Section 3 Affected Environment [3-1](#section-3-3-affected-environment)

3.1 Geology and Earth Resources [3-3](#geology-and-earth-resources)

3.1.1 Bathymetry and Topography [3-3](#bathymetry-and-topography)

3.1.2 Shoreline Characteristics and Marine Sediments
[3-7](#shoreline-characteristics-and-marine-sediments)

3.1.3 Seismology [3-7](#seismology)

3.1.4 Liquefaction [3-7](#liquefaction)

3.1.5 Landslides [3-7](#landslides)

3.2 Oceanographic and Coastal Processes
[3-7](#oceanographic-and-coastal-processes)

3.2.1 Currents and Tides [3-7](#currents-and-tides)

3.2.2 Wave Characteristics [3-7](#wave-characteristics)

3.2.3 Sediment Transport [3-7](#sediment-transport)

3.2.4 ENSO Events [3-7](#enso-events)

3.2.5 Upwelling [3-7](#upwelling)

3.3 Watershed and Coastal Water Quality
[3-7](#watershed-and-coastal-water-quality)

3.3.1 Watershed Descriptions [3-7](#watershed-descriptions)

3.3.2 Coastal Reaches [3-7](#coastal-reaches)

3.3.3 Coastal Water Characteristics
[3-7](#coastal-water-characteristics)

3.4 Biological Resources [3-7](#biological-resources)

3.4.1 Marine and Coastal Habitats of the Study Area
[3-7](#marine-and-coastal-habitats-of-the-study-area)

3.4.2 Fish [3-7](#fish)

3.4.3 Birds [3-7](#birds)

3.4.4 Marine Mammals [3-7](#marine-mammals)

3.4.5 Terrestrial Mammals [3-7](#terrestrial-mammals)

3.4.6 Threatened and Endangered Species
[3-7](#threatened-and-endangered-species)

3.5 Land Use and Recreation [3-7](#land-use-and-recreation)

3.5.1 Coastal Land Use and Recreation
[3-7](#coastal-land-use-and-recreation)

3.5.2 Land Use and Recreation on the Channel Islands
[3-7](#land-use-and-recreation-on-the-channel-islands)

3.6 Aesthetics and Visual Resources
[3-7](#aesthetics-and-visual-resources)

3.6.1 Coastal Aesthetics and Visual Resources
[3-7](#coastal-aesthetics-and-visual-resources)

3.6.2 Channel Islands Aesthetics and Visual Resources
[3-7](#channel-islands-aesthetics-and-visual-resources)

3.7 Transportation [3-7](#transportation)

3.7.1 Coastal Transportation [3-7](#coastal-transportation)

3.7.2 Channel Islands Transportation
[3-7](#channel-islands-transportation)

3.8 Air Quality [3-7](#air-quality)

3.9 Noise [3-7](#noise)

3.9.1 Overview and Noise Standards [3-7](#overview-and-noise-standards)

3.9.2 Coastal Noise Generators and Sensitive Receptors
[3-7](#coastal-noise-generators-and-sensitive-receptors)

3.9.3 Noise Generators and Sensitive Receptors on the Channel Islands
[3-7](#noise-generators-and-sensitive-receptors-on-the-channel-islands)

3.10 Cultural Resources [3-7](#cultural-resources)

3.10.1 Prehistoric Overview [3-7](#prehistoric-overview)

3.10.2 Historic Overview [3-7](#historic-overview)

3.10.3 Archaeological Resources [3-7](#archaeological-resources)

3.10.4 Historic Resources [3-7](#historic-resources)

3.11 Socioeconomics [3-7](#socioeconomics)

3.11.1 Population and Age [3-7](#population-and-age)

3.11.2 Race and Ethnicity [3-7](#race-and-ethnicity)

3.11.3 Income, Household Size, and Poverty Status
[3-7](#income-household-size-and-poverty-status)

Tables

3.1-1 Coastal Shore Elevation and Shoreline Types Within the Coastal
Reaches of the Study Area

