LOCAL ROLE IN EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT

-   Roles of Local Government in Emergency Management

-   Responsibilities of Local Government in Emergency Management

-   Effectiveness

-   Problems

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-   Organizational Location of Emergency Management

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-   Role of Emergency Manager in Local Government

-   Effective Emergency Management KSA's

-   Existing Emergency Services Agencies and Organizations

-   Local Emergency Planning Committees (LEPC's)

-   Problem Areas in Local Emergency Management

**Sources to Consult:**

Britton. 1996. Enhancing Emergency Management Capabilities at Local
Government Level.

Britton & Lindsay. 1995. Integrating City Planning and Emergency
Preparedness.

Burby & Patterson. 1993. Improving Compliance with State Environmental
Regulations.

Dalton.1994.Mandates,Plans and Planners:Building Local Commitment to
Dvlopmt. Mgmt.

Herman. 1982. Disaster Planning for Local Government.

May/Birkland. 1994. Earthquake Risk Reduction:Examination of Local
Regulatory Efforts.

NC DEM. 1998. Keeping Natural Hazards from Becoming Natural Disasters --
Local Govt Workbook.

NC DEM. 1998. Local Hazard Mitigation Planning Manual.

Pagram. 1999.Shifts in EmerMgmt Service Provision:Case Study for
Innovative Leadership.

Parr. 1997. Measuring Emer.Mgmt. System Capability in a Changing World.

Petak. 1985. Emer.Mgmt.: Challenge for Public Administration.

Rossi et al. 1982. Natural Hazards & Public Choice: State & Local
Politics of HazMitigation

Stallings & Schepart. 1987. Contrasting Local Govt. Responses to a
Tornado Disaster in

Two Communities.

Waugh & Ellis. 1999. Emer.Mgrs. for the New Millennium.

Wolensky. 1990. Local Govt. Problem with Disaster Mgmt. Lit.
Review/Analysis

**Suggested Instructor Readings:**

Tierney, Kathleen J, Michael K. Lindell and Ronald W. Perry. 2001. Pp.
47-63 in *Facing*

> *the Unexpected: Disaster Preparedness and Response in the United
> States .*

Washington DC: Joseph Henry Press.

**Objectives:**

To acquire an appreciation of the local context for emergency management
with the U.S.

**Roles of Local Governments in U.S. Emergency Management**

Local governments, whether cities, towns, boroughs, villages, counties,
or a parish, are central organizations in emergency management since
local government has the primary responsibility for public safety,
including emergency response following a disaster.

The local elected government official is usually the person in charge,
unless another official has been designated through ordinance or
legislation.

[Elected and appointed officials]{.underline} at the local level include
mayors, county executives, city and county councilors and commissioners.
They shoulder the obligation of political responsiveness in disaster and
emergency events. Appointed officials, like city managers, have
important political and managerial duties in the disaster management
realm as well. These officials are responsible for hazards and emergency
management policy formulation and oversight.

[Emergency Services]{.underline}. There are many important professionals
active in the response phase of emergency management and who work at the
county or local level. Fire fighters, police, and emergency medical
service workers are especially important, though there may be rivalries
among them.

[Emergency Management]{.underline}. Most counties in the US and most
medium to large size cities have an *emergency management organization*.
This organization could consist of one part time volunteer or a staff of
paid full-time personnel. The more populated and more disaster prone a
jurisdiction is the more likely they are to have full-time paid
professionals. The trend is towards having a full-time paid professional
at the head of an Office of Emergency Management. This is probably due
to an increased awareness of the need for disaster preparedness and
emergency management at the local level.

**Responsibilities of Local Government and Elected Officials**

To be fully effective a local emergency management program requires
several components. These components begin with the *legal authority*
for a program and disaster related activities. The nature of local
emergency management laws is frequently guided by State law. State law
may be either permissive or mandatory---that is, it may allow localities
either to organize and conduct emergency management systems as they see
fit (permissive), or the State may specify particular requirements that
communities must meet (mandatory). Without a solid basis in law, the
program cannot flourish.

