# Bibliography

## Topic Area: Traditions, Language and Culture 

-   [Aboriginal](#aboriginal)

-   [Alaska Native](#alaskan-native)

-   [Bilingual Programs](#bilingual-programs)

-   [Classroom Management](#classroom-management)

-   [Community Involvement](#community-involvement)

-   [Curriculum](#curriculum)

-   [Government Reports](#government-reports)

-   [Native Hawaiian](#native-hawaiian)

-   [Immersion Programs](#immersion-programs)

-   [Student Achievement](#student-achievement)

-   [Teaching](#teaching)

-   [Other](#other)

### Aboriginal

Western Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in Basic Education (2000,
June). *[The Common Curriculum Framework for Aboriginal Language and
Culture Programs: Kindergarten to Grade
12](http://www.wncp.ca/languages/framework.pdf).* Government of Alberta,
British Columbia: Edmonton, Alberta. Retrieved July 19, 2006 from
<http://www.wncp.ca/languages/framework.pdf>.

> The purpose of The Common Curriculum Framework for Aboriginal Language
> and Culture Programs: Kindergarten to Grade 12 (Framework) is to
> support the revitalization and enhancement of Aboriginal languages.
> The Framework consists of learning outcomes in the areas of culture
> and language, sequenced in six developmental levels. The cultural
> content is organized around Aboriginal "laws of relationships." First
> and second language outcomes are tied to cultural outcomes in various
> implicit and explicit ways.

### Alaskan Native

Alaska Native Knowledge Network (1998). *[Alaska Standards for
Culturally-Responsive
Schools](http://www.ankn.uaf.edu/Publications/culturalstandards.pdf).*
Retrieved May 9, 2005, from
<http://www.ankn.uaf.edu/Publications/culturalstandards.pdf>.

> The following standards have been developed by Alaska Native educators
> to provide a way for schools and communities to examine the extent to
> which they are attending to the educational and cultural well being of
> the students in their care. These \"cultural standards\" are
> predicated on the belief that a firm grounding in the heritage
> language and culture indigenous to a particular place is a fundamental
> prerequisite for the development of culturally-healthy students and
> communities associated with that place, and thus is an essential
> ingredient for identifying the appropriate qualities and practices
> associated with culturally-responsive educators, curriculum and
> schools.
>
> Standards have been drawn up in five areas, including those for
> students, educators, curriculum, schools, and communities. These
> \"cultural standards\" provide guidelines or touchstones against which
> schools and communities can examine what they are doing to attend to
> the cultural well-being of the young people they are responsible for
> nurturing to adulthood. The standards included here serve as a
> complement to, not as a replacement for, those adopted by the State of
> Alaska. While the state standards stipulate what students should know
> and be able to do, the cultural standards are oriented more toward
> providing guidance on how to get them there in such a way that they
> become responsible, capable and whole human beings in the process. The
> emphasis is on fostering a strong connection between what students
> experience in school and their lives out of school by providing
> opportunities for students to engage in in-depth experiential learning
> in real-world contexts. By shifting the focus in the curriculum from
> teaching/learning about cultural heritage as another subject to
> teaching/learning through the local culture as a foundation for all
> education, it is intended that all forms of knowledge, ways of knowing
> and world views be recognized as equally valid, adaptable and
> complementary to one another in mutually beneficial ways.

Barnhardt, R. (2005). [Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Alaska Native
Ways of Knowing](http://www.ucpress.edu/journals/3a/aeq/index.htm).
*Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 36*(1), 8-23.

Drawing on experiences across Fourth World contexts, with an emphasis on
the Alaska context, this article seeks to extend our understandings of
the learning processes within and at the intersection of diverse
worldviews and knowledge systems. The authors outline the rationale for
a comprehensive program of educational initiatives closely articulated
with the emergence of a new generation of Indigenous scholars who seek
to move the role of Indigenous knowledge and learning from the margins
to the center of educational research, thereby confronting some of the
most intractable and salient educational issues of our times.

Jacobs, D. (2003). [*Shifting Attention from "Discipline Problems" to
"Virtue Awareness" in American Indian and Alaska Native
Education*](../·http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal%3F_nfpb=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=shifting+attention+from+discipline+problems&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=ti&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&objectId=0900000b801b5c12).
Charleston, WV: Clearinghouse on Rural and Small Schools. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED480732.

> To decrease negative behaviors in American Indian/Alaska Native
> students, teachers should help children understand, care about, and
> act upon core virtues such as courage, generosity, humility, honesty,
> fortitude, and patience. Integrating core virtues throughout the
> curriculum through stories, class discussions, role-playing, and
> critical evaluation about why virtues are important for harmonious
> relationships is natural to Native ways of learning. Nature is also
> conducive to understanding core virtues among Native students. When
> children understand how virtues play into all subjects and learning
> processes, they begin to comprehend the reciprocal relationships that
> surround them. When Native children are not required to renounce their
> cultural heritage, school achievement improves markedly. Native
> families that value the spiritual aspects of traditions bring the core
> virtues to life. When families are impaired, a sense of family can be
> created in the school. Native American methods of child management are
> one of the most effective systems of positive discipline ever
> developed. Perhaps, with new priorities in teaching and learning, it
> can work again.

Leonard, B. (1999). [Language Revitalization and Identity in Social
Context: A Community-Based Athabascan Language Preservation Project in
Western Interior
Alaska](http://www.ucpress.edu/journals/3a/aeq/index.htm). *Anthropology
& Education Quarterly, 30*(1), 37-55.

> This study documents a language planning effort funded by an
> Administration for Native Americans Grant to the Tanana Chiefs
> Conference, a regional nonprofit tribal organization. The language
> revitalization project focuses on western interior Alaska and
> encompasses five traditional Athabascan languages with few remaining
> speakers. Project discussion included options for language planning,
> training activities, and educational program and materials development
> that would enhance language survival. Three dominate project themes
> are identified and discussed: (1) critique and resistance, (2)
> self-determination and activism, and (3) collaboration and leadership.

Lipka, J., & Adams, B. (2004). *[Culturally Based Math Education as a
Way to Improve Alaska Native Students' Math
Performance](http://www.acclaim-math.org/docs/working_papers/WP_20_Lipka_Adams.pdf).*
Retrieved May 16, 2005, from Appalachian Collaborative Center for
Learning, Assessment and Instruction in Mathematics Web site:
<http://www.acclaim-math.org/docs/working_papers/WP_20_Lipka_Adams.pdf>.