3.1-2 Elevation, Size, and Shoreline Types for Channel Islands

3.2-1 Tide Datums

3.3-1 Beneficial Use Definitions for Water Bodies in the Study Area

3.3-2 Summary of Beneficial Uses and Impairments Within Coastal Reaches
and Channel Island Subareas of the Study Area

3.3-3 Characterization of Watersheds and Coastal Features Within the
Study Area

3.4-1 Summary of Recreational Landings (Released Fish Excluded) and Fish
Consumption Advisories for Species Targeted by Anglers in Southern
California, 1999--2003

3.4-2 Summary of Wetland Size and Habitat Types in the Study Area

3.4-3 List of Seabirds with Breeding Colonies on the Channel Islands

3.4-4 Threatened and Endangered Plants of the Channel Islands

3.4-5 Threatened and Endangered Wildlife within the Study Area

3.9-1 Baseline Noise Environment, Noise Generators, and Sensitive Noise
Receptors in the Study Area

3.11-1 Los Angeles and Orange Counties: Population and Age (2000)

3.11-2 Los Angeles and Orange Counties: Race and Ethnicity (2000)

3.11-3 Los Angeles and Orange Counties: Income, Household Size, and
Poverty Level (2000)

Figures

3.0-1 Study area for the Montrose Settlements Restoration Program with
coastal and island subareas.

3.1-1 Geomorphic setting of the region.

3.1-2 Major geologic provinces and seafloor characteristics of the
Southern California Bight.

3.1-3 Elevation and bathymetry along the coastline from Point Dume to
Dana Point.

3.1-4 Oblique view of the Palos Verdes Shelf and slope based on
multi-beam bathymetry.

3.1-5 Elevation and bathymetry for Channel Islands.

3.1-6 Multibeam backscatter image of seafloor characteristics along the
coastline from Point Dume to Dana Point.

3.1-7 Major faults within the study area.

3.3-1 Watersheds and impaired water bodies within the study area.

3.4-1 Schematic diagram of fishes within rocky reef and kelp bed
habitats.

3.4-2 Major DDT/PCB pathways and the role of fish in the transfer of
DDTs and PCBs to upper trophic levels.

3.4-3 Active bald eagle territories and points of reference on Santa
Catalina Island, California.

3.4-4 Most heavily used foraging areas for selected seabirds in the SCB.

3.4-5 California brown pelican roosting sites along the Southern
California coast.

3.5-1 Coastal cities and communities, Los Angeles County.

3.5-2 Coastal cities and communities, Orange County.

3.5-3 Generalized locations of recreational resources, Coastal Reaches 1
and 2.

3.5-4 Generalized locations of recreational resources, Coastal Reaches
3, 4, 5, and 6.

3.5-5 Dive sites and recreational sites, Northern Channel Islands.

3.5-6 Dive sites and recreational sites, Southern Channel Islands.

3.6-1 Representative photographs of the Los Angeles and Orange County
coastline environment.

3.6-2 Representative photographs of the Channel Islands.

3.10-1 Generalized locations of known shipwrecks.

# Section 3 3 Affected Environment

The study area is located within the Southern California Bight (SCB), an
oceanic region bounded landward by the coast and seaward by the
continental slope (Patton Escarpment). For the purposes of the
Restoration Plan, the SCB is defined as the area between Point
Conception (north), Cabo Colonet, located south of Ensenada, Mexico
(south), outside of the Cortez and Tanner Banks (west), and coastal
watersheds (east). The study area extends from Point Dume to Dana Point
along the coast and includes the California Channel Islands and those
Baja California Pacific Islands that lie within the SCB. To facilitate
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) analysis and descriptions, the
United States portion of the study area has been divided into three
subareas: coastal, the Northern Channel Islands, and the Southern
Channel Islands (Figure 3.0‑1).

