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| ## EASTERN GAMAGRASS {#eastern-gamagrass .Title-Header}               |
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| *Tripsacum* *dactyloides* (L.) L.                                     |
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| Plant Symbol = TRDA3                                                  |
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Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center and New Mexico
Plant Materials Center

![](media/image2.jpeg){width="3.303472222222222in"
height="2.738888888888889in"}

Eastern gamagrass spike with male flowers on top with anthers extruded,
and cupulate fruit-cases on bottom. Courtesy of Missouri State
University Herbarium.

##### Alternate Names {#alternate-names .Header-3}

*Tripsacum dactyloides* (L.) L. var. *occidentale* Cutler & Anders.,
*Coix dactyloides* L., bullgrass, capim gigante, eastern mock gama,
fakahatchee grass, Gamagras, herbe grama, maicillo oriental, pasto
Guatemala, wild corn, zacate maicero

##### Uses {#uses .Header-3}

##### *Forage:* The major use of eastern gamagrass is as a forage crop. It is highly productive as intensively managed pasture, hay and silage. Eastern gamagrass can be developed into an important component of forage for beef and dairy production systems (Dewald et al., 2006). Since eastern gamagrass is a warm-season grass, the distribution of yield throughout the summer makes it a useful source of forage when cool-season grasses such as tall fescue (*Schedonorus phoenix*) are relatively unproductive or dormant (Roberts & Kallenbach, 2006).  {#forage-the-major-use-of-eastern-gamagrass-is-as-a-forage-crop.-it-is-highly-productive-as-intensively-managed-pasture-hay-and-silage.-eastern-gamagrass-can-be-developed-into-an-important-component-of-forage-for-beef-and-dairy-production-systems-dewald-et-al.-2006.-since-eastern-gamagrass-is-a-warm-season-grass-the-distribution-of-yield-throughout-the-summer-makes-it-a-useful-source-of-forage-when-cool-season-grasses-such-as-tall-fescue-schedonorus-phoenix-are-relatively-unproductive-or-dormant-roberts-kallenbach-2006. .Header-3}

*Forage quality*: Researchers have evaluated eastern gamagrass forage
quality across many locations, soil fertility levels and genotypes
(Coblentz et al., 1999; Douglas et al., 2000a; Edwards et al., 2000;
Salon et al., 2000). The crude protein percentage measurements on
gamagrass forage at the boot growth stage average about 12.5. The boot
stage is when the inflorescence is enclosed in the sheath of the
uppermost leaf. The *in vitro* digestibility percentage measurements on
gamagrass forage average about 70.

*Forage yield and animal performance*: The average daily gains of steers
grazing continuously on eastern gamagrass across several studies
conducted in the middle south ranged between 1.1 to 2.2 lb per day
(Aiken, 1997; Burns et al., 1992). In North Carolina steers continuously
grazing either 'Pete' eastern gamagrass, 'Carostan' flaccidgrass
(*Pennisetum flaccidum*) or 'Coastal' bermudagrass (*Cynodon*
*dactylon*) exhibited average daily gains of 1.8, 1.5 and 0.7 lb,
respectively (Burns & Fisher, 2000). A series of studies conducted in
North Carolina show that across the total grazing season the average
daily gain of steers grazing either Pete eastern gamagrass or 'Kanlow'
switchgrass (*Panicum* *virgatum*) was about 2 lb. In contrast, the
average daily gain for steers grazing the widely used tall
fescue-bermudagrass system was about 1.6 lb during the same period.
During a dry year in North Carolina (rainfall during the pasture season
about 10 inches below the average), 'Alamo' switchgrass was the most
productive forage as defined by steer gain per acre; but 'Iuka IV'
eastern gamagrass was more productive than 'Rountree' big bluestem
(*Andropogon gerardii*), Caucasian bluestem, and bermudagrass.

In western Kentucky, cow-calf pairs were grazed on either eastern
gamagrass or Caucasian bluestem (*Bothriochloa* *bladhii*) and
bermudagrass during June though early September (Pingel, 1999). The data
from this study was not statistically analyzed. But, the author observed
that eastern gamagrass maintained more consistent forage production
across the grazing season than either Caucasian bluestem or
bermudagrass. Gamagrass forage production did not decrease as rapidly as
that of Caucasian bluestem and bermudagrass across an August-September
low rainfall period. Gamagrass provided fewer grazing days than either
Caucasian bluestem or bermudagrass because of gamagrass' requirement for
a long rest period between grazing cycles.

*Filter strip, Vegetative barrier, Nutrient management*: In studies
conducted in Arkansas and Maryland, the harvest of eastern gamagrass
aboveground tissue removed more nitrogen from soil that was fertilized
with high levels of poultry litter than the harvest of yellow bluestem
(*Bothriochloa* *ischaemum* var. *ischaemum*), but less than the harvest
of switchgrass (Staver, 2000; Tharel, 2000). Only about 12% of the
phosphorous applied in the poultry litter was accounted for in
aboveground tissue. Therefore, using poultry litter to supply the
nitrogen requirements of either gamagrass or switchgrass would result in
a rapid increase in soil phosphorous levels.

