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United States Department of Agriculture

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

May

2006

**Importation of 'Hass' Avocado (*Persea americana*) Fruit from Peru
into the Continental United States**

**Agency Contact**:

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

Plant Protection and Quarantine

1730 Varsity Drive, Suite 300

Raleigh, NC 27606

Number range CHAPTER**Executive Summary**

This analysis examines the risks associated with the importation of
'Hass' avocado *(Persea americana* Miller.) fruit into the United
States. Among the pests found affecting avocado in Peru were nine
quarantine pests (eight insects and one viroid) that may be associated
with fresh avocado fruit as a pathway for introduction into the United
States. These pests are as follows:

[Insects]{.underline}

*Acutaspis albopicta* (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

*Anastrepha fraterculus* Wiedemann (Diptera: Tephritidae)

*Anastrepha striata* (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

*Ceratitis capitata* Wiedemann (Diptera: Tephritidae)

*Coccus viridis* (Green) (Hemiptera: Coccidae)

*Ferrisia malvastra* (McDaniel) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

*Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis* Green (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

*Stenoma catenifer* Walsingham (Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae)

[Viroid]{.underline}

Potato spindle tuber viroid

These quarantine pests are qualitatively analyzed using the methodology
described in the USDA-APHIS Guidelines Ver. 5.02, which examines pest
biology in the context of the Consequences of Introduction and
Likelihood of Introduction, and estimates the overall Pest Risk
Potential. The insects, *Acutaspis albopicta* (Hemiptera: Diaspididae),
*Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis* Green (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) and
*Stenoma catenifer* Walsingham (Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae) received a
Medium rating for Pest Risk Potential, while all other insects were
rated as High. Although the viroid was rated High in the risk assessment
document, the analysis for the Likelihood of establishment of the
pathogen entering on avocados for consumption estimated the probability
to be Low (Appendix 2). Port-of-entry inspections are insufficient to
safeguard US agriculture from pests associated with the commodity,
therefore phytosanitary measures are suggested to reduce the likelihood
of entry and establishment.

**Table of Contents**

[A. Introduction 3](#a.-introduction)

[B. Risk Assessment 5](#b.-risk-assessment)

[1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action
5](#initiating-event-proposed-action)

[2. Assessment of Weediness Potential of *Persea americana* (avocado).
7](#assessment-of-weediness-potential-of-persea-americana-avocado.)

[4. Pest List: Pests Associated with Persea Americana in Peru
8](#pest-list-pests-associated-with-persea-americana-in-peru)

[5. Consequences of Introduction
33](#number-range-chapter5.-consequences-of-introduction)

[6. Likelihood of Introduction 49](#likelihood-of-introduction)

[7. Conclusion: Pest Risk Potential and Phytosanitary Measures
53](#conclusion-pest-risk-potential-and-phytosanitary-measures)

[C. Authors and Reviewers 61](#c.-authors-and-reviewers)

[D. Literature Cited 61](#d.-literature-cited)

[Appendix 1 78](#appendix-1)

[Appendix 2 81](#appendix-2)

# A. Introduction {#a.-introduction .Style-Heading-1-+-Times-New-Roman}

The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the United
States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prepared this pest risk
assessment to examine plant pest risks associated with the importation
of fresh 'Hass' avocado, *Persea americana* fruits from Peru into the
continental United States. This is a qualitative pest risk assessment.
Estimates of risk are expressed in qualitative terms of high, medium, or
low, rather than in numerical terms, such as probabilities or
frequencies. The details of methodology and rating criteria are in the
Guidelines for Pathway‑Initiated Pest Risk Assessment, version 5.0
(USDA, 2000).

International plant protection organizations, such as the North American
Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO) and the International Plant
Protection Convention (IPPC) provide guidance for conducting pest risk
analyses. The methods used to initiate, conduct, and report this pest
risk assessment are consistent with the guidelines provided by NAPPO and
IPPC. The use of biological and phytosanitary terms conforms to the
Glossary of Phytosanitary Terms (ISPM No. 5; IPPC 2004).

Number range CHAPTERAvocado is part of the Lauraceae plant family, which
has about 50 genera (Ploetz *et al.*, 1994). Most members of the family
have aromatic foliage and include bays, camphor, cinnamon, and
sassafras. Three races of avocado are generally recognized: Mexican,
West Indian and Guatemalan; these races vary in their sensitivity to
cold and fruit characteristics. Hass, of the Guatemalan race, is the
leading variety produced in California. Hass has the advantages of year
round production and excellent storage life and fruit quality. In 1987,
Peru ranked 18^th^ in annual production of avocado with 24,000 metric
tons compared to Mexico's 357,000 metrics tons (Ploetz *et al.*, 1994).
Peruvian avocados for export are currently produced in Lima (20,180
Metric Tons in 1999), Ica (2,656) and Moquega (2,632) (Fig. 1, SENASA,
2002).

![](media/image3.jpeg){width="5.322916666666667in"
height="6.197916666666667in"}

# Figure 1. Avocado production in Peru (SENASA, 2002).  {#figure-1.-avocado-production-in-peru-senasa-2002. .Style-Heading-1-+-Times-New-Roman}

# B. Risk Assessment {#b.-risk-assessment .Style-Heading-1-+-Times-New-Roman}

## 1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action

This assessment was initiated in response to an official request for
USDA authorization to allow imports under 7 CFR §319.56, the regulation
which provides authority to USDA for restricting or prohibiting the
importation of fruits and vegetables based on the risk of introducing
harmful exotic plant pests into the United States. The PRA request was
made by G.A. Ball, Import Specialist, Riverdale, MD, on October 31,
2001. The importation of "Hass' avocado (*Persea americana)* from Peru
into the United States is a potential pathway for the introduction of
pests. This pest risk assessment is commodity‑based and therefore
pathway‑initiated.

## History of Relevant Correspondence with Peru

-   December 29, 2000. Facsimile (2725) from Ing. Alicia de la Rosa
    Brachowicz, General Director Plant Health, SENASA to Dr Lou
    Vanechos, Area Director APHIS-IS, Chile. The letter included a
    request to export *Persea americana* fruit to the United States and
    contained the enclosed document "The Phytosanitary Status of the
    avocado (*Persea americana* Miller) in Peru."

-   January, 11, 2002. Facsimile from Robert V. Flanders, Risk
    Assessment Branch Chief, APHIS to Ing. Alicia de la Rosa Brachowicz,
    General Director Plant Health, SENASA to Dr Lou Vanechos, Area
    Director APHIS-IS, Chile. The letter indicated that APHIS has a
    backlog of PRAs. SENASA was offered the chance to conduct the PRA as
    a way to expedite the risk assessment process.

-   January, 14, 2002. Letter from Ing. Alicia de la Rosa Brachowicz,
    General Director Plant Health, SENASA to Dr Lou Vanechos, Area
    Director APHIS-IS, Chile. The letter indicated that Annabella
    Reszcynski was compiling information regarding the cultivation of
    Avocado in Peru.

-   March 27, 2002. Letter from Alan S. Green (USDA/APHIS) to Drab. Elsa
    Carbonell Tores, SENASA. The letter acknowledged receipt of the
    report "The Phytosanitary Status of the avocado (*Persea americana*
    Miller) in Peru." The letter requested additional information
    relating to the harvest, packaging, shipment and export of avocados
    from Peru.

-   June 14, 2002. Letter (1653-2002-AG-SENASA-DGSV-DDF) from Ing.
    Alicia de la Rosa Brachowicz, General Director Plant Health, SENASA
    to Dr Lou Vanechos, Area Director APHIS-IS, Chile. The letter listed
    helpful reference material for the PRA process.

-   July 11, 2002. Letter (1867-2002-AG-SENASA-DGSV-DDF) from Ing.
    Alicia de la Rosa Brachowicz, General Director Plant Health, SENASA
    to Dr Lou Vanechos, Area Director APHIS-IS, Chile. The letter
    provided the additional information requested by Alan S. Green on
    March, 27 2002.

-   June 17, 2003. Letter from Ing. Alicia de la Rosa Brachowicz,
    General Director Plant Health, SENASA to Dr Lou Vanechos, Area
    Director APHIS-IS, Chile. The letter indicated that only the "Hass"
    variety of avocado should be considered for export.

## Documents Supplied by Peru

1.  "The Phytosanitary Status of the avocado (*Persea americana* Miller)
    in Peru." December, 2002. DGSV-DVF/DDF, 12 pp.

2.  Untitled document describing additional information to continue the
    PRA for fresh avocado destined for the US, July 2002.

3.  Draft proposal for the application of pest risk mitigation measures
    in the exportation of avocado (*Persea americana*) to the United
    States from Peruvian sites where the avocado seed moth (*Stenoma
    catenifer*) is not known to occur. SENASA, August, 2002.

4.  "Importation of avocado fruit (*Persea Americana*) from Peru. A Pest
    Risk Assessment." SENASA, Dec 2002.

## 2. Assessment of Weediness Potential of *Persea americana* (avocado).

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Table 1: Weediness Potential of *Persea americana*.**               |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Phase 1: Persea americana is widely cultivated in California and      |
| Florida (Ploetz et al., 1994; USDA, 2003b).                           |
|                                                                       |
| Phase 2: Is the species listed in:                                    |
|                                                                       |
| > [NO]{.underline} *Geographical Atlas of World Weeds* (Holm *et.     |
| > al.,* 1979)                                                         |
| >                                                                     |
| > [NO]{.underline} *World\'s Worst Weeds* (Holm *et. al.*, 1977) or   |
| > *World Weeds: Natural Histories and Distribution* (Holm *et al.*,   |
| > 1997)                                                               |
| >                                                                     |
| > [NO]{.underline} *Report of the Technical Committee to Evaluate     |
| > Noxious Weeds; Exotic Weeds for Federal Noxious Weed Act* (Gunn &   |
| > Ritchie, 1982)                                                      |
| >                                                                     |
| > [NO]{.underline} *Economically Important Foreign Weeds* (Reed,      |
| > 1977)                                                               |
| >                                                                     |
| > [NO]{.underline} Weed Science Society of America list (WSSA, 1989)  |
| >                                                                     |
| > [NO]{.underline} Is there any literature reference indicating       |
| > weediness (*e.g.*, *AGRICOLA*, *CAB*, *Biological Abstracts*,       |
| > *AGRIS*; search on \"species name\" combined with \"weed\").        |
|                                                                       |
| Phase 3: Conclusion: *Persea americana* is not considered to be an    |
| economically important weed.                                          |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

**3. Previous Risk Assessments, Current Status, and Pest Interceptions**

PPQ's Decision History for avocado *(Persea americana)* fruit (limited
to the last 30 years for South America) included one record: 1969 -
Peru, avocado: Entry was denied for lack of effective treatments for
*Ceratitis capitata*, *Anastrepha fraterculus*, *A. serpentina* and
*Stenoma catenifer*.

Avocado importation requests from other South American countries were
denied in the following years due to lack of effective treatments for
*S. catenifer* and/or *Anastrepha* sp.:

1961 - Columbia

1970 - Columbia

1974 - Brazil, Columbia

1977 - Chile

1991 - Argentina

1994 - Eucador

USDA does not currently authorize the importation of avocado from South
America except for from Chile (PPQ, 2004). Importation of avocado from
Peru is currently not authorized. A list of pest interceptions on
avocado from Peru is shown in Table 2. A list of pest interceptions for
selected South American countries is found in Appendix 1.

**Table 2. Pest Interception Data for *Persea americana* (avocado) fruit
from Peru, 1985-Present (March, 2002): Total number of interceptions**

+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| **PEST**                                            | **Total        |
|                                                     | number**       |
|                                                     |                |
|                                                     | **of           |
|                                                     | i              |
|                                                     | nterceptions** |
+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| *Anastrepha* sp. (Tephritidae)                      | 1              |
+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| *Cladosporium* sp.                                  | 1              |
+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| Curculionidae, species of                           | 1              |
+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| Diaspididae, species of                             | 1              |
+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| *Heilipus* sp. (Curculionidae)                      | 1              |
+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| Oecophoridae, species of                            | 2              |
+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| Pentatomidae, species of                            | 1              |
+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| *Phomopsis* sp.                                     | 1              |
+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| *Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis* (Diaspididae)        | 10             |
+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| Pseudococcidae, species of                          | 3              |
+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| *Sphaceloma* sp.                                    | 1              |
+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| *Stenoma catenifer* (Oecophoridae)                  | 8              |
+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| **Total**                                           | **31**         |
+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------+

## 4. Pest List: Pests Associated with *Persea Americana* in Peru

Table 3 lists the pests found associated with *Persea americana*. The
table was compiled from scientific and regulatory reports, including
pest lists provided by Peruvian officials. Information sources consulted
included bibliographic databases, such as AGRICOLA and CAB Abstracts;
CAB International Crop Pest Compendium (CABI, 2002); previous risk
assessments relevant to the proposed commodity; PPQ's Catalog of
Intercepted Pests and interception records \[USDA Port Information
Network (PIN) 309 Database\]; Commonwealth Institute of Entomology (CIE)
and Commonwealth Mycology Institute (CMI) Distribution Maps and/or
Descriptions of plant pests; PPQ data sheets on Pests Not Known to Occur
in the United States (PNKTO) and Insects Not Known to Occur in the
United States (INKTO); standard texts; and published and unpublished
scientific and regulatory reports. For each pest, Table 3 summarizes
information on the presence or absence in the United States, commodity
association (*i.e*., the generally attacked/infected plant parts),
quarantine status in the United States, and the likelihood that the pest
could move with the commodity in commerce (*i.e.* follow the pathway).
\[Note: Fungal taxonomy is referenced to Kirk *et al.* (2001).\]