> Culturally based instruction has long been touted as a preferred
> approach to improving the performance of American Indian and Alaska
> Native students' academic performance. However, there has been scant
> research to support this conjecture, particularly when quantitative
> data and quasi-experimental designs are included. The results of this
> study show that the culturally based math curriculum, Building a Fish
> Rack: Investigation into Proof, Properties, Perimeter, and Area,
> enabled sixth grade Yup'ik students and their urban counterparts to
> increase their mathematical understanding of perimeter and area.
>
> This study involved one semester's worth of data (258 students in 15
> classes). The study was a strong quasi-experimental design with random
> assignment and the results were based on pre- and post-test score
> differences. The study involved one urban school district, Fairbanks,
> and four rural school districts with approximately a 97% Yup'ik
> population. The study showed that the difference in test results
> between all treatment groups and control groups was significant beyond
> the accepted standard of p\<0.05. Although the urban treatment group
> gained the most from this curriculum, the most important finding is
> that the rural treatment group outperformed the rural control group at
> a significant level beyond the accepted standard of p\<0.05. The study
> is encouraging, as it shows that the treatment effect on the Yup'ik
> students narrows the long-standing academic gap when comparing that
> group's and the Yup'ik control group's relative performance against
> the urban control group. Further studies are necessary to determine if
> the results can be replicated, if the results are tied to a specific
> topic area, and if a study that uses complementary research methods
> can unpack the factors behind the gain.

Peacock, T. (1999). *[Teaching American Indian and Alaska Native
Languages in the Schools: What Has Been
Learned](http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED438155).*
Charleston, WV: Clearinghouse on Rural and Small Schools. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED438155).

> This Digest considers issues and possible solutions in dealing with
> Native language loss, maintenance, and restoration in American Indian
> and Alaska Native communities, focusing on successful efforts of
> schools and communities.

Wright, S., Taylor, D., & Macarthur, J. (2000). [Subtractive
Bilingualism and the Survival of the Inuit Language: Heritage -- Versus
Second-Language Education](http://content.apa.org/journals/edu).
*Journal of Educational Psychology, 92*(1), 63-84.

> A longitudinal study examined the impact of early heritage- and
> second-language education on heritage- and second-language development
> among Inuit, White, and mixed-heritage (Inuit/White) children.
> Children in an artic community were tested in English, French and
> Inuttitut at the beginning and end of each of the first 3 school
> years. Compared with Inuit in heritage language and mixed-heritage
> children in a second language. Inuit in second-language classes
> (English or French) showed poor heritage language skills and poorer
> second-language acquisition. Conversely, Inuit children in Inuttitut
> classes showed heritage language skills equal to or better than
> mixed-heritage children and Whites educated in their heritage
> languages. Findings support claims that early instruction exclusively
> in a societally dominant language can lead to *subtractive
> bilingualism* among minority-language children, and that heritage
> language education may reduce this subtractive process.
>
> Copyright © 2000 by the American Psychological Association. 
> Reproduced with permission. For information on how to obtain the full
> text to this article, please visit our web site at
> [www.apa.org/psycarticles](http://www.apa.org/psycarticles).

### Bilingual Programs

Avalos, M. (2003). [Effective Second-Language Reading Transition: From
Learner-Specific to Generic Instructional
Models](http://brj.asu.edu/content/vol27_no2/art1.pdf). *Bilingual
Research Journal, 27*(2), 171-205. Retrieved July 22, 2005 from
<http://brj.asu.edu/content/vol27_no2/art1.pdf>.

> This study examines two questions involving students in a transitional
> bilingual education program learning to read in a second language. The
> first question deals with the impact of second-language (L2) text
> structure on comprehension processes, while the second deals with the
> level of oral language proficiency necessary to comprehend L2 texts.
> Findings demonstrate that comprehension "errors" begin at the word
> level and expand to the sentence level (or beyond) in order for the
> reader to make meaning from the texts. Oral language proficiency
> proved to be an inadequate measure in determining "correct"
> comprehension of L2 texts. A generic processor or whole group model of
> instruction is inadequate in meeting L2 readers' needs because the
> generic processor perspective assumes that L2 learners come to school
> with similar linguistic backgrounds, experiences, and cultural
> perspectives. The focus of transition instruction should be on
> individual learning needs, assessed in a manner that enables the
> teacher to determine the cultural, linguistic, and cognitive interplay
> between the text and the reader. Knowing students and their families,
> along with their instructional needs, will enable teachers to help L2
> learners move towards a generic processor model with more success.

Cummins, J. (2000). *Language, Power and Pedagogy: Bilingual Children in
the Crossfire.* Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.

> As linguistic diversity increases in countries all around the world,
> policy-makers and educators are faced with complex and conflicting
> issues regarding appropriate ways of educating a multilingual school
> population. This volume reviews the research and theory relating to
> instruction and assessment of bilingual pupils, focusing not only on
> issues of language learning and teaching but also the ways in which
> power relations in the wider society affect patterns of teacher-pupil
> interaction in the classroom.

Francis, N. & Reyhner, J. (2002). *Language and Literacy Teaching for
Indigenous Education: A Bilingual Approach.* Clevedon, UK: Multilingual
Matters, Ltd.

> This text presents a proposal for the inclusion of indigenous
> languages in the classroom. Based on extensive research and field work
> by the authors in communities in the United States and Mexico, the
> book explores ways in which the cultural and linguistic resources of
> indigenous communities can enrich the language and literacy program.

Office of English Language Acquisition (2005). *[Childhood Bilingualism:
Current Status and Future
Directions](http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/upload/Childhood-Bilingualism_2005.pdf).*
Washington, DC: Rose Li and Associates, Inc. Retrieved January 16, 2006
from
<http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/upload/Childhood-Bilingualism_2005.pdf>.

> This report is a summary of a workshop conducted in April 2004. The
> workshop capitalized on the increasing convergence of interest in
> theoretical underpinnings of language development with the translation
> of research findings for the practical benefit of children. The
> primary purposes of the workshop were to initiate an open and ongoing
> discussion among key members of the research community, as well as
> across disciplines and research approaches, and across national
> boundaries, and to develop a research agenda that outlines major
> research questions, re-energizes research, and promotes the
> development of novel, creative approaches or approaches not seen
> traditionally in the area of bilingual research development.

Wright, S., Taylor, D., & Macarthur, J. (2000). [Subtractive
Bilingualism and the Survival of the Inuit Language: Heritage -- Versus
Second-Language Education](http://content.apa.org/journals/edu).
*Journal of Educational Psychology, 92*(1), 63-84.