The coastal subarea has been further divided into the following six
reaches:

-   Coastal Reach 1: Pont Dume to Pacific Palisades

-   Coastal Reach 2: Pacific Palisades to Palos Verdes Estates

-   Coastal Reach 3: Palos Verdes Estates to Cabrillo Beach

-   Coastal Reach 4: Cabrillo Beach to Orange County jurisdictional
    boundary

-   Coastal Reach 5: Orange County jurisdictional boundary to Corona del
    Mar

-   Coastal Reach 6: Corona del Mar to Dana Point

The two subareas of the Channel Islands are separated geographically and
geologically, which can also relate to species distribution patterns.
The Northern Channel Islands subarea includes four islands: San Miguel,
Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and Anacapa.

The Southern Channel Islands subarea also includes four islands: Santa
Barbara, San Nicolas, Santa Catalina, and San Clemente.

Management and ownership of the Channel Island falls under the
jurisdictions of the Channel Islands National Park, the Channel Islands
National Marine Sanctuary, the U.S. Navy, the Catalina Island
Conservancy, and The Nature Conservancy. Land use, including management,
is described in Section 3.5.

The following subsections summarize existing conditions according to
major resource categories, including geology and earth resources
(Section 3.1), oceanographic and coastal processes (Section 3.2),
watershed and coastal water quality (Section 3.3), biological resources
(Section 3.4), land use and recreation (Section 3.5), aesthetics and
visual resources (Section 3.6), transportation (Section 3.7), air
quality (Section 3.8), noise (Section 3.9), cultural resources
(Section 3.10), and socioeconomics (Section 3.11).

![](media/image1.jpeg){width="6.5in" height="6.554166666666666in"}

Figure 3.0-1. Study area for the Montrose Settlements Restoration
Program with coastal and island subareas.

## Geology and Earth Resources

The study area consists of low lying coastal areas backed by uplifted
mountain ranges and uplifted islands offshore (Figure 3.1-1). The
shorelines of the coastal mainland are characterized by uplifted marine
terraces, coastal bluffs, and "drowned" alluvial plains. The most
extensive marine terraces within the study area are exposed along the
sides of the Palos Verdes Hills and at Dana Point (California Coastal
Commission 1987). The geology of the Channel Islands is predominantly of
igneous and sedimentary origin (Thorne 1967, Schaffer 1993), and marine
terraces occur along the coasts of these islands.

Three major geomorphic features occur in the marine environment within
the Southern California Bight: the Santa Barbara Basin, and the Inner
and Outer Borderlands (Dailey et al. 1993). These features include
canyons, ridges, and basins defined by unique patterns of seismicity,
fault types, sea floor topography, and bottom sediments (Figure 3.1-2).
The Santa Barbara Basin is north of the study area. The study area
includes the Inner Borderlands and shelf of the Outer Borderlands around
the Channel Islands to depths of 200 meters (656 feet) in both areas.

### Bathymetry and Topography

The shoreline topography and offshore bathymetry along the coastal
reaches of the study area are shown in Figure 3.1-3. Elevations range
from sea level along the coast to 451 meters (1,480 feet) in the Palos
Verdes Hills. The width of the shelf along the coast varies from 1.9
kilometers (1.2 miles) to 22 kilometers (13.7 miles) and includes
several marine canyons that intercept the shelf and slope. The nearshore
portion of the study area consists geographically of Santa Monica Bay,
Palos Verdes Shelf, San Pedro Bay, and the open coastal waters off
Orange County.

Santa Monica Bay is characterized by a gently sloping continental shelf
that extends to the shelf break at a water depth of approximately 80
meters (265 feet). At the break, the seafloor becomes steep along the
slope but then flattens into the deep Santa Monica Basin in
approximately 800 meters (2,630 feet) of water (Terry et al. 1956, SMBRP
1994). The Dume, Santa Monica, and Redondo Canyons bisect Santa Monica
Bay.

The Palos Verdes Shelf is narrow and extends offshore to approximately
75 meters (245 feet) of water. The shelf ranges in width from 1.9 to 7.4
kilometers (1.2 to 4.6 miles). Features of the shelf and bathymetry in
the vicinity of the Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts' Joint Water
Pollution Control Plant (JWPCP) outfalls offshore of White Point are
shown in Figure 3.1-4.