+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Table 3: Pest    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| List - Pests       |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| reported on        |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| avocado (*Persea   |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| americana)* (in    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| any country) and   |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| present in Peru on |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| any host.**        |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+====================+===+=========+===+=======+========+=======+===========+
| **Scientific Name, | * |         |   | **Pl  | **     | **L   | **Ref     |
| Classification**   | * |         |   | ant** | Quaran | ikely | erences** |
|                    | D |         |   |       | tine** | to    |           |
|                    | i |         |   | *     |        | Fol   |           |
|                    | s |         |   | *Part | **Pes  | low** |           |
|                    | t |         |   | Aff   | t^3^** |       |           |
|                    | r |         |   | ected |        | **Pa  |           |
|                    | i |         |   | ^2^** |        | thway |           |
|                    | b |         |   |       |        | ^4^** |           |
|                    | u |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | t |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | i |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | o |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | n |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | ^ |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | 1 |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | ^ |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | * |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | * |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Arthropods**     |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Acari**          |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Tarsonemidae**   |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Po                |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| lyphagotarsonemus* |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
| *latus* Banks      |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Tetranychidae**  |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Oligonychus       |   | PE      | L |       | Y      | N     | Bolland   |
| mangiferus*        |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
| (Rahman and Sapra) |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1998;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Hill,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1983      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Oligonychus       |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | Bolland   |
| peruvianus*        |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
| (McGregor)         |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1998;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | CABI,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Oligonychus       |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | Bolland   |
| punicae* (Hirst)   |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1998;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Hofshi,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2005      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Oligonychus       |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | Bolland   |
| yothersi*          |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
| (McGregor)         |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1998      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Panonychus        |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | Bolland   |
| citrii* (McGregor) |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1998;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Wysoki    |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2002      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Tetranychus       |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | Bolland   |
| mexicanus*         |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
| (McGregor)         |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1998      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Tetranychus       |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | Bolland   |
| neocaledonicus*    |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
| André              |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1998      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Tetranychus* sp.  |   | PE      | L |       | Y      | N     | Alata     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1973      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Tetranychus       |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | Bolland   |
| urticae* Koch      |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1998      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Insecta**        |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Coleoptera**     |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Bruchidae**      |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Acanthoscelides*  |   | PE, US  | S |       | Y      | N     | Adame,    |
| sp.                |   |         | d |       |        |       | 1998;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | EMLU,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Cerambycidae**   |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Derobrachus       |   | PE      | S |       | Y      | N     | Alata     |
| asperatus* Bates   |   |         |   |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1973      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Oncideres         |   | PE      | S |       | Y      | N     | Alata     |
| poecilla* Bates    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Wysocki   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2002      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Oncideres* sp.    |   | PE, US  | S |       | Y      | N     | Alata     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | CABI,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Curculionoidae** |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Copturomimus* sp. |   | PE      | S |       | Y      | N     | Alata     |
| L.                 |   |         | ( |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         | b |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         | r |       |        |       | Wysoki    |
|                    |   |         | a |       |        |       | *et al*., |
|                    |   |         | n |       |        |       | 2002;     |
|                    |   |         | c |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | h |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | e |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | s |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | ) |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Heilipus          |   | PE      | F |       | Y      | N^5a^ | Alata     |
| empiricus*         |   |         | ^ |       |        |       | Condor,   |
| (Pascoe)           |   |         | 5 |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         | ^ |       |        |       | Wysoki    |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | *et al*., |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       | 2002      |
|                    |   |         | ^ |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | 5 |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | ^ |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Heilipus* sp.     |   | PE      | F |       | Y      | N^5b^ | PIN 309,  |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2005      |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | d |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Pantomorus        |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| cervinus* Boheman  |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | R |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Rhynchophorus     |   | PE      | R |       | \[Y\]  | N     | CABI,     |
| palmarum* L.       |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Languriidae**    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Toramus* sp.      |   | PE, US  | S |       | N^14^  | N     | Alata     |
|                    |   |         | d |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | 1973      |
|                    |   |         | P |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | d |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Histeridae**     |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Acritus* sp.      |   | PE, US  | U |       | N^14^  | U     | Alata     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1973      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Nitulidae**      |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Carpophilus* sp.  |   | PE, US  | F |       | N^14^  | Y     | Alata     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1973      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Scolytidae**     |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Pagiocerus        |   | PE, US  | S |       | N      | N     | Alata     |
| frontalis*         |   |         |   |       |        |       | Condor,   |
| Fabricus           |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1973      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Diptera**        |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Agromyzidae**    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Liriomyza         |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| trifolii* Burgess  |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| in Comstock        |   |         |   |       |        |       | IHS, 1999 |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Cecidomyiidae**  |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Clinodiplosis*    |   | PE, US  | F |       | N^14^  | N     | Alata     |
| sp.                |   |         | l |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         | w |       |        |       | 1973      |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | d |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Lonchaeidae**    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Neosilba pendula* |   | PE      | S |       | Y      | N^15^ | Hofshi,   |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2005      |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Silba* sp.        |   | PE      | S |       | Y^6^   | N^15^ | Alata     |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | CABI,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2002;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Kat       |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | soyannos, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1983      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Muscidae**       |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Atherigona        |   | PE      | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| orientalis*        |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
| Schiner            |   | US (CA, | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   | TX, GA, | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   | FL, HI) | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Tephritidae**    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Anastrepha        |   | PE      | F |       | Y      | Y     | CABI,     |
| fraterculus*       |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2002;     |
| Wiedemann          |   |         |   |       |        |       | Norrbom   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2004;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Ovurski   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | et al.,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | White and |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Elso      |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | n-Harris, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1992      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Anastrepha        |   | PE      | F |       | Y      | N     | CABI,     |
| obliqua*           |   |         |   |       |        | ^16b^ | 2004;     |
| (Macquart)         |   |         |   |       |        |       | Norrbom,  |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2004      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Anastrepha        |   | PE      | F |       | Y      | N     | Bush,     |
| serpentina*        |   |         |   |       |        | ^16a^ | 1957;     |
| (Wiedemann)        |   |         |   |       |        |       | CABI,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2002      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Anastrepha        |   | PE      | F |       | Y      | Y     | Ballou,   |
| striata* Schiner   |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1936;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | CABI,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2002;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Jiron *et |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | al*.,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1988;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | White &   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Elso      |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | n-Harris, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1992      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Ceratitis         |   | PE, US  | F |       | Y      | Y     | CABI,     |
| capitata*          |   | (HI)    |   |       |        |       | 2002;     |
| Wiedemann          |   |         |   |       |        |       | Liquido   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | et al.,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1998;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Metcalf & |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Metcalf,  |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1993;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | White &   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Elso      |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | n-Harris, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1992      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Xanthaciura       |   | PE, US  | F |       | N      | N     | Alata     |
| major* Malloch     |   |         | l |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         | w |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         | ^ |       |        |       | Morin *et |
|                    |   |         | 7 |       |        |       | al.*,     |
|                    |   |         | ^ |       |        |       | 1997;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Peña and  |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Bennett,  |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1995      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Hemiptera**      |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Aetalionidae**   |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Aetalion          |   | PE      | F |       | Y      | N^18^ | Alata     |
| reticulatum* L.    |   |         | , |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | Briceno,  |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       | 1977,     |
|                    |   |         | l |       |        |       | Dominguez |
|                    |   |         | w |       |        |       | Gil, 1983 |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Aleyrodidae**    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Aleurodicus       |   | PE      | L |       | Y      | N     | Lopez and |
| cocois* Curtis     |   |         |   |       |        |       | Kairo,    |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1999;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Silva,    |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1978      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Aleurodicus       |   | PE, US  | L |       | \[Y    | N     | CABI,     |
| dispersus* Russell |   | (FL,    |   |       | ^19^\] |       | 2003      |
|                    |   | HI)     |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Aleurodicus       |   | PE      | L |       | Y      | N     | CABI,     |
| pulvinatus* (= *A. |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003      |
| ridescens*)        |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Aphididae**      |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Aphis gossypii*   |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | Blackman  |
| (Glover)           |   |         | , |       |        |       | & Eastop, |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       | 1984;     |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | CABI,     |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       | 2003      |
|                    |   |         | l |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | w |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Aphis spiraecola* |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| Patch              |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003      |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | l |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | w |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Myzus persicae*   |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| Sulzer             |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Toxoptera         |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | Blackman  |
| aurantii* Boyer de |   |         | , |       |        |       | and       |
| Fonscolombe        |   |         | S |       |        |       | Eastop,   |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2000;     |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       | CABI,     |
|                    |   |         | l |       |        |       | 2003      |
|                    |   |         | w |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Coccidae**       |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Ceroplastes       |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | Ebeling,  |
| cirripediformis*   |   |         | , |       |        |       | 1959;     |
| Comstock           |   |         | S |       |        |       | USDA,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003a     |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Ceroplastes       |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | Ebeling,  |
| floridensis*       |   |         | , |       |        |       | 1959;     |
| Comstock           |   |         | S |       |        |       | USDA,     |
|                    |   |         | ^ |       |        |       | 2003      |
|                    |   |         | 2 |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | 0 |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | ^ |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Coccus            |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| hesperidum* (L)    |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       | USDA,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Coccus viridis*   |   | PE, US  | L |       | \[     | Y     | CABI,     |
| (Green)            |   | (FL,    | , |       | Y\]^8^ |       | 2003,     |
|                    |   | HI)     | S |       |        |       | USDA,     |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003      |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Parasaissetia     |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| nigra* Nietner     |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Parthenolecanium  |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| corni* (Bouché)    |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2002;     |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       | Swirski   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al*., |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1997      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Protopulvinaria   |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | Alata     |
| pyriformis*        |   | (FL)    | , |       |        |       | Condor,   |
| Cockerell          |   |         | F |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | Ebeling,  |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       | 1959;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Wolfe,    |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*  |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1969;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Wysoki    |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2002      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Saissetia         |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| coffeae* Walker    |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Saissetia oleae*  |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| Oliver             |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Diaspididae**    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Acutaspis* sp.    |   | PE, US  | L |       | Y      | Y     | Alata     |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | Peña *et  |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       | al*.,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Acutaspis         |   | PE, US  | L |       | \[Y\]  | Y     | USDA,     |
| albopicta*         |   | (TX,    | , |       |        |       | 2003a     |
| (Cockerell)        |   | CA)     | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Acutaspis         |   | PE      | L |       | Y      | N     | USDA,     |
| subnigra* McKenzie |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003a     |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Aspidiotus        |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| destructor*        |   | (CA,    | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
|                    |   | FL)     | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Chrysomphalus     |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     |           |
| aonidum* (L.)      |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Chrysomphalus     |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| dictyospermi*      |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003      |
| Morgan             |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Fiorinia          |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | Alata     |
| fioriniae* Targ.   |   |         | , |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Wysoki    |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al*., |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2002      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Hemiberlesia      |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | Alata     |
| cyanophyilli*      |   |         | , |       |        |       | Condor,   |
| Signoret \[Syn.    |   |         | S |       |        |       | 1973;     |
| *Abgrallaspis      |   |         | , |       |        |       | CABI,     |
| cyanophylli*       |   |         | F |       |        |       | 2003      |
| (Signoret)\]       |   |         | ^ |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | 9 |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | ^ |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Hemiberlesia      |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| lataniae* Signoret |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2002;     |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       | Nakahara, |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | 1982      |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Hemiberlesia      |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | USDA,     |
| palmae*            |   | (CA,    |   |       |        |       | 2003a     |
| (Cockerell)        |   | FL)     |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Hemiberlesia      |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| rapax* (Comstock)  |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       | UCIPM,    |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003      |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Howardia          |   | PE, US  | U |       | N      | U     | USDA,     |
| biclavis*          |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003a     |
| (Comstock)         |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Lopholeucaspis    |   | PE, US  | U |       | N      | U     | USDA,     |
| cockerelli*        |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003a     |
| (Grandpré &        |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Charmoy)           |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Oceanaspidiotus   |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | USDA,     |
| spinosus*          |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003a     |
| (Comstock)         |   |         | B |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | a |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | r |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | k |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Pinnaspis         |   | PE, US  | S |       | N      | Y     | SENASA,   |
| aspidistrae*       |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| (Signoret)         |   |         | L |       |        |       | USDA,     |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003a     |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Pinnaspis* sp.    |   | PE, US  | S |       | Y      | Y     | PIN 309,  |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003      |
|                    |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Pinnaspis         |   | PE, US  | S |       | N      | Y     | USDA,     |
| strachani*         |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003a     |
| (Cooley)           |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Pseudaonidia      |   | PE, US  | F |       | \[Y    | Y     | Anon.,    |
| trilobitiformis*   |   | (FL)    | ^ |       | \]^22^ |       | 1979;     |
| Green              |   |         | 2 |       |        |       | Coile and |
|                    |   |         | 1 |       |        |       | Dixon,    |
|                    |   |         | ^ |       |        |       | 2000; PIN |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | 309       |
|                    |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Selenaspidus      |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| articulatus*       |   | (CA)    | , |       |        |       | 2002,     |
| Morgan             |   |         | S |       |        |       | Wysoki    |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       | 2002      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Unaspis citri*    |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | Alata     |
| Comstock           |   |         | , |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | USDA,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Wysoki    |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2002      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Margarodidae**   |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Icerya purchasi*  |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| Maskell            |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       | Mendel    |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al*., |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1992      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Membracidae**    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Tylopelta* sp.    |   | PE      | S |       | Y^6^   | N     | Alata     |
|                    |   |         | ^ |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         | 2 |       |        |       | 1973      |
|                    |   |         | 5 |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | ^ |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Pentatomidae**   |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| Pentatomidae,      |   | PE, US  | L |       | Y^6^   | N^23^ | PIN 309,  |
| species of         |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003      |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Pseudococcidae** |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Dysmicoccus       |   | PE. US  | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| brevipes*          |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003      |
| Cockerell          |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | R |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Ferrisia          |   | PE, US  | L |       | \[Y\]  | Y     | Gullan    |
| malvastra*         |   | (AZ)    | , |       |        |       | *et al*., |
| (McDaniel)         |   |         | F |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | USDA,     |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       | 2003      |
|                    |   |         | ^ |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | 1 |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | 0 |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | ^ |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Ferrisia virgata* |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| Cock               |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003      |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Nipaecoccus       |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| nipae* Maskell     |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003      |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Planococcus       |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| citri* (Risso)     |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | R |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Pseudococcus      |   | PE, US  | S |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| longispinus*       |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
| Targioni           |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Triozidae**      |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Trioza perseae*   |   | PE      | L |       | Y      | N     | Alata     |
| Tuthill            |   |         |   |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Chavez    |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1985;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Hollis    |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | and       |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Martin,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1997      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Hymenoptera**    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Formicidae**     |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Acromyrmex        |   | PE      | L |       | Y      | N     | Alata     |
| hispidus*          |   |         |   |       |        |       | Condor,   |
| Santaschi          |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1973; San |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Juan,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Atta cephalotes*  |   | PE      | L |       | Y      | N     | Alata     |
| L.                 |   |         |   |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | CABI,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Atta sexdens*     |   | PE      | L |       | Y      | N     | Ebeling,  |
| (L.)               |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1959      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Lepidoptera**    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Geometridae**    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Sabulodes         |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N     | Alata     |
| caberata* Gueneé   |   | (CA)    |   |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Condit,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1915;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | THCD,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Wysocki   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2002      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Gracilariidae**  |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Phyllocnistis* n. |   | PE      | L |       | Y      | N     | CABI,     |
| sp.                |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2002,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Wysocki   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2002      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Lymantriidae**   |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Eloria* sp.       |   | PE      | L |       | Y      | N     | Alata     |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | U.S.      |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Congress, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1993      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Noctuidae**      |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Chrysodeixis      |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N^11^ | CABI,     |
| includens*         |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003      |
| (Walker) \[Syn.    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
| Pseudoplusia       |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
| includens          |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
| (Walker)\]         |   |         | l |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | w |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Helicoverpa zea*  |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| (Boddie)           |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    |   |         | I |       |        |       | Robinson  |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | *et al,*  |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       | 2004      |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | d |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Peridroma saucia* |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N^11^ | CABI,     |
| Hübner             |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | l |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | w |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Spodoptera        |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | N^11^ | CABI,     |
| eridania* Stoll    |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Oecophoridae**   |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Stenoma           |   | PE, US  | L |       | Y      | Y     | Alata     |
| catenifer*         |   | (       | , |       |        |       | Condor,   |
| Walsingham         |   | HI)^32^ | F |       |        |       | 1973,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | CABI,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2002;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Ebeling,  |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1959;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Wysoki    |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2002      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Pyralidae**      |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Jocara zetila*    |   | PE      | L |       | Y      | N     | Alata     |
| Druce              |   |         |   |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Arellano  |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Cruz,     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1998      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Stericta          |   | PE      | L |       | Y      | N     | CABI,     |
| albifasciata*      |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2002;     |
| (Druce) \[Syn.     |   |         |   |       |        |       | Ebeling,  |
| *Jocara ban*       |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1959      |
| Dyar\]             |   |         |   |       |        |       | Zhang,    |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1994      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Psychidae**      |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Oiketicus kirbyi* |   | PE      | L |       | Y      | N     | Alata     |
| Guilding           |   |         |   |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Arce *et  |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | al.,*     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1987;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Ponce *et |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | al.,*     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1981;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Rhainds   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.,* |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1996      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Sesiidae**       |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Aegeria* sp.      |   | PE, US  | S |       | Y      | N     | Alata     |
|                    |   |         | ( |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         | t |       |        |       | 1973;     |
|                    |   |         | r |       |        |       | BFW,      |
|                    |   |         | u |       |        |       | 2004;     |
|                    |   |         | n |       |        |       | Zhang,    |
|                    |   |         | k |       |        |       | 1994      |
|                    |   |         | ) |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | ^ |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | 2 |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | 4 |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | ^ |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Tortricidae**    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Platynota* sp.    |   | PE, US  | L |       | Y      | N     | Alata     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Condor,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1973      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Thysanoptera**   |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Thripidae**      |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Heliothrips       |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| haemorrhoidalis*   |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
| Bouche             |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Selenothrips      |   | PE, US  | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| rubrocinctus*      |   |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
| Giard              |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Viruses**        |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| Avocado sunblotch  | P |         | L |       | N      | Y     | Ploetz,   |
| viroid             | E |         | , |       |        |       | *et al.,* |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       | 1994,     |
|                    | U |         | , |       |        |       | Vargas,   |
|                    | S |         | S |       |        |       | *et al.*  |
|                    | ( |         | , |       |        |       | 1991      |
|                    | C |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    | A |         | L |       |        |       |           |
|                    | F |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | L |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | ) |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| Potato spindle     | P |         | L |       | Y^29^  | Y     | CABI      |
| tuber viroid       | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       | Querci,   |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | *et al.*  |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       | 1995      |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Bacteria**       |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Cephaleuros       | P |         | L |       | Y      | N     | CABI      |
| viriscens* Künze   | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       | Bazán de  |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Segura,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1959      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Rhizobium         | P |         | R |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| radiobacter*       | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
| (Beijerinck & van  | , |         | S |       |        |       |           |
| Delden 1902) Young | U |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | S |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| (Rhizobiaceae,     |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Rhizobiales)       |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Fungi**          |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Acrothecium       | P |         | L |       | N      | N     | CABI      |
| lunatum* Wakker    | E |         |   |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| (=*Curvularia      | , |         |   |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
| lunata* (Wakk.)    | U |         |   |       |        |       | 1977      |
| Boedijn)           | S |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| (Anamorphic        |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Ascomycetes)       |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Armillaria        | P |         | L |       | N      | N     | CABI      |
| mellea* (Vahl) P.  | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| Kumm. (Agaricales, | , |         | R |       |        |       | Gonzales  |
| Marasmiaceae*)*    | U |         | , |       |        |       | and Abad, |
|                    | S |         | S |       |        |       | 1975;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1977      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Aspergillus       | P |         | F |       | N      | Y     | CABI      |
| niger* Tiegh.      | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    | , |         | L |       |        |       | Torres    |
| (Anamorphic,       | U |         | , |       |        |       | and       |
| [Tric              | S |         | R |       |        |       | Gamarra,  |
| hocomaceae](http:/ |   |         | , |       |        |       | 1988;     |
| /www.indexfungorum |   |         | S |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
| .org/Names/fundic. |   |         | , |       |        |       | 1977      |
| asp?RecordID=Trich |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
| ocomaceae&Type=F)) |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Botryodiplodia*   | P |         | F |       | N      | Y     | Farr *et  |
| sp.                | E |         | , |       |        |       | al*.,     |
|                    | , |         | F |       |        |       | 2004;     |
| *(*Anamorphic      | U |         | L |       |        |       | Torres    |
| Ascomycetes*)*     | S |         | , |       |        |       | and       |
|                    |   |         | L |       |        |       | Gamarra,  |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | 1988      |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Botryosphaeria    | P |         | F |       | N      | Y     | Bazán de  |
| dothidea*          | E |         | ^ |       |        |       | Segura,   |
|                    | , |         | 1 |       |        |       | 1959;     |
| (Moug.) Ces. & de  | U |         | 3 |       |        |       | CABI      |
| Not.               | S |         | ^ |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       | Farr *et  |
| *{= Physalospora   |   |         | L |       |        |       | al*.,     |
| perseae Doidge}*   |   |         | ^ |       |        |       | 2004,     |
|                    |   |         | 1 |       |        |       | Kirk, et  |
| ([Dothiodales](ht  |   |         | 3 |       |        |       | al. ,     |
| tp://www.indexfung |   |         | ^ |       |        |       | 2001;     |
| orum.org/Names/fun |   |         | , |       |        |       | Ploetz et |
| dic.asp?RecordID=X |   |         | S |       |        |       | al.,      |
| ylariales&Type=O), |   |         | ^ |       |        |       | 2003.     |
| B                  |   |         | 1 |       |        |       |           |
| otryosphaeriaceae) |   |         | 3 |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | ^ |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Botrytis cinerea* | P |         | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI      |
| Pers.: Fr          | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    | , |         | S |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
| (Anamorphic        | U |         | , |       |        |       | 1977      |
| Helotiales,        | S |         | F |       |        |       |           |
| Sclerotiniaceae)   |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | d |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Ceratocystis      | P |         | F |       | N      | Y     | CABI      |
| fimbriata* Ellis & | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| Halst              | , |         | L |       |        |       | Farr *et  |
|                    | U |         | , |       |        |       | al*.,     |
| (Microascales,     | S |         | R |       |        |       | 2004;     |
| Ceratocystidaceae) |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Cercospora        | P |         | L |       | N      | Y     | Farr *et  |
| lingue* Speg.      | E |         | , |       | *^12^* |       | al*.,     |
| (Anamorphic        |   |         | F |       |        |       | 2004;     |
| Mycosphaerellales, |   |         |   |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
| M                  |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1977      |
| ycosphaerellaceae) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Cercospora        | P |         | L |       | N      | Y     | Farr *et  |
| perseae^28^* Ell.  | E |         | , |       |        |       | al*.,     |
| & Mart.            | , |         | F |       |        |       | 2004;     |
| (Anamorphic        | U |         |   |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
| Mycosphaerellales, | S |         |   |       |        |       | 1977      |
| M                  | ( |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ycosphaerellaceae) | F |         |   |       |        |       | Palm,     |
|                    | L |         |   |       |        |       | pers.     |
|                    | ) |         |   |       |        |       | com. 2005 |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Cercospora        | P |         | F |       | N^33^  | Y     | Bazán de  |
| purpure^28^a*      | E |         | , |       |        |       | Segura,   |
| (Cooke) Deighton   | , |         | L |       |        |       | 1959;     |
|                    | U |         |   |       |        |       | CABI      |
| (=                 | S |         |   |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| Pseudocercospora   |   |         |   |       |        |       | Farr *et  |
| purpurea (Cooke)   |   |         |   |       |        |       | al*.,     |
| Deighton)          |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2004;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Ploetz    |
| (Anamorphic        |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*  |
| Mycosphaerellales, |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1994;     |
| M                  |   |         |   |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
| ycosphaerellaceae) |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1977      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Cladosporium* sp. | P |         | R |       | Y^6^   | Y     | CABI,     |
|                    | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003; PIN |
| (Anamorphic        | , |         | S |       |        |       | 309, 2003 |
| Mycosphaerellales, | U |         | , |       |        |       |           |
| Myco               | S |         | F |       |        |       |           |
| sphaerellaceae,*)* |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Colletotrichum    | P |         | F |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| gloeosporioides*   | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2002;     |
| (Penz.) Penz. &    | , |         | F |       |        |       | Ploetz,   |
| Sacc. in Penz.     | U |         | L |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
|                    | S |         | , |       |        |       | 1994      |
| Teleomorph:        |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
| *Glomerella        |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
| cingulata*         |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
| (Stone.) Spauld. & |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| H. Schrenk         |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| (Anamorphic        |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Incertae sedis,    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Glomerellaceae)    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Corticium         | P |         | L |       | N      | N     | CABI      |
| salmonicolor*      | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| Berk. & Broome     | , |         | S |       |        |       | Farr *et  |
| ([Polyporales](htt | U |         |   |       |        |       | al*.,     |
| p://www.indexfungo | S |         |   |       |        |       | 2004;     |
| rum.org/Names/fund |   |         |   |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
| ic.asp?RecordID=Po |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1977      |
| lyporales&Type=O), |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| [Phanerocha        |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| etaceae](http://ww |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| w.indexfungorum.or |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| g/Names/fundic.asp |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ?RecordID=Phaneroc |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| haetaceae&Type=F)) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Fusarium          | P |         | F |       | N      | Y     | CABI      |
| lateritium* Nees   | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    | , |         | R |       |        |       | Icochea   |
| (Anamorphic        | U |         | , |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
| Hypocreales,       | S |         | S |       |        |       | 1994;     |
| Nectriaceae)       |   |         | , |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       | 1977      |
|                    |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Fusarium roseum*  | P |         | F |       | N      | Y     | CABI      |
| Link               | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    | , |         | R |       |        |       | Icochea   |
| (Anamorphic        | U |         | , |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
| Hypocreales,       | S |         | S |       |        |       | 1994;     |
| Nectriaceae)       |   |         | , |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
|                    |   |         | L |       |        |       | 1977      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Fusarium*         | P |         | F |       | N      | Y     | CABI      |
| *oxysporum*        | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| Schlecht           | , |         | R |       |        |       | Icochea   |
| (Anamorphic        | U |         | , |       |        |       | *et al*., |
| Hypocreales,       | S |         | S |       |        |       | 1994;     |
| Nectriaceae)       |   |         | , |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
|                    |   |         | L |       |        |       | 1977      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Fusarium solani*  | P |         | S |       | N      | N     | CABI      |
| (Martius) Sacc.    | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| (*Nectria          | , |         | R |       |        |       | Farr *et  |
| haematococca*      | U |         |   |       |        |       | al*.,     |
| (Wollenw.) Gerlach | S |         |   |       |        |       | 2004      |
| \[teleomorph\])    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| (Anamorphic        |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Hypocreales,       |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Nectriaceae)       |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Gibberella        | P |         | F |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| avenacea* R.J.     | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
| Cook (Nectriaceae, | , |         | F |       |        |       |           |
| Hypocreales)       | U |         | L |       |        |       |           |
|                    | S |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Glomerella        | P |         | F |       | N      | Y     | CABI      |
| cingulata*         | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| (Stonem.) Spauld.  | , |         | L |       |        |       | Farr *et  |
| & Schrenk          | U |         | , |       |        |       | al*.,     |
|                    | S |         | S |       |        |       | 2004      |
| ([Incertae         |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
| sedis](http:/      |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
| /www.indexfungorum |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
| .org/Names/fundic. |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
| asp?RecordID=Incer |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
| tae+sedis&Type=O), |   |         | d |       |        |       |           |
| [Glom              |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| erellaceae](http:/ |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| /www.indexfungorum |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| .org/Names/fundic. |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| asp?RecordID=Glome |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| rellaceae&Type=F)) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Lasiodiplodia     | P |         | F |       | N      | Y     | CABI      |
| theobromae* (Pat.) | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| Griffiths & Maubl. | , |         | F |       |        |       | Bazán de  |
| \[anamorph\]       | U |         | L |       |        |       | Segura,   |
| (*Physalospora     | S |         | , |       |        |       | 1959      |
| rhodina* Berk. &   | ( |         | L |       |        |       |           |
| M.A. Curtis        | C |         | , |       |        |       |           |
| \[teleomorph\])    | A |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    | , |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| (Xylariales;       | F |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Hyponectriaceae:)  | L |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | , |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | G |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | A |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | ) |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Macrophomina      | P |         | F |       | N      | Y     | CABI      |
| phaseolina*        | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| (Tassi) Goid       | , |         | F |       |        |       | Farr *et  |
|                    | U |         | L |       |        |       | al*.,     |
| (Anamorphic        | S |         | , |       |        |       | 2004      |
| Ascomycetes)       |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | R |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | d |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Mucor* sp.        | P |         | L |       | N      | Y     | Arce *et  |
|                    | E |         | , |       |        |       | al*.,     |
| ([Mucorales](h     | , |         | F |       |        |       | 1974;     |
| ttp://www.indexfun | U |         |   |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
| gorum.org/Names/fu | S |         |   |       |        |       | 1977      |
| ndic.asp?RecordID= |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Mucorales&Type=O), |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| [Mucoraceae](ht    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| tp://www.indexfung |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| orum.org/Names/fun |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| dic.asp?RecordID=M |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ucoraceae&Type=F)) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Mycena            | P |         | L |       | N^26^  | N^27^ | CABI,     |
| citricolor* (Berk. | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2002;     |
| and Curtis) Sacc.  | , |         | F |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
|                    | U |         | , |       |        |       | 1977      |
| ([Agaricales](ht   | S |         | S |       |        |       |           |
| tp://www.indexfung | ( |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| orum.org/Names/fun | F |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| dic.asp?RecordID=A | L |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| garicales&Type=O), | ) |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| [Tricholo          |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| mataceae](http://w |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ww.indexfungorum.o |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| rg/Names/fundic.as |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| p?RecordID=Trichol |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| omataceae&Type=F)) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Nectria           | P |         | S |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| rigidiuscula*      | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
| Berk. & Broome     | , |         | F |       |        |       |           |
| (Hypocreales,      | U |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Nectriaceae)       | S |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Nigrospora        | P |         | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| oryzae* Huds.      | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2002;     |
| (Anamorphic        | , |         | F |       |        |       | Vallejos  |
| Trichosphaeriales, | U |         |   |       |        |       | and       |
| Incertae sedis)    | S |         |   |       |        |       | Mattos,   |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1990;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1977      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Oidium* sp.       | P |         | L |       | N^6^   | N     | Alfieri,  |
| (powdery mildew)   | E |         |   |       |        |       | 1984;     |
| (Anamorphic        | , |         |   |       |        |       | Bazán de  |
| Erysiphales,       | U |         |   |       |        |       | Segura,   |
| Erysiphaceae)      | S |         |   |       |        |       | 1959;     |
|                    | ( |         |   |       |        |       | Pernezny, |
|                    | F |         |   |       |        |       | 2000      |
|                    | L |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | ) |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Pellicularia      | P |         | S |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| koleroga* Cooke (= | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2002;     |
| *Corticium         | , |         | L |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
| koleroga* (Cooke)  | U |         |   |       |        |       | 1977      |
| Hцhnel)            | S |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | ( |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| (Anamorphic        | F |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| [Ceratoba          | L |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| sidiales](http://w | ) |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ww.indexfungorum.o |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| rg/Names/fundic.as |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| p?RecordID=Ceratob |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| asidiales&Type=O), |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| [Ceratobasi        |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| diaceae](http://ww |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| w.indexfungorum.or |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| g/Names/fundic.asp |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ?RecordID=Ceratoba |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| sidiaceae&Type=F)) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Pestalotia        | P |         | L |       | N      | N     | Alfieri,  |
| guepini* Desm.     | E |         | , |       |        |       | 1984;     |
|                    | , |         | F |       |        |       | Bazán de  |
| (Anamorphic        | U |         |   |       |        |       | Segura,   |
| Xylariales,        | S |         |   |       |        |       | 1959      |
| Amphisphaeriaceae) | ( |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | F |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | L |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | ) |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Pestalotia        | P |         | L |       | N      | N     | Farr *et  |
| leprogena* Speg.   | E |         |   |       |        |       | al*.,     |
| (Anamorphic        | , |         |   |       |        |       | 2004;     |
| Xylariales,        | U |         |   |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
| Amphisphaeriaceae) | S |         |   |       |        |       | 1977      |
|                    | ( |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | H |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | I |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | ) |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Pestalotia        | P |         | L |       | N      | Y     | Farr *et  |
| neglecta* Th.      | E |         | , |       |        |       | al*.,     |
|                    | , |         | S |       |        |       | 2004;     |
| (Anamorphic        | U |         | , |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
| Xylariales,        | S |         | F |       |        |       | 1977      |
| Amphisphaeriaceae) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Phomopsis* sp.    | P |         | F |       | Y^6^   | Y     | Alfieri,  |
|                    | E |         | , |       |        |       | 1984; PIN |
| (Anamorphic        | , |         | S |       |        |       | 309, 2003 |
| Diaporthales,      | U |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Valsaceae)         | S |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | ( |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | F |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | L |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | ) |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Phytophthora      | P |         | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| cactorum* (Lebert  | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003      |
| & Cohn) Schröter   | , |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    | U |         | , |       |        |       |           |
| ([Pythiales](h     | S |         | F |       |        |       |           |
| ttp://www.indexfun |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
| gorum.org/Names/fu |   |         | R |       |        |       |           |
| ndic.asp?RecordID= |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Pythiales&Type=O), |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| [Pythiaceae](ht    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| tp://www.indexfung |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| orum.org/Names/fun |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| dic.asp?RecordID=P |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ythiaceae&Type=F)) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Phytophthora      | P |         | L |       | N      | N     | Bazán de  |
| cinnamomi* Rands   | E |         | , |       |        |       | Segura,   |
|                    | , |         | S |       |        |       | 1959;     |
| ([Pythiales](h     | U |         | , |       |        |       | CABI,     |
| ttp://www.indexfun | S |         | R |       |        |       | 2002;     |
| gorum.org/Names/fu |   |         |   |       |        |       | Ploetz,   |
| ndic.asp?RecordID= |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
| Pythiales&Type=O), |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1994      |
| [Pythiaceae](ht    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| tp://www.indexfung |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| orum.org/Names/fun |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| dic.asp?RecordID=P |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ythiaceae&Type=F)) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Phytophthora      | P |         | F |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| citrophthora*      | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| (R.H. Sm. & E.     | , |         | L |       |        |       | Farr *et  |
| Sm.) Leonian       | U |         | , |       |        |       | al*.,     |
|                    | S |         | R |       |        |       | 2004      |
| ([Pythiales](h     |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
| ttp://www.indexfun |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
| gorum.org/Names/fu |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
| ndic.asp?RecordID= |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
| Pythiales&Type=O), |   |         | d |       |        |       |           |
| [Pythiaceae](ht    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| tp://www.indexfung |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| orum.org/Names/fun |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| dic.asp?RecordID=P |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ythiaceae&Type=F)) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Phytophthora      | P |         | L |       | N      | Y     | Alfieri,  |
| nicotianae* Breda  | E |         | , |       |        |       | *et al.,* |
| de Haan var.       | , |         | S |       |        |       | 1984;     |
| *parasitica*       | U |         | , |       |        |       | Farr, *et |
| (Dastur) G.M.      | S |         | F |       |        |       | al.*,     |
| Waterhouse         |   |         | , |       |        |       | 1989;     |
|                    |   |         | R |       |        |       | CMI,      |
| ([Pythiales](h     |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1964;     |
| ttp://www.indexfun |   |         |   |       |        |       | CABI,     |
| gorum.org/Names/fu |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003      |
| ndic.asp?RecordID= |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Pythiales&Type=O), |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| [Pythiaceae](ht    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| tp://www.indexfung |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| orum.org/Names/fun |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| dic.asp?RecordID=P |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ythiaceae&Type=F)) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Phytophthora      | P |         | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| palmivora* (E. J.  | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| Butler) E. J.      | , |         | S |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
| Butler             | U |         | , |       |        |       | 1977      |
|                    | S |         | F |       |        |       |           |
| ([Pythiales](h     |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
| ttp://www.indexfun |   |         | R |       |        |       |           |
| gorum.org/Names/fu |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
| ndic.asp?RecordID= |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
| Pythiales&Type=O), |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
| [Pythiaceae](ht    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| tp://www.indexfung |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| orum.org/Names/fun |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| dic.asp?RecordID=P |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ythiaceae&Type=F)) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Polyporus         | P |         | S |       | N      | N     | Farr *et  |
| hirsutus*          | E |         |   |       |        |       | al*.,     |
| (Wulfen:Fr.)Fr.    | , |         |   |       |        |       | 2004;     |
|                    | U |         |   |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
| ([Polyporales](htt | S |         |   |       |        |       | 1977      |
| p://www.indexfungo |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| rum.org/Names/fund |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ic.asp?RecordID=Po |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| lyporales&Type=O), |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| [                  |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Polyporaceae](http |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ://www.indexfungor |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| um.org/Names/fundi |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| c.asp?RecordID=Pol |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| yporaceae&Type=F)) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Polyporus         | P |         | S |       | N      | N     | Farr *et  |
| sanguineus*        | E |         |   |       |        |       | al*.,     |
| (L.:Fr.) Murrill   | , |         |   |       |        |       | 2004;     |
|                    | U |         |   |       |        |       | Renjifo   |
| ([Polyporales](htt | S |         |   |       |        |       | and       |
| p://www.indexfungo |   |         |   |       |        |       | Trujillo, |
| rum.org/Names/fund |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1992      |
| ic.asp?RecordID=Po |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| lyporales&Type=O), |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| [                  |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Polyporaceae](http |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ://www.indexfungor |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| um.org/Names/fundi |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| c.asp?RecordID=Pol |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| yporaceae&Type=F)) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Pythium ultimum*  | P |         | R |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| Trow               | E |         |   |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    | , |         |   |       |        |       | Perez *et |
| ([Pythiales](h     | U |         |   |       |        |       | al.*,     |
| ttp://www.indexfun | S |         |   |       |        |       | 1994;     |
| gorum.org/Names/fu |   |         |   |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
| ndic.asp?RecordID= |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1977      |
| Pythiales&Type=O), |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| [Pythiaceae](ht    |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| tp://www.indexfung |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| orum.org/Names/fun |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| dic.asp?RecordID=P |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ythiaceae&Type=F)) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Rhizoctonia       | P |         | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| solani* K#uhn      | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| (*Thanatephorus    | , |         | S |       |        |       | Farr *et  |
| cucumeris* (Frank) | U |         | , |       |        |       | al*.,     |
| Donk               | S |         | F |       |        |       | 2004;     |
| \[teleomorph\])    |   |         | , |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
|                    |   |         | R |       |        |       | 1977      |
| (Anamorphic        |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
| Ceratobasidiales,  |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
| Ceratobasidiaceae) |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | d |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Rhizoctonia* sp.  | P |         | L |       | N      | Y     | Perez,    |
|                    | E |         | , |       |        |       | 1999;     |
| (Anamorphic        | , |         | S |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
| Ceratobasidiales,  | U |         | , |       |        |       | 1977      |
| Ceratobasidiaceae) | S |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | R |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | d |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Rigidoporus       | P |         | R |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| microporus*        | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| (Sw.:Fr.) Overeem  | , |         | S |       |        |       | Farr *et  |
|                    | U |         |   |       |        |       | al*.,     |
| ([Polyporales](htt | S |         |   |       |        |       | 2004      |
| p://www.indexfungo |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| rum.org/Names/fund |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ic.asp?RecordID=Po |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| lyporales&Type=O), |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| [                  |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Meripilaceae](http |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ://www.indexfungor |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| um.org/Names/fundi |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| c.asp?RecordID=Mer |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ipilaceae&Type=F)) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Rosellinia        | P |         | R |       | Y      | N     | Menge and |
| bunodes* (Berk. &  | E |         | , |       |        |       | Ploetz,   |
| Br.) Sacc.         |   |         | S |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | Ploetz,   |
| Black (Rosellinia) |   |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*, |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1994;     |
| ([Polyporales](htt |   |         |   |       |        |       | Watson,   |
| p://www.indexfungo |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1971;     |
| rum.org/Names/fund |   |         |   |       |        |       | CMI,      |
| ic.asp?RecordID=Po |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1985,     |
| lyporales&Type=O), |   |         |   |       |        |       | CABI      |
| [                  |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| Meripilaceae](http |   |         |   |       |        |       | Farr *et  |
| ://www.indexfungor |   |         |   |       |        |       | al*.,     |
| um.org/Names/fundi |   |         |   |       |        |       | 2004      |
| c.asp?RecordID=Mer |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ipilaceae&Type=F)) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Sclerotinia       | P |         | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| sclerotiorum*      | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2002      |
| (Lib.) de Bary     | , |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    | U |         | , |       |        |       |           |
| ([Helotiales](ht   | S |         | F |       |        |       |           |
| tp://www.indexfung |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
| orum.org/Names/fun |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
| dic.asp?RecordID=H |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
| elotiales&Type=O), |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
| [Sclero            |   |         | R |       |        |       |           |
| tiniaceae](http:// |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| www.indexfungorum. |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| org/Names/fundic.a |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| sp?RecordID=Sclero |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| tiniaceae&Type=F)) |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Sclerotium        | P |         | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| rolfsii* Sacc.     | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    | , |         | S |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
| (Anamorphic        | U |         | , |       |        |       | 1977      |
| Polyporales,       | S |         | F |       |        |       |           |
| Atheliaceae)       |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | R |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | d |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Sphaceloma        | P |         | F |       | N      | Y     | Alfieri,  |
| perseae* Jenk.     | E |         | , |       |        |       | *et al.,* |
|                    | , |         | F |       |        |       | 1984;     |
| (Anamorphic        | U |         | L |       |        |       | CABI,     |
| Myriangiales,      | S |         | , |       |        |       | 2002;     |
| Elsinoaceae)       | ( |         | L |       |        |       | Farr *et  |
|                    | F |         |   |       |        |       | al*.,     |
|                    | L |         |   |       |        |       | 2004;     |
|                    | , |         |   |       |        |       | Pernexny, |
|                    | T |         |   |       |        |       | 2000.     |
|                    | X |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | ) |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Sphaeropsis       | P |         | S |       | N^31^  | N     | CABI,     |
| tumefaciens*       | E |         |   |       |        |       | 2003;     |
| Hedges             | , |         |   |       |        |       | Timmer,   |
|                    | U |         |   |       |        |       | 2003      |
| (Anamorphic        | S |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Actinomycetes)     | ( |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | F |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | L |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | ) |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Verticillium      | P |         | L |       | N      | Y     | CABI,     |
| dahliae* Kleb.     | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    | , |         | S |       |        |       | Farr *et  |
| (Anamorphic        | U |         | , |       |        |       | al*.,     |
| Hypocreales,       | S |         | F |       |        |       | 2004;     |
| Hypocreaceae)      |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | R |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | L |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | d |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Nematodes**      |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **[Tylench         |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ida]{.smallcaps}** |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Belonolaimidae** |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Tylenchorhynchus* | P |         | R |       | Y      | N     | Torres,   |
| sp.                | E |         |   |       |        |       | 1977;     |
|                    | , |         |   |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
|                    | U |         |   |       |        |       | 1977      |
|                    | S |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Hoplolaimidae**  |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Criconemoides     | P |         | R |       | N      | N     | CABI      |
| sp.*               | E |         |   |       |        |       | 2003;     |
|                    | , |         |   |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
|                    | U |         |   |       |        |       | 1977      |
|                    | S |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Helicotylenchus   | P |         | R |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| dihystera* (Cobb)  | E |         |   |       |        |       | 2003      |
| Sher               | , |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | U |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | S |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Helicotylenchus   | P |         | R |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| multicinctus*      | E |         |   |       |        |       | 2003      |
| (Cobb) Golden      | , |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | U |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | S |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Helicotylenchus*  | P |         | R |       | Y      | N     | Torres,   |
| sp.                | E |         |   |       |        |       | 1977;     |
|                    | , |         |   |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
|                    | U |         |   |       |        |       | 1977      |
|                    | S |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Rotylenchulus     | P |         | R |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| reniformis Linford | E |         |   |       |        |       | 2003      |
| & Oliveira*        | , |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | U |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | S |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Heteroderidae**  |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Meloidogyne* sp.  | P |         | R |       | Y      | N     | Delgado   |
|                    | E |         |   |       |        |       | and       |
|                    | , |         |   |       |        |       | Rosas,    |
|                    | U |         |   |       |        |       | 1977;     |
|                    | S |         |   |       |        |       | Wellman,  |
|                    |   |         |   |       |        |       | 1977      |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Pratylenchidae** |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Pratylenchus      | P |         | R |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
| brachyurus*        | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003      |
| (Godfrey) Filipjev | , |         | S |       |        |       |           |
| & Schuurmans       | U |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| Stekhoven          | S |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Radopholus        | P |         | R |       | N      | N     | A         |
| similis* (Cobb)    | E |         | , |       |        |       | nonymous, |
| Thorne             | , |         | S |       |        |       | 1984;     |
|                    | U |         |   |       |        |       | A         |
|                    | S |         |   |       |        |       | nonymous, |
|                    | ( |         |   |       |        |       | 1992;     |
|                    | F |         |   |       |        |       | CABI,     |
|                    | L |         |   |       |        |       | 2003; PIN |
|                    | , |         |   |       |        |       | 309,      |
|                    | H |         |   |       |        |       | 2004;     |
|                    | I |         |   |       |        |       | Ploetz,   |
|                    | , |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.,* |
|                    | L |         |   |       |        |       | 1994;     |
|                    | A |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | , |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | T |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | X |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | ) |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Trichodoridae**  |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Trichodorus sp.*  | P |         | R |       | N      | N     | CABI,     |
|                    | E |         |   |       |        |       | 2003      |
|                    | , |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | U |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | S |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **[Dorylaim        |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
| ida]{.smallcaps}** |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Xiphinematidae** |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Xiphinema         | P |         | R |       | \[Y\]  | N     | Lamberti, |
| floridae*          | E |         |   |       |        |       | *et al.*  |
|                    | , |         |   |       |        |       | 1987;     |
|                    | U |         |   |       |        |       | Lehman,   |
|                    | S |         |   |       |        |       | 2002      |
|                    | ( |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | F |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | L |         |   |       |        |       |           |
|                    | ) |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| **Mollusca**       |   |         |   |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+
| *Helix aspersa*    | P |         | L |       | N^30^  | N^17^ | CABI,     |
| Muller \[=Sy.      | E |         | , |       |        |       | 2003      |
| *Cornu aspersum*   | , |         | S |       |        |       |           |
| (Muller)\]         | U |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    | S |         | R |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | F |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | , |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | S |       |        |       |           |
|                    |   |         | d |       |        |       |           |
+--------------------+---+---------+---+-------+--------+-------+-----------+