> A longitudinal study examined the impact of early heritage- and
> second-language education on heritage- and second-language development
> among Inuit, White, and mixed-heritage (Inuit/White) children.
> Children in an artic community were tested in English, French and
> Inuttitut at the beginning and end of each of the first 3 school
> years. Compared with Inuit in heritage language and mixed-heritage
> children in a second language. Inuit in second-language classes
> (English or French) showed poor heritage language skills and poorer
> second-language acquisition. Conversely, Inuit children in Inuttitut
> classes showed heritage language skills equal to or better than
> mixed-heritage children and Whites educated in their heritage
> languages. Findings support claims that early instruction exclusively
> in a societally dominant language can lead to *subtractive
> bilingualism* among minority-language children, and that heritage
> language education may reduce this subtractive process.
>
> Copyright © 2000 by the American Psychological Association. 
> Reproduced with permission. For information on how to obtain the full
> text to this article, please visit our web site at
> [www.apa.org/psycarticles](http://www.apa.org/psycarticles).

### Classroom Management

Hammond, H., Dupoux, E., & Ingalls, L. (2004). [Culturally Relevant
Classroom Management Strategies for American Indian
Students](http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4052/is_200410/ai_n9521256).
*Rural and Special Education Quarterly 23*(4), 3-9.

> This study contrasted the perspectives of families of American Indian
> students on discipline issues to the typical classroom management
> practices of K-12 schools on two rural reservations. In general,
> school strategies used for behavior improvement focus on individual
> students and are micro-managed by teachers. Families were concerned
> that these practices may elicit resistance in children who were raised
> to evaluate their conduct and self-impose behaviors that meet the
> standards of the group. Results suggest that American Indian students
> respond to modeling in a context that supports independence and the
> practice of humility to facilitate group process.

Jacobs, D. (2003). [*Shifting Attention from "Discipline Problems" to
"Virtue Awareness" in American Indian and Alaska Native
Education*](../·http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal%3F_nfpb=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=shifting+attention+from+discipline+problems&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=ti&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&objectId=0900000b801b5c12).
Charleston, WV: Clearinghouse on Rural and Small Schools. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED480732.

> To decrease negative behaviors in American Indian/Alaska Native
> students, teachers should help children understand, care about, and
> act upon core virtues such as courage, generosity, humility, honesty,
> fortitude, and patience. Integrating core virtues throughout the
> curriculum through stories, class discussions, role-playing, and
> critical evaluation about why virtues are important for harmonious
> relationships is natural to Native ways of learning. Nature is also
> conducive to understanding core virtues among Native students. When
> children understand how virtues play into all subjects and learning
> processes, they begin to comprehend the reciprocal relationships that
> surround them. When Native children are not required to renounce their
> cultural heritage, school achievement improves markedly. Native
> families that value the spiritual aspects of traditions bring the core
> virtues to life. When families are impaired, a sense of family can be
> created in the school. Native American methods of child management are
> one of the most effective systems of positive discipline ever
> developed. Perhaps, with new priorities in teaching and learning, it
> can work again.

McCarthy, J., & Benally, J. (2003). [Classroom Management in a Navajo
Middle School](http://www.coe.ohio-state.edu/TIP/order.html). *Theory
into Practice 42*(4), 296-304.

> Classroom management presents a serious challenge in most schools, but
> especially in schools on a Navajo reservation that have been
> traditionally academically low-performing schools. There appears to be
> a mismatch between the attitude, skills, and behaviors Navajo children
> bring with them to school and the expectations schools have for their
> behavior. This becomes especially evident at the middle-school level
> as peer pressure reaches its zenith, often leading to off-tack
> behavior that can impact instructional effectiveness and have
> long-term effects on student success in life. This article explores
> the cultural context of a Navajo middle school and the managerial
> interventions applied by faculty, staff, and administrators who
> employed a rigorous inquiry process to identify the specific
> challenges before jumping to solutions.

### Community Involvement

Leonard, B. (1999). [Language Revitalization and Identity in Social
Context: A Community-Based Athabascan Language Preservation Project in
Western Interior
Alaska](http://www.ucpress.edu/journals/3a/aeq/index.htm). *Anthropology
& Education Quarterly, 30*(1), 37-55.

> This study documents a language planning effort funded by an
> Administration for Native Americans Grant to the Tanana Chiefs
> Conference, a regional nonprofit tribal organization. The language
> revitalization project focuses on western interior Alaska and
> encompasses five traditional Athabascan languages with few remaining
> speakers. Project discussion included options for language planning,
> training activities, and educational program and materials development
> that would enhance language survival. Three dominate project themes
> are identified and discussed: (1) critique and resistance, (2)
> self-determination and activism, and (3) collaboration and leadership.

### Curriculum

Alaska Native Knowledge Network (1998). *[Alaska Standards for
Culturally-Responsive
Schools](http://www.ankn.uaf.edu/Publications/culturalstandards.pdf).*
Retrieved May 9, 2005, from
<http://www.ankn.uaf.edu/Publications/culturalstandards.pdf>.

> The following standards have been developed by Alaska Native educators
> to provide a way for schools and communities to examine the extent to
> which they are attending to the educational and cultural well being of
> the students in their care. These \"cultural standards\" are
> predicated on the belief that a firm grounding in the heritage
> language and culture indigenous to a particular place is a fundamental
> prerequisite for the development of culturally-healthy students and
> communities associated with that place, and thus is an essential
> ingredient for identifying the appropriate qualities and practices
> associated with culturally-responsive educators, curriculum and
> schools.
>
> Standards have been drawn up in five areas, including those for
> students, educators, curriculum, schools, and communities. These
> \"cultural standards\" provide guidelines or touchstones against which
> schools and communities can examine what they are doing to attend to
> the cultural well-being of the young people they are responsible for
> nurturing to adulthood. The standards included here serve as a
> complement to, not as a replacement for, those adopted by the State of
> Alaska. While the state standards stipulate what students should know
> and be able to do, the cultural standards are oriented more toward
> providing guidance on how to get them there in such a way that they
> become responsible, capable and whole human beings in the process. The
> emphasis is on fostering a strong connection between what students
> experience in school and their lives out of school by providing
> opportunities for students to engage in in-depth experiential learning
> in real-world contexts. By shifting the focus in the curriculum from
> teaching/learning about cultural heritage as another subject to
> teaching/learning through the local culture as a foundation for all
> education, it is intended that all forms of knowledge, ways of knowing
> and world views be recognized as equally valid, adaptable and
> complementary to one another in mutually beneficial ways.

Bennett, R. (2002) [Teaching Reading with
Puppets](http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/ILAC/ILAC_16.pdf). In B. Burbaby &
J. Reyhner (Eds.), *Indigenous Languages across the Community* (pp.
151-159). Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University. Retrieved July 22,
2005 from <http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/ILAC/ILAC_16.pdf>.