McLaughlin et al. (2004), in a study conducted in east-central
Mississippi, compared 6 grasses: common and Coastal bermudagrass, Pete
eastern gamagrass, 'Lometa' Indiangrass (*Sorghastrum nutans*),
Johnsongrass (*Sorghum halepense*) and Alamo switchgrass for the uptake
of both macro and micronutrients. Swine effluent spray was applied to
the soil for 8 years prior to the initiation of the experiment and
during the first 2 years of the 3 year study. Bermudagrass, both Coastal
and common, accumulated more nitrogen and phosphorous per acre into
above-ground herbage than the other grasses (P\<0.05). The N/P uptake
ratios ranged from 4.7 for Costal bermudagrass to 9.3 for eastern
gamagrass. When the objective of a swine waste nutrient management hay
system is to provide nitrogen for optimum forage production while
avoiding accumulation of excess phosphorous in the soil, forages with
N/P ratios less than 10 are expected to satisfy the objective, but
forages with ratios greater than 10 are not. The N/P uptake ratios of
all 6 grasses were less than 10.0, with common bermudagrass and
Indiangrass displaying the lowest ratios, and eastern gamagrass the
highest. In summary, the performance of the bermudagrass exceeded those
of the other 4 grasses 83% of the time for dry matter yield and 76% of
the time for nutrient uptake. The authors conclude "among the 6 grasses
tested, common bermudagrass is the best choice for replacing
Johnsongrass as a warm-season perennial grass hay crop for nutrient
management in this swine effluent spray field." But, the native species,
eastern gamagrass and switchgrass could be used in the current nutrient
management system.

In Mississippi, eastern gamagrass, giant reed (*Arundo donax*), big
bluestem, Alamo switchgrass, and tall fescue established in filter
strips adjacent to cotton fields were equally effective in reducing
sediment runoff. Consequently, the grasses were equally effective in
trapping soil applied herbicides that were either attached or adsorbed
to the soil (Rankins, 1998).

Eastern gamagrass, when compared to tall fescue, increased the
infiltration of water and improved soil physical and hydraulic
properties (Perrygo et al. 2001). The authors recommend planting eastern
gamagrass as filter strips along the edges of agricultural fields to
enhance infiltration and reduce surface runoff.

Eastern gamagrass has received considerable attention for use in
vegetative barriers for soil erosion control because the crown has the
capacity to elevate coarse aerial foliage above sediment deposition and
to anchor the plant with stout brace roots. Researchers in northern
Mississippi compared vegetative barriers composed of 1, 2, 3 or 4 rows
of either eastern gamagrass or switchgrass (Becker, 2001; Dewald et al.,
1996). One and two-row barriers were as resistant as three and four-row
barriers to overtopping by flowing water that contained sediment.
Switchgrass remained more erect and held back more water and sediment
than eastern gamagrass.

##### Status {#status .Header-3}

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural
Resources for this plant's current status (e.g. threatened or endangered
species, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).

#####  {#section .Header-3}

##### Description {#description .Header-3}

*General*: Grass Family (Poaceae), tribe Andropogoneae, and subtribe
Tripsacinae. It shares the same subtribe as corn (*Zea mays*). Eastern
gamagrass is a native, perennial, bunchgrass and is a distant relative
of corn. It is a long-lived (to 50 years), warm-season species native to
most of the eastern half of the United States. It ranges in height from
4 to 8 feet. The leaf blades are flat, long (12 to 30 inches) and wide
(0.4 to 1.2 inches), with a well-defined midrib. It reproduces
vegetatively from thick, knotty rhizome like structures called proaxes.
The inflorescences have 1 to 3 racemes. The spikes are 6 to 10 inches
long. Similar to corn, eastern gamagrass has separate male and female
flowers (monoecious). But unlike corn, each gamagrass spike contains
both male and female flowers. Male flowers occupy the top ¾ of the spike
and female flowers the bottom ¼.

Terminal inflorescences occur on the top of the stem, and lateral
inflorescences occur at the leaf axil, which is the angle between the
leaf and stem. Seed is produced from June to September resulting in
uneven maturation. The spike ripens from the top down and is susceptible
to shattering. The seed yield of gamagrass seed is low, and it does not
reseed adequately from established stands. Eastern gamagrass occurs
predominately at the diploid (2n = 2x = 36) and tetraploid (2n = 4x =
72) levels although triploids (2n = 3x = 54), pentaploids (2n = 5x =
90), and hexaploids (2n = 6x = 108) have been reported (Farquharson,
1995). Only the diploid plants are sexual and cross-pollinated. The
tetraploids and the rest of the polyploids are apomictic (Burson et al.,
1990). They produce seed asexually that is genetically identical to the
mother plant.

*Distribution*: For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

##### Adaptation {#adaptation .Header-3}

The indigenous U.S. range of eastern gamagrass extends from central
Texas to southeastern Nebraska and central Iowa and east to the Atlantic
Ocean (Rechenthin, 1951). Eastern gamagrass' range extends to Central
and South America and the Caribbean (Tropical Forages, 2006). Gamagrass
flourishes under dryland conditions where annual precipitation exceeds
35 inches (Dewald et al., 2006). Respectable forage production can be
achieved on good soils in regions with 25 inches of annual
precipitation. It can be grown in areas with less annual precipitation
on irrigated and sub-irrigated land.

The eastern gamagrass cultivars Pete and Iuka IV exhibited yellow leaves
when grown at Los Lunas, New Mexico on a Belen loam (J. Henson, personal
communication, 2001). A pH range of 7.9 to 9.0 characterizes the Belen
loam. Presumably, the yellow leaves are the result of iron deficiency
due to the inability of gamagrass to take-up iron from the high pH soil.
A suggested minimum soil pH for eastern gamagrass is 5.1 (Foy et
al.1999) and the maximum is 7.5 (Sharp Brothers Seed Company, 1999).
Another estimate of the optimum pH range is 5.4 to 6.0 (Roberts &
Kallenbach, 2006). Gamagrass is intolerant of saline soils. Eastern
gamagrass culm height was reduced when grown in a soil with an
electrical conductivity of 0.72 dS/m in New Mexico (Henson, 1993). In
Kansas, Iuka IV was established on a commercial seed production field,
with a soil pH range from 6.9 to 8.0. A good stand exists across the
whole field, but both seed and forage production were less in the area
of the field where the soil pH is 8.0 than where the soil pH is less
than 8.0.

