruction, visual explanations and storytelling, require students to explain how they would relate the need for a tribal emergency management plan to tribal leaders. 

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Study Questions:

1.  What resource development projects tend to have the greatest impact
    upon the land and environment in the long run? Examples: Mining, oil
    rigging, dams.

2.  Why do you suppose Native Americans often thought little of trading
    land for trinkets and other inexpensive items? Typical responses
    might include the nature of property, beliefs about sharing the
    land, the nomadic nature of many tribes, and misinformation about
    the number of immigrants who would settle.

3.  Which disasters can humans most successfully mitigate against with
    the use of science and

> technology? To what extent do Native Americans have unusually limited
> access to such technology? Examples given might include weather
> forecasting equipment, community warning systems, extensive community
> shelter areas.

4.  Which disasters can Native Americans most successfully mitigate
    against (before, during and after they strike)? Example: Flood
    mitigation steps, fire prevention measures, storm damage

> mitigation.

5.  Which disasters largely outside of the control tribal leaders
    because they are the result of human activity outside tribal
    reservations? Examples given might include pollution, bioterrorism,
    chemical hazards such as oil spills, nuclear disasters, dam breaks,
    etc.

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**Final Exam Questions:**

1.  Native Americans generally hold a belief in the importance of
    developing relationships based upon reciprocity (give-and-take). How
    can this belief as well as traditional Native American values such
    as respect for the land and tribal elders be harnessed by outside
    officials who wish to develop a local emergency management plan in a
    tribal area?

2.  Native Americans today are still an impoverished race with limited
    opportunities for gaining equal employment, health care and housing
    facilities. Often they live in secluded and remote areas that lack
    adequate roads, water or electrical facilities. Why are these
    minority groups at an unusual disadvantage compared to other races
    when it comes to adequately mitigating against emergencies such as
    floods, tornadoes, forest fires and bioterrorist attacks?

3\. Developing community resilience doesn't happen overnight. As an
emergency

management director assigned to a Native American reservation in your
area, what initial

steps would you takes to increase community resilience to disasters
before, during and after

they strike?

4\. Do not judge someone until you walk a mile in someone else\'s
moccasins.\"

Native American Proverb.

In terms of expanding cultural awareness, what steps would you take in
order to ensure that

tribal leaders would agree to discard an outmoded tribal emergency plan
and replace it with

an updated version developed in cooperation with the State Division of
Emergency

Management?

5\. Preparing for, mitigating against and recovering from disasters
means different things to the

elderly than it does to children and adolescents. Furthermore, people of
different ages

have different learning styles. Therefore, one should not attempt to
educate young and old in

the same way about emergency management.

Agree or disagree giving examples to support your viewpoint.

6\. We must recognize that there is a range of lifestyles outside of the
dominant society.

Though some Native Americans may be materially poor, they are still
culturally rich .

How can we introduce non-Native American concepts and goods without
diluting or

destroying their heritage?

7\. Resource-based protections such as dams that harness water in order
to provide electricity and

prevent flooding always have a major impact upon communities. This means
that many

decisions will need to be made. Who needs to be consulted in order to
ensure that individuals,

cultures, sacred lands and environments are not felt to be degraded
while community-

protecting infrastructure is upgraded? What individuals are responsible
for an overall

analysis that includes the determination of the impact upon culture,
ecology and natural

resources?

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References Cited:

Ballantine, Betty and Ian, (eds.). 1993. *The Native Americans: An
Illustrated History.* Menonee Falls, WI: Inland Press,

Blaikie, P., T. Cannon, I. Davis, and Ben Wisner. 1994. *At Risk:
Natural Hazards, People's Vulnerability and Disasters*. London:
Routledge.

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# Vecsey and Venables. *American Indian Environment.* 1980. New York: Syracuse University Press.  {#vecsey-and-venables.-american-indian-environment.-1980.-new-york-syracuse-university-press. .unnumbered}

**SESSION 45 HANDOUT**

Time permitting, students may want to listen to the entire story. This
is a story the Gabrielino Indians used to tell. These Indians once lived
in San Gabriel Valley in Southern California where earthquakes are
common. They told this story to explain the cause of earthquakes and how
California was made:

> *Long, long ago, before there were people, there was hardly anything
> in the world but water. One day, Great Spirit looked down from heaven.
> He decided to make a beautiful land. But where could he begin? All he
> saw was water. Then he spotted a giant turtle. The turtle was as big
> as an island. Great Spirit decided to make the beautiful land on the
> turtle\'s back.*
>
> *One turtle was not big enough. The land Great Spirit wanted to make
> was very large. So he called out, \"Turtle, hurry and find your six
> brothers." Turtle swam to find them. It took him a whole day to find
> the first. It took another day to find the next. After six days,
> turtle had found his six brothers. \"Come\", he said. \"Great Spirit
> wants us.\"*
>
> *Great Spirit called down. \"Turtles! Form a line, head to tail, north
> to south. Umm, you three to the south, please move a little to the
> east. Hmmm. There, that\'s just right. What a beautiful land you will
> make! Then Great Spirit reminded them, \"It is a great honor to carry
> this land on your backs. So YOU MUST NOT MOVE!\"*
>
> *The turtles stayed very still. Great Spirit took some straw from his
> supply in the sky. He put it on the turtle\'s backs. Then he took some
> soil and patted it down on top of the straw.*
>
> *Great Spirit cleaned his hands on a fluffy white cloud. \"I\'ll use
> these clouds to make mountains\", he said.*
>
> *Then Great Spirit made trees and lakes and rivers. When he was
> finished, he looked at the beautiful land he had made. Great Spirit
> was very pleased. But soon trouble came. The giant turtles grew
> restless. They wanted to leave.*
>
> *\"I want to swim east,\" said one. \"This beast goes EAST.\"*
>
> *\"West is best. I'll swim toward the setting sun,\" said another.*
>
> *The turtles began to argue. They could not agree. One day, four of
> the turtles began to swim east. Three turtles began to swim west. THE
> EARTH SHOOK! It CRACKED with a loud noise! But after a minute, the
> shaking stopped. The turtles had to stop because the land on their
> backs was so heavy. They had only been able to swim a little way from
> each other. When they saw that they could not swim away, they stopped
> arguing and made up.*
>
> *But every once in a while the turtles that hold up California argue
> again. Each time they do, the earth shakes.*

.