> This chapter offers an effective teaching method, accompanied by
> illustrations of reading lessons based on native oral traditions.
> Although puppet making is not traditional for California tribes,
> puppets go hand-in-hand with traditional stories. Puppet performances
> harness group energy for the reading task by requiring a team of
> performers, a narrator, and readers. Puppet plays facilitate
> children's literacy development because reading traditional stories
> can get learners close to the rhythms of their oral language.

Peterson, P. & Montfort, L. (2004). [Creating Culturally Dynamic
Materials for Rural Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Exceptional
Students](http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4052/is_200410/ai_n9521254).
*Rural Special Education Quarterly 23*(4), 25-29. Retrieved September
16, 2005 from
<http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4052/is_200410/ai_n9521254>.

> In order to provide culturally appropriate instructional materials for
> rural Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Exceptional (CLDE)
> students, a variety of culturally dynamic methods and materials have
> been developed for teachers of Mexican-American and Native American
> CLDE students in rural areas of Arizona. The instructional materials
> that are described can be easily adapted for use with other rural CLDE
> populations by changing the native language and native culture frame
> of reference to match those of the rural students in the local
> community.

Skinner, L. (1999). [Teaching through Traditions: Incorporating
Languages and Culture into
Curricula](http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/11/57/c0.pdf).
In K. Swisher & J. Tippeconnic (Eds.), *Next Steps: Research and
Practice to Advance Indian Education* (pp. 83 - 106). Charleston, WV:
Education Resources Information Center.

> This chapter discusses challenges to the perpetuation of American
> Indian languages and cultures, as well as successful strategies and
> practices for developing culturally relevant curriculum. A review of
> the history of U.S. assimilative educational policies towards American
> Indians leads into a discussion of the importance of language in
> maintaining cultural continuity and Native identity; the five stages
> of language preservation; and the recognition by the federal
> government, embodied in the Native American Languages Act of 1990, of
> the rights of American Indian tribes to determine their own linguistic
> destinies. The general population\'s lack of knowledge about American
> Indians is discussed. Seven values common to traditional Native
> education are identified that could form the basis of a tribal code of
> education or curriculum, and six recommendations are offered to move
> public schools toward equality and equity. An overview of successful
> models of culturally relevant curriculum in the U.S. and abroad is
> followed by a call for a National Native Curriculum Project, funded by
> the U.S. Department of Education, that would have regional offices
> develop locally researched Native curricula. The result would be a
> curriculum in every U.S. school that would change years of
> misinformation and enable students to view concepts, issues, events,
> and themes from the unique and diverse perspectives of Native groups.

Western Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in Basic Education (2000,
June). *[The Common Curriculum Framework for Aboriginal Language and
Culture Programs: Kindergarten to Grade
12](http://www.wncp.ca/languages/framework.pdf).* Government of Alberta,
British Columbia: Edmonton, Alberta. Retrieved July 19, 2006 from
<http://www.wncp.ca/languages/framework.pdf>.

> The purpose of The Common Curriculum Framework for Aboriginal Language
> and Culture Programs: Kindergarten to Grade 12 (Framework) is to
> support the revitalization and enhancement of Aboriginal languages.
> The Framework consists of learning outcomes in the areas of culture
> and language, sequenced in six developmental levels. The cultural
> content is organized around Aboriginal "laws of relationships." First
> and second language outcomes are tied to cultural outcomes in various
> implicit and explicit ways.

### Government Reports

National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education (2000, December).
*[Framing Effective Practice: Topics and Issues in Educating English
Language
Learners](http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/tasynthesis/framing/framing.pdf).*
Retrieved September 14, 2005 from
<http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/tasynthesis/framing/framing.pdf>.

> The purpose of this technical assistance synthesis is to bring
> together the more recent literature on educating English Language
> Learner's, and present a broad picture of a few of the most pressing
> issues and topics. Each essay is accompanied by a resource guide
> designed to enable technical assistance providers to secure additional
> information on the topic.

Office of English Language Acquisition (2005). *[Childhood Bilingualism:
Current Status and Future
Directions](http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/upload/Childhood-Bilingualism_2005.pdf).*
Washington, DC: Rose Li and Associates, Inc. Retrieved January 16, 2006
from
<http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/upload/Childhood-Bilingualism_2005.pdf>.

> This report is a summary of a workshop conducted in April 2004. The
> workshop capitalized on the increasing convergence of interest in
> theoretical underpinnings of language development with the translation
> of research findings for the practical benefit of children. The
> primary purposes of the workshop were to initiate an open and ongoing
> discussion among key members of the research community, as well as
> across disciplines and research approaches, and across national
> boundaries, and to develop a research agenda that outlines major
> research questions, re-energizes research, and promotes the
> development of novel, creative approaches or approaches not seen
> traditionally in the area of bilingual research development.

### Native Hawaiian

Yamauchi, L., Ceppi, A., & Smith, J. (2000). [Teaching in a Hawaiian
Context: Educator Perspectives on the Hawaiian Language Immersion
Program](http://brj.asu.edu/v244/pdf/ar5.pdf). *Bilingual Research
Journal 24*(4), 385-403.

> Papahana Kaiapuni is the nation's only K-12 program taught entirely in
> the Hawaiian language. This indigenous language immersion program was
> established as an attempt to revive Hawaiian after a century-long ban
> on the language was lifted. The current study examines the perceptions
> of Kaiapuni educators regarding the ways in which participation in the
> program transforms teachers' identities as educators and as Hawaiians.
> Thirty seven Kaiapuni teachers and four principals participated in
> individual interviews and focus group discussions about their roles
> and experiences in the program. Many teachers regard Kaiapuni as more
> that a "Hawaiian" version of the English program. Teachers strive to
> integrate the Hawaiian culture into the curriculum and view the
> program as a model of school reform for Native Hawaiians. For many
> teachers, participation in the program has also influences the way
> they think of themselves as members of the Hawaiian community.

### Immersion Programs

Lexington Institute (2005, October). *Immersion Not Submersion:
Converting English Learner Programs from Bilingual Education to
Structured English Immersion in California and Elsewhere.* Arlington,
VA: Kelly Torrance. Retrieved December 10, 2005 from
<http://www.lexingtoninstitute.org/docs/749.pdf>.

This paper collects some of the lessons learned by two very different
California school districts -- both of which have implemented successful
immersion programs. Both districts have seen their immigrant students'
test scores soar. This paper describes their experiences, and discusses
"lessons learned" in a format other education decision makers may chose
to consider.