> ^1^ Distribution: CA = California, FL= Florida, GA = Georgia, HI --
> Hawaii, NY = New York, PE = Peru, USA = United States of America, TX =
> Texas.
>
> ^2^ Plant Part Affected: F = fruit, Flw. = flower or inflorescence, L
> = leaves, S = stem, R = roots, Sd = seed,
>
> Pd = Pod.
>
> ^3^ Quarantine Pest: Y = yes; N = no; U = Unknown. Brackets indicate
> that the species, although not fitting the definition of a quarantine
> pest (IPPC, 2002), is considered actionable (APHIS, PPQ, National
> Identification Services).
>
> ^4^ Follow Pathway: Y = yes; N = no; U = Unknown.
>
> ^5^ Based on biology of *Heilipus catagraphus* (Wysoki *et al*.,
> 2002).
>
> ^5a^ *H.* *empiricus* is only mentioned in the literature once by
> Alata Condor (1973). Our efforts to find more information about this
> species were unsuccessful. According to SENASA (2005), this species is
> very rare in Peru and does not pose any economic threat. There is one
> interception of *Heilipus* sp. on avocado in the passenger luggage
> from Peru in PIN 309. We did not consider this species for further
> analysis since it is unlikely that this insect will follow the pathway
> with imported commodity. However, we reserve the right to add to the
> pathway any species of *Heilipus* if interceptions of these insects
> will become recorded on avocados imported from Peru because *H.
> empiricus* might be misidentification by Alta Condor (1973) of some
> other species from the genus *Heilipus*.
>
> ^5b^ We included *Heilipus* sp. in the pest list based on a single
> interception in a passenger baggage and the evidence is not sufficient
> to suggest that it will be in the pathway. However, as stated above,
> we reserve the right to add any species of *Heilipus* to the pathway
> in the future should their interceptions be found in commercial
> avocado shipments from Peru. Also, please, see Conclusion section for
> more information.
>
> ^6^ Organisms listed at the level of genus (or family), although
> regarded as quarantine pests because of their uncertain identity, are
> not considered for further analysis due to the lack of evidence of the
> risks that they pose (see discussion below).
>
> ^7^ Based on biology of *Xanthaciura connexionis* (Morin *et al*.,
> 1997).
>
> ^8^ Courneya, 2004a.
>
> ^9^ Based on biology of *Hemiberlesia lataniae* (CABI, 2003).
>
> ^10^ Based on biology of *Ferrisia virgata.*
>
> ^11^ External feeder; damaged fruits are likely to be eliminated from
> packing by visual culling.
>
> ^12^ *Cercospora lingue* is listed in Wellman, 1977, but is not a
> recognized *Cercospora* fide (Chupp, 1953); consequently, it is not
> considered for further analysis.
>
> ^13^ Based upon the biology of *Physalospora pyricola* Nose
> (Botryosphaeria berengeriana f.sp. pyricola (Nose) Koganezawa &
> Sakuma).
>
> ^14^ Listed as Non-reportable in PIN 309 database. Also, see Courneya
> (2003)
>
> ^15^These species are considered unlikely to follow the pathway
> because they are secondary pests that attack hosts previously damaged
> by primary invaders, particularly fruit flies (McAlpine and Steyskal,
> 1982; White and Elson-Harris, 1992). If damaged fruit is properly
> culled and fruit fly mitigation is undertaken, then S*ilba*
> (*Neosilba*) species are not expected to follow the pathway.
>
> ^16a^ Avocado is a poor host for *A. serpentina* (Bush, 1957; Aluja et
> al., 2004) therefore it is unlikely that this pest will follow the
> pathway.
>
> ^16b^ Avocado is not a natural host for *A. obliqua* (Norrbom, 2004).
> Only one record exists, for Brazil, for *A. obliqua* on avocado where
> three "females" were "recovered from host fruit" of unspecified
> numbers and of unknown variety (Uramoto *et al.*, 2001). This
> publication is only an abstract and reports "preliminary" results for
> a previously undocumented host for the fly. There is no specification
> as to whether the results were based on the adult or larval
> identifications. It is unknown whether the fruits were from the tree
> or ground, ripe or immature. No other records are listed in the
> comprehensive *Anastrepha* species host database of Norrbom (2004).
> The host status of 'Hass' avocado for *A. obliqua* is not supported in
> host studies by Aluja *et al.* (2004) conducted in Mexico. We consider
> (based on the available information) that this species is unlikely to
> follow the pathway in the avocado fruit.
>
> ^17^ Because of its size, this pest is not likely to stay on the
> commodity through harvest and standard handling and processing
>
> ^18^ This insect is an external pest and affects fruit at the early
> stages of development by causing fruit darkening or premature drop
> (Dominguez Gil, 1983). It is unlikely that damaged fruit will not be
> eliminated after visual culling.
>
> ^19^ Courneya (2004).
>
> ^20^ Based on biology of C. *cirripediformis* .
>
> ^21^ This scale species has been intercepted numerous times on fruit,
> including fruit in permit cargo, by PPQ at US ports of entry (e.g.,
> PIN309 query July 9, 2003: 7,044 interceptions on fruit).
>
> ^22^ Courneya, 2004b.
>
> ^23^ Because of its size, biology, and mobility, this pest is not
> expected to stay on the commodity through harvest, standard handling
> and processing. Pentatomidae (species of) has only been intercepted 5
> times by PPQ, all of which were in baggage (not cargo) and only one of
> which was on fruit, which indicates that insects within this family
> would be unlikely to follow commercial export quality fruit.
>
> ^24^ The biology (plant part affected) is based on that of Sesia sp.
> of the same family Sessiidae. Larvae of this family are generally stem
> borers.
>
> ^25^ Based on biology of the family Membracidae
>
> ^26^ *Mycena citricolor* is reported as present in Florida (CABI,
> 2002). However, expert opinion from Florida indicates that it has not
> been detected there since 1926 (Schubert, 2002). Also, this species is
> not listed as attacking [avocado]{.underline} or occurring in the
> United States ( Farr et al. 2004, Alfieri et al., 1993; Ploetz et al.,
> 1994)
>
> ^27^ . The ability of *M. citricolor* to follow the pathway is
> questionable, as no reference has been found that indicates it attacks
> [avocado]{.underline} fruit specifically. (Mariau, 2001) and (Wellman,
> 1977) report *M. citricolor* infecting the fruit of coffee, but do not
> report infection of [avocado]{.underline} fruit. Most references refer
> to *M. citricolor* as a pest of coffee, e.g., (Mariau, 2001; CABI,
> 2004; Thurston, 1989; Wellman, 1977). [Avocado]{.underline} is not
> listed as a major or even minor host in the CABI (2004). On coffee,
> sub circular spots initially brown becoming pale-brown to
> straw-colored are produced mainly on leaves. Similar spots may be
> produced on stalks and berries. The main effect is to cause leaf fall
> with a consequent reduction in growth and yield of the coffee tree
> (CABI, 2004). Although it has been reported in Peru (Farr et al.,
> 2004; CABI, 2004), it has not been intercepted on
> [avocado]{.underline} fruit or any fruit from any country since at
> least 1985, the earliest APHIS computerized interception data
> available (PIN309, 2004). Because *M. citricolor* is primarily a leaf
> spotting disease, primarily a disease of coffee (*Coffea* spp.) and
> has not been intercepted on [avocado]{.underline} fruit by APHIS
> during the nearly 20 years covered by the PIN 309 database, this
> pathogen was not considered likely to follow the pathway and was not
> selected for further analysis.
>
> *^28^ Cercospora persae* and *Cercospora purpurea* are sometimes found
> together on the same leaf, however they are morphologically distinct
> species (Chupp, 1953).
>
> ^29^ Potato Spindle Tuber Viroid was declared absent from the United
> States (NAPPO, 2004a).
>
> ^30^Action required to PR, FL, and AL (Courneya, 2004).
>
> ^31^ Listed as non-reportable (PIN 309, 2005).
>
> ^32^ The insect is not known to occur in US (HI) as erroneously cited
> by CABI (2004).
>
> ^33^ Not reportable (Palm, 2005)