San Pedro Bay consists primarily of the Los Angeles/Long Beach Harbor
complex and a relatively flat, wide shelf offshore. The development of
the ports has involved a series of dredge-and-fill operations to deepen
channels to accommodate deep-draft vessels and to provide fill for
additional land areas for terminal development. Typical water depth in
the outer harbor is approximately 15 meters (50 feet).

Relatively regular bathymetric features typical of open coasts
characterize the coastal region adjacent to Orange County. Newport
Canyon bisects the shelf offshore of Newport Bay. The shelf narrows
downcoast of the canyon, and the nearshore bathymetry is largely
shore-parallel along this reach of the SCB.

![](media/image2.png){width="8.990972222222222in"
height="6.152083333333334in"}

Figure 3.1-1. Geomorphic setting of the region.

![](media/image3.png){width="6.583333333333333in" height="6.19375in"}

Figure 3.1-2. Major geologic provinces and seafloor characteristics of
the Southern California Bight.

![](media/image4.jpeg){width="8.993055555555555in"
height="5.801388888888889in"}

Figure 3.1-3. Elevation and bathymetry along the coastline from Point
Dume to Dana Point.

![](media/image5.png){width="7.446527777777778in"
height="6.077083333333333in"}

Figure 3.1-4. Oblique view of the Palos Verdes Shelf and slope based on
multi-beam bathymetry.

The total land area of the Channel Islands is about 87,102 hectares
(215,227 acres), with Santa Cruz being the largest island and Santa
Barbara the smallest of the archipelago. Elevations range from sea level
to the highest peak at Picacho Diablo on Santa Cruz Island, with an
elevation of 747 meters (2,450 feet) (CINMS 2000).

The bathymetry of the Channel Islands forms a relatively wide shelf
around San Miguel, San Nicolas, Santa Barbara, and Santa Rosa Islands
(Figure 3.1-5). Anacapa and Santa Cruz Islands have a wider shelf on the
north than the south sides of the islands. San Clemente and Santa
Catalina Islands have relatively narrow shelves. The shelves drop off
into basins adjacent to the islands (see Figure 3.1-5).

### Shoreline Characteristics and Marine Sediments

Shorelines within the study area were classified into six summary
categories: rocky shores, gravel beaches, riprap, sandy beaches,
wetlands, and areas with artificial structures (e.g., wharves, piers, or
seawalls). These categories, which are based on the California
Department of Fish and Game (CDFG) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) Environmental Sensitivity Index Geographical
Information System (GIS) database, include shorelines along the seacoast
as well as those associated with wetlands, bays, and harbors.
Table 3.1-1 summarizes the highest elevation (above mean sea level) and
the characteristics of the shorelines within each coastal reach of the
study area. In general, shorelines bordered by mountains have rocky
shores, shorelines bordered by coastal plains are mostly sandy beaches,
and bays and harbors have extensive artificial substrates along their
shorelines.

  --------------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------
  Table 3.1-1\                                                      
  Coastal Shore                                                     
  Elevation and                                                     
  Shoreline Types                                                   
  Within the\                                                       
  Coastal Reaches                                                   
  of the Study                                                      
  Area                                                              

                  COASTAL                                           
                  REACH                                             

                  Reach 1   Reach 2   Reach 3   Reach 4   Reach 5   Reach 6

  Elevation       427       122       427       61        91        244
  (meters)                                                          

  Elevation       1,400     400       1,400     200       300       800
  (feet)                                                            

  **Shoreline                                                       
  Type (%)**                                                        

  Artificial      0         23        0         65        43        10
  structure                                                         

  Gravel beach    0         0         37        0         0         3

  Riprap          28        27        1         28        11        22

  Rocky shore     20        0         55        0         0         30

  Sandy beach     49        46        7         6         15        35

  Wetlands        2         4         0         1         30        0

  Note:                                                             
  Calculated by                                                     
  MEC Analytical                                                    
  Systems, Inc.,                                                    
  for NOAA from                                                     
  Environmental                                                     
  Sensitivity                                                       
  Index GIS data                                                    
  (NOAA and CDFG                                                    
  2000).                                                            
  --------------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------

![](media/image6.jpeg){width="8.995833333333334in"
height="5.809722222222222in"}

Figure 3.1-5. Elevation and bathymetry for Channel Islands.