Peter, L., Christie, E., Cochran, M., Dunn, D., Elk, L., Fields, E., et
al. (2003). [Assessing the Impact of Total Immersion on Cherokee
Language Revitalization: A Culturally Responsive, Participatory
Approach](http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/NNL/NNL_2.pdf). In J. Reyhner, O.
Trujillo, L. Carrasco, & L. Lockard (Eds.), *Nurturing Native* Languages
(pp. 7-23). Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University. Retrieved July
22, 2005 from <http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/NNL/NNL_2.pdf>.

> This chapter illustrates how one group, the Cherokee Nation of
> Oklahoma, is exploring a new paradigm of evaluation that is responsive
> to the claims, concerns, and issues of the stakeholders involved.
> Known as Culturally Responsive Evaluation, this alternative conceived
> by the Initiative for Culturally Responsive Evaluation is more
> appropriate than conventional models for evaluating language
> revitalization efforts because it is respectful of the dignity,
> integrity, and privacy of the stakeholders in that it allows their
> full participation, parity, and control. And, because the course of
> action is negotiated and honors the diversity of values and opinions
> among stakeholders, individuals are more likely not only to have
> reason to support it, but to be satisfied with the outcome as well.

Porter, R. (1999, December). [The Benefits of English
Immersion](http://www.ascd.org/portal/site/ascd/template.MAXIMIZE/menuitem.459dee008f99653fb85516f762108a0c/?javax.portlet.tpst=d5b9c0fa1a493266805516f762108a0c_ws_MX&javax.portlet.prp_d5b9c0fa1a493266805516f762108a0c_viewID=issue_view&javax.portlet.prp_d5b9).
*Educational Leadership, 57,* 52-56.

> A powerful movement in bilingual education, spearheaded in California,
> advocates the integration of limited-English proficient (LEP) students
> into English-only classes. From 1968 to1998, the trend was for a
> state-mandated, one-size-fits-all program called Transitional
> Bilingual Education. In this program, LEP students learned all their
> school subjects in their primary language and took English lessons
> over several years. However, the author argues, many of the program\'s
> goals were not achieved. In 1997, a new 30-year study showed that no
> conclusive evidence supports that native-language programs are
> superior to English-immersion programs. Many parents of bilingual
> students also want their children to learn English quickly, even if
> they fall behind temporarily in other subjects. The California
> initiative, which requires a one-year English-immersion program of LEP
> students but allows parents to opt for bilingual classes, serves as an
> example for other states that want to change their bilingual education
> programs.

Yamauchi, L., Ceppi, A., & Smith, J. (2000). [Teaching in a Hawaiian
Context: Educator Perspectives on the Hawaiian Language Immersion
Program](http://brj.asu.edu/v244/pdf/ar5.pdf). *Bilingual Research
Journal 24*(4), 385-403.

> Papahana Kaiapuni is the nation's only K-12 program taught entirely in
> the Hawaiian language. This indigenous language immersion program was
> established as an attempt to revive Hawaiian after a century-long ban
> on the language was lifted. The current study examines the perceptions
> of Kaiapuni educators regarding the ways in which participation in the
> program transforms teachers' identities as educators and as Hawaiians.
> Thirty seven Kaiapuni teachers and four principals participated in
> individual interviews and focus group discussions about their roles
> and experiences in the program. Many teachers regard Kaiapuni as more
> that a "Hawaiian" version of the English program. Teachers strive to
> integrate the Hawaiian culture into the curriculum and view the
> program as a model of school reform for Native Hawaiians. For many
> teachers, participation in the program has also influences the way
> they think of themselves as members of the Hawaiian community.

### Student Achievement

Benham, M. & Mann, H. (2003). [Culture and Language Matters: Defining,
Implementing, and
Evaluating](https://www.erlbaum.com/shop/tek9.asp?pg=products&specific=0-8058-4321-3).
In M. Benham & W. Stein (Eds.), *The Renaissance of American Indian
Higher Education: Capturing the Dream* (pp. 167-192). Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum.

> Language and culture identify a cohesive set of worldviews, such as,
> values, concepts, and beliefs, that are essential to the life of human
> beings. Language, through its many texts, embraces the human agency of
> competencies and potentialities as it embodies the meaning, knowledge,
> and intellect of a community of people. Indeed, their language forms
> the actions of people, illuminated in their cultural practices, such
> as chants, dances, rituals, beadwork, basket weaving, pottery, and
> farming. Tribal colleges have taken up the daunting task of creating a
> safe place for native languages and cultures, working with their
> communities not only to validate both their native knowledge and
> worldviews through language and culture, but also to integrate
> contemporary knowledge and worldviews into the learning experience. It
> is the purpose of this chapter to discuss the work around language and
> culture, present an overview of the work across tribal colleges, and
> in light of multiple challenges, provide ideas for next steps.

Demmert, W. (2005). [The Influences of Culture on Learning and
Assessment among Native American
Students](http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2005.00116.x#search=).
*Learning Disabilities Research & Practice (20)*1, 16-23.

> The purpose of this article is to raise issues concerning the
> influences of culture on assessments of Native American students. The
> nature and extent of the problem is portrayed by citing information
> from national data sources on the achievement of Native American
> students. Cultural aspects of assessment and principles of assessment
> are discussed, using personal experiences to encourage others to
> reflect on cultural aspects of assessment. The article ends with the
> argument that there is much to learn about assessing Native American
> and other minority students, taking into account the external
> influences of culture, environment, attitudes, context, and
> perspectives.

Demmert, W., & Towner, J. (2003). *[A Review of the Research Literature
on the Influences of Culturally Based Education on the Academic
Performance on Native American
Students](http://www.nwrel.org/indianed/cbe.pdf).* Retrieved Mat 12,
2004 from Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory Web site:
<http://www.nwrel.org/indianed/cbe.pdf>.

> The purpose of this review of the literature was to collect, report
> on, and critically analyze the research literature on the impact of
> culturally based education programs, known collectively as Culturally
> Based Education, on the school performance of American Indian, Alaska
> Native, and Native Hawaiian children. As directed, the review includes
> studies that can legitimately be classified as experimental or
> quasi-experimental. Because of the limited number of studies in this
> classification, a small number of non-experimental comparative studies
> were added.

Lipka, J. (2002). *[Schooling for Self-Determination: Research on the
Effects of Including Native Language and Culture in the
Schools](http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=schooling+for+self-determination%3A+research+on+the+effects&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=title&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&objectId=0900000b801b594d).*
Charleston, WV: Clearinghouse on Rural and Small Schools. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED459989).

> This Digest briefly reviews the educational effects of assimilationist
> schooling and later efforts to create schools supportive of American
> Indian and Alaska Native self-determination. It then describes
> examples of tribal- or community-controlled programs that use
> students' Native language of instruction and incorporate traditional
> culture into the curriculum. Any such review of literature must begin
> with a reminder: Indigenous communities vary in their cultural,
> linguistic, and geographic circumstances as well as in the education
> goals. Therefore, it is not possible to prescribe specific programs
> across such a diverse array of situations.