The quarantine pests selected for further analysis are summarized in
**Table 4**. Only those quarantine pests that can be reasonably expected
to follow the pathway of commercial shipments of export avocado fruit
are analyzed further. Other quarantine pests not included in this
summary have the potential to be detrimental to U.S. agriculture;
however, there were a variety of reasons for not subjecting them to
further analysis: the pest's primary association is with plant parts
other than the commodity, such as *Aleurodicus cocois*, *Aleurodicus
pulvinatus*, *Oligonychus mangiferus*, *Oncideres poecilla*, *Trioza
perseae*, *etc.*, which are associated with leaf or stem feeding
(Bolland *et al*., 1998; CABI, 2003; Hollis and Martin, 1997; Lopez and
Kairo, 1999); pests may be intercepted during inspection by Agricultural
Officers as biological contaminants of the commodity (PIN 309, 2003),
but biological contaminants are not expected to be present in every
shipment.

Also, the biological hazard of organisms identified to the order, family
or generic levels was not assessed; however, if pests identified to
higher taxa are intercepted in the future, then a reevaluation of their
risk may occur. In this risk assessment, this applies to the arthropods
*Acutaspis* sp. and *Pinnaspis* sp., and the pathogens *Phomopsis* sp.*,
Cladosporium* sp.*,* and *Oidium* sp. Generally, the biological hazard
of organisms not identified to the species level is not assessed because
there are many species within a genus, and it is not reasonable to
assume that the biology of all organisms within a genus is identical.
The lack of species' identification may indicate the limits of the
current taxonomic knowledge, the life stage, or the quality of the
specimen submitted for identification. By necessity, pest risk
assessments focus on the organisms for which biological information is
available. The lack of identification at a specific level does not rule
out the possibility that a high risk quarantine pest was intercepted or
that the intercepted pest was not a quarantine pest. Conversely,
development of detailed assessments for known pests that inhabit a
variety of ecological niches, such as the surfaces and/or interiors of
fruit, stems or roots, allow effective mitigation measures to eliminate
the known organisms, as well as similar, but incompletely identified
organisms that inhabit the same niche.

Other plant pests listed in Table 3 that were not chosen for further
scrutiny may be potentially detrimental to the agricultural systems of
the United States; however, there were a variety of reasons for not
subjecting them to further analysis.

In the past, *Anastrepha* species were one of the greatest concerns in
allowing the importation of Mexican avocados. A review of the current
literature, however, suggests that under most circumstances, Hass
avocados do not serve as hosts for *Anastrepha* spp., as indicated by
recent laboratory (Aluja *et al.* 2002) and field (Aluja *et al.* 2004)
tests conducted in Mexico. The research prompted a re-evaluation of the
potential of *Anastrepha* spp. to infest Hass avocado in Mexico. The
re-evaluation concluded that uninjured, commercially produced Hass
avocados in Mexico do not serve as hosts for the *Anastrepha* spp. in
question. Nevertheless, the current re-evaluation of '*Anastrepha* sp. -
Hass avocado' relationships is based on experiments conducted in Mexico
only, and, therefore, should be extrapolated to other regions of the
world with caution, considering that Norrbom (2004) lists a field study
by Wille (1952) that shows avocado is a host for the species in Peru. In
addition, the Mexican studies indicated that Hass avocado could possibly
be a host of *Anastrepha* under some environmental or tree stress
circumstances (Aluja *et al.* 2004). *Anastrepha fraterculus* is
variable in its pest status in different regions, and isozyme and
karyotype studies suggest that what has been considered *fraterculus*
consists of several closely similar "sibling species" (Foote *et al*.,
1993 and references therein). This species complex has not yet been
studied in sufficient detail to permit a clear separation of the
included species (White and Elson-Harris, 1992): thus, in Venezuela,
Andean and lowland populations are distinct species, and populations
from southern and north-eastern Brazil also have marked genetic
differences. Also, "there is evidence that the Mexican morphotype
differs significantly from South American morphotypes" (Aluja *et al*.,
2004 and references therein) and this was one of the reasons why *A.
fraterculus* was not investigated in Mexico by Aluja *et al*. (2004).
Considering this genetic diversity, data on the suitability of Hass
avocado as a host for *Anastrepha* sp. should be provided by Peru based
on results of adult fly trappings in avocado groves and fruit cuttings
for possible larval infestations.

+----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| **Table 4. Quarantine Pests Likely to  |                             |
| be Associated with avocado imported    |                             |
| from Peru**                            |                             |
+----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| **Arthropods**                         | **Viroid**                  |
|                                        |                             |
| *Acutaspis albopicta* (Hemiptera:      | Potato spindle tuber viroid |
|                                        |                             |
| Diaspididae)                           |                             |
|                                        |                             |
| *Anastrepha fraterculus* Wiedemann     |                             |
| (Diptera: Tephritidae)                 |                             |
|                                        |                             |
| *Anastrepha striata* Schiner (Diptera: |                             |
| Tephritidae)                           |                             |
|                                        |                             |
| *Ceratitis capitata* Wiedemann         |                             |
| (Diptera: Tephritidae)                 |                             |
|                                        |                             |
| *Coccus viridis* (Green) (Hemiptera:   |                             |
| Coccidae)                              |                             |
|                                        |                             |
| *Ferrisia malvastra* (McDaniel)        |                             |
| (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)            |                             |
|                                        |                             |
| *Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis* Green   |                             |
| (Hemiptera:                            |                             |
|                                        |                             |
| Diaspididae)                           |                             |
|                                        |                             |
| *Stenoma catenifer* Walsingham         |                             |
| (Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae)            |                             |
+----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+

## Number range CHAPTER5. Consequences of Introduction

The undesirable consequences that may occur from the introduction of
quarantine pests is assessed in this section. For each quarantine pest,
the potential Consequences of Introduction are rated in five areas
called "Risk Elements": climate-host interaction, host range, dispersal
potential, economic impact and environmental impact. A cumulative risk
rating is then calculated by summing the values; the ratings are
summarized in Table 5. The ratings are determined using the criteria in
the risk assessment Guidelines, Version 5.02 (USDA, 2000).

The major sources of uncertainty present in this risk assessment are
similar to those in other risk assessments: the use of a developing
process (USDA, 2000; Orr, *et al*., 1993), the approach used to combine
risk elements (Bier, 1999; Morgan and Henrion, 1990), and the evaluation
of risk by comparisons to lists of factors within the guidelines
(Kaplan, 1992; Orr *et al*., 1993). To address this last source of
uncertainty, the lists of factors are interpreted as illustrative and
not exhaustive. Another traditionally recognized source of uncertainty
is the quality of the biological information (Gallegos and Bonano,
1993), which includes uncertainty whenever biological information is
lacking on the regional flora and fauna. Inherent biological variation
within a population of organisms also introduces uncertainty (Morgan and
Henrion, 1990).

**Risk Element #1- Climate-Host Interactions**

When introduced to a new area, pests can be expected to behave as they
do in their native areas if host plants and climates are similar.
Ecological zonation and the interactions of the pests and their biotic
and abiotic environments are considered in this element. To rate this
element, current distributions of pests and their corresponding climatic
zone were found (CABI, 2002) and compared with climatic zones in the
United States. The ratings are:

Low (1): Pest can survive in one climatic zone.

Medium (2): Pest can survive in two or three climatic zones.

High (3): Pest can survive in four or more climatic zones.

**Risk Element #2- Host Range**

The risk posed by a plant pest depends on its ability to establish a
viable, reproductive population and its potential for causing plant
damage. For arthropods, risk is assumed to be positively correlated with
host range. For pathogens, risk is more complex and is assumed to depend
on host range, aggressiveness, virulence and pathogenicity; for
simplicity, risk is rated as a function of host range.

Low (1): Pest attacks a single species or multiple species within a
single genus.

Medium (2): Pest attacks multiple species within a single plant family.

High (3): Pest attacks multiple species among multiple plant families.

**Risk Element #3-Dispersal Potential**

A pest may disperse after introduction to a new area. The following
items are considered: reproductive patterns of the pest (*e.g.*,
voltinism, biotic potential); inherent powers of movement; factors
facilitating dispersal, wind, water, presence of vectors, humans, *etc.*

Low (1): Pest has neither high reproductive potential nor rapid
dispersal capability.

Medium (2): Pest has either high reproductive potential OR the species
is capable of rapid dispersal.

> High (3): Pest has high biotic potential, *e.g.*, many generations per
> year, many offspring per reproduction ("r-selected" species), AND
> evidence exists that the pest is capable of rapid dispersal, *e.g*,
> over 10km/year under its own power, via natural forces, wind, water,
> vectors, *etc.*,or human-assistance.

**Risk Element #4-Economic Impact**

Introduced pests are capable of causing a variety of direct and indirect
economic impacts that can be divided into three primary categories
(other types of impacts may occur): lower yield of the host crop,
*e.g.*, by causing plant mortality or by acting as a disease vector;
lower value of the commodity, *e.g*, by increasing costs of production,
lowering market price, or a combination; loss of foreign or domestic
markets due to the presence of a new quarantine pest.

Low (1): Pest causes any one or none of the above impacts.

Medium (2): Pest causes any two of the above impacts.

High (3): Pest causes all three of the above impacts.

**Risk Element #5- Environmental Impact**

The assessment of the potential of each pest to cause environmental
damage (FAO, 1996) if the introduction of the pest is expected to cause
significant, direct environmental impacts, *e.g.*, ecological disasters,
reduced biodiversity. When used within the context of the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) (7CFR§372), significance is qualitative,
encompassing the likelihood and severity of an environmental impact; a
pest is expected to have a direct impact on species listed by Federal
Agencies as endangered or threatened (50CFR§17.11 and §17.12) by
infesting/infecting a listed plant. If the pest attacks other species
within the genus or other genera within the family, and preference/no
preference tests have not been conducted with the listed plant and the
pest, then the plant is assumed to be a host; a pest is expected to have
indirect impacts on species listed by Federal Agencies as endangered or
threatened by disrupting sensitive, critical habitat. Introduction of
the pest would stimulate chemical or biological control programs.

> Low (1): None of the above would occur; it is assumed that
> introduction of a non-indigenous pest will have some environmental
> impact (by definition, introduction of a non-indigenous species
> affects biodiversity).

Medium (2): One of the above would occur.

High (3): Two or more of the above would occur.

![](media/image4.png){width="3.220138888888889in"
height="3.379861111111111in"}

**Figure 2. Plant Hardiness Zones in Peru (source:
http://www.backyardgardener.com/zone/sazone.html).**

As noted above, *Anastrepha* species have been a primary concern in
considering the importation of Mexican avocados. The current
re-evaluation of '*Anastrepha* sp. - Hass avocado' relationships is
based on experiments conducted in Mexico only and therefore should be
extrapolated to other regions of the world with caution. The *A.*
*fraterculus* species complex has not yet been studied in sufficient
detail to permit a clear separation of the included species (White and
Elson-Harris, 1992). In Venezuela, Andean and lowland populations are
distinct species, and populations from southern and north-eastern Brazil
also have marked genetic differences. Considering this genetic
diversity, data on the suitability of Hass avocado as a host for
*Anastrepha* sp. should be provided, if available.