In the Northeast, gamagrass is susceptible to frost heaving on poorly
drained soils. In some years this may also occur on sites with
moderately well drained soils during the spring following establishment.

Clay pan soils and other soils with high mechanical impedance, low pH,
and frequent waterlogged conditions cover extensive areas of the
Midwest, Northeast and Southeast. Clay pans are usually hard when dry,
and plastic and sticky when wet. Clay pan layers hinder root growth into
the soil, are acidic (pH \<5.0), and may contain toxic levels of
aluminum.

In a study conducted in Missouri, roots of native eastern gamagrass
stands effectively penetrated clay pan layers with clay contents of
30-50% clay (Clark et al., 1998). Eastern gamagrass formed extensive
root channels in the clay pan layer especially where the gamagrass had
been growing for more than 50 years. In a series of experiments
conducted in greenhouses, eastern gamagrass exhibited tolerance to low
soil pH, high soil aluminum concentrations and high soil strength (Foy,
1997; Gilker et al., 2002).Root growth of eastern gamagrass, in contrast
to Sudangrass (*Sorghum bicolor* ssp. *drummondii*) was not inhibited by
either acid or aluminum-toxic soil conditions. Neither low pH nor high
soil strength adversely affected gamagrass root growth. The authors
conclude, "The characteristics of tolerance to acid and aluminum and to
high soil strength conditions make eastern gamagrass valuable in
establishing grassed buffers, vegetative conservation barriers, and
pastures."

Foy et al. (1999) determined the effect of liming a compact, acid, high
aluminum soil in Maryland on the forage yield of Pete eastern gamagrass.
The limed and non-limed soils had a pH of 5.8 and 5.1, respectively. The
gamagrass annual forage yield averaged 3.25 tons/acre across two years.
There was no difference between the limed and non-limed soil for forage
yield. The high tolerance of eastern gamagrass to low soil pH and
aluminum toxicity is in contrast to most crop plants. Krizek et al.
(2003) conducted a 4 year (1997-2000) study in Maryland to determine the
forage yield of Pete eastern gamagrass, when grown on an acid, compact
soil. Gamagrass annual forage yield remained relatively high, averaging
2 tons/acre, during 1997 to 2000 despite moisture deficits during each
of these years, and a severe moisture deficit during 1999. In contrast,
adjacent plots of corn and soybean (*Glycine max*) exhibited severe
stunting and reduced or zero grain yields during this period.
Observations of gamagrass roots from pits dug adjacent to the plots
indicate that gamagrass roots can penetrate acid, compact clay pans to a
depth of 3 to 6.5 feet. The authors state, "The fact that eastern
gamagrass can withstand periods of moisture deficits may be related to
its ability to send its roots deep into the soil early in the spring
when the water table is frequently perched (as at our site), thereby
enabling it to tap this reservoir of water when surface moisture is
limiting. . . When properly fertilized, eastern gamagrass is ideally
suited for reclamation of acid and compact soils and for production of
high biomass of high quality forage."

##### Establishment {#establishment .Header-3}

Since eastern gamagrass is very palatable to livestock it is one of the
first grasses that is eliminated from mixed stands by grazing. Due to
its high palatability in grazing systems, it is best to establish and
utilize gamagrass in pure stands. However, John Dickerson, NRCS plant
materials specialist, states, "Other species, particularly other native
grasses, are compatible with eastern gamagrass in forage production
fields if grazing and hay management is focused on the gamagrass. Also,
a mixture of grasses may exclude weeds more effectively than a solid
stand of gamagrass."

*Seed dormancy*: The caryopsis of eastern gamagrass is surrounded by a
hard fruit-case. The botanical name for this fruitcase is cupule.
Henceforth an eastern gamagrass caryopsis and the surrounding cupulate
fruitcase is referred to as a seed unit (Galinat, 1956). Eastern
gamagrass establishment is hindered by seed unit dormancy (Ahring &
Frank, 1968). A cold moist stratification, which softens the cupule is
the most practical method to reduce the percentage of dormant seed units
(Anderson, 1985).

*Winter planting of dormant seed units:* One alternative is to plant
non-stratified seed units during autumn or winter when the soil
temperature in below 50 °F, and rely on the cold, moist conditions of
winter to stratify the seed (Graves et al., 1997; Gamagrass Growers
Guide, 2005). If the seed units are planted too early in autumn,
germination may occur during winter, which will increase the potential
for winter injury. The recommended autumn/winter planting windows for
several regions are available (USDA-NRCS-NPDC, 2007).

*Spring planting of artificially stratified seed units*: An artificial
stratification of seed units in a cold cabinet will break gamagrass seed
dormancy. The seed units must be stratified (exposed to cold, wet
conditions) for 3 to 10 weeks prior to spring sowing (Row, 1998;
Springer et al., 2001). A frequently used technique for artificial
stratification (Graves et al. 1997; J. Grabowski, personal
communication, 2005) is the following:

> Fill a burlap bag about ½ full with eastern gamagrass seed units. Soak
> the bag containing the seed units in a 1% solution of a fungicide such
> as Thiram^1^™ for 10 to 12 hours. Check the label for clearance before
> using any fungicide. Drain the burlap bag that contains the seed
> units. Seal the burlap bag and then seal the burlap bag in a plastic
> bag. Store the treated seed units for 6 to 10 weeks at 35-45 °F. Do
> not freeze. When the seed units are removed from the cold cabinet,
> they should not be allowed to dry before planting.