Lipka, J., & Adams, B. (2004). *[Culturally Based Math Education as a
Way to Improve Alaska Native Students' Math
Performance](http://www.acclaim-math.org/docs/working_papers/WP_20_Lipka_Adams.pdf).*
Retrieved May 16, 2005, from Appalachian Collaborative Center for
Learning, Assessment and Instruction in Mathematics Web site:
<http://www.acclaim-math.org/docs/working_papers/WP_20_Lipka_Adams.pdf>.

> Culturally based instruction has long been touted as a preferred
> approach to improving the performance of American Indian and Alaska
> Native students' academic performance. However, there has been scant
> research to support this conjecture, particularly when quantitative
> data and quasi-experimental designs are included. The results of this
> study show that the culturally based math curriculum, Building a Fish
> Rack: Investigation into Proof, Properties, Perimeter, and Area,
> enabled sixth grade Yup'ik students and their urban counterparts to
> increase their mathematical understanding of perimeter and area.
>
> This study involved one semester's worth of data (258 students in 15
> classes). The study was a strong quasi-experimental design with random
> assignment and the results were based on pre- and post-test score
> differences. The study involved one urban school district, Fairbanks,
> and four rural school districts with approximately a 97% Yup'ik
> population. The study showed that the difference in test results
> between all treatment groups and control groups was significant beyond
> the accepted standard of p\<0.05. Although the urban treatment group
> gained the most from this curriculum, the most important finding is
> that the rural treatment group outperformed the rural control group at
> a significant level beyond the accepted standard of p\<0.05. The study
> is encouraging, as it shows that the treatment effect on the Yup'ik
> students narrows the long-standing academic gap when comparing that
> group's and the Yup'ik control group's relative performance against
> the urban control group. Further studies are necessary to determine if
> the results can be replicated, if the results are tied to a specific
> topic area, and if a study that uses complementary research methods
> can unpack the factors behind the gain.

National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education (2000, December).
*[Framing Effective Practice: Topics and Issues in Educating English
Language
Learners](http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/tasynthesis/framing/framing.pdf).*
Retrieved September 14, 2005 from
<http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/tasynthesis/framing/framing.pdf>.

> The purpose of this technical assistance synthesis is to bring
> together the more recent literature on educating English Language
> Learner's, and present a broad picture of a few of the most pressing
> issues and topics. Each essay is accompanied by a resource guide
> designed to enable technical assistance providers to secure additional
> information on the topic.

Peacock, T. (1999). *[Teaching American Indian and Alaska Native
Languages in the Schools: What Has Been
Learned](http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED438155).*
Charleston, WV: Clearinghouse on Rural and Small Schools. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED438155).

> This Digest considers issues and possible solutions in dealing with
> Native language loss, maintenance, and restoration in American Indian
> and Alaska Native communities, focusing on successful efforts of
> schools and communities.

Peter, L., Christie, E., Cochran, M., Dunn, D., Elk, L., Fields, E., et
al. (2003). [Assessing the Impact of Total Immersion on Cherokee
Language Revitalization: A Culturally Responsive, Participatory
Approach](http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/NNL/NNL_2.pdf). In J. Reyhner, O.
Trujillo, L. Carrasco, & L. Lockard (Eds.), *Nurturing Native* Languages
(pp. 7-23). Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University. Retrieved July
22, 2005 from <http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/NNL/NNL_2.pdf>.

> This chapter illustrates how one group, the Cherokee Nation of
> Oklahoma, is exploring a new paradigm of evaluation that is responsive
> to the claims, concerns, and issues of the stakeholders involved.
> Known as Culturally Responsive Evaluation, this alternative conceived
> by the Initiative for Culturally Responsive Evaluation is more
> appropriate than conventional models for evaluating language
> revitalization efforts because it is respectful of the dignity,
> integrity, and privacy of the stakeholders in that it allows their
> full participation, parity, and control. And, because the course of
> action is negotiated and honors the diversity of values and opinions
> among stakeholders, individuals are more likely not only to have
> reason to support it, but to be satisfied with the outcome as well.

Powers, K., Potthoff, S., Bearinger, L., & Resnick, M. (2003). [Does
Cultural Programming Improve Educational Outcomes for American Indian
Youth?](http://jaie.asu.edu/subscribe.html) *Journal of American Indian
Education, 42*(2), 17-49.

> This study examined the influence of cultural programming on American
> Indian school outcomes. Ecological systems theory suggests that school
> learning is a result of multiple, complex transactions. Thus, the
> effects of cultural programming over and above other proven
> contributors to school success were analyzed. Structural equation
> modeling, which allows for the study of multiple variables and their
> interactions upon school outcomes, was used to evaluate extant data
> collected from 240 urban American Indian youth. The results of this
> exploratory study indicated that cultural programming moderately, and
> largely indirectly, influences student outcomes. The strongest
> predictor of school success appeared to be the extent to which schools
> provide supportive personnel and safe and drug-free environments.

Ramos, F. (2001). [Teachers' Opinions about the Theoretical and
Practical Aspects of the Use of Native Language Instruction for Language
Minority Students: A Cross-Sectional Study \[Electronic
Version\]](http://brj.asu.edu/content/vol25_no3/pdf/ar6.pdf). *Bilingual
Research Journal, 25*(3), 251-268.

> The results of studies analyzing teachers' opinions about the
> theoretical and practical aspects of the use of native language
> instruction for language minority students appear to reflect a clear
> discrepancy: There is strong support for the underlying theory, while
> there is less support for its practical implementation. The present
> study analyzed 218 K-8 teachers' responses to a questionnaire dealing
> with the aforementioned issue. In addition, the study also examined
> which factors influenced their opinions, and whether their opinions
> varied across different grades (K-2^nd^, 3^rd^-4^th^, 5^th^-8^th^).
> Consistent with previous research, support for the theoretical
> principles underlying the use of the students' native language was
> strong. Support for its practical implementation was less positive. No
> clear predictors of attitudes toward the issue being investigated were
> found. Alongside, no significant variations in opinions were found
> among the groups in which the teachers were clustered (K-2^nd^,
> 3^rd^-4^th^, 5^th^-8^th^). The results of the present study appear to
> indicate that teachers were guided by their own beliefs at the time of
> answering the survey. The need for more research in this area is
> underscored, as is the need to incorporate and take into consideration
> teachers' personal opinions, feedback, and input at the time of
> designing teacher preparation programs.