Two primary types of sedimentary environments occur within the study
area: soft-bottom and hard substrate. Soft-bottom areas range from sands
to muds. Hard substrate includes gravel, cobbles, boulders, and exposed
bedrock. Figure 3.1-6 illustrates seafloor characteristics based on
backscatter soundings measured by the U.S. Geological Survey (Edwards et
al. 2003). Human-made hard-bottom areas (e.g., the Hyperion and County
Sanitation Districts of Orange County wastewater outfall pipelines and
their associated rock ballast) are included in the figure.

Sediments of the inner shelf are usually coarse and fine sands, whereas
those of the outer shelf tend to be silts and clays with localized
intrusions of differing sediments (Thompson et al. 1993). Sources of
sediment include coast bluff erosion, runoff from rivers and creeks,
runoff through storm drains, and suspended solids discharged from
wastewater treatment outfalls. The discharge of solids has decreased
dramatically over the past 18 years with improvements to wastewater
treatment (SCCWRP 1993).

Anthropogenic sources of sediment have included pollutants from
wastewater outfalls and non-point source runoff from storm drains and
rivers. Recent sediments include clay mineral and sand particles that
are mixed with organic, chemical, and metal pollutants (Connolly and
Glasser 2002). Sediments containing pollutants occur in Coastal Reaches
2 and 3:

-   Coastal Reach 2: Anthropogenic sediments occur on the shelf in Santa
    Monica Bay; these sediments have been estimated to range in
    thickness from a few centimeters to 60 centimeters (24 inches)
    (Edwards et al. 2003).

-   Coastal Reach 3: Effluent-affected sediments occur on the Palos
    Verdes Shelf northwest and offshore of the JWPCP outfall off of
    White Point (LACSD 2002). The size of the deposit is estimated to be
    more than 40 square kilometers (15 square miles). Within this
    deposit, concentrations of p,p'-DDE range up to several hundred
    parts per million (ppm), and concentrations of PCBs are as high as
    15 ppm (LACSD 2002, Lee et al. 2002).

Many of the shores of the Channel Islands are characterized by rugged
sea cliffs, waterfalls, stream canyons, and sea caves (NPS and Channel
Islands National Park 2002). Shoreline platforms of wave-cut terraces
with rocky or gravel beaches predominate; however, a few sandy beaches
occur on most of the islands (Table 3.1-2). Rocky reefs extend offshore
of much of the shorelines of the islands. []{.mark}

![](media/image7.png){width="8.865972222222222in" height="5.7375in"}

Figure 3.1-6. Multibeam backscatter image of seafloor characteristics
along the coastline from Point Dume to Dana Point.

(Modified from Edwards et al. 2003.)

  ------------- -------- -------- -------- --------- --------- --------- ---------- ----------
  Table 3.1-2\                                                                      
  Elevation,                                                                        
  Size, and                                                                         
  Shoreline                                                                         
  Types for                                                                         
  Channel                                                                           
  Islands                                                                           

                Island                                                              

                San      Santa    Santa    Anacapa   Santa     San       Santa      San
                Miguel   Rosa     Cruz               Barbara   Nicolas   Catalina   Clemente

  Elevation     252      483      742      283       194       277       648        599
  (meters)                                                                          

  Elevation     831      1584     2434     930       635       910       2125       1965
  (feet)                                                                            

  Area          3,841    21,470   25,080   298       261       644       19,400     14,500
  (hectares)                                                                        

  Area (acres)  9,491    53,051   61,972   737       644       1,591     47,937     35,830

  Shoreline                                                                         
  Type (%)                                                                          

  Artificial    0        0        0        0         0         0         1          0
  structures                                                                        

  Gravel beach  0        1        9        13        10        6         45         35

  Riprap        0        0        0        0         0         1         2          0

  Rocky shore   69       63       71       86        88        59        41         58

  Sand beach    31       35       20       1         2         34        10         6

  Wetlands      0        1        0        0         0         0         0          0
  ------------- -------- -------- -------- --------- --------- --------- ---------- ----------

Sources: NPS 1999, Power 1980.