The soil must remain moist after planting artificially stratified seed
until the seed germinates. Graves et al. (1997) recommends planting into
a moist seed bed because if the seed dries out before germination the
stand will be dramatically reduced. Some commercial seed producers sell
pre-stratified seed units. These seed units are hydrated when purchased.
A farmer must either plant pre-stratified seed units within 24 hours
after receiving them or store the seed units in a moist-cold
environment, otherwise the seed units will sprout prior to planting.

A commercial seed company, Gamagrass Seed Company (Falls City, NE) has
developed a proprietary process (Germtec II^1^ TM), which is a priming
process for eastern gamagrass seed units. The advantage of primed seed
over pre-stratified seed units is that primed seed units are stable
during shipping without moist-cold storage and immediate planting is not
required. However, the germination percentage of primed seed units
declines slowly across time (Krizek et al., 2000).

The recommended date for spring planting of eastern gamagrass stratified
seed units is similar to that for corn (Graves et al., 1997). Roberts
and Kallenbackn (2006) recommend planting stratified seed units in
Missouri when soil temperatures reach 65 °F. Janet Grabowski recommends
planting stratified 'Highlander' eastern gamagrass in Mississippi when
soil temperatures are about 85 °F (J. Grabowski, personal communication,
2005).

*Planting techniques*: Good stands of the cultivars Pete and Iuka IV
eastern gamagrass have been obtained using 8 to 10 lb of high quality
seed units per acre \[about 45,000 to 56,250 pure live seeds (PLS) per
acre\] (Dewald et al., 2006). Good quality seed of the cultivars Pete
and Iuka IV, which are composed of Great Plains ecotypes, usually have
5000 to 7000 seed units per lb. Higher seeding densities (12-15 lb seed
units/acre) of these cultivars should be used if the number of seed
units per pound is less than 6000. In general, tetraploid ecotypes with
Southeast origins have larger seed units and fewer seed units per pound
than ecotypes from the Great Plains. The weight per seed unit of the
cultivar 'Jackson', which is a tetraploid ecotype of southeast Texas
origin, is larger than that of both Pete and Iuka IV. Therefore, Jackson
should be planted at a minimum of 10 lb of seed units per acre (J.
Alderson, personal communication, 2001). The cultivar Highlander, a
tetraploid ecotype with a northeast Tennessee origin, has about 2800
seed units per lb of high quality seed (J. Douglas, personal
communication, 2001). Suggested seeding densities for Highlander are; 13
to 27 lb seed units per acre with a minimum row width of 24 inches when
the planting will be used for forage, and 9 to 19 lb seed units per acre
with a minimum row width of 36 inches when the planting will be used for
seed production (J. Grabowski, personal communication, 2005).

Row planters (corn, cotton, peanut, etc.) are easily adjusted to plant
gamagrass seed units in rows (Dewald et al, 2006). Row plantings can be
cultivated in the early stages for weed control. Since gamagrass is a
bunchgrass, established plants can have substantial bases. These can be
rough to drive over with equipment. If haying is likely, consider
planting in rows wide enough to minimize traffic over plants. Gamagrass
stores an essential portion of its food reserves in the aboveground
portion of the plant base. Reducing traffic on the plant crowns will
result in less plant damage and faster re-growth.

Seed units should be planted 1 to 1.5 inches deep in medium textured
soil or a little deeper in light textured soil because the soil may dry
out faster (Dewald, 1993). A firm seedbed is desirable for planting
eastern gamagrass. Planting site preparation should be the same as for
corn planting. Early corn planting season is the preferred planting time
for spring plantings of gamagrass.

*Weed control for establishment*: The time during establishment is the
most critical period for weed control. Annual grasses, particularly, can
cause problems in the establishment year. It is best to delay
fertilization with nitrogen until the stand is established. If gamagrass
is planted in rows, cultivation can be used to control weeds in the
early years of establishment. Few herbicides are labeled for eastern
gamagrass, although several are in development. In various studies,
gamagrass has shown excellent tolerance to carryover from some of
today's commonly used corn herbicides. Some current information on
herbicides is available (Roberts & Kallenbach, 1999).

*Weed Control After the Establishment Year*: In Missouri, after the
establishment year, eastern gamagrass will compete effectively with most
weeds without any weed control other than proper grazing management and
spring burning (Roberts & Kallenbach, 2006). Fields may be burned to
control woody plants, reduce leaf diseases, improve grazing
distribution, and stimulate new growth. The optimum time to burn is in
the spring when the new gamagrass green-growth is about 1 inch long.

Paul Salon, NRCS agronomist, states, "In the Northeast grazing
management and burning alone will not provide adequate weed control."
Herbicides containing glyphosate can be applied in early spring before
desirable perennial grasses break dormancy and initiate green growth.
Late fall application can be made after desirable perennial grasses have
reached dormancy. For broadleaf weed control, 2,4-D and dicamba
containing herbicides are options; follow manufacturers label for
pasture and hayland.

Please contact your local agricultural extension specialist or county
weed specialist to learn what works best in your area and how to use it
safely. Always read label and safety instructions for each control
method. Trade names and control measures appear in this document only to
provide specific information. USDA NRCS does not guarantee or warranty
the products and control methods named, and other products may be
equally effective.