In general terms, local laws define, with widely varying specificity and
scope, who will do what in preparing for, mitigating, responding to or
recovering from emergencies or disasters. The objective here is to
establish a legal authority for the development and maintenance of an
emergency management program and organization and to define the
emergency powers, authorities, and responsibilities of the chief
executive official and the emergency manager. As noted above it is also
of importance that local legislation be in conformance with State
legislation.

Once authorized by law, a local emergency management organization must
be established within the government structure so that it is recognized
by the jurisdiction's chief executive, other governmental officials,
community organizations, and the public as the agency responsible for
all-hazard emergency management. This organization needs to be---

-   provided with mission, functions and responsibilities statement,

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-   given authority to develop, implement and maintain a program,

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-   adequately staffed, based on the jurisdiction's needs,

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-   trained in knowledge and skills necessary to manage the program
    effectively, and

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-   provided with legal protection for volunteer citizens supporting
    government personnel during disaster. This protection could include
    liability, personal injury compensation, good Samaritan protection,
    and compensation for personal property losses. (FEMA 1984, pp.
    2-1--3)

In order to accomplish emergency management functions, a number of
program objectives should be developed and maintained, including:

-   Laws and authorities

-   Hazard identification and risk assessment

-   Hazard management (risk assessment, mitigation)

-   Resource management (performance objectives to include personnel,
    equipment, training, facilities, funding, expert knowledge,
    materials)

-   Planning (strategic plan, emergency operations plan, mitigation and
    recovery plans)

-   Direction, control and coordination (incident management system)

-   Communications and warning

-   Operations and procedures

-   Logistics and facilities

-   Training

-   Exercise, evaluation and corrective actions

-   Public education and information (including media)

-   Finance and administration

[Conduct Emergency Operations Planning]{.underline}: This entails the
development and maintenance of emergency operation procedures
appropriate to local hazards, assessments of vulnerability and risk, and
the availability of resources. More information of the importance of
planning and the planning process will follow in a later unit.

[Develop Direction and Control Capabilities]{.underline}: Local
governments conduct their day-to-day operations from departments and
agencies that are sometimes widely dispersed throughout the
jurisdiction. When an emergency occurs, centralized direction and
control is required to facilitate coordinated responses by the chief
executive and his or her key staff, emergency support service personnel,
and representative of private and public sector organizations or
individuals who are assigned emergency responsibilities in the
jurisdiction's emergency operations plan. The most effective way to
exercise direction and control under emergency conditions is to provide
a single site for key officials---an Emergency Operating Center (EOC) or
field location. The EOC provides a central location for authority and
the dissemination of official information, and allows for face-to-face
coordination among personnel who must direct local operating forces.

Many U.S. localities have learned the hard way the importance of
coordinating amongst their own emergency services and those of
surrounding jurisdictions so that they can efficiently communicate in a
disaster situation.

[Develop Alerting and Warning Capabilities]{.underline}: This entails
developing and maintaining the ability to alert public officials,
response personnel, the media, and the public that an emergency may
exist---typically from an EOC.

[Develop Emergency Communications Capabilities]{.underline}: The
objective here is to have a reliable emergency communications capability
to permit key officials to direct operating forces in an emergency. The
ability of a government to direct its emergency forces is essential to
effective operations in an emergency. Although extensive communications
systems designed to meet day-to-day needs of government are already in
existence, it is necessary to plan for the effective use of these
resources---typically through an EOC. .Privately owned communications
systems, to the extent that they can be made available, can also be
adapted to serve government needs in emergencies.

[Develop Continuity of Government Capabilities]{.underline}: This
entails having legally designated lines of authority and other
provisions necessary to preserve the government under emergency
conditions.

[Disseminate Emergency Public Information]{.underline}: This entails the
development of programs to increase public awareness of hazards and what
can be done to mitigate or prepare for them, as well as the capability
of providing disaster-related information to the public in an emergency.
Awareness and preparedness programs are best conducted in partnership
with other community organizations. More information on disaster
awareness and preparedness will be provided in a subsequent unit.