### Seismology

Several major faults occur within the study area (Figure 3.1-7),
including well-known faults such as the San Andreas, Elsinore, and
Whittier. However, less-known faults off the coast and along the
shoreline are more likely to affect the SCB than well-known faults.
Unmapped blind-thrust faults also represent an undefined potential
hazard to the SCB (Simila 1993). Within the SCB, the Santa Barbara
Channel Region, with its associated coast and islands, has been the most
seismically active area off the shore of Southern California in the past
100 years. The San Pedro Basin, east of Catalina Island, has a moderate
level of seismicity. The San Nicolas Basin has a low level of seismicity
(Simila 1993).

The highest seismic gravity ratings occur along the Northern Channel
Islands and along Coastal Reach 1. This hazard rating indicates that
these areas are likely to experience earthquakes of significant
magnitude between five and six times per century. Coastal Reaches 2
through 5 have moderate seismic gravity ratings with significant
earthquakes predicted once per century. Coastal Reach 6 and Santa
Catalina Island are predicted to have significant earthquakes on the
order of once every 200 years. The seismic hazard rating is once per 300
years for the other Southern Channel Islands. However, the San Clemente
fault zone is considered to be active and potentially hazardous
(Reynolds 2003).

### Liquefaction

Soil type is an important factor in determining earthquake hazard.
Unconsolidated sediments, such as those that lie on the shelf regions of
the Santa Monica and San Pedro Bays, may experience liquefaction (SCEC
1996). These marine soils are already saturated and when exposed to
strong shaking may flow along a gradient (Kramer 1996). Seismic hazard
zones associated with liquefaction also occur in areas of unconsolidated
sediment along the shoreline, drainages, creeks, coastal lagoons, and
embayments. Areas of greatest hazard include Malibu Lagoon, Marina Del
Rey, and King Harbor within Coastal Reaches 1 and 2, Los Angeles/Long
Beach Harbor and Alamitos Bay in Coastal Reach 4, Anaheim Bay,
Huntington Harbor, Bolsa Chica wetlands, and Newport Bay in Coastal
Reach 5, and creek drainages and Dana Point Harbor in Coastal Reach 6
(SCEC 1996).

### Landslides

Pacific Palisades in Coastal Reach 2 is a well-known landslide area.
Similarly, Portuguese Bend and Royal Palms on the Palos Verdes Peninsula
are known landslide locations. Landslide materials represent a major
source of sediments to the shelf. It has been estimated that
landslide-derived sediments on the Palos Verdes Shelf range from 5.7 and
9.4 million metric tons (6.3 to 10.4 million U.S. tons) (Kayen et al.
2002). Mineralogical data indicate that at least 2.7 million metric tons
(3 million U.S. tons) of landslide-derived sediment has mixed with the
mid- and outer-shelf effluent-affected sediment layer off the Palos
Verdes Peninsula (Kayen et al. 2002).

![](media/image8.png){width="6.7756944444444445in"
height="6.128472222222222in"}

Figure 3.1-7. Major faults within the study area.

## OCEANOGRAPHIC AND COASTAL PROCESSES

### Currents and Tides

The California Current is a broad, equator-ward flow that brings cold
water from the Gulf of Alaska down the coast along the seaward boundary
of the SCB and turns shoreward near the U.S.-Mexico border (Hickey
1993). A branch of the California Current turns pole-ward into the SCB,
where it is known as the Southern California Countercurrent. This
countercurrent moves warm water from Southern California northwestward
up the coast. This countercurrent is strongest in summer and fall when
it can be eddy-like (Southern California Eddy) and rejoin the California
Current, and in winter when pole-ward flow north can be continuous;
during the spring this countercurrent appears to be absent.