##### Management {#management .Header-3}

*Forage / Grazing & Hay*: Experience by livestock grazers over the past
150 years has shown that eastern gamagrass will be eradicated from
pastures unless careful controlled grazing practices are followed
(Dewald et al., 2006). Gamagrass is so palatable to livestock that it is
one of the first grasses to be eliminated under continuous grazing.
Gamagrass re-growth has been measured at a rate of 2 inches per day.
This new re-growth is tender, nutritious and greatly preferred by
livestock compared to older forage. This leads to spot grazing with the
same plants being defoliated almost daily, resulting in reduced plant
vigor and eventual death. Eastern gamagrass stores its carbohydrates and
nitrogen for re-growth in the above ground base of its stems. Therefore,
grazing must be controlled so as to maintain a minimum 6 to 8 inch
stubble height for all plants. But under actual grazing, the average
stubble height must be considerably higher than 6 to 8 inches in order
to maintain a minimum stubble height of 6 to 8 inches on most plants in
the pasture. Closer grazing or clipping will reduce plant vigor and
eventually reduce the stand. Short duration, high intensity rotation
grazing programs that limit the cattle to 4 to 6 days per pasture with
at least 8 pastures will give each pasture a 28 to 42 day rest period to
recuperate. Rest periods of 40 to 45 days appear optimize the
combination of stand maintenance, plant vigor, forage yield and quality.
A 45-day rest period prior to killing frost is recommended for gamagrass
in order to maintain stand health.

Clipping gamagrass to a height of less than 6 to 8 inches will deplete
the stores for re-growth and damage the stand (Gillen et al., 2006).
Information from several studies indicate that clipping intervals of 40
to 45 days, beginning either at 40 to 45 days after spring green-up or
at the boot stage, will optimize hay yield and quality, stand vigor and
longevity. After gamagrass reaches the boot stage, forage and hay
quality decreases rapidly as the plant matures. Eastern gamagrass hay
production in high rainfall climates requires skillful management
because hay quality is very dependent on the cutting time.

*Fertilization*: A reliable, general guideline for eastern gamagrass
fertilization is to follow the recommendations for the fertilization of
corn for silage (Roberts & Kallenbach, 2006). This is particularly true
for lime, phosphorous and potassium. Applications of these amendments
should be made according to soil test recommendations. Soil should be
tested before planting and both phosphorous and potassium applied at
planting to reach a medium test level for corn. The optimum soil pH
range for gamagrass is probably from 5.4 to 6.0. Another estimate of the
soil pH range is a minimum of 5.1 (Foy, 1999) and a maximum of 7.5
(Sharp Brothers Seed Company, 1999).

Nitrogen is more efficient when the total seasonal application is split
across the hay and grazing season. For example, the initial nitrogen
application is made at gamagrass green-up and additional nitrogen
applied following each cutting or grazing period. Studies suggest that
the optimum level for nitrogen fertilizer is between 200 and 300 lb N
per acre per year, and a lower level may be optimum in regions with less
than 35 inches of annual precipitation and in northern regions (Brakie,
1998; Brejda et al., 1996; Brejda et al., 1997; Douglas et al., 2002).
Growers should monitor the N, P and K requirements of irrigated eastern
gamagrass and apply nutrients to meet the need of each harvest.

##### Pests and Potential Problems {#pests-and-potential-problems .Header-3}

A Missouri farmer sent photographs of eastern gamagrass to the Plant
Diagnostic Clinic of the University of Missouri. These photographs
depicted plants with dead and diseased leaves and crowns that appeared
dead or rotted. Barb Corwin, diagnostic clinic director, concluded that
the disease was "take-all" (*Gaeumannomyces graminis*) (Clubine, 2001).
The take-all fungus persists in soil and crop residues. The fungus is
usually more severe under high moisture conditions, high soil pH, and
low soil nitrogen. The soil pH level in the field with the take-all
infected plants was 6.5.

Two years before the take-all fungus was identified on eastern
gamagrass, a commercial seed producer in Clifton Hill, Missouri, noticed
take-all like symptoms on gamagrass. The producer contacted Chet Dewald,
researcher at the USDA-ARS Southern Plains Range Research Station in
Woodward, Oklahoma. While not acknowledging a name for the disease, Chet
Dewald suggested burning the gamagrass residue in the spring and
applying nitrogen fertilizer. The producer followed these suggestions
and the disease symptoms disappeared. The suggested management practices
to control take-all in eastern gamagrass are to apply adequate nitrogen
fertility, leave good height residuals 45 days before frost, and burn
the gamagrass residue every second or third spring.

Two viruses, "sugarcane mosaic virus strain maize dwarf mosaic virus B"
and "maize dwarf mosaic virus" can infect eastern gamagrass (Seifers et
al., 1993). Both viruses are transmitted by aphids. These viruses can
infect, and then over-winter on eastern gamagrass. Piper et al. (1996)
describes the disease symptoms, "The disease symptoms caused by these
viruses vary from a general mosaic to oblong chlorotic and necrotic
spots throughout the leaf. The mosaic symptoms can vary from a pale
green, very mild mosaic to a very distinct, bright mosaic on the entire
plant, and are most apparent in early to mid-season as the plants emerge
from dormancy." Severe levels of the diseases caused by these viruses
can reduce gamagrass growth and yield.

Larva of the southern corn stalk borer \[*Diatraea crambidoides*
(Grote)\] has been identified in the crown tissue of eastern gamagrass
(Krizek et al., 2002b). The authors state, "This pest occurs from
Delaware/Maryland to Florida and the inland states (KS, OH, OK, MS, and
AZ). This pest feeds upon corn, grain sorghum, and Johnsongrass and
attacks eastern gamagrass. The best strategy for avoiding damage to
eastern gamagrass from the southern corn stalk borer is to remove thatch
from the crop before winter. Farmers should be alert for this pest
because it is highly destructive and can result in severe losses in
yield of eastern gamagrass. Through rigorous management practices to
prevent accumulation of thatch on the fields, it is possible to minimize
the pest problem."