[Develop Population Evacuation and Sheltering Capabilities]{.underline}:
This entails developing a capability to efficiently and effectively
evacuate at-risk populations prior to or in an emergency, and the
ability to provide emergency shelter and other life support to those who
need it.

[Conduct Disaster-Related Training and Exercising Programs]{.underline}:
This is closely related to disaster planning, for a disaster plan is far
from reaching its full potential if pertinent personnel are not provided
training related to their disaster responsibilities, and if the disaster
plan is not exercised. Further information will be provided on these
subjects in a subsequent unit.

[Develop Resource-Management Capabilities]{.underline}: This entails
being able to quickly acquire, distribute, and use personnel and
material needed in an emergency.

# Effectiveness

According to Perry and Mushkatel (1986, 137):

Despite the critical roles assigned to local governments in emergency
management their performance to date has been spotty...The reasons for
this lack of a consistent record are structural (capacity) and inherent
in some elements of the management process at the local level. Local
government has far more constraints placed upon its revenue production
than either the federal or state governments...the mean amount of monies
allocated by all cities for emergency management was just over \$26,000
in 1982 (Hoetmer, 1983)...the mean for the largest cities was under
\$450,000...cities with populations between 100,000 and \$250,000 were
found to average expenditures just over \$61,000 in 1982. Thus, local
governments allocate a strikingly small amount of money for purposes of
emergency management.

# Problem Areas

Writing on the problems local governments have in developing and
implementing emergency management programs and capabilities, Perry and
Mushkatel (1986, 137) note:

To successfully formulate, adopt, and implement hazard management a
local government must (1) be aware a threat exists and consider it
important relative to the issues; (2) believe that the threat is
susceptible to management; and (3) develop or be presented with a
politically and economically feasible policy that can be

implemented to manage the hazard. In practice, most local communities
assign very low priority to comprehensive emergency management, although
some communities may take an interest in one particular hazard.

**Organizational Location of Local Emergency Manager**

Emergency Management may be organizational located as:

-   An Independent Office reporting directly to the chief executive
    officer or representative.

-   Within the Fire department, led either by a civilian or a uniformed
    officer.

-   Within the Police department, led either by a civilian or a
    uniformed officer.

-   Within some other governmental function.

There are pros and cons for each organizational locus. It is sometimes
the case though that when emergency management is not the principal
emphasis of the larger organization, budgets and attention suffer.

In 1980, the U.S. Conference of Mayors recommended the establishment of
either of the following two types of local emergency management
structure:

> The first is the establishment of an emergency management committee,
> composed of key officials, to be placed under the auspices of the
> mayor's office. Such committees have the advantage of effectively
> organizing existing personnel, but the disadvantage of not
> constituting an established office for the conduct of long-term or
> highly technical planning. The second type of structure
> recommended...involves the establishment of a separate Department of
> Emergency Services, equal in status to other departments and reporting
> to the mayor. Such a department is envisioned as a coordinating center
> and must balance the disadvantage of greater cost against the
> advantage of greater planning and response efficacy. (Lindell and
> Perry 1992, 9--10)

**Role of Local Emergency Manager**

Most counties and large cities, and many towns in the U.S. have a local
emergency program and manager. The larger or more hazard-prone the
community the more likely it will be that there will be a full-time and
paid emergency manager. Smaller jurisdictions may only have a part-time
emergency manager or a volunteer emergency manager (either part-time or
full). In addition, the larger and more hazard-prone a jurisdiction is
the more likely that the local emergency manager will have a staff. In
summary, then, local emergency management agencies range from part-time
volunteers with few resources and little authority to large, highly
professional organizations with state-of-the-art information technology.

The offices that local emergency managers head go by a variety of names
in the U.S.---emergency management, emergency or disaster services,
emergency or disaster preparedness, or civil defense.

Where there is an *Emergency Manager* that person is generally
appointed, at the county level, by a County Council or by County
Commissioners, depending on the form or structure of the county
government. At the town or city level, the responsible emergency
management official might report directly to a mayor or mayor's
assistant, to a city or town manager, or to a department head, as in
Fire or Public Safety.