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Acutaspis albopicta*  | ### Ris |
| (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)**                                 | k Value |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction                | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| This insect was reported from New World: Mexico, US (CA,   |         |
| TX), Brazil, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras,     |         |
| Panama, and Peru (USDA, 2003a). Even the least             |         |
| conservative estimate of distribution corresponds to US    |         |
| Hardiness Zones 8-11 (USDA, 1990). The rating is High.     |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #2: Host Range                              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The scale is polyphagous and the hosts from following      |         |
| plant families are reported Apocynaceae:                   |         |
| *Tabernaemontana*; Araceae: *Aglaonema,* *Philodendron*;   |         |
| Bromeliaceae: *Tillandsia*; Ebenaceae: *Brayodendron*      |         |
| *texanum*; Lauraceae: *Persea* *Americana*; Leguminosae:   |         |
| *Inga*; Menispermaceae: *Hyperbaena* *denticulate*;        |         |
| Musaceae: *Musa* *paradisiaca sapientum*: Oleaceae:        |         |
| *Ligustrum* *vulgare*; Palmae: *Cocos* *nucifera*;         |         |
| Rubiaceae: *Gardenia* *jasminoides*; Rutaceae: *Citrus*;   |         |
| Tiliaceae: *Jacquinia* (USDA, 2003a). The rating is High.  |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential                     | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| Little information is available on the biology of          |         |
| *Acutaspis albopicta* as well as the biology of any other  |         |
| species from this genus. As for other armored scales, it   |         |
| is known that *Pseudaonidia* *duplex* (Cockerell) has      |         |
| three generations per year in Louisiana; and *P*.          |         |
| *paeoniae* (Cockerell) has several generations in southern |         |
| U.S. states and produces 30-50 eggs per female (Kosztarab, |         |
| 1996). *Acutaspis albopicta* are known to occur on leaves  |         |
| (USDA, 2003a) and fruit: there were more than 2400 of      |         |
| interceptions on different fruits in cargo and baggage     |         |
| including 195 interceptions on avocado fruit alone in      |         |
| permit cargo (PIN 3009, 2004). This information suggests a |         |
| certain possibility of dispersal via international trade.  |         |
| The species was rated Medium for this risk factor.         |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #4: Economic Impact                         | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| This pest is known to affect a lot of ornamental plants as |         |
| well as commercial fruit trees (USDA, 2003a). There are    |         |
| data on using pesticides on avocado in Mexico against this |         |
| pest (Seferssa, 2004) which suggests an increase of the    |         |
| cost of production. A presence of this quarantine pest can |         |
| lead to losses of possible markets. This risk factor was   |         |
| given Medium rating.                                       |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact                    | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| There are two *Gardinia* species from HI listed by USFWS   |         |
| (2004). Some parasitoids (*Aphytis* *acutaspidis)* are     |         |
| known to attack *Acutaspis albopicta,* however, it is not  |         |
| clear if these parasitoids are possible to use             |         |
| commercially for biological control (Noyes, 2003).         |         |
| Existing chemical control programs for other avocado pests |         |
| are expected to be sufficient for the *Acutaspis           |         |
| albopicta*.                                                |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Anastrepha fraterculus*   | ### Ris |
| Wiedemann (Diptera: Tephritidae)**                         | k Value |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction                | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The *A.* *fraterculus* species complex is widely           |         |
| distributed in Central and South America, with restricted  |         |
| distribution in Mexico (CAB, 2001a; Weems, 2002). This     |         |
| group occurs from the south of Texas to Argentina (Foote   |         |
| *et al*., 1993). A conservative estimate is that it should |         |
| be able to survive in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 8-11      |         |
| (USDA, 1990).                                              |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #2: Host Range                              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Anastrepha fraterculus* is extremely polyphagous.         |         |
| Preferred hosts include Myrtaceae, *Eugenia* and           |         |
| *Syzygium* spp.and guava. Other hosts of this species are  |         |
| *Terminalia catappa* (Combretaceae), *Malus pumila* and    |         |
| *Prunus* spp. (Rosaceae), *Annona* spp. (Annonaceae),      |         |
| *Citrus* spp. (Rutaceae), *Coffea* spp. (Rubiaceae),       |         |
| *Ficus carica* (Moraceae), *Juglans* spp. (Juglandaceae),  |         |
| *Diospyros kaki* (Ebenaceae), *Manilkara zapota*           |         |
| (Sapotaceae), *Persea americana* (Lauraceae), *Solanum*    |         |
| *quitoense* (Solanaceae), *Theobroma cacao*                |         |
| (Sterculiaceae), *Olea europaea* (Oleaceae), and *Vitis    |         |
| vinifera* (Vitaceae) (CABI, 2003).                         |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential                     | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Females deposit from 200 to 400 eggs in host fruits (White |         |
| & Elson-Harris, 1992). Reproduction is continuous, as      |         |
| adults are present year-round (CABI, 2003). In             |         |
| international trade, the major means of dispersal to       |         |
| previously un-infested areas is the transport of fruit     |         |
| containing larvae. For most regions, the most important    |         |
| fruits liable to carry this species are mango and guava    |         |
| (CABI, 2003).                                              |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #4: Economic Impact                         | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Anastrepha fraterculus* is the most economically          |         |
| important *Anastrepha* in Brazil and other South American  |         |
| countries because of its broad host range (Foote *et al*., |         |
| 1993). In Brazil, where it causes severe yield losses in   |         |
| apple, the pest is of major concern to growers, and        |         |
| represents a significant constraint to fresh fruit export  |         |
| into countries with quarantine barriers (Sugayama *et      |         |
| al*., 1996). The insect is also an important pest of guava |         |
| and mango, and to some extent *Citrus* and *Prunus* spp.   |         |
| (CABI, 2003).                                              |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact                    | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The extreme polyphagy of this species predisposes it to    |         |
| attack plants in the U.S. listed as Threatened or          |         |
| Endangered, such as *Prunus* (*P. geniculata*, FL)*,       |         |
| Eugenia* (*E. koolauensis*, HI), and *Solanum* (Two        |         |
| species, HI) (USFWS, 2003). Its wider establishment in the |         |
| U.S. likely would lead to the initiation of chemical or    |         |
| biological control programs.                               |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Anastrepha striata*       | ### Ris |
| Schiner (Diptera: Tephritidae)**                           | k Value |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction                | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| *Anastrepha striata* is found throughout Central America,  |         |
| in South America down to Bolivia and Brazil, and the       |         |
| Netherlands Antilles (CABI, 2003). It is has not yet       |         |
| become established in the U.S. (Foote *et al*., 1993;      |         |
| CABI, 2003). It is estimated this species could survive in |         |
| U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 10-11 (USDA, 1990).             |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #2: Host Range                              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Psidium guajava* (Myrtaceae) is the primary host (CABI,   |         |
| 2003). Secondary hosts include *Citrus sinensis*           |         |
| (Rutaceae); *Annona muricata* (Annonaceae); *Chrysophyllum |         |
| cainito* (Sapotaceae); *Prunus persica* (Rosaceae);        |         |
| *Mangifera indica* (Anacardiaceae); *Persea* *americana*   |         |
| (Lauraceae); *Terminalia catappa* (Combretaceae) (CABI,    |         |
| 2003); *Manihot esculenta* (Euphorbiaceae) (White &        |         |
| Elson-Harris, 1992); *Solanum* sp. (Solanaceae) (Foote *et |         |
| al*., 1993); and *Passiflora edulis* (Passifloraceae)      |         |
| (Silva *et al*., 1996).                                    |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential                     | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Little information is available on the biology of *A*.     |         |
| *striata*. Reproduction is continuous, adults occurring    |         |
| throughout the year (CABI, 2003). As in other *Anastrepha* |         |
| species, long-distance dispersal is accomplished by the    |         |
| movement of immature stages present in consignments of     |         |
| infested fruit. The uncertainty involved in the dispersal  |         |
| potential of this species creates a high risk value.       |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #4: Economic Impact                         | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Little information is available concerning the economic    |         |
| impact of *A*. *striata*. Although Weems (1981) stated     |         |
| that the species is not considered to be of primary        |         |
| economic importance, it is reported to be an important     |         |
| pest of guava in Venezuela (Marin Acosta, 1973). Again,    |         |
| due to the uncertainty surrounding the damage potential of |         |
| this species, this element is given a high value.          |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact                    | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Because of its broad host range, this species has the      |         |
| potential to attack vulnerable native plants in the U.S.,  |         |
| including *Prunus* (*P. geniculata*, FL)*,* and *Manihot*  |         |
| (*M. walkerae*, TX) (USFWS, 2003). As it represents a      |         |
| potential threat to the citrus and stone fruit industries, |         |
| chemical or biological control programs could be mounted   |         |
| against it.                                                |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Number range CHAPTERConsequences of Introduction of      | **Risk  |
| *Ceratitis capitata* (Diptera: Tephritidae)**              | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Ceratitis capitata* is found in Southern Europe and West  |         |
| Asia, throughout Africa, South and Central America, and in |         |
| Northern Australia (CABI, 2002). It is estimated this      |         |
| species could become established within U.S. Plant         |         |
| Hardiness Zones 8 -- 11 (USDA, 1990).                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| This pest has been recorded on a wide variety of host      |         |
| plants in several families, including Rubiaceae (*Coffea*  |         |
| spp.), Solanaceae (*Capsicum annuum*), Rutaceae (*Citrus*  |         |
| spp.), Rosaceae (*Malus* *pumila*, *Prunus* spp), Moraceae |         |
| (*Ficus carica*), Myrtaceae (*Psidium guajava*),           |         |
| Sterculiaceae (*Theobroma cacao*), Arecaceae (*Phoenix     |         |
| dactylifera*) and Anacardiaceae (*Mangifera* *indica*)     |         |
| (CABI, 2002).                                              |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Eggs are deposited in host fruit in small batches of six   |         |
| to eight (Hassan, 1977), around 300 per female (Weems,     |         |
| 1981). In warm climates breeding is continuous throughout  |         |
| the year, as there are several overlapping generations     |         |
| (Hassan, 1977). Adults can fly 20 or more kilometers       |         |
| (CABI, 2002). Transport of infested fruits is the major    |         |
| means of movement and dispersal to previously un-infested  |         |
| areas (CABI, 2002).                                        |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Ceratitis capitata* is an important pest in Africa,       |         |
| spreading to almost every other continent, making it the   |         |
| single most important pest species in its family (CABI,    |         |
| 2002). In Mediterranean countries, it is particularly      |         |
| damaging to citrus and peach crops. It may also transmit   |         |
| fruit-rotting fungi (CABI, 2002). *Ceratitis capitata* is  |         |
| of quarantine significance throughout the world,           |         |
| especially for Japan and the United States (CABI, 2002).   |         |
| Its presence, even as temporary adventive populations, can |         |
| lead to severe additional constraints for fruit export     |         |
| (CABI, 2002). In this respect, *C. capitata* is one of the |         |
| most significant quarantine pests for any tropical or warm |         |
| temperate areas in which it is not yet established (CABI,  |         |
| 2002).                                                     |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Introduction and establishment of *C. capitata* in the     |         |
| United States would trigger the initiation of chemical     |         |
| control, particularly bait sprays. The species is highly   |         |
| polyphagous, and has the potential to attack plants from   |         |
| genera *Prunus* (*P. geniculata*, FL)*, Eugenia* (*E.      |         |
| koolauensis*, HI)*, Argemone* (*A. pleiacantha*, NM)*,     |         |
| Asimina* (*A. tetramera*, FL), *Berberis* (*B. nevivii*,   |         |
| *B. pinnata*, *B. sonnei*, CA), *Cucurbita* (*C.           |         |
| okeechobeensis*, FL), *Echinocereus* (*E. chisoensis*, *E. |         |
| reichenbachii*, *E. iridiflorus* -- TX; *E. fendleri* --   |         |
| NM; *E. triglochidiatus* -- AZ), *Euphorbia* (*E.          |         |
| haeleeleana* -- HI; *E. telephioides* -- FL), *Gardenia*   |         |
| (*G. brighamii*, *G. mannii*, HI), *Hibiscus* (four        |         |
| species, HI) *Opuntia* (*O. treleasei*, CA)*, Santalum*    |         |
| (*S. freycinetianum*, HI), *Solanum* (Two species, HI)*,   |         |
| Ochrosia* (*O*. *kilaueaensis,* HI), *Ribes* (*R.          |         |
| echinellum*, FL, SC), *Scaevola* (*S. coriacea*, HI),      |         |
| *Vicia* (*V. menziesii*, HI), and *Ziziphus* (*Z. celata*, |         |
| FL); these species are listed by Federal agencies as       |         |
| Threatened or Endangered (USFWS, 2003).                    |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Coccus viridis* (Green) | ### Ris |
| (Hemiptera: Coccidae)**                                    | k Value |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #1: *Climate-Host Interaction*              | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| This species is pantropical in distribution. It has been   |         |
| reported from India through Indo-China, Malaysia, the      |         |
| Philippines, Indonesia, Oceania and sub-Saharan Africa     |         |
| (CABI, 2003). In the New World, it is present in Florida,  |         |
| and ranges from Mexico and Central America to northern     |         |
| South America and the Caribbean (CABI, 2002). It is        |         |
| estimated that it could become established in U.S. Plant   |         |
| Hardiness Zones 9-11 (USDA, 1990).                         |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #2: *Host Range*                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| This species is polyphagous and has a broad host range.    |         |
| Primary hosts include *Citrus* spp. (Rutaceae), *Coffea    |         |
| arabica* (Rubiaceae), *Artocarpus* sp. (Moraceae),         |         |
| *Camellia sinensis* (Theaceae), *Manihot esculenta*        |         |
| (Euphorbiaceae), *Mangifera indica* (Anacardiaceae),       |         |
| *Psidium guajava* (Myrtaceae), and *Theobroma cacao*       |         |
| (Sterculiaceae) (CABI, 2002). Other hosts include *Alpinia |         |
| purpurata* (Zingiberaceae), *Chrysanthemum* sp.            |         |
| (Asteraceae), *Manilkara zapota* (Sapotaceae), and *Nerium |         |
| oleander* (Apocynaceae) (CABI, 2002).                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #3: *Dispersal Potential*                   | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Females may deposit up to 500 eggs (CABI, 2002); there may |         |
| be several generations per year (Kosztarab, 1997). In      |         |
| spite of the slow rate of natural dispersal (Tandon and    |         |
| Veeresh, 1988), the scale can quickly spread through the   |         |
| transport of infested plant materials. *Coccus viridis*    |         |
| has been intercepted numerous times by PPQ on many plants  |         |
| from many countries (PIN 309, 2003).                       |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #4: *Economic Impact*                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Coccus viridis* is a major pest of coffee in Haiti        |         |
| (Aitken-Soux, 1985) and India (Narasimham, 1987). In       |         |
| Brazil, infestations of 50 scales per plant caused         |         |
| significant damage to coffee seedlings, reducing leaf area |         |
| and plant growth rate (Silva and Parra, 1982). *Coccus     |         |
| viridis* is a major cause of yield loss in New Guinea      |         |
| coffee crop (Williams, 1986). In India, the infestation of |         |
| *C. viridis* and the sooty mold (*Capnodium citri*) that   |         |
| accompanied it significantly altered the quality of citrus |         |
| fruit (Haleem, 1984).                                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #5: *Environmental Impact*                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| As a polyphagous organism, *C*. *viridis* is likely to     |         |
| attack native plants in the U.S., some of which could be   |         |
| Threatened or Endangered (*i.e.,* *Ochrosia kilaueaensis*  |         |
| -- HI; *Illex* -- two species, PR; *Senecio layneae* --    |         |
| CA; *Cucurbita okeechobeensis* -- FL; *Cordia bellonis* -- |         |
| PR; *Manihot walkerae* -- TX; *Scaevola coriacea* -- HI;   |         |
| *Hibiscus* -- four species, HI; *Eugenia koolauensis* --   |         |
| HI; *E. woodburyana* -- PR; *Gardenia* -- two species, HI; |         |
| *Callicara ampla* -- PR; *Verbena californica* - CA)       |         |
| (USFWS, 2003). If this species should be introduced to     |         |
| citrus production areas, it could have a negative impact   |         |
| and stimulate the initiation of additional chemical or     |         |
| biological control programs, such as release of preditors  |         |
| (*e.g.,* ladybird *Chilocorus*, caterpillars *Eublemma*,   |         |
| parasites *Coccophagus*, or the parasitic fungus           |         |
| *Cephalosporium lecanii)*.                                 |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Ferrisia malvastra*     | ### Ris |
| (McDaniel) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)**                   | k Value |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #1: *Climate-Host Interaction*              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The species is widely distributed in Africa (from South    |         |
| Africa to Israel), Americas (from Argentina to Mexico),    |         |
| Australia, Oceania, and India (USDA, 2003a). It is         |         |
| estimated that it could become established in U.S. Plant   |         |
| Hardiness Zones 8-11 (USDA, 1990).                         |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #2: *Host Range*                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| This species is polyphagous and has a broad host range.    |         |
| The most important host families include Cruciferae        |         |
| (*Brassica rapa*), Euphorbiaceae (*Euphorbia hirta*,       |         |
| *Manihot esculenta*), Lauraceae (*Persea Americana*),      |         |
| Fabaceae (*Arachis hypogaea*, *Phaseolus vulgaris*),       |         |
| Malvaceae (*Gossypium hirsutum*), Rutaceae (*Citrus        |         |
| paradise*), Solanaceae (*Lycopersicon esculentum*,         |         |
| *Solanum tuberosum*), Chenopodiaceae (*Suaeda monoica*),   |         |
| Compositae (*Erigeron*), Crassulaceae (*Sedum*). (USDA,    |         |
| 2003a)                                                     |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #3: *Dispersal Potential*                   | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Data on this species related to dispersal potential are   |         |
| not available; consequently, the analysis for this risk    |         |
| factor is based on information for Ferrisia vigrata.*      |         |
|                                                            |         |
| In India, there are several overlapping generations per    |         |
| year; however, in Egypt, there three generations (CABI,    |         |
| 2003). Fecundity ranges from 109 to 185 eggs per           |         |
| generation, and may exceed 500 (CABI, 2003). The           |         |
| oviposition period is 20-29 days, while the incubation     |         |
| period is about 3-4 hours (CABI, 2003). Nymphs molted 3    |         |
| (females) and 4 (males) times, and the development period  |         |
| varied from 26-47 and 31-57 days, respectively (CABI,      |         |
| 2003). Longevity of the adult female was 36-53 days and    |         |
| 1-3 days for the male (CABI, 2003). The primary dispersal  |         |
| stage is the first instar, which can be naturally          |         |
| dispersed by wind and animals (CABI, 2003). The females    |         |
| are active and mobile until they start to produce an       |         |
| ovisac and lay eggs (CABI, 2003). All life stages may be   |         |
| carried on consignments of plant material and fruit (CABI, |         |
| 2003). PIN 309 record lists three interceptions for        |         |
| *Ferrisia malvastra* and 153 for *Ferrisia* sp., with 43   |         |
| interceptions in commercial and permit cargo. We gave this |         |
| species High ranking for this risk factor.                 |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #4: *Economic Impact*                       | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| *Data on the economic impact of this species are not       |         |
| available; consequently, the analysis for this risk factor |         |
| is based on information for Ferrisia vigrata.*             |         |
|                                                            |         |
| *Ferrisia virgata* is a known vector of cocoa swollen      |         |
| shoot virus in West Africa and cocoa Trinidad virus in     |         |
| Trinidad (CABI, 2003). It is a pest on coffee in Java,     |         |
| Indonesia, and India (CABI, 2003). In India, *F. virgata*  |         |
| is recorded as a pest of custard, betel vine, black        |         |
| pepper, pigeon pea, milk tree, and rootstock for sapodilla |         |
| (CABI, 2003); it is also a pest of kenaf (*Hibiscus        |         |
| cannabinus*) and mesta (*H. sabdariffa*) in Bangladesh, of |         |
| *Leucaena leucocephala* in Taiwan, and of glasshouse       |         |
| ornamental plants in Egypt (CABI, 2003). It is a major     |         |
| pest of irrigated guava trees in the drier areas of the    |         |
| Sudan, where it is common on many other crops, shades, and |         |
| ornamental and wild plants; in Tanzania, it is a pest of   |         |
| cashew (CABI, 2003). Internationally it is also considered |         |
| a pest of cotton (CABI, 2003). There is no sufficient      |         |
| evidence on the economic impact of *F. malvastra* which    |         |
| might indicate that this particular species is not a major |         |
| pest. Taking into account, however, the polyphagy of the   |         |
| pest and its close relatedness to *F. vigrata*, it was     |         |
| given a Medium rating for this risk factor.                |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #5: *Environmental Impact*                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| As a polyphagous organism, *Ferrisia malvastra* is likely  |         |
| to attack native plants in the U.S., some of which could   |         |
| be Threatened or Endangered. For example, *Hibiscus* (four |         |
| species, HI), *Euphorbia* (*E. haeleeleana* -- HI; *E.     |         |
| telephioides* -- FL), *Manihot walkerae*, TX, *Solanum*    |         |
| (two species, HI), *Suaeda* *californica-* CA, *Erigeron*  |         |
| (*E*. *decumbens* -- OR, *E. maguirei* -- UT, *E.          |         |
| parishii* -- CA, *E. rhizomatus* -- NM), and *Sedum        |         |
| integrifolium* - MN, NY are listed as Threatened or        |         |
| Endangered (USFWS, 2003). Additional introductions (beyond |         |
| FL) of this species could initiate chemical and biological |         |
| control, as used for *F. vigrata* (CABI, 2003).            |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Pseudaonidia            | ### Ris |
| trilobitiformis* (Green) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)**        | k Value |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction                | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| *Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis* has been reported in        |         |
| Mexico, Venezuela the Caribbean (CABI, 2002), East Africa, |         |
| South East Asia, and New Caledonia in the South Pacific    |         |
| (Fabres, 1974). Suitable climatic conditions for this      |         |
| species include U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11 (USDA,     |         |
| 1990). One or more of its potential hosts occurs in these  |         |
| zones (USDA NRCS 2003).                                    |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #2: Host Range                              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Hosts recorded for this species include *Mangifera indica* |         |
| and *Anacardium occidentale* (Anacardiaceae), *Citrus*     |         |
| spp. (Rutaceae), *Anthurium andreanum* (Araceae), *Persea  |         |
| americana* (Lauraceae), *Zingiber officinale*              |         |
| (Zingiberaceae), *Theobroma cacao* (Sterculiaceae),        |         |
| *Coffea* spp. (Rubiaceae), *Cocos nucifera* (Arecaceae)    |         |
| (CABI, 2002), *Passiflora* spp. (Passifloraceae) (Hill,    |         |
| 1983), and guava (Myrtaceae) (USDA, 2003a).                |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential                     | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| No information is available on the biology of this         |         |
| species. A related species, *P*. *duplex* (Cockerell),     |         |
| exhibits three generations per year in Louisiana;          |         |
| fecundity of *P*. *paeoniae* (Cockerell) ranges from 30-50 |         |
| eggs per female (Kosztarab, 1996). Long-distance dispersal |         |
| of *P*. *trilobitiformis* is likely transported on         |         |
| infested plant materials.                                  |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #4: Economic Impact                         | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| *Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis* is regarded as a minor pest |         |
| of avocado, cacao, citrus, coconut, coffee, mango, and     |         |
| passion fruit (Hill, 1983). The scale is a pest of cashew  |         |
| in Brazil, which requires insecticide treatment for its    |         |
| control (Silva *et al*., 1977). Wider establishment of     |         |
| this insect in the U.S. could cause the loss of domestic   |         |
| and foreign commodity markets, such as citrus.             |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| # Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact                    | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Potential hosts listed as Threatened or Endangered in 50   |         |
| CFR §17.12 include *Zanthoxylum dipetalum* var.            |         |
| *tomentosum* and *Z. hawaiiense* -- HI; *Z. thomasianum*   |         |
| -- PR, VI; ten species of *Melicope* - HI; *Lindera        |         |
| melissifolia* -- AL, AR, FL, GA, LA, MO, MS, NC, SC; and   |         |
| *Ayenia limitaris* - TX (USFWS, 2003). Because             |         |
| *Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis* does represent a potential  |         |
| threat to citrus and other economically important crops,   |         |
| the further establishment of this species in the southern  |         |
| U.S. could stimulate chemical or biological control        |         |
| programs.                                                  |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction** **of** ***Stenoma         | **Risk  |
| catenifer*** Walsingham (Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae)        | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: *Climate-Host Interaction***            | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| This moth is distributed in the Western Hemisphere, from   |         |
| Mexico to Brazil (CABI, 2003). Suitable climatic           |         |
| conditions for this species include U.S. Plant Hardiness   |         |
| Zones 9-11 (USDA, 1990).                                   |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: *Host Range***                          | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| The seed moth infests species in several genera of         |         |
| Lauraceae: *Beilschmiedia*, *Chlorocardium rodiei*         |         |
| (greenheart tree), *Persea americana* (avocado), *Persea   |         |
| schiedeana* (coyo) (CABI, 2003). This factor was rated     |         |
| Medium.                                                    |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: *Dispersal Potential***                 | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Females lay eggs on the skin of the fruit, and the larvae  |         |
| bore into the pulp and seed; on *Persea* (in environmental |         |
| chamber), there could be approximately 164 eggs laid per   |         |
| female, and up to 206 eggs per female on *Chlorocardium    |         |
| rodiei* (CABI, 2003); females lay up to 206 eggs on        |         |
| *Chlorocardium rodiei* (CABI, 2003). The average life      |         |
| cycle is 46 days with 3 generations per year (FAO, 1999).  |         |
| In tropical regions, this pest is present throughout the   |         |
| year due to the availability of host plants with diverse   |         |
| flowering periods (CABI, 2003). *Stenoma catenifer*        |         |
| populations increase during the growing season, reaching   |         |
| the highest level before harvest (CABI, 2003). Because     |         |
| larvae are internal, *S. catenifer* can be spread          |         |
| worldwide via humans.                                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: *Economic Impact***                     | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Stenoma catenifer* is a major pest of *Persea americana*  |         |
| in Latin America (CABI, 2003). The proportion of damaged   |         |
| fruit may reach 100% in Brazil (with total fruit loss),    |         |
| 80% in Venezuela, and 100% in Ecuador (CABI, 2003).        |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: *Environmental Impact***                | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| There are no known host plants that are listed as          |         |
| Threatened or Endangered in the U.S. (USFWS, 2003). If *S. |         |
| catenifer* was introduced, spray programs against adults   |         |
| will be similar to the ones already in existence for       |         |
| avocado pests; it is not expected that Threatened or       |         |
| Endangered species will be affected beyond the impact of   |         |
| programs already in place. However, it is possible that    |         |
| new biological control programs could be developed based   |         |
| on the reports of the larval parasitism in natural         |         |
| populations. For example, in Brazil, natural egg           |         |
| infestations by *Trichogramma pretiosum* and               |         |
| *Trichogrammatoidea annulata* can reach 40% (Hohmann and   |         |
| Meneguim, 1993)*,*                                         |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction** **of** ***Potato Spindle  | **Risk  |
| Tuber Viroid (PSTVd)***                                    | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: *Climate-Host Interaction***            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Climate is not expected to limit the distribution of the   |         |
| viroid. PSTVd is found in a wide range of climates from    |         |
| temperate to tropical (CABI, 2004). Before it was          |         |
| eradicated from the United States it was found in 13 U.S.  |         |
| states from North Dakota to Mississippi which corresponds  |         |
| to more than four hardiness zones.                         |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: *Host Range ***                         | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The primary natural host of PSTVd is potato, but the       |         |
| viroid also affects tomato and other *Solanum* spp.        |         |
| (Peters and Runia, 1985). The experimental host range of   |         |
| PSTVd includes a wide range of Solanaceous species, as     |         |
| well as species from other families (Singh, 1973). Sweet   |         |
| potatoes (*Ipomoea batatas*) (Convolvulaceae), avocados    |         |
| (*Persea americana*) (Lauraceae) and *Solanum muricatum*   |         |
| have recently been described as hosts, in addition to wild |         |
| Solanum spp. hosts (Salazar, 1989; Owens et al., 1992;     |         |
| Querci et al., 1995; Behjatnia et al., 1996; Shamloul et   |         |
| al., 1997). The viroid attacks plant hosts from several    |         |
| families therefore the ranking is High.                    |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: *Dispersal Potential***                 | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| PSTVd is possibly spread by contact between infected and   |         |
| healthy plants (CABI, 2004). There is also a possibility   |         |
| of transmission by pollen or by aphid vectors (in          |         |
| association with PLRV) which is a factor in short distance |         |
| spread (CABI, 2004). The dispersal potential of the viroid |         |
| in avocado fruit is unknown. In potato, tubers are the     |         |
| most important means of PSTVd dissemination over both long |         |
| and short distances (Salazar, 1989). The increased use of  |         |
| true potato seed (TPS) for potato propagation is another   |         |
| potential avenue for spread of the disease if measures are |         |
| not maintained to certify disease-free status (Singh and   |         |
| Crowley, 1985a; Salazar, 1989).                            |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: *Economic Impact***                     | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| PSTVd can cause up to a 90% yield reduction in avocado     |         |
| (Querci et al., 1994) Losses in potato vary from 3 to 64%  |         |
| (Le Clerg et al.,1944; Singh et al., 1971). However, the   |         |
| severe strain reduced the yield by up to 64%.              |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: *Environmental Impact***                | Low (1) |
|                                                            |         |
| There are no known host plants that are listed as          |         |
| Threatened or Endangered in the continental U.S. (USFWS,   |         |
| 2003). The environmental impact of the pathogen is likely  |         |
| to be minimal since the disease used to be widely spread   |         |
| throughout North America (CABI, 2004).                     |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-------------+
| **Table 5. |       |       |        |        |         |             |
| Summary of |       |       |        |        |         |             |
| the Risk   |       |       |        |        |         |             |
| Ratings    |       |       |        |        |         |             |
| and Values |       |       |        |        |         |             |
| for the    |       |       |        |        |         |             |
| Co         |       |       |        |        |         |             |
| nsequences |       |       |        |        |         |             |
| of         |       |       |        |        |         |             |
| Intr       |       |       |        |        |         |             |
| oduction** |       |       |        |        |         |             |
+============+=======+=======+========+========+=========+=============+
| **Pest**   | **Cl  | *     | **Dis  | **Econ | **      | **C         |
|            | imate | *Host | persal | omic** | Environ | onsequences |
|            | /     | Ra    | Poten  |        | -mental | of          |
|            | H     | nge** | tial** | **Im   | I       | I           |
|            | ost** |       |        | pact** | mpact** | ntroduction |
|            |       |       |        |        |         | Value^1^**  |
+------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-------------+
| *Acutaspis | High  | High  | Medium | Medium | Medium  | Medium (12) |
| albopicta* | (3)   | (3)   | (2)    | (2)    | (2)     |             |
+------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-------------+
| *          | High  | High  | High   | High   | High    | High (15)   |
| Anastrepha | (3)   | (3)   | (3)    | (3)    | (3)     |             |
| fr         |       |       |        |        |         |             |
| aterculus* |       |       |        |        |         |             |
+------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-------------+
| *          | M     | High  | High   | High   | High    | High (14)   |
| Anastrepha | edium | (3)   | (3)    | (3)    | (3)     |             |
| striata*   | (2)   |       |        |        |         |             |
+------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-------------+
| *Ceratitis | High  | High  | High   | High   | High    | High (15)   |
| capitata*  | (3)   | (3)   | (3)    | (3)    | (3)     |             |
+------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-------------+
| *Coccus    | M     | High  | High   | High   | High    | High (14)   |
| viridis*   | edium | (3)   | (3)    | (3)    | (3)     |             |
|            | (2)   |       |        |        |         |             |
+------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-------------+
| *Ferrisia  | High  | High  | High   | Medium | High    | High (14)   |
| malvastra* | (3)   | (3)   | (3)    | (2)    | (3)     |             |
+------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-------------+
| *Ps        | M     | High  | High   | Medium | High    | High (13)   |
| eudaonidia | edium | (3)   | (3)    | (2)    | (3)     |             |
| trilob     | (2)   |       |        |        |         |             |
| itiformis* |       |       |        |        |         |             |
+------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-------------+
| *Stenoma   | M     | M     | High   | High   | Medium  | Medium (12) |
| catenifer* | edium | edium | (3)    | (3)    | (2)     |             |
|            | (2)   | (2)   |        |        |         |             |
+------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-------------+
| *Potato    | High  | High  | Medium | High   | Low (1) | Medium (12) |
| Spindle    | (3)   | (3)   | (2)    | (3)    |         |             |
| Tuber      |       |       |        |        |         |             |
| Viroid*    |       |       |        |        |         |             |
+------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-------------+