Eastern gamagrass plants infested with the maize billbug \[*Sphenophorus
maidis* (Chittenden)\] were found in a germplasm nursery at Woodward, OK
and in a 12-year-old grazed, gamagrass pasture at Fort Supply, OK (Maas
et al., 2003). The authors state, "Damage infected during the life cycle
of the pest will have a negative impact on seed production from the loss
of reproductive tillers. Maize billbug damage may also contribute to the
rate of center "die-out" of the crowns of eastern gamagrass. The control
measures used in corn production may not be effective for eastern
gamagrass. Research is needed to characterize the life cycle of maize
billbug in eastern gamagrass and to determine effective methods of
control."

Springer et al. (2004) estimated the potential loss in eastern gamagrass
forage yield due to the combined infestation of both the southern corn
stalk borer and maize billbug. The estimate of economic loss in eastern
gamagrass hay production was from about \$3.00 to \$23.00, with an
average of \$11.00 per acre. These estimates are based on a \$40.00 per
ton price for gamagrass hay. The authors state, "Unless the damage to
eastern gamagrass plants was severe the cost of chemical control would
be greater than the return from the forage and it is not known if
chemical control would be effective.... An integrated approach to their
control is likely the best. The first step is to develop eastern
gamagrass cultivars with resistance to these pests.... Management
strategies might include using trap crops, changing harvest dates to
remove forage before insects bore into culms, or late fall burning or
grazing to kill some larva and remove thatch from plants which makes
insects more vulnerable to freezing."

The eastern gamagrass cultivars Highlander, Jackson, and Pete were
compared in replicated entry trials for either one or two years
(2001-2002) at three locations (Coffeeville, Prairie and Raymond, MS)
(Grabowski et al., 2003). None of the plants of Jackson survived after
2001 at Coffeeville. These plants showed signs of damage from disease
symptoms caused by *Pythium* species and *Rhizoctonia* species.

Ergot was observed on spikes of Highlander eastern gamagrass in
Mississippi (J. Grabowski, personal communication, 2005). Although it
has not been positively identified, this ergot is believed to be
*Claviceps tripsaci*, which has previously been reported on eastern
gamagrass seedheads (Hardison, 1953).

##### Seeds and Plant Production {#seeds-and-plant-production .Header-3}

Researchers at the USDA-ARS Southern Plains Range Research Station in
Woodward, Oklahoma recommend planting gamagrass for seed production in
rows 40 to 48 inches wide, with 4 to 6 seed units planted per foot
(Dewald et al., 2006).

The affect of several agronomic parameters on eastern gamagrass seed
unit production was examined in a study conducted in central Iowa (Lemke
et al., 2003). The parameters were cultivar, Pete and Iuka IV, applied
nitrogen (0, 50, 100, 200 lb nitrogen per acre), seed unit harvest time,
and defoliation, which was designed to stimulate grazing. The
application of 50 lb nitrogen per acre significantly increased the
number of seed units in the second year of the study (P\<0.05). However,
the number of seed units did not increase at nitrogen amounts above this
level. In fact, an increase in nitrogen from 100 to 200 lb per acre
decreased seed unit numbers. The harvest time that optimized the number
of seed units collected was approximately 2 weeks after the terminal
spikes began shattering. The authors state, "If seed and livestock
producers with eastern gamagrass stands are willing to accept moderate
seed yield reductions, they have the option of managing stands for both
forage and seed production."

A suggested seeding density for the cultivar Highlander is 9 to 19 lb
seed units/acre with a minimum row width of 36 inches when the planting
will be used for seed production (J. Grabowski, personal communication,
2005). Nitrogen had a minimal effect on seed yield, grain weight,
percent seed fill and seed germination. Results of this study suggest
that seed producers of Highlander eastern gamagrass in the upper
southeastern states should apply nitrogen fertilizer in a single
application of 50 to 75 lb/acre when spring re-growth reaches 10 inches.
Environmental influences and timing of harvest were critical factors
impacting seed yield and quality of Highlander.

Eastern gamagrass terminal spikes occur on the top of the stem, and
lateral spikes occur at the leaf axil, which is the angle between the
leaf and stem. Seed units on the terminal spikes mature earlier than
seed units on the lateral spikes. Field observations suggest that a good
indictor of the optimum harvest time for Highlander eastern gamagrass is
when the anthers of approximately 75% of the flowers on the lateral
spikes have shed their pollen (Grabowski, personal communication, 2005).

An increase in the percentage of gamagrass seed units that contained a
caryopsis was obtained by partitioning seed units using either an air
fractionating aspirator (Carter-Day, Model No. GF 21, Minneapolis, MN)
or a gravity separator (Oliver MFG, Rocky Ford, CO) following the
cleaning of gamagrass seed units with an air seed cleaner (Clipper M2B.
A.T. Ferrell and Co., Saginaw, MI) (Douglas et al., 2000b). Krizek et
al., (2000) showed that 21 days at a constant temperature of 86 ºF is
sufficient time for conducting eastern gamagrass germination tests.