Where there is an Emergency Manager or organization, more often than not
their role will be:

***Advise and inform chief executive*** on emergency management
activities:

-   Hazards, vulnerability, resources

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-   Shortfalls and needs

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-   Disaster mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery

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-   Disaster Plan activation

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-   Emergency Alert System activation

***Advocate for disaster-related laws**, **policies*** and
***regulations***

-   Is there legal authority to declare a state of emergency or to order
    an evacuation?

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-   What authority does a declaration of emergency give to policymakers?

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-   Who orders an evacuation; under what circumstances?

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-   Who is in charge of an evacuation?

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-   Where are evacuees to be taken? How?

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-   Can people be forcibly evacuated?

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-   What is to be done with pets?

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-   What is the policy concerning looters?

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-   Who is responsible for shelter management?

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-   Can private property be commandeered during an emergency?

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-   Who pays for private sector resources if utilized during an
    emergency?

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-   Can private property be destroyed during an emergency? If so, under
    what circumstances and guidelines?

Perform a ***coordinating and support function*** to existing emergency
services

organizations (which provide direct aid in the event of an emergency or
disaster) for the

purpose of enhancing a jurisdictions disaster mitigation, preparedness,
response and

recovery capabilities.

Develops ***strategies*** to combat the hazards threat.

-   Determine emergency management situations and issues.

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-   Identify possible strategies

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-   Determine criteria for strategy selection

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-   Select most appropriate strategies

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-   Plan and implement strategies.

Develops and ***manages programs, people, resources**.*

Drafts emergency management ***budget*** and looks for funding.

Lead the disaster ***planning*** effort. This entails conducting a
hazards and vulnerability

analysis and a resource assessment, and putting a disaster planning team
together.

Maintains an ***Emergency Operations Center*** in a ready status.

-   Equips, staffs and trains personnel on operations

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-   Dissemination point for public warnings and information

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-   Key personnel and decision-makers work from in crisis

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-   Gathers and evaluates information in a disaster

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-   Coordination point for disaster response operations

Promotes establishment and maintenance of ***Public Warning System***
and capability to

provide emergency information to citizens in a crisis.

Develops ***Mutual Aid Agreements*** and ***Stand-by Contracts***

Responsible for knowing the types of State and Federal assistance
available through

emergency management channels.

Develops ***Shelter Program***.

Develops emergency preparedness ***Training and Exercise*** program.

Maintains contact with ***Community Organizations***.

Conducts ***Public Awareness*** and preparedness programs.

Maintains ***Lists of Special Populations*** and their unique needs.

Stays current on disaster/emergency management ***Research/Issues***.

***Reviews*** plans, programs, hazards, and analyses regularly.

**Effective Emergency Management KSA's (Knowledge, Skills and
Abilities)**

Much research has been done over the past few decades in efforts to
determine what distinguished more effective from less effective
emergency managers. While a wide variety of alternative terms could be
used to get at the points made below, and while there is much overlap
between some of these KSA's, among those that more often turn up in such
studies are the following:

*Community Outreach:* This is distinct from the coordination
function---working with groups, organizations and individuals within the
jurisdiction---and refers to communicating the importance of the
emergency management function, hazards/vulnerability/risk information,
and disaster mitigation and preparedness measures to the jurisdictional
community at large. (Lindell et al. 1996, citing Mulford et al.
1973)[^1]

*Diplomatic Skills:* This refers to personal communication and demeanor
skills which are of particular importance in dealing with a wide range
of personnel both within and without one's organization or jurisdiction.
The ability to smooth ruffled feathers, frequently seen in turf battles,
and to resolve differences over controversial issues before they become
conflicts, is a valuable skill in many occupations, not least of which
is emergency management. (Drabek 1987 and 1990)[^2]

*Executive Support:* One must develop the ability to convince one's
chain-of-command of the importance of the emergency management function,
mission, goals and programs.