^1^ Low is 5-8 points, Medium is 9-12 points and High is 13-15 points

## 6. Likelihood of Introduction

The value for the Likelihood of Introduction is the sum of the ratings
for the Quantity Imported Annually and the Pest Opportunity (Table 6).
The following scale is used to interpret this total: Low 6-9 points,
Medium 10-14 points and High 15-18 points.

The likelihood that an exotic pest will be introduced depends on the
amount of the potentially-infested commodity that is imported. Usually,
the rating for the **Quantity Imported Annually** is based on the amount
reported by the country of proposed export, and is converted into a
standard unit of 40-foot long shipping containers.

Scoring is as follows:

Low (1): \<10 containers per year

Medium (2): 10-100 containers per year

High (3): \>100 containers per year.

Quantities of avocado that can be exported from Peru to the U.S. yearly
(SENASA, 2002a):

Season Number of 40 ft. Containers

2003. 250

2004. 375

2005. 500

This risk factor is therefore rated High.

The assessment of **Pest Opportunity** considers ratings in five areas.
The ratings for Pest Opportunity are based on the biological features
exhibited by the pest's interaction with the commodity, and represent a
series of independent events that must take place before a pest outbreak
can occur. The five components of Pest Opportunity consider the
availability of postharvest treatments, whether the pest can survive
through the interval of normal shipping procedures, whether the pest can
be detected during a port-of-entry inspection, the interactions among
factors that influence the rate of establishment, and the factors that
influence the rate of population establishment.

*Anastrepha fraterculus, A. striata, Ceratitis capitata,* and *Stenoma
catenifer* are rated High (3) for their ability to **Survive Postharvest
Treatment** because the larvae are internal feeders that are not likely
to be affected by a surface-cleansing postharvest treatment, such as
washing and culling, especially if the extent of the damage is not very
obvious. The pests *Coccus viridis* (Coccidae), *Ferrisia malvastra*
(Pseudococcidae) and Diaspididae *Acutaspis albopicta* and *Pseudaonidia
trilobitiformis* are rated Medium (2) because they are external feeders
that are likely to be dislodged by a surface-cleansing postharvest
treatment; however, depending on their stage (egg, immature, adult) or
instar, these insects might find shelter on fruit, particularly at the
calyx end, on a bumpy surface or in packing materials. The Coccoidea
have sessile stages that live firmly pressed to plant surfaces; this
posture and their water-repellent, waxy cuticles can make them difficult
to see or dislodge, especially if sheltered at the stem end of the
fruit. Potato Spindle Tuber Viroid (PTSVD), like other viruses or
viroids, is expected to survive treatment and is therefore ranked High.

All of the pests are rated High (3) for the ability to **Survive
Shipment.** The internal feeders are protected from adverse
environmental conditions by the plant part tissue, while other pests are
expected to take shelter in rough or pitted areas on the plant part
surface. Fruit can be shipped by airfreight, which makes delivery time
short, and may or may not be refrigerated. The temperature conditions
and time frames associated with un-refrigerated air or sea transport are
insufficient to reduce population levels of these pests. Further
evidence of the ability of numerous pests to survive with avocado fruit
shipments is in the fact that, since 1985, agricultural officers at US
ports-of-entry have made 17,402 pest interceptions on avocado fruit,
including permit and general cargo, stores, quarters, mail, and
passenger baggage (PIN 309, interception query August 17, 2004).
Interceptions from South America are presented in Appendix 1. PSTVd
replicates autonomously and moves systemically within the plant. The
viroid would be expected to survive shipment and is therefore ranked
High.

The pests *Anastrepha fraterculus, A. striata, Ceratitis capitata,* and
*Stenoma catenifer* are rated High (3) for **Not Detected at the
Port-of-Entry** because these insects are internal pests that are only
intercepted by destructive sampling. Depending on the age of
infestation, the fruit fly pests can have a high probability of escaping
detection at a port-of-entry; fruit fly-infested fruit can go
unrecognized (White and Elson-Harris, 1992). Staining of fruits by sooty
molds and large, obvious infestations can lead to the easy detection of
armored scales *Acutaspis albopicta* and *Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis*
(Diaspididae), mealybug *Ferrisia malvastra* (Pseudococcidae) and soft
scales *Coccus viridis* (Coccidae); however, sparser populations of
these relatively small insects (especially eggs and early instars),
particularly if concealed at the stem end of fruits or in packing
materials, would be more difficult to discover, despite the color
differences with the plant part; as a result, these pests are rated
Medium (2). PSTVD may not be detected upon entry. PSTVD has been found
in potato seed (CABI, 2004). While some avocado fruits exhibit
pronounced symptoms (Querci *et al*., 1995), these fruits are unlikely
to be packed. It is unclear if asymptomatic fruit may contain viable
inoculum quantities, so consequently this criterion is ranked Medium.

Based on their known distributions in warm temperate and tropical
climates, all of the arthropods, except *Stenoma catenifer*, are rated
Medium (2) for their ability to be **Moved to a Suitable Habitat** due
to their need for specific temperature ranges. In addition to their warm
climate requirements, *Stenoma catenifer* is known to feed on only
avocado, and, therefore, will only survive in areas where avocado is
produced; thus, this pest is rated Low (1) for this risk factor.
Information is not available for the distribution of possible markets
for this commodity, therefore we considered all of the continental US to
be a possible market. Based on this assumption, it is likely that areas
suitable for these pests to establish permanent populations will include
only a rather narrow part of the country in the South and along the West
Coast of the continental U.S. and in Hawaii, which would comprise less
than an estimated 15% of the total land area of the U.S. PSTVD can be a
pest in a broad range of climates so there is a High (3) likelihood of
it being moved to a suitable climate.

Ability to come into **Contact with Host Material** will vary among the
arthropods in their potential geographic range within the U.S. Hosts of
the extremely polyphagous species *Anastrepha fraterculus*, *A.
striata*, *Ceratitis capitata*, include temperate-zone or widely
cultivated plants (USDA, 2003b) and should be available throughout the
potential range. The pests are rated High (3).

Hosts of the *Coccus viridis*, *Acutaspis albopicta* and *Pseudaonidia
trilobitiformis* are of more limited distribution in the U.S., and are
less likely to be encountered and colonized within the potential
geographic range. Hosts of *Ferrisia malvastra* include some
temperate-zone or widely cultivated plants (USDA, 2003b), however,
although the hosts could be available for colonization, biological
attributes of Coccoidea reduce their probability of successful
establishment in the U.S. Specifically, their sessile nature would
greatly limit the chances of coming into contact with hosts (Miller,
1985; Gullan and Kosztarab, 1997). Successful establishment of these
insects in a new environment is dependent on the likelihood of at least
two necessary conditions: close proximity of susceptible hosts and
presence on the imported fruit of 'crawlers' (or other mobile forms) to
transfer to new hosts. Since these circumstances are highly unlikely to
co-occur (Miller, 1985), all scale insects are given a risk rating of
Low (1) for this element.