The California Undercurrent, which flows approximately 240 to 270 meters
(800 to 900 feet) below water surface with relatively high temperature
and salinity, moves pole-ward over the continental slope; this
undercurrent is the strongest during the summer. The undercurrent
surfaces north of Point Conception during the fall and winter and is
known then as the Davidson Current.

The California Current moves closer to shore during spring and away from
shore during summer, which results in a predominantly equator-ward flow
during summer and pole-ward flow during winter within the SCB (DiGiacomo
and Holt 2003, Jackson 1986). No obvious seasonal structure has been
observed in the flow (Noble et al. 2002).

Tides within the SCB are of a mixed, semidiurnal type consisting of two
unequal high tides and two unequal low tides within a tidal period of 24
hours and 50 minutes. Table 3.2-1 shows the tide datums relative to mean
lower low water (MLLW) based on data recorded at the NOAA tide station
in Los Angeles Outer Harbor. These data show that the tides in San Pedro
Bay have a tidal range of approximately 1.7 meters (5.5 feet) and a mean
tidal level of approximately 0.9 meter (2.9 feet) MLLW. The tidal range
and datums within the SCB vary slightly from those recorded in San Pedro
Bay as a result of interactions with landforms.

  ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------
  Table 3.2-1\                          
  Tide Datums                           

  Tide                                  Elevation\
                                        (meters, MLLW)

  Highest observed water level          2.43

  Mean higher high water                1.68

  Mean high water                       1.45

  Mean tide level                       0.87

  Mean low water                        0.29

  Mean lower low water                  0.00

  Lowest observed water level           -0.79
  ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------

### Wave Characteristics

The wave climate within the SCB is affected by the presence of numerous
offshore islands, shallow banks, and coastal submarine canyons that
partially shelter the coastline from deep ocean surface waves. The wave
pattern within the SCB is thus spatially complex due to the reflection,
refraction, diffraction, and dissipation of the incident deep ocean
waves.

Wave climate within the SCB is composed of waves generated by
extratropical storms, tropical storms, and southern hemisphere
extratropical storms. Prefrontal winds and local winds also generate
waves of shorter periods within the region.

Extratropical storm waves approach the SCB primarily from the general
west during northern hemisphere winters. Generated by North Pacific
low-pressure systems developed along the polar front, the extratropical
storm waves are the predominant wave component affecting the SCB during
winters.

Tropical storm waves generated by tropical cyclones approach the SCB
from the southeast off the Mexican coast during northern hemisphere
summers. These storms occur approximately 15 to 20 times a year and
affect the SCB when taking a southeasterly track. Sheltering afforded by
offshore islands, such as San Clemente Island, tends to reduce the wave
energy for portions of the nearshore SCB.

Southern hemisphere swell generated by large South Pacific storm systems
during southern hemisphere winters approaches the SCB from a
south-southwest window. However, the long travel distances of these
waves result in the characteristically narrow frequency bands, which
enhance the capacity of the waves to amplify nearshore.

Prefrontal seas generated by strong winds prior to frontal passages
approach the coasts in the SCB from the southeast. Wave data indicate
that wave conditions over the SCB are produced primarily by deepwater
waves approaching the SCB (CDIP 2003). These data demonstrate the
dissipation of wave energy by island and headland shadowing,
diffraction, refraction, and dissipation. Although swell from the south
is present, its energy is negligible compared with that from the
northwest and therefore does not appear in the directional wave
spectrum.

### Sediment Transport

Sediment transport within the SCB consists of littoral drift in the
nearshore and sedimentation on and near the shelves. Littoral drift is
composed of sediment transport in and near the surf zone in longshore
and cross-shore directions driven primarily by wave-induced currents.
Sedimentation on the continental shelves is driven by a combination of
surface gravity waves, internal waves, and subtidal currents.