*Expert Utilization:* Given the low salience of hazards, disasters and
emergency management, in general, the use of outside experts, say in
academia, can help bolster the case and message of the local emergency
manager in a variety of contexts---as in convincing decision makers of
the real risks that hazards pose to their jurisdiction. (Drabek 1990)

*Extra-Jurisdictional Contact/Coordination:* Whatever one's own
jurisdiction, it is necessary to establish contacts and often coordinate
with neighboring jurisdictions as well as those possibly below or above
one's own. Thus a county emergency manager should coordinate with
neighboring county emergency managers, and with State emergency
management personnel, if not with Federal personnel as well.

*Interjurisdictional Coordination:* Particularly in the various
pre-planning and disaster planning areas, it is essential to actively
work with a wide range of governmental and private-sector organizations
within one's jurisdiction.[^3]

*Professional Development:* This refers to the necessity to continue to
avail oneself of training and educational opportunities, participation
in professional organizations, and staying abreast of the professional
literature.

*Resource Acquisition:* The ability to acquire human, technical and
capital resources needed for an effective emergency management
performance. (Lindell et al. 1996)[^4]

**Existing Emergency Services Agencies:**

In the U.S. reliance, at all levels of government, for disaster response
is placed on existing emergency services. Thus emergency service and
response organizations have as their primary responsibility the response
to day-today emergency and disaster situations. Generally these agencies
are part of the traditional units of local government---it's one of the
reasons local governments exist. The primary local emergency response
organizations usually are:

1.  [Fire Departments]{.underline}. These can be volunteer, full-time
    paid, or a combination of both. In many small jurisdictions citizens
    still band together to train and to fight fires. The trend, however,
    is towards paid and around-the-clock on-call departments. Many, if
    not most, fire departments are increasingly becoming involved in
    areas other than fire, such as hazardous materials response,
    emergency medical assistance, and search and rescue operations.

> The fire services are a front-line and critical emergency response
> group. Few other professions assume on a daily basis as much
> responsibility for disaster and emergency response.

2.  [Law Enforcement]{.underline}. Police and sheriff departments are
    the traditional local law enforcement agencies in local US
    jurisdictions. Their primary function is to maintain law and order
    and provide protection to the residents of a community. During an
    emergency, they are called upon to maintain law and order. Traffic
    control and scene security are frequent disaster responsibilities.
    They are also called upon to maintain the safety of emergency
    response personnel, more frequently from the thoughtlessness of
    onlookers rather than from overt hostile acts. Police are also often
    perceived by the public as a point of contact for information in an
    emergency or disaster.

3.  [Emergency Medical Services (EMS)]{.underline}. Emergency Medical
    Services are traditional responders in emergencies where casualties
    or injuries are involved. EMS personnel provide emergency medical
    treatment in the field and arrange or provide transport to hospitals
    when necessary. EMS services may be organized as an independent
    agency, a part of the Fire Department, a contracted or privately
    provided service, or a hospital based service.

4.  [Finance Department]{.underline}: Responsible for emergency
    purchasing and record keeping (important when reimbursement is
    sought from Federal or State agencies).

5.  [Municipal Utilities]{.underline}: Responsible for the restoration
    of damaged utilities.

6.  [Public Works Department]{.underline}. Public Works Departments
    typically are involved in debris removal and clean-up after a
    disaster---particularly of public property and roadways. Also much
    involved in pre-disaster mitigation efforts such as sand-bagging,
    grading and other engineering activities.

7.  [Office of Human Resources]{.underline}: Can be responsible for the
    coordination of volunteers and the processing of temporary employees
    hired for disaster-related duty.

8.  [Building Inspection Departments]{.underline}: Frequently involved
    in or responsible for damage assessment and condemnation of damaged
    buildings. Can also be involved in the screening of contractors, or
    the provision of guidelines on choosing reputable contractors (to
    repair hazard damaged property).

9.  [Non-Governmental not-for-profit agencies]{.underline}. There are a
    number of non-governmental organizations throughout the US that have
    developed emergency or disaster response capabilities. Foremost
    among these is the American Red Cross, which is organized in
    chapters in most counties in the country. They provide assistance
    both to emergency or disaster victims and to emergency response
    personnel. Further information on the role of volunteer
    organizations active in disaster will be provided in a subsequent
    unit.