PSTVd is unlikely to come into contact with hosts. In potato, natural
spread of PSTVd is through seed or aphid transmission (CABI, 2004).
PSTVd and a related viroid Avocado Sunblotch Viroid (ASBVd) are known to
be transmitted through seed or pollen of infected plants (Desjardins et
al., 1984; Fernow et al., 1970). Establishment would require infected
seed or fruit tissue to come into contact with a host. This may require
propagation of the seed rather than normal disposal; hence the risk
should be considered Low (1).

As mentioned above, *Stenoma catenifer* is known to feed on only avocado
and will therefore only survive in areas where avocado is produced. For
this reason, it is rated Low (1) for this factor.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  **Table 6. Summary                                                                                      
  of the ratings for                                                                                      
  the Quantity                                                                                            
  Imported Annually,                                                                                      
  the Pest                                                                                                
  Opportunity, and                                                                                        
  the value for the                                                                                       
  Likelihood of                                                                                           
  Introduction.**                                                                                         
  ------------------ ------------ --------------- ------------ ----------------- ----------- ------------ --------------
  **Pest**           **Quantity   **Ratings for                                                           **Likelihood
                     Imported     Pest                                                                    of
                     Annually**   Opportunity**                                                           Introduction
                                                                                                          Value**

                                  **Survive       **Survive    **Not detected at **Moved to  **Contact    
                                  Postharvest     Shipment**   the               a Suitable  with Host    
                                  Treatment**                  Port-of-entry**   Habitat**   Material**   

  *Acutaspis         High (3)     Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2)        Medium (2)  Low (1)      Medium (13)
  albopicta*                                                                                              

  *Anastrepha        High (3)     High (3)        High (3)     High (3)          Medium (2)  High (3)     High (17)
  fraterculus*                                                                                            

  *Anastrepha        High (3)     High (3)        High (3)     High (3)          Medium (2)  High (3)     High (17)
  striata*                                                                                                

  *Ceratitis         High (3)     High (3)        High (3)     High (3)          Medium (2)  High (3)     High (17)
  capitata*                                                                                               

  *Coccus viridis*   High (3)     Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2)        Medium (2)  Low (1)      Medium (13)

  *Ferrisia          High (3)     Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2)        Medium (2)  Low (1)      Medium (13)
  malvastra*                                                                                              

  *Pseudaonidia      High (3)     Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2)        Medium (2)  Low (1)      Medium (13)
  trilobitiformis*                                                                                        

  *Stenoma           High (3)     High (3)        High (3)     High (3)          Low (1)     Low (1)      Medium (14)
  catenifer*                                                                                              

  *Potato Spindle    High (3)     High (3)        High (3)     Medium (2)        High (3)    Low (1)      High (15)
  Tuber Viroid*                                                                                           
  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

> ^1^ Low: 6 - 9 points, Medium: 10 - 14 points, High: 15 - 18 points

Port-of-entry inspection will probably be inadequate to provide
phytosanitary security for all quarantine pests that are likely to
follow the pathway; therefore, the development of specific phytosanitary
measures is recommended. Postharvest mitigation measures to reduce
infestations of external and internal feeders are necessary and should
be implemented for imports to be authorized.

## 7. Conclusion: Pest Risk Potential and Phytosanitary Measures

The summation of the values for the Consequences of Introduction and the
Likelihood of Introduction gives values for Pest Risk Potential (Table
7). The following scale is used to interpret this total: Low 11-18
points, Medium 19-26 points and High 27-33 points. This is a baseline
estimate of the risks associated with this importation, and the
reduction of risk occurs through the use of mitigation measures.

  -------------------- ----------------- ----------------- ---------------
  **Table 7. Pest Risk                                     
  Potential**                                              

  **Pest**             **Consequences of **Likelihood of   **Pest Risk
                       Introduction**    Introduction**    Potential**

  *Acutaspis           Medium (12)       Medium (13)       Medium (25)
  albopicta*                                               

  *Anastrepha          High (15)         High (17)         High (32)
  fraterculus*                                             

  *Anastrepha striata* High (14)         High (17)         High (31)

  *Ceratitis capitata* High (15)         High (17)         High (32)

  *Coccus viridis*     High (14)         Medium (13)       High (27)

  *Ferrisia malvastra* High (14)         Medium (13)       High (27)

  *Pseudaonidia        High (13)         Medium (13)       Medium (26)
  trilobitiformis*                                         

  *Stenoma catenifer*  Medium (12)       Medium (14)       Medium (26)

  *Potato Spindle      Medium (12)       High (15)         High (27)\*
  Tuber Viroid*                                            
  -------------------- ----------------- ----------------- ---------------

\* Determined to be Low based on data presented in Appendix 2.

Specific phytosanitary measures may be necessary for pests with a
baseline Pest Risk Potential of Medium (*Acutaspis albopicta*,
*Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis* and *Stenoma catenifer*)*.* All the fruit
fly pests in this risk assessment (*Anastrepha fraterculus*, *Anastrepha
striata*, *Ceratitis capitata*) and the scale *Coccus viridis* had
analysis values within the High range for their Pest Risk Potential. The
Guidelines (USDA, 2000) state that a High Pest Risk Potential means that
specific phytosanitary measures are strongly recommended, and that
port-of-entry inspection is not considered sufficient to provide
phytosanitary security.

It is important to note that any species of *Heilipus* seed beetles may
later be considered to follow the pathway if interceptions of these
insects are recorded on avocados imported from Peru. We included
*Heilipus* sp. in the pest list based on a single interception on
avocado from Peru in a baggage but we consider that this single
interception record is not a sufficient reason for the pest to remain in
the pathway. We have a high degree of uncertainty associated with the
*Helipus* species based mostly on a lack of sufficient evidence about
this genus in Peru and its economic importance there. Likewise, there is
an uncertainty about other genera of seed weevils which could be
associated with avocado in Peru. For example, species of *Conotrachelus*
had been intercepted from Peru in permit and commercial cargo of
different commodities, other than avocado (PIN 309, 2005). At this time,
we do not have any information on the species of *Conotrachelus* that
occur in Peru and feed on avocado. We therefore did not include any
species from this genus in the pest list. Species from the genus
*Conotrachelus*, however, are well known pests of avocados (Wysoki *et
al.,* 2002) and one or more of these species (PIN 309, 2005) might occur
on avocados in Peru. Seed weevils from genera *Heilipus* and
*Conotrachelus* are known to be in the pathway on avocados imported in
the United States from other countries (7 CFR §319.56; PIN 309, 2005).
In the following section, we suggest including provisionary
phytosanitary measures to mitigate any possible risk posed by seed
weevils until sufficient evidence is available to indicate that they do
not follow the pathway.

The conclusions from pest risk assessment are used to decide whether
risk management is required and the strength of measures to be used
(Stage 2 of PRA) (IPPC, 1996). Pest risk management (Stage 3 of PRA) is
the process of identifying ways to react to a perceived risk, evaluating
the efficacy of these procedures, and recommending the most appropriate
options (IPPC, 1996, 2002). The Risk Management Section (below)
describes risk mitigation options with discussions of their efficacy and
application.

# III. Risk Mitigation

The appropriate level of protection for an imported commodity can be
achieved by the application of a single phytosanitary measure, such as
inspection, quarantine treatment, or a combination of measures. Specific
mitigations may be selected from a range of pre-harvest and post-harvest
options, and may include other safeguarding measures. Measures may be
added or the strength of measures may be increased to compensate for
uncertainty associated with evidence of a risk. At a minimum, for a
measure to be considered for use in a systems approach, it must be: 1)
clearly defined; 2) efficacious; 3) officially required (mandated); and
4) subject to monitoring and control by the responsible national plant
protection organization (IPPC, 2002).

A systems approach to mitigate risks involved with mature green 'Hass'
avocado imports from Peru might combine a variety of measures: 1)
certification of pest-free areas, pest-free places of production, or
areas of low pest prevalence for certain quarantine pests; 2) programs
to control pests within orchards (*e.g*., mechanical, chemical,
cultural); 3) preclearance oversight by USDA-APHIS officials; 4)
packinghouse procedures to eliminate external pests (*e.g*., washing,
brushing, inspection of fruit); 5) quarantine treatments to disinfest
fruit of internal and external pests; 6) consignments inspected and
certified to be free of quarantine pests; 7) fruit traceable to origin,
packing facility, grower, and field; 8) consignments subject to sampling
and inspection after arrival in the United States; and 9) limits on
distribution and transit within the United States.

**Phytosanitary Measures Prior to Harvesting**

**Pest-free Areas**: Establishment of pest-free areas, pest-free places
of production, and pest-free production sites, as well as areas of low
pest prevalence, may be an effective alternative to post-harvest
quarantine treatments or a component of systems approach (IPPC, 2002).
Establishment and maintenance of such pest-free areas or production
sites should be in compliance with ISPM Nos. 4, 10 and 22 (IPPC 1996,
1999, and 2005) and NAPPO Standard 17 (NAPPO 2004b). Export from Peru
should be considered only from production areas that participate in the
Integrated Fruit Fly Management program. Currently, this program
includes trappings for fruit flies during the avocado growing season
(SENASA, 2005). We consider that a pre-harvest trapping program could be
as important as the monitoring the population levels during the harvest
season. Overall, the trapping schedules should satisfy the requirements
of the appropriate international and regional standards, such as those
mentioned above.

[Fruit flies *Anastrepha fraterculus, Anastrepha striata* and *Ceratitis
capitata*]{.underline}

Basic requirements for the trapping program for establishing fruit fly
pest free areas (PFA) could be found in the standard 17 of the NAPPO
(2004b). Specific trapping levels for *Anastrepha* spp. and *Ceratitis*
*capitata* should be identified in the Workplan and are not discussed in
this document. In addition to the trappings, an exclusion of untreated
host fruit imports into PFA is required. Also, mandatory are treatments
of all capture sites and strict increase of trapping levels at first
capture, trapping in pueblos as well as in orchards, suspension of
exports on second capture in 1 sq mile in the same life cycle. We
suggest a periodic APHIS review of the program and possibly a
pre-clearance of shipments.

[Seed moth *Stenoma catenifer* and seed weevil *Heilipus*]{.underline}

Establishment of Pest free area for these pests should be based on
official sample prior to export season, orchard cleanliness,
verification sampling and inspection of lots at harvest; certification
of being harvested from pest free place of production. Inspecting
avocados for seed weevils of genus *Heilipus* could be conducted at the
same time as cuttings are done to inspect for the presence of the seed
moth, *Stenoma catenifer,* and fruit flies. In addition to *Helipus*,
there might be other, unidentified, species of weevils found in the
avocado fruit during such inspections. We recommend professional
identification of these insects in order to avoid introduction of any
quarantine pests in the United States. Screening for the seed weevils
should be a provisional measure to determine if these pests occur in the
pathway.

The municipality must be surveyed at least annually and found to be free
from the weevils and the seed moth. The survey must cover certain area
(as stated in the Workplan) and include randomly selected portions of
each registered orchard and areas with wild or backyard avocado trees.
The survey must be conducted during the growing season and completed
prior to the harvest of the avocados. Specifics for this survey could be
similar to those approved for the importation of Hass avocados from
Mexico into the United States as described in the latest Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR, 2003).

A second option is a Pest-free place of production. This is based on a
higher level of official sampling, orchard cleanliness, and higher
levels of verification samplings and inspections of lots at harvest as
well as a phytosanitary certification of production in a pest free
place.

[Scales *Coccus viridis* and *Ferrisia malvastra*]{.underline}

Effective IPM programs achieving low pest prevalence of these scales
combined with inspection is a possible mitigation option. Freedom from
the scales could be verified by conducting an official survey or lot
freedom based on inspection of shipping lot.

[Armored scales *Acutaspis albopicta* and *Pseudaonidia
trilobitiformis*]{.underline}

No mitigation is needed in avocado fruit shipments since PPQ does not
take actions against these pests.

**Control Program**: Mechanical, cultural, or chemical means (*e.g*.,
orchard sanitation, pre-harvest insecticidal, fungicidal, and herbicidal
sprays) should be used to control pests within the orchards routinely to
achieve pest-free areas or pests-free production sites. Sanitation and
pesticide applications, as essential components of best management
practices, are mainstays of commercial fruit production (*e.g*., Kirk
*et al*., 2001).

**Phytosanitary Certification Inspections**: Fruit should be sampled and
inspected periodically during the growing season and after harvest for
quality control and as phytosanitary precautionary measures. Orchards
should be surveyed periodically; at these times, a random sample of
fruit per tree will be inspected to detect for presence of quarantine
pests. Results of surveys must be negative for quarantine pests.
Production areas also should be subject to scheduled audits and
periodic, unannounced inspections by certified inspectors from PPQ and
SENASA; these inspections will insure that production areas will meet
stipulated requirements for the issuance of a phytosanitary certificate
required for each consignment. This measure is useful for detecting
pests present during the growing season that may be more difficult to
detect post-harvest. Detection methods need to be combined with other
measures to ensure the absence of pests of concern. Statistical
procedures are available to verify, to a specified confidence level, the
pest-free status of an area, given negative survey or trapping results
(Barclay and Hargrove, 2005).

**Mitigation Options Post-harvest and Prior to Shipping**

**Post-harvest Safeguards and Packinghouse Procedures**: Removal of
infected or infested plant material reduces the likelihood that
quarantine organisms would be present with a shipment. Routine
post-harvest and packing practices for avocados to be exported to the
United States should include the safeguards similar to those applied for
avocados imported from Mexico (CFR, 2003).

For example, avocado fruit that has fallen from the trees must be
removed from the orchard at least once every 7 days and may not be
included in field boxes of fruit to be packed for export. Harvested
avocados must be placed in field boxes or containers of field boxes that
are marked to show a registration number of the orchard. The avocados
must be moved from the orchard to the packinghouse within 3 hours. of
harvest or they must be protected from fruit fly infestations until
moved.

The avocados must be protected from fruit fly infestations during their
movement from the orchard to the packinghouse and must be accompanied by
a field record indicating that the avocados originated from a certified
orchard.

The packinghouse may accept fruit only from orchards certified for
participation in the avocado export program. All openings to the outside
must be covered by screening with openings of not more than 1.6 mm or by
some other barrier that prevents insects from entering the packinghouse.
The packinghouse must have double doors at the entrance to the facility
and at the interior entrance to the area where the avocados are packed.

Prior to the culling process, a sample of 300 avocados per shipment must
be selected, cut, and inspected to be found free from quarantine pests
(particularly internal feeders such as fruit flies, seed moth and seed
weevils). The identity of the avocados must be maintained from field
boxes or containers to the shipping boxes so the avocados can be traced
back to the orchard of origin if pests are found at the packinghouse or
the port of first arrival in the United States.

Prior to being packed in boxes, each avocado fruit must be cleaned of
all stems, leaves, and other portions of plants to remove external
pests. Most avocado fruit can be cleaned by gently wiping the surface
with a clean soft cotton cloth or gloves. It may be necessary to use a
moist cloth if the dirt particles or surface stains are difficult to
remove. The cloth should periodically be dipped in a mild solution of
household bleach (150 ppm hypochlorous acid or household bleach) to
minimize the spread of possible latent diseases. Larger-scale operations
may choose to clean the avocados by hand- rubbing individual fruit
dumped in a tank of sanitized water. The wash water should be sanitized
with 150 ppm hypochlorous acid (household bleach) maintained at a pH of
6.5. This is equal to 2 oz of household bleach (such as Marvex) per 5
gallons of water, or .3 liters of bleach per 100 liters of water.
Avocadoes can also be cleaned mechanically by passing the fruit over a
series of roller brushes wetted from above with spray nozzles (GMC,
2006).

During the grading process, any damaged, diseased, or infested fruit
will be removed and separated from the commodity destined for export.
Each selected fruit should be labeled with a sticker that bears
registration number of the packinghouse. Any avocados that have not been
packed or loaded into a refrigerated truck or refrigerated container by
the end of the work day must be kept in the screened packing area.

**Mitigation Options during Shipping and at U.S. Ports-of-entry**: The
boxes must be placed in a refrigerated truck or refrigerated container
and remain in that truck or container while in transit to the port of
first arrival in the United States. Prior to leaving the packinghouse,
the truck or container must be secured with a seal that will be broken
when the truck or container is opened. Once sealed, the refrigerated
truck or refrigerated container must remain unopened until it reaches
the port of first arrival in the United States. Each shipment of avocado
must be accompanied by a phytosanitary certificate issued by SENASA
stating that all of the conditions of the Workplan have been met.

**Limits on Distribution and Transit within the United States**: In some
instances, the importation of commodities that might be harboring exotic
pests is authorized for shipment only to certain locations (*e.g.,*
Alaska or North Atlantic ports) or during a specific season (usually the
one with the coldest temperatures). These additional measures limit the
risk of establishment for many exotic pests. The importation of avocados
into the United States is anticipated during the harvest season in Peru,
which is during May -- August, with the peak harvest during June and
July. These months are warmest in the continental United States and
could be very suitable for survival of exotic pests. Shortening the
importation season to May only and confining shipments to Alaska and
North Atlantic ports during these months could somewhat increase the
level of protection.

**Point-of-entry Sampling and Inspection**: Upon arrival in the United
States, consignments will be inspected, with particular attention given
to paperwork, to ascertain that the chain of custody has remained
intact. A random sample of fruit from each consignment might be
inspected (depending on the Workplan conditions) to detect a pest
infestation rate of 10% or greater (USDA, 2004).

**Quarantine treatments**:

[Fumigation and Refrigeration]{.underline}: Treatments of avocado
against Mediterranean fruit fly, *Ceratitis capitata*, and melon and
oriental fruit flies is governed by the rule 7CFR319.56**-**2o (CFR,
2006). **Fumigation** with methyl bromide at normal atmospheric pressure
followed by **refrigerated storage** in accordance with the procedures
described in this section of CFR (2006) is effective against the above
mentioned fruit flies but is not effective against other dangerous pests
of avocado. Accordingly, this treatment will be approved for treatment
of avocados in connection with the issuance of permits under Sec.
319.56-3 for the importation of avocados from any country when it is
determined that the pest risk involved in the proposed importation is
such that it will be eliminated by this treatment.

The fumigant shall be methyl bromide applied at normal atmospheric
pressure with the dosage of two pounds per 1,000 cubic feet for 2\\1/2\\
hours at 70^o^ F or above. At the conclusion of the 2\\1/2\\-hour
exposure period, the avocados will be aerated for minimum of 30 minutes.
Avocados to be fumigated shall be restricted to fruit at the mature
green stage of development and be arranged in ventilated wooden boxes,
without packing material or wrappings. The refrigerated phase of the
treatment shall consist of refrigeration for 7 days at 45^o^ or below.
Cooling of the fruit must begin within 24 hours following the
fumigation. The refrigerated storage shall consist of 7 days at fruit
pulp temperature of 45^o^ F or below. The time required to cool the pulp
temperature to 45^o^ F or below may be included in the 7-day period
provided the cooling is accomplished in 24 hours or less.

For avocados from Peru, this specific treatment should be effective only
against *Ceratitis capitata*. There is no data available at the moment
for the efficacy of this treatment against the fruit flies *Anastrepha*
spp. and the moth *Stenoma* *catenifer* on avocado*.*

There are, however, many treatments available against *Anastrepha spp.*
in other fruits and vegetables. For citrus, for example, the treatment
is **T101-j-2-1**, which is fumigation with methyl bromide at
NAP---chamber at 80---85^o^ F with the condition that the infestation
level is less than 0.5 percent of the lot. Another option for citrus is
to treat Anastrepha spp. with high-temperature forced air treatment
(Treatment: T103-a-1). For mango, to treat against *Anastrepha* spp.,
available treatment is **T102-a** Hot water dip. Apples, grapes,
apricots, tangerine and other fruits could be subject to different
schedules of Cold treatment against *Anastrepha* spp. Specific efficacy
data are needed to verify that any of the available treatments against
*Anastrepha* spp. could be used for treating this group of pests in
avocado.