#####  {#section-1 .Header-3}

##### Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin) {#cultivars-improved-and-selected-materials-and-area-of-origin .Header-3}

The eastern gamagrass cultivar Pete was developed at the USDA, NRCS
Plant Materials Center in Manhattan, Kansas (Fine et al.,1990;
USDA-NRCSa, 2006). Pete closely resembles the wild strains of eastern
gamagrass in Kansas and Oklahoma. It is non-uniform and widely adapted.
The expected area of use of Pete includes the eastern third of Nebraska,
the eastern halves of Kansas and Oklahoma, and the adjacent areas of
Arkansas, Iowa, and Missouri. It can be grown farther west on irrigated
and sub-irrigated sites. Pete has been established successfully in
southern New York. Pete is marginally adapted to selected sites in
southeastern South Dakota and southern Minnesota (USDA Hardiness Zone
4b).

The eastern gamagrass cultivar Iuka IV was developed by the USDA, ARS
Southern Plains Range Research Station in Woodward, Oklahoma (Dewald et.
al., 2006). Farmers and ranchers have established Iuka IV in the Great
Plains from southern Texas (30th parallel north) to southern Nebraska
and eastern New Mexico. Also, farmers and ranchers have established Iuka
IV in the region from Iowa to Maryland and southward to Louisiana.

The eastern gamagrass cultivar Jackson was developed by the USDA, NRCS
Plant Materials Center in Nacogdoches, Texas (USDA-NRCSb, 2006). Seed of
Jackson was collected in 1986 from a native stand in Jackson County,
Texas. Little variation from seed is anticipated because Jackson is an
apomictic tetraploid and is therefore genetically stable. The expected
area of use of Jackson extends from the eastern half of Texas though the
southeastern states excluding Florida.

The eastern gamagrass selected class of natural germplasm San Marcos was
developed by the USDA, NRCS James E. 'Bud' Smith Plant Materials Center
in Knox City, Texas (USDA-NRCSc, 2006). Seed of the San Marcos germplasm
was originally collected from plants located in Hays County, Texas, near
the town of San Marcos. Average annual precipitation for the collection
area is about 33 inches. San Marcos may be used in monocultures for
pasture and hay or as a component in seed mixtures for range plantings.
It is anticipated that San Marcos will be adapted to the following NRCS
Major Land Resources Areas (MLRA) in central Texas and southern
Oklahoma: 78B, 78C, 78D, 80A, 80B, 81B, 81C, 82, 83A, 84B, 84C, 85, 86A,
86B, 87A, and 87B. Sam Marcos is adapted to a wide range of soil types,
but will perform best on sandy loams, clay loams and clays. It is well
adapted to low, moist sub-irrigated sites. It is productive in areas
with annual precipitation less than 28 inches only if supplied with
supplemental irrigation.

The eastern gamagrass cultivar Highlander was developed jointly by the
USDA, NRCS Jamie L. Whitten Plant Materials Center in Coffeeville,
Mississippi, the USDA, NRCS Jimmy Carter Plant Materials Center in
Americus, Georgia and the Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry
Experiment Station, Mississippi State, Mississippi (Grabowski et al.,
2005). Highlander was collected in 1990 in Montgomery Country, Tennessee
(MLRA 122); average annual precipitation for this location is 1016
millimeters (40 inches). Little variation from seed is anticipated
because the Highlander is an apomictic tetraploid and is therefore
genetically stable. Highlander is recommended for hay production. It is
best used as a hay crop; however it can be grazed if managed to prevent
damage to the plant stand (i.e. rotational grazing). Highlander is well
adapted for use in the eastern portions of USDA Hardiness Zones 6b to
8a, using Interstate 35 as its western limit.

The eastern gamagrass cultivar Medina was developed by the USDA, NRCS
Plant Materials Center in Nacogdoches, Texas (USDA-NRCSb, 2006). Medina
seed was originally collected in1986 from a native stand in the Hondo
Creek bottom of Median County, Texas. Medina is a versatile cultivar
with potential for forage uses that include pasture, hay, green chop,
and silage. Medina, without irrigation, is adapted to areas that receive
25 or more inches of annual rainfall throughout USDA Hardiness Zones 8
to 9 (excluding Florida). Medina is adapted to many soil types, but deep
sandy soils are not suitable.

The eastern gamagrass cultivar Bumpers was developed by the USDA, NRCS
Plant Materials Center in Booneville, Arkansas (USDA-NRCSe, 2006). The
original seed of Bumpers was collected from a native roadside stand in
Yell County, Arkansas (MLRA 118). Bumpers is useful for livestock
grazing. Other forage options are for perennial hay, silage, and green
chop. Bumpers is well adapted for use in the mid-south portions of USDA
Hardiness Zones 6a through 8a and for rainfall areas of 40 to 60 inches.
This cultivar is recommended for western Arkansas, southern Missouri and
eastern Oklahoma..

The eastern gamagrass selected class of natural germplasm St Lucia, and
selected class of natural germplasm Martin were developed by the USDA
NRCS Plant Materials Center in Brooksville Florida (USDA-NRCSd, 2006).
The original germplasm of St. Lucia was vegetatively collected from St.
Lucia County, Florida. The original germplasm of Martin was vegetatively
collected from Martin County, Florida. Both St. Lucia and Martin were
selected for use as an ornamental landscape plant in xeriscape and for
use in buffer strips. Both St. Lucia and Martin are diploid (2n = 2x =
36) and will outcross, producing progeny with varying color
characteristics. Vegetative propagation is necessary to maintain the
blue foliage characteristic of both St. Lucia and Martin. Both St. Lucia
and Martin are adapted to USDA Hardiness Zones 8 to 10, but they will
not survive temperatures below 0 °F for extended periods of time.