**Local Emergency Planning Committees (LEPC's)**

Also found at the local level are Local Emergency Planning Committees
(or LEPC's), comprised of representatives from government, the general
public and stakeholder groups. These were formed stemming from the
Superfund Authorization and Re-authorization Act (SARA) of 1986, as a
reaction to the Bhopal, India chemical release disaster in which some
2000 people living near a chemical facility were killed by the release
of a toxic chemical. The Community-Right-Know feature of the Act
requires firms handling hazardous chemicals to communicate information
to local agencies and the public regarding the nature, quantity, and
dangers posed by chemicals stored at a facility. LEPCs help to solicit
and monitor this information and work with local public and private
organizations to advance community awareness and preparedness. This law
also establishes significant planning requirements for States and
localities. Major features of SARA:

1.  Each Governor must appoint a State emergency response commission,
    which is required to designate local emergency planning districts,
    appoint a local emergency planning committee for each district,
    supervise and coordinate the activities of these planning
    committees, review emergency plans, receive chemical release
    notifications, and establish procedures for receiving and processing
    requests from the public for information and/or copies of emergency
    response plans, material safety data sheets, and the Environmental
    Protection Agency's (EPA) list of extremely hazardous substances.

2.  SARA identifies types of organizations that should be included in
    the emergency planning committee.

3.  Facilities have specific requirements for planning and notification
    of a release if a substance on EPA's list of extremely hazardous
    substances is present at the facility in an amount in excess of the
    threshold planning quantity for that substance.

4.  Facilities must notify the emergency planning committee of a
    representative who will be the facilities emergency coordinator.

5.  Local facility owners and operators are required to provide
    necessary information to the local emergency planning committee.

6.  If a release occurs, SARA legislation requires that the community
    emergency coordinator be notified.

7.  LEPC deadline for plan completion: October 1988.

8.  State planning committees can provide additional specific
    requirements to local planning committees. (Hawkins and McClees
    1998, 323)

**Problem Areas**

*Low Disaster Salience---Higher Priorities:*

> Local government is that level of government least likely to perceive
> emergency management as a key priority and to pay sustained attention
> to it, but it is handed more and more responsibility for handling
> disasters (Cigler 1984; Schneider 1993; Schneider 1992; Wolensky and
> Wolensky 1990)" (Averch and Dluhy 1997, 75).

*Low Disaster Salience---There Will Always Be Disaster Aid:*

> As a practical matter, local emergency managers have to live with
> uncertain and fickle public support. A perverse incentive system
> continues in which many public officials and citizens blithely dismiss
> the possibility of disaster or rationalize that doing little or
> nothing to mitigate and prepare for disaster will yield more outside
> government help if disaster eventually comes. Thoughtful communities
> and individuals who make an investment in mitigation, preparedness,
> private disaster insurance and more, end up needing correspondingly
> less outside government assistance during a disaster and less aid
> afterwards. In a sense, communities and individuals practicing sound
> emergency management end up subsidizing irresponsible communities and
> individuals who do little to prepare. (Waugh and Sylves 1996, 60)

*Lack of Funding*:

Local officials also have to live with deep-seated hostility toward
government planning and regulation. For example, when Georgia
communities were required to develop land-use plans as a condition for
receiving state economic development funds, local officials were met
with public protests against 'godless Communism' and big government
intrusions into local matters. Suffice to say, local politics can create
a very unsettling environment for administrators.....

The resource bases of local governments are affected by state
constitutions and statutes. Limits on taxing, borrowing, policymaking
authority and organization, may discourage effective local action to
address local problems. (Waugh and Sylves 1996, 60 and 62)

**What Happens When Local Governments Are Not Prepared**

> ...in its 1990 study of government response to Hurricane Hugo and the
> Loma Prieta earthquake, FEMA reported generic difficulties encountered
> by state and local governments in assessing damage, allocating
> available resources effectively, and forming appropriate interfaces
> with federal and state decision makers (FEMA 1990). (Averch and Dluhy
> 1997, 75-76)
>
> A serious weakness after Andrew was the general lack of effective
> local government response (Morrow and Peacock 1997, 229).
>
> **REFERENCES**

Averch, Harvey, and Milan J. Dluhy. 1997. Crisis Decision Making and
Management. Chapter 5 in *Hurricane Andrew: Ethnicity, Gender and the
Sociology of Disasters*, edited by Walter Gillis Peacock, Betty Hearn
Morrow, and Hugh Gladwin. London and New York: Routledge.