Treatment **T104-a-1 and T104-a-2** with methyl bromide at
NAP---tarpaulin or chamber are approved by APHIS for scale insects
(*Coccus viridis*) and mealybugs (*Ferrisia malvastra*) at 70° F or
above (maximum dosage, 2 pounds/1,000 ft^3^), for 0.5 or 2.0 hours,
depending on concentration readings.

[Irradiation:]{.underline} Recently approved irradiation treatment with
the generic dose of 400 Gy for all pests of the phylum Arthropoda,
excluding adults and pupae of the order Lepidoptera could be a valuable
option for controlling external pests *Coccus viridis* and *Ferrisia
malvastra* and fruit flies *Anastrepha* spp., and *Ceratitis capitata*
(Shea, 2006). The treatment should be also effective against moth
*Stenoma catenifer* since only larvae of this pest are present in the
fruit and their pupation occurs in the soil (CABI, 2005). Avocado,
however, is sensitive to irradiation, thus more research is needed to
identify a lower irradiation dose for the pest complex to preserve the
fruit quality. For example, 150 Gy could be used for the fruit flies
(Shea, 2006) combined with the field control leading to a low prevalence
for other pests. In addition, an inspection should be required.

**3. Monitoring**

**Pre-shipment Programs**: Inspection, treatment, or other mitigative
measures performed in the field and packinghouse should be under the
direct supervision of qualified APHIS and SENASA personnel, and in
accordance with specified phytosanitary procedures. Such programs call
for monitoring of all aspects of any required phytosanitary measures, in
addition to identifying the shortcomings and opportunities for program
modifications. Provisions should be made for the formal recognition of
approved areas, sites, or producers, as well as the specification of
conditions for revoking approvals or refusing certification for export
to the United States.

**Field Survey and Trapping**: Survey procedures include visual
inspection, fruit cutting, and field trapping. Surveys should be
conducted at regular intervals during the growing season to determine
the presence or absence of pests. Specific methodologies of trappings
and surveys for each quarantine pest of concern should be outlined in
the Workplan. Growers will receive or be denied certification for export
on the basis of survey or trapping results.

**Shipments Traceable to Place of Origin in Peru**: A system of
identification labels and record keeping is required for avocado
indicating the specific place of origin to ensure traceability to each
production site.

**4. Conclusions**

The number and diversity of pests that require mitigation make it
unlikely that a single mitigative measure will be adequate to reduce
risks of their introduction into the United States. For this reason, a
combination of measures in a systems approach is most feasible. The
system should include the following safeguards: monitoring of orchards
and management programs to achieve and maintain area pest freedom;
packinghouse inspection and post-harvest treatments; and maintenance of
consignment security and traceability in transit.

This document does not purport to establish specific work plans or to
evaluate the quality of a specific program or systems approach. It
identifies risks and provides information regarding known mitigative
measures. The specific implementation of measures, as would be present
in an operational Workplan, is beyond the scope of this document.

**Table 8. Summary of Risk Mitigative Options for Avocado, *Persea
americana*, from Peru.**

+----------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+
| **Measure(s)**       | **Pest**          | **Efficacy**             |
+----------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+
| Pest-free areas or   | All               | Satisfies requirements   |
| places of production |                   | for                      |
|                      |                   |                          |
|                      |                   | appropriate level of     |
|                      |                   | protection               |
+----------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+
| Control program,     | All               | Research required to     |
| including            |                   |                          |
| mmechanical,         |                   | demonstrate efficacy     |
| cultural, or         |                   |                          |
| chemical means, and  |                   |                          |
| monitoring           |                   |                          |
+----------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+
| Fruit cutting        | *Anastrepha*      | Adequate sampling size   |
| samples              | spp., *Ceratitis  | satisfies requirements   |
|                      | capitata*,        | for appropriate level of |
|                      | *Stenoma          | protection               |
|                      | catenifer*,       |                          |
|                      | *Heilipus* spp.   |                          |
+----------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+
| Packinghouse         | External feeders  | Research required to     |
| procedures,          | *Coccus viridis*  | demonstrate efficacy on  |
| including cleaning,  | and *Ferrisia     | avocado. Washing with    |
| visual culling,      | malvastra*        | warm soapy water and     |
| brushing             |                   | brushing is used         |
|                      |                   | extensively against      |
|                      |                   | these pests in foliage   |
|                      |                   | and cut flowers.         |
+----------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+
| Point-of-entry       | Most of the       | Certain small insects,   |
| sampling and         | external pests;   | such as scales           |
| inspection including | most of the       | demonstrate low rate of  |
| fruit cuttings       | internal pests    | detection during routine |
|                      | when fruit is cut | visual inspections.      |
|                      |                   | Shaker-box technique     |
|                      |                   | and/or microscopic       |
|                      |                   | evaluations might be     |
|                      |                   | needed to reduce level   |
|                      |                   | of risk. For cut fruit,  |
|                      |                   | sample size should be    |
|                      |                   | adequate to detect       |
|                      |                   | infestation              |
+----------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+
| Irradiation, generic | All pests         | Approved by APHIS. Due   |
| dose 400 Gy,         |                   | to sensitivity of        |
| combined with low    |                   | avocado to irradiation,  |
| pest prevalence      |                   | data are needed to       |
|                      |                   | identify a lower         |
|                      |                   | specific doze.           |
+----------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+
| Irradiation 150 Gy   | All pests         | Research required to     |
| for fruit flies      |                   | demonstrate efficacy     |
| combined with low    |                   |                          |
| prevalence of other  |                   |                          |
| pests plus           |                   |                          |
| inspection           |                   |                          |
+----------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+
| Methyl-Bromide       | *Coccus viridis*  | Approved by APHIS to     |
| fumigation           |                   | treat surface pests such |
| (T104-a-1, schedule  |                   | as scales on vegetables, |
| for mealybugs)       |                   | including avocado.       |
| combined with low    |                   |                          |
| pest prevalence      |                   |                          |
+----------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+
| Methyl-Bromide       | *Ferrisia         | Approved by APHIS to     |
| fumigation           | malvastra*        | treat mealybugs          |
| (T104-a-2, schedule  |                   |                          |
| for mealybugs)       |                   |                          |
| combined with low    |                   |                          |
| pest prevalence      |                   |                          |
+----------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+
| Fumigation with      | *Ceratitis        | Approved by APHIS to     |
| Methyl-Bromide       | capitata*         | treat certain fruit      |
| followed by cold     |                   | flies in avocado.        |
| treatment            |                   |                          |
+----------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+
| Methyl-Bromide       | *Anastrepha* spp. | Different schedules      |
| fumigation, or hot   |                   | approved by APHIS for a  |
| water dip, or high   |                   | number of fruits.        |
| temperature forced   |                   | Research required to     |
| air                  |                   | demonstrate efficacy on  |
|                      |                   | avocado                  |
+----------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+

# C. Authors and Reviewers {#c.-authors-and-reviewers .Style-Heading-1-+-Times-New-Roman}

#  {#section .Style-Heading-1-+-Times-New-Roman}

Written by: R.D. Magarey Plant Pathologist and M. Zlotina, Entomologist,
CPHST, PERAL

Reviewed by: L. Millar, Entomologist, CPHST-PERAL, Heather Hartzog,
Plant Pathologist, CPHST-PERAL, and M. Hennessey, Entomologist,
CPHST-PERAL.

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#  {#section-1 .Style-Heading-1-+-Times-New-Roman}

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# Appendix 1 {#appendix-1 .Style-Heading-1-+-Times-New-Roman}

**Pest interceptions from South America including Peru, based on data
from the PIN 309 database (PIN309 query date?).**

  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  PEST                          BOL   BRA   CHI   COL   ECU   PER   VEN   Total
  ----------------------------- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -------
  Abgrallaspis sp.                          1           1                 2
  (Diaspididae)                                                           

  Agrotis sp. (Noctuidae)                   3                             3

  Anastrepha sp. (Tephritidae)                          2     1     1     4

  Apion sp. (Curculionidae)                 1                             1

  Arhyssus tricostatus                      1                             1
  (Spinola) (Rhopalidae)                                                  

  Athlia rustica erichson                   1                             1
  (Scarabaeidae)                                                          

  Aulacaspis tubercularis                   1                             1
  newstead (Diaspididae)                                                  

  Blapstinus punctulatus solier             3                             3
  (Tenebrionidae)                                                         

  Blapstinus sp.                            1                             1
  (Tenebrionidae)                                                         

  Bruchidae, species of                     1                             1

  Cerambycidae, species of                  1                             1

  Ceratitis capitata                  1                                   1
  (Wiedemann) (Tephritidae)                                               

  Cladosporium sp.                                            1     1     2

  Coccotrypes sp. (Scolytidae)                                      1     1

  Coelomycetes, species of            1                                   1

  Conoderus rufangulus                      1                             1
  (Gyllenhal) (Elateridae)                                                

  Conotrachelus sp.                                     3                 3
  (Curculionidae)                                                         

  Copitarsia sp. (Noctuidae)                7                             7

  Crambidae, species of                     1                             1

  Curculionidae, species of                                   1           1

  Diaspididae, species of             1                       1     1     4

  Diaspis sp. (Diaspididae)                 1                             1

  Elateridae, species of                    1                             1

  Gelechiidae, species of       1           1     1                       3

  Grammophorus minor (Schwarz)              1                             1
  (Elateridae)                                                            

  Gryllus sp. (Gryllidae)                   2                             2

  Hadeninae, species of                     6                             6
  (Noctuidae)                                                             

  Heilipus sp. (Curculionidae)                    1           1           2

  Hemiberlesia diffinis                                 1                 1
  (Newstead) (Diaspididae)                                                

  Homoptera, species of                           1                       1

  Hoplosphyrum griseus                      6                             6
  (Philippi) (Gryllidae)                                                  

  Hylurgus ligniperda                       1                             1
  (Fabricius) (Scolytidae)                                                

  Lepidoptera, species of                   1                             1

  Lepidosaphes sp.                          1                             1
  (Diaspididae)                                                           

  Ligyrus villosus burmeister               5                             5
  (Scarabaeidae)                                                          

  Lithraeus egenus (Blanchard)              2                             2
  (Bruchidae)                                                             

  Melanaspis sp. (Diaspididae)                                      1     1

  Micrapate scabrata (Erichson)             1                             1
  (Bostrichidae)                                                          

  Microgryllus pallipes                     5                             5
  philippi (Gryllidae)                                                    

  Microsphaeropsis sp.                                  1                 1

  Noctuidae, species of                     2                             2

  Nomophila sp. (Pyralidae)                 1                             1

  Nysius sp. (Lygaeidae)                    2                             2

  Oecophoridae, species of                  1                 2           3

  Palinaspis sp. (Diaspididae)                          1                 1

  Pentatomidae, species of                                    1           1

  Phaeoseptoria sp.                                     1                 1

  Phomopsis sp.                                         1     1           2

  Pseudaletia impuncta (Guenee)             2                             2
  (Noctuidae)                                                             

  Pseudaletia sp. (Noctuidae)               1                             1

  Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis  1                 1     5     10    1     18
  (green) (Diaspididae)                                                   

  Pseudococcidae, species of          1     22          1     3     2     30

  Pseudococcus sp.                          15                            15
  (Pseudococcidae)                                                        

  Pyraustinae, species of                   1                             1
  (Crambidae)                                                             

  Rhyephenes sp.                            1                             1
  (Curculionidae)                                                         

  Sitona sp. (Curculionidae)                1                             1

  Sphaceloma perseae Jenkins          9     1           1           1     13

  Sphaceloma sp.                      1                       1           2

  Stenoma catenifer Walsingham        3     1     1     19    8     7     39
  (Oecophoridae)                                                          

  Tenebrionidae, species of                 1                             1

  Trialeurodes sp.                                                        1
  (Aleyrodidae)                                                           

  Total                         2     17    109   5     37    31    16    221
  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BOL -- Bolivia, BRA- Brazil, CHI -- Chile, COL -- Columbia, ECU --
Ecuador, PER -- Peru, VEN -- Venezuela.

# Appendix 2 {#appendix-2 .Style-Heading-1-+-Times-New-Roman}

**Likelihood of Entry, Introduction, and Establishment of *Potato
Spindle Tuber Viroid (PSTVd)* with Imported 'Hass' Avocado (*Persea
americana*) Fruit from Peru.**

**Contacts:**

> Roger D. Magarey, Plant Pathologist, USDA-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST-PERAL,
> Raleigh, North Carolina, (<Roger.D.Magarey@aphis.usda.gov>).
>
> Marina Zlotina, Entomologist, USDA-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST-PERAL, Raleigh,
> North Carolina (Marina.A.Zlotina@aphis.usda.gov)

**Executive Summary**

In the Peruvian Avocado PRA, the consequences of introduction and
likelihood of introduction of PSTVd were analyzed and rated as medium
for both measures. In this appendix, we evaluate the likelihood of
establishment based on three pathways, commercial fruit disposal,
residential disposal, and seed propagation.

\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--

**Pathways for Establishment**

In the PRA it was determined that PSTVd is unlikely to come into contact
with hosts. In potato, natural spread of PSTVd is through seed or aphid
transmission (CABI, 2004). PSTVd and a related viroid, Avocado Sun
blotch Viroid (ASBVd), are known to be transmitted through seed or
pollen of infected plants (Desjardins et al., 1984; Fernow et al.,
1970). Establishment would require infected seed or fruit tissue to come
into contact with a host. We evaluate the likelihood of establishment
based on three pathways, commercial fruit disposal, residential
disposal, and seed propagation. We did not evaluate the likelihood of an
irrigation water pathway but this was considered less likely.

**1. Warehouse disposal pathway:** To illustrate the fate of exotic
organisms on imported fresh produce we used a relevant study. Eight
pathways were investigated by Gould *et al.* (2004) in a risk analysis
that looked at fresh asparagus infested with lepidopteran eggs. The
study examined disposal methods at 14 commercial import warehouses in
the U.S. that represented 85% of the asparagus imports from Peru. That
report concluded that of the discarded product (not initially sold for
consumption): 76.0 % went unbagged into dumpsters; 4.5% went bagged into
dumpsters; 11.2% was compacted then placed in landfill; 7.3% went to
soup kitchens (consumed); 0.5% was put in the garbage disposal
(municipal sewage); 0% went as discounted produce (consumed); 0% was
composted; 0% went for animal feed. Dumpsters leading to landfills are a
dead-end pathway for insect pests in municipal waste such as,
*Anoplophora glabripennis* (Auclair *et al.,* 2005). We assume that the
same is true with this pathogen. PSTVd only moves with plant material in
the absence of a vector. If all plant material is accounted for in the
dumpsters and landfills, the viroid is mitigated if all insect vectors
are considered mitigated.

**2. Residential disposal pathways:** Consumers purchase fruit and take
it home from supermarkets. A first discard scenario includes consuming
fruit, but discarding stems and calyxes into a garbage disposal and
finally into the waste water (sewage) system. In a second discard
scenario, stems and calyxes are bagged and put into the trash destined
for landfill. In the U.S. over 75% of the population is served by
centralized waste water collection and treatment, the remaining
population using other on-site systems to treat sewage and waste water
(EPA 2004; Zipper, 2003). Waste water (sewage) treatment standards have
been developed to reduce populations of pathogens harmful to humans, and
this may reduce the viability of PSTVd (EPA, 2004; Zipper, 2003). There
are no studies on the quantity of fruits and vegetables discarded in
backyard compost in the U. S. One foreign study estimated that up to
0.5% of U. S. apples purchased in Japan ended up as compost (Roberts *et
al*., 1998). Another study estimated that 5% of U. S. cherries purchased
in New Zealand ended up as compost (Wearing *et al*., 2001). If it is
assumed that 5% composting mirrors U. S. practices, then it is unlikely
that the commodity would be discarded on compost piles. Although no
studies have been done, it is assumed that all compost produced by
consumers is used on home gardens or yards and not spread directly onto
agricultural fields.

**3. Seed Propagation pathway:** Avocado seeds are frequently propagated
in biology classes. Often students are allowed to take their plants home
after completion of the class. There is no data available to determine
the fate of these plants but some assumptions can be made. Most plants
would probably remain indoors and die and be disposed under
considerations discussed above. The only possible scenario would be for
a propagated tree to be planted outside in proximity to other hosts such
as potato or avocado. The avocado tree is relatively frost sensitive and
would not survive in most of the United States (Scorza and Wiltbank,
1975). For these reasons, we consider this pathway to be low risk.

**Table 1.** Likelihood of PSTVd following pathway based on
establishment and introduction

+--------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| **Event**                                        | **Likelihood**    |
+--------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| Consequences of Introduction                     | High (Risk        |
|                                                  | Assessment        |
|                                                  | Document)         |
+--------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| Likelihood of Introduction                       | High (Risk        |
|                                                  | Assessment        |
|                                                  | Document)         |
+--------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| [Likelihood of establishment]{.underline}:       | Low               |
|                                                  |                   |
| Warehouse disposal pathway                       | Low               |
|                                                  |                   |
| Consumer disposal pathway                        | Low               |
|                                                  |                   |
| Propagation pathway                              | Low               |
|                                                  |                   |
| Overall risk of establishment                    |                   |
+--------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| [Overall likelihood of pest following            | [Low]{.underline} |
| pathway]{.underline}                             |                   |
+--------------------------------------------------+-------------------+

**Conclusions:** In the PRA it was determined that there would be a high
probability of introduction. This analysis concludes, however, that the
probability of establishment is low and, consequently, the overall
probability of the pest following the pathway is low.

**Literature cited**

Auclair, A.N.D., Fowler, G., Hennessey, G., M.K., Hogue, A.T., Keena,
M., Lance, D.R., McDowell, R.M., Oryang, D.O. and Sawyer, A.J. 2005.
Assessment of the risk of introduction of *Anplophora glabripennis*
(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in municipal solid waste from the quarantine
area of New York City to landfills outside of the quarantine area:  a
pathway analysis of the risk of spread and establishment. J. Econ.
Entomol.. 98:47-60.

CABI, 2003. Crop Protection Compendium. CAB International, Wallingford,
UK.

Desjardins, P.R., Drake, R.J., Sasaki, P.J., Atkins, E.L., and Bergh,
B.O. 1984. Pollen transmission of Avocado Sun Blotch viroid and the fate
of the pollen recipient tree. Phytopathology 74:845.

EPA. 2004. Primer for Municipal Waste Water Treatment Systems.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Management. Public. EPA
832-R-04-001. 30 pp.

Gould, J., Venette, R. and Seltzer, J. 2004. The pathways followed by
fresh produce in the United States and how they impact the risk of
establishment for exotic pests. Unpublished APHIS poster.

Fernow, K.H., Petewrson, L.C., and Palaisted, R.L. 1970. Spindle Tuber
Virus in seed and pollen of infected potato plants. Am. Potato J.
47:75-80.

Roberts, R. C., van der Zwet, T., Miller, C. E. and Redlin, S. C.. 1998.
The potential for spread of *Erwinia amylovora* and fire blight via
commercial apple fruit: A critical review and risk assessment. Crop
Prot. 17: 19-28.

Scorza, R.SD. and Wiltbank, W.J. 1975. Evaluation of avocado cold
hardiness Proceedings of Florida State Horticultural Society.
88:496-499.

Wearing, C. H., Hansen, J., Whyte, C., Miller, C. E. and Brown, J. 2001.
The potential for spread of codling moth (Lepidoptera: Torticidae) via
commercial sweet cherry fruit: a critical review and risk assessment.
Crop Prot. 20: 465-488.

Zipper, C. R. B. Renaue, Jr., and A. Jantrania. 2003. On-site sewage
treatment alternatives. Virginia Coop. Extension Pub. 448-407.
<http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/waterquality/448-407/448-407.pdf>. Last
accessed 13 July 2005.