Rolstad, K., Mahoney, K., & Glass, G. (2005). [The Big Picture: A
Meta-Analysis of Program Effectiveness Research on English Language
Learners](http://www.public.asu.edu/~krolstad/big_picture.pdf).
*Educational Policy 19*(4), 572-594.

> This article presents a meta-analysis of program effectiveness
> research on English language learners. The study includes a corpus of
> 17 studies conducted since Willig's earlier meta-analysis and uses
> Glass, McGaw, and Smith's strategy of including as many studies as
> possible in the analysis rather than excluding some on the basis of a
> priori "study quality" criteria. It is shown that bilingual education
> is consistently superior to all-English approaches, and that
> developmental bilingual education programs are superior to
> transitional bilingual programs. The meta-analysis of studies
> controlling for English-language-learner status indicates a positive
> effect for bilingual education of .23 standard deviations, with
> outcome measures in the native language showing a positive effect of
> .86 standard deviations. It is concluded that bilingual education
> programs are effective in promoting academic achievement, and that
> sound educational policy should permit and even encourage the
> development and implementation of bilingual education programs.

Slavin, R., & Cheung, A. (2003). *[Effective Reading Programs for
English Language Learners: A Best-Evidence
Approach](http://www.csos.jhu.edu/crespar/techReports/Report66.pdf).*
Balitmore, MD: Johns Hopkins University.

> This report reviews experimental studies of reading programs for
> English language learners, focusing both on comparisons of bilingual
> and English-only programs and on specific, replicable models that have
> been evaluated with English language learners. The review method is
> best-evidence synthesis, which uses a systematic literature search,
> quantification of outcomes as effect sizes, and extensive discussion
> of individual studies that meet inclusion standards. The review
> concludes that while the number of high-quality studies is small,
> existing evidence favors bilingual approaches, especially paired
> bilingual strategies that teach reading in the native language and
> English at the same time.

Whitbeck, L., Hoyt, D., Stubben, J., & LaFromboise, T. (2001).
[Traditional Culture and Academic Success among American Indian Children
in the Upper Midwest](http://jaie.asu.edu/v40/V40I2A3.pdf). *Journal of
American Indian Education 40*(2), 48-60.

> This research examines factors affecting school success for a sample
> of 196 fifth-eighth grade American Indian children from three
> reservations in the upper Midwest. The regression model included age,
> gender, family structure, parent occupation and income, maternal
> warmth, extracurricular activities, enculturation, and self-esteem.
> The results indicate that traditional culture positively affects the
> academic performance of fifth-eighth grade children. The bivariate
> correlation between enculturation and self-esteem was nonsignificant
> and there was no significant interaction between enculturation and
> self-esteem indicating that enculturation was directly associated with
> school success. The findings are discussed in terms of resiliency
> efforts of enculturation for American Indian children.

Yazzie, T. (2000). *[Holding a Mirror to "Eyes Wide Shut": The Role of
Native Cultures and Languages in the Education of American Indian
Students](http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED444778).*
Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED444778).

> This paper discusses the role that culture and language can play in
> American Indian education, as well as some challenges of incorporating
> culture in education. The movement toward incorporation of language
> and culture in school curricula emerges out of a tattered educational
> history. This history shows how the use of Native languages and
> cultures in school has fallen on a continuum from English-only
> instruction to language and culture used only to achieve an ultimate
> goal of assimilation. Since the federal government funds most reform
> efforts in Indian education, it also determines the purpose and judges
> the success of such efforts. In contrast to assimilationist models of
> education, a bicultural education model expects that both the
> community and school will decide the purpose of education. In moving
> toward authentic incorporation of Native languages and cultures
> through a bicultural model, Indian educators must address challenges
> involving the diversity of understandings of language and culture, the
> diversity of understandings of culturally appropriate education, and
> the diversity of experience and tribal affiliation. The first step in
> overcoming unequal positioning of Native languages and cultures is to
> identify the power structures determining the purpose of education.
> Native efforts to reform education require guidance from educational
> research that seeks to preserve Native languages and cultures and to
> create opportunities where Native people can succeed in education. A
> research agenda should consider theoretical models, historical
> research on Indian education, practical studies on classroom teaching
> and learning, and related research on other minority groups.

### Teaching

AEL (2004). *[Effects of a Culturally Responsive Teaching Project on
Teachers and Students in Selected Kanawha County, WV,
Schools](http://www.edvantia.org/publications/index1.cfm?&section=publications&area=publications&id=457).*
Retrieved July 1, 2005 from
<http://www.edvantia.org/publications/index1.cfm?&section=publications&area=publications&id=457>.

> Differences in academic achievement among ethnic and socioeconomic
> groups, called achievement gaps, have been an issue in education for
> many years. Achievement gaps exist between upper-and lower-class
> students and between students of differing race and ethnic
> backgrounds. The current research was designed to research
> instructional practices useful in improving the academic achievement
> of all students, particularly African American students.

McCarty, T., Watahomigie, L., Tayamoto, A., & Zepeda, O. (2001).
[Indigenous Educators as Change Agents: Case Studies of Two Language
Institutes](http://books.elsevier.com/us/language/us/subindex.asp?maintarget=&isbn=0123493544&country=United+States&srccode=&ref=&subcode=&head=&pdf=&basiccode=&txtSearch=&SearchField=&operator=&order=&community=language).
In L. Hinton & K. Hale (Eds.), *The Green Book of Language
Revitalization in Practice* (pp. 371 -- 383). San Diego, CA: Academic
Press.

With world-wide environmental destruction and globalization of economy,
a few languages, especially English, are spreading rapidly in use, while
thousands of other languages are disappearing, taking with them
important cultural, philosophical and environmental knowledge systems
and oral literatures. We all stand to suffer from such a loss, none more
so than the communities whose very identity is being threatened by the
impending death of their languages. In response to this crisis,
indigenous communities around the world have begun to develop a myriad
of projects to keep their languages alive. This volume is a set of
detailed accounts about the kind of work that is going on now as people
struggle for their linguistic survival. It also serves as a manual of
effective practices in language revitalization. The current chapter
investigates the American Indian Language Development Institute, the
Oklahoma Native American Language Development Institute and the Oklahoma
Native Language Association Workshops; each of which can be examined for
their implication and applicability to other linguistic and
sociocultural contexts. The authors include "lessons learned" from each
case, and conclude with recommendations for indigenous community-based
language maintenance and revitalization.

Mellow, J. (2000). [An Examination of Western Influences on Indigenous
Language Teaching](http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/LIB/LIB9.html). In J.
Reyhner, J. Martin & L. Lockard (Eds.), *Learn in Beauty: Indigenous
Education for a New Century* (pp. 102-113). Flagstaff, AZ: Northern
Arizona University.