Cigler, B.A. 1984. Emergency Management and Public Administration. In
*Crisis Management: A Case Book,* edited by M. Charles and J.C. Kim
(Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas).

Coleman, Ronny J. and John A. Granito (eds.). 1988. Emergency
Management. In *Managing Fire Services* 2nd ed. Washington, DC:
International City Management Association.

Drabek, Thomas. 1987. *The Professional Emergency Manager: Structures
and Strategies for Success.* Boulder: University of Colorado, Institute
of Behavioral Science.

Drabek, Thomas. 1990. *Emergency Management: Strategies for Maintaining
Organizational Integrity.* New York: Springer-Verlag.

Dynes, Russell, E.L. Quarantelli, and Gary A. Kreps. 1972. *A
Perspective on Disaster Planning.* Columbus, OH: Ohio State University,
Disaster Research Center.

FEMA. 1984. *Objectives for Local Emergency Management.* CPG 1-5.
Washington, DC: FEMA (July). This publication has been discontinued.

FEMA. 1990. *Response to Hurricane Hugo and the Loma Prieta Earthquake:
Evaluation and Lessons Learned.* Washington, DC.

FEMA/EMI. 1989. *The Emergency Program Manager.* (Independent Study
Course IS-1). Emmitsburg, MD: Emergency Management Institute.

FEMA. EMI. 1995. *Introduction To Emergency Management* Student Manual.
Emmitsburg, MD: Emergency Management Institute.

FEMA/EMI. 1998. *The Political and Policy Basis of Emergency
Management.* Written by Richard Sylves for the Higher Education Project.
Emmitsburg, MD: EMI.

FEMA. USFA. 1996. Appendix B: Government's Role in Emergency Management.
In *Executive Analysis of Fire Service Operations in Emergency
Management*. Emmitsburg, MD: U.S. Fire Administration.

Hawkins, Thomas M., and Hugh McClees. 1988. Emergency Management. Pages
319--346 in *Managing Fire Services,* 2^nd^ ed., edited by Ronny J.
Coleman and John A. Granito. (Washington, DC: International City
Management Association).

Hoetmer, Gerald. 1983. *Emergency Management: Individual and County
Data.* Baseline Data Reports, vol. 15.Washington DC: International City
Management Association.

Klonglan, G.E., et al. 1967. *See* Lindell, Michael, et al. 1996.

Lindell, Michael, and Ronald Perry. 1992. *Behavioral Foundarions of
Community Planning*. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing. Quoted in
*Mayor's Manual for Emergency Management* by the U.S. Conference of
Mayors (1980).

Lindell, Michael, David Whitney, Christina Futch, and Catherine Clause.
1996. The Local Emergency Planning Committee: A Better Way to Coordinate
Disaster Planning. Chapter 10 in *Disaster Management in the U.S. and
Canada,* 2^nd^ ed., edited by Richard Sylves and William Waugh, Jr.
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Marinstein, Jeff. 1998. Cross-Departmental Cooperation and the Politics
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Mulford, C.L., G.E. Klonglan, and D.L. Tweed. 1973. *See* Lindell,
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Perry, Ronald, and Alvin Mushkatel. 1986. *Minority Citizens in
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[^1]: See, also, R.R. Dynes, et al. 1972.

[^2]: See, for the business community, Marinstein 1998, pp. 12-15,
    especially p. 12.

[^3]: See, for example, Michael Lindell, et alia 1996 (pp. 234-235).
    They cite Klonglan et alia 1967. See, also, Drabek 1987 and 1990.

[^4]: Citing Mulford, et al. 1973.