The eastern gamagrass cultivar Verl was released in 2005 by the USDA,
ARS, in cooperation with the Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station
and the USDA, NRCS, (Springer et al., 2006). Verl is a fertile triploid
(2n = 3x = 54) that reproduces predominately by apomixis. Verl is
recommended for pasture and hay in eastern and southern United States.
Verl has excellent seed production. At Woodward, OK, Verl produced an
equivalent seed yield of 152 lb/acre. Verl is susceptible to feeding
damage from the maize billbug and the southern cornstalk borer.
Infestation by these insects reduces seed production of eastern
gamagrass. Verl may be susceptible to *Rhizoctonia*, *Pythium*, and
*Bipolaris* species.

Cultivars comprised of northern ecotypes, such a Pete and Iuka IV,
initiate growth earlier in the spring than cultivars comprised of
ecotypes from the southern portion of the range such as Jackson and
Highlander. Malcome Kirkland NRCS agronomist, suggests that farmers can
lengthen the gamagrass grazing season, in the southern region of the
gamagrass range, by utilizing both northern and southern ecotype
cultivars. The northern ecotype cultivars will provide more forage early
in the spring and the southern ecotype cultivars more forage during
middle and late summer. According to NRCS agronomist Sharon Pfaff,
native Florida ecotypes are not dormant during winter. Therefore, this
strategy would be ineffective in Florida. This strategy may also prove
ineffective in the northern portion of the gamagrass range because many
southern ecotypes are not winter hardy in this region.

#####  {#section-2 .Header-3}

Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information. Look in the phone
book under "United States Government." The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the subheading "Department of
Agriculture."

A comprehensive treatment of eastern gamagrass that includes cultivar
forage yield information is available from: *Eastern Gamagrass
(*Tripsacum dactyloides*): A Plant for Forage, Conservation and
Bioenergy.* URL: <http://npdc.usda.gov/publications/index.html>

##### References {#references .Header-3}

Aiken, G. 1997. Temporal effects on steer performance and nutritive
values for eastern gamagrass grazed continuously for different
durations. J. Anim. Sci. 75: 803-808. URL: http://jas.fass.org/

Ahring, R. M. & Frank, H. 1968. Establishment of eastern gamagrass from
seed and vegetative propagation. *J. Range Manage*. 21: 27-30

Anderson, R. C. 1985. Aspects of the germination ecology and biomass
proportion of eastern gamagrass (*Tripsacum dactyloides* L.). *Bot.
Gaz.* 146: 353-364.

Brakie, M. R. 1998. *Yield and quality of eastern gamagrass selections
as affected by clipping interval and N rates*. M.S. Thesis, Stephen F.
Austin State University, Nacogdoches.

Brejda, J. J., Brown, J. R., Lorenz, T. E. & Henry, J. 1996. Eastern
gamagrass responses to different harvest intervals and nitrogen rates in
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Brejda, J. J., Brown, J. R., Lorenz, T. E., Henry, J. & Lowry, S. R.
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characteristics, digesta kinetics, and dry matter intake of steers
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Burns, J. C. & Fisher, D. S. 2000. Forge potential of switchgrass and
eastern gamagrass in the eastern Piedmont. Pp. 95-102 in: Dickerson, J.
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Clark, R. B., Alberts, E. E., Zobel, R. W., Sinclair, T. R., Miller, M.
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USDA-NRCSa, 2006. Plant Materials Center at Manhattan, KS. URL:
http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/centers/

USDA-NRCSb, 2006. Plant Materials Center at Nacogdoches, TX. URL:
http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/centers/

USDA-NRCSc, 2006. Plant Materials Center at Knox City, TX. URL:
http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/centers/

USDA-NRCSd, 2006. Plant Materials Center at Brooksville, FL. URL:
<http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/centers/>

USDA-NRCSe, 2006. Plant Materials Center at Booneville, AR. URL:
http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/centers/

#####  {#section-3 .Header-3}

##### USDA-NRCS-NPDC. 2007. Eastern gamagrass (***Tripsacum* *dactyloides***): A plant for forage, conservation and bioenergy. URL: <http://npdc.usda.gov/publications/index.html>; accessed 13AUG07. {#usda-nrcs-npdc.-2007.-eastern-gamagrass-tripsacum-dactyloides-a-plant-for-forage-conservation-and-bioenergy.-url-httpnpdc.usda.govpublicationsindex.html-accessed-13aug07. .Header-3}

#####  {#section-4 .Header-3}

##### Prepared By {#prepared-by .Header-3}

##### *James F. Henson* Agronomist, USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA  {#james-f.-henson-agronomist-usda-nrcs-national-plant-data-center-baton-rouge-la .Header-3}

#####  {#section-5 .Header-3}

##### *Greg A. Fenchel* Manager, USDA NRCS Los Lunas Plant Materials Center, Los Lunas, NM  {#greg-a.-fenchel-manager-usda-nrcs-los-lunas-plant-materials-center-los-lunas-nm .Header-3}

##### Species Coordinator {#species-coordinator .Header-3}

##### *James F. Henson* Agronomist. USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA  {#james-f.-henson-agronomist.-usda-nrcs-national-plant-data-center-baton-rouge-la .Header-3}

##### Edited: 070813 jsp {#edited-070813-jsp .Header-4}

For more information about this and other plants, please contact your
local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the PLANTS
Web site\<[http://plants.usda.gov](http://plants.usda.gov/)\> or the
Plant Materials Program Web site
\<[http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov](http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov/)\>

*The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in
all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national
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orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases
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Center](http://www.usda.gov/oo/target.htm) at 202-720-2600 (voice and
TDD).*

*To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office of
Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and Independence
Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call 202-720-5964 (voice or
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*Read about [Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
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