This paper examines how various \"Western\" approaches to teaching
languages are influencing how Indigenous languages are currently being
taught. A two-dimensional model of approaches to language teaching is
described and compared to research on language teaching in general and
indigenous language teaching in particular. The paper concludes with a
recommendation that language educators use a principled eclectic
approach to language teaching that draws on what we know generally about
teaching languages as well as what is known about unique local factors
specific to particular indigenous languages and communities.

Saifer, S., Edwards, K., Ellis, D., Ko, L., & Stuczynski, A. (2005).
*[Classroom to Community and Back: Using Culturally Responsive
Standards-Based Teaching to Stregthen Family and Community Partnerships
and Increase Student
Achievement](http://www.nwrel.org/partnerships/c2cb/c2c.pdf).* Northwest
Regional Educational Laboratory: Portland, OR. Retrieved July 17, 2005
from <http://www.nwrel.org/partnerships/c2cb/c2c.pdf>.

> This resource guide describes how educators can use the knowledge and
> culture students bring to school in a standards-based curriculum that
> supports student success. Through foundational research, the
> publication shows teachers and school leaders how CSRB engages all
> students in learning; builds relationships between the classroom and
> the outside world; and creates opportunities for families and
> community members to support student success in and out of school.

### Other

Barta, J., Abeyta, A., Gould, D., Galindo, E., Matt, G., Seaman, D., &
Voggessor, G. (2001). [The Mathematical Ecology of the Shoshoni and
Implications for Elementary Mathematics Education and the Young
Learner](http://jaie.asu.edu/v40/V40I2A1.pdf). *Journal of American
Indian Education, 40*(2), 1-27. Retrieved September 23, 2005 from
<http://jaie.asu.edu/v40/V40I2A1.pdf>.

> The Shoshoni are an indigenous people who traditionally inhabited
> parts of what is now northern Utah, central and southern Idaho, and
> western Wyoming for the past 14,000 years. While many facets of their
> historical and recent culture have been analyzed, little investigation
> has taken place to date concerning their use of mathematics in
> culturally specific ways. This manuscript is the report of a two-year
> study involving semi-structured interviews of Shoshoni representatives
> to describe the culturally specific use of mathematics in Shoshoni
> traditional living practices. Qualitative research methods were
> selected in order to gain a rich understanding of the mathematical
> insight and uses of mathematics for the Shoshoni. The inquiry methods
> and related interview questions may serve as a model to structure
> research investigating mathematical practices of other American Indian
> cultures, thus allowing for a broader understanding of indigenous
> people and the culturally-specific mathematical practices of each
> tribe. Insight gained from this research prepares the way for American
> Indian educators to create culturally specific mathematics curricula
> reflecting the local culture of those they teach.

Brenner, M. (1998). [Adding Cognition to the Formula for Culturally
Relevant Instruction in
Mathematics](http://www.ucpress.edu/journals/3a/aeq/index.htm).
*Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 29*(2), 214-244.

> Although equity is one of the goals of the mathematics reform
> movement, there has been little research done to develop programs that
> meet the needs of specific cultural groups. By studying how
> mathematical knowledge is developed in the course of everyday life, it
> is possible to change mathematics instruction to enhance mathematical
> achievement. In a series of research projects with Native Hawaiian
> children, ethnographic information and cognitive studies of
> mathematical thinking guided a program to develop culturally relevant
> mathematics teaching. The approach taken in this study is compared to
> other recent efforts to develop culturally relevant instruction in
> mathematics.

Hinton, L. (2001). [Language
Planning](http://books.elsevier.com/us/language/us/subindex.asp?maintarget=&isbn=0123493544&country=United+States&srccode=&ref=&subcode=&head=&pdf=&basiccode=&txtSearch=&SearchField=&operator=&order=&community=language).
L. Hinton & K. Hale (Eds.), *The Green Book of Language Revitalization
in Practice* (pp. 51 - 59). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

With world-wide environmental destruction and globalization of economy,
a few languages, especially English, are spreading rapidly in use, while
thousands of other languages are disappearing, taking with them
important cultural, philosophical and environmental knowledge systems
and oral literatures. We all stand to suffer from such a loss, none more
so than the communities whose very identity is being threatened by the
impending death of their languages. In response to this crisis,
indigenous communities around the world have begun to develop a myriad
of projects to keep their languages alive. This volume is a set of
detailed accounts about the kind of work that is going on now as people
struggle for their linguistic survival. It also serves as a manual of
effective practices in language revitalization. The current chapter
explores community-based language planning. The author will review steps
necessary for language planning and some of the components for a good
language plan. Topics covered include: types of planning, stages of
planning, and case studies of language planning.

Martinez, R. (2000). [Languages and Tribal Sovereignty: Whose Language
is it Anyway?](http://www.coe.ohio-state.edu/TIP/order.html) *Theory
into Practice (39)*4, 211-219.

> Argues that the ways in which other languages, such as Spanish, have
> been dealt with in the schools, particularly in bilingual programs,
> should not be applied to Pueblo languages. Pueblo culture, history,
> and politics have evolved a different way of thinking about language
> and require different educational solutions. Partnerships between
> Pueblo communities and schools must be founded on mutual respect.

McCarty, T., (2002). [Between Possibility and Constraint: Indigenous
Language Education, Planning, and Policy in the United
States](http://www.amazon.com/Language-Policies-Education-Critical-Issues/dp/0805836012).
In J. Tollefson (Ed.), *Language Policies in Education: Critical Issues*
(pp. 285-307). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

> In this chapter, the author examines indigenous language planning and
> policies emanating within and around schools, drawing upon critical
> theories of language and education and upon 20 years of ethnographic
> and collaborative work with indigenous educators.

Yap, K. (2004). *[Experimental Research in Culturally Based Education:
An Assessment of
Feasibility](http://www.nwrel.org/indianed/cbe/2004.pdf).* Retrieved May
12, 2004 from Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory Web site:
<http://www.nwrel.org/indianed/cbe/2004.pdf>.

> This report describes activities conducted by the Northwest Regional
> Educational Laboratory under Executive Order 13096, Section F to
> assess the feasibility of conducting experimental research in
> culturally based education (CBE). Two data sources were used to write
> this report. First, the research team conducted a review of extant
> research on the impact of CBE on the school performance of American
> Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian students. The intent was to
> identify research studies in which the researcher has some *control
> over the assignment of subjects* to treatment conditions, using
> experimental or quasi-experimental designs. Second, a national survey
> of CBE programs was conducted to uncover existing CBE interventions to
> determine the feasibility of developing experimental or
> quasi-experimental research designs among existing programs.

### Disclaimer and Terms of Use

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