Sediment transport in the nearshore is normally evaluated as a component
in the sediment budget within a littoral cell. Sediment transport in the
Santa Barbara littoral cell is driven by the predominantly westerly
waves. The southerly waves are to a large extent sheltered by the
Channel Islands. The longshore transport rate along the Santa Barbara
littoral cell was estimated to be approximately 214,100 cubic
meters/year (280,000 cubic yards/year) in an eastward direction (SWQCB
1965).

Longshore sediment transport in the Santa Monica littoral cell is marked
by predominantly downcoast drift with occasional upcoast reversals as a
result of seasonal variations in wave approach direction. The net
longshore drift is downcoast (southward) at a rate of approximately
146,000 to 191,000 cubic meters/year (191,000 to 250,000 cubic
yards/year) off Santa Monica Beach (DMJM 1984, Ingle 1966), 151,000
cubic meters/year (198,000 cubic yards/year) off Dockweiler Beach, and
167,000 cubic meters/year (219,000 cubic yards/year) off Manhattan Beach
and Hermosa Beach (Landrum-Brown 1996). Approximately 153,000 to 306,000
cubic meters/year (200,000 to 400,000 cubic yards/year) were estimated
to be lost to Redondo Canyon from both up- and downcoast beaches
(Gorsline 1958).

Sediment transport on the Palos Verdes Shelf is characterized by
predominant northwestward fluxes along the shelf, with occasional
southeastward reversals. Shelf sediment is typically resuspended by
gravity waves from the seabed and transported by prevailing currents at
the time of resuspension. The currents that carry the suspended sediment
are generally independent of wave conditions (Wiberg et al. 2002) and
can include the currents produced by internal waves and tidal processes
(Jones et al. 2002). It was estimated that the frequency of significant
resuspension and transport is approximately 10 events per year in 60
meters (200 feet) of water on the shelf and 3 events per year in 90
meters (300 feet) of water beyond the shelf break

Sediment movement in the San Pedro littoral cell is obstructed by the
presence of the Los Angeles/Long Beach Harbor complex, which alters the
wave conditions near the beaches. The longshore transport rate along
Peninsula Beach was estimated at approximately 41,000 cubic meters/year
(54,000 cubic yards/year) in an upcoast (toward northwest) direction
(Morris 1998). Farther downcoast off of Seal Beach and the beaches of
Orange County, longshore sediment transport occurs in both directions
with net drift directed to the downcoast (southeast) direction. The
longshore transport rate has been estimated to be approximately 211,000
cubic meters/year (276,000 cubic yards/year) off of Surfside-Sunset
Beach, 86,000 cubic meters/year (112,000 cubic yards/year) at the Santa
Ana River mouth, and 97,000 cubic meters/year (127,000 cubic yards/year)
off Newport Beach (Hales 1980).

Sedimentation on the continental shelves within the SCB is characterized
by resuspension of sediment by wave action and transport by subtidal
currents. Transport of the resuspended sediment in the nearshore
portions of the shelves mostly follows the subtidal currents, which are
largely directed parallel to the isobaths. In the deeper portions of the
shelves where internal waves occur (e.g., near the shelf break off Santa
Monica Bay), sediment has been observed to transport offshore across the
shelf breaks and deposit on the continental slopes (Lee et al. 2002).

### ENSO Events

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are climatic phenomena
characterized by decreases in atmospheric pressure in the eastern
tropical Pacific Ocean and easterly trade winds, and an increase in sea
level on the west coast of North and South America (Chelton and Davis
1982). During an ENSO event, the equator-ward California Current is
weakened, and the warmer, low-salinity Equatorial Countercurrent moves
pole-ward into the North Pacific Ocean. Within the SCB, the ENSO
condition causes increases in seawater temperature by several degrees
Celsius above normal (Dailey et al. 1993), increases in sea levels
(Chelton and Davis 1982, Flick and Badan-Dangon 1989), and more vigorous
winter storms with pole-ward coastal winds (Hickey 1993).

### Upwelling

Upwelling is an oceanographic process in which offshore winds move the
surface water away from shore and the deep, anaerobic, and nutrient-rich
water rises to replace the displaced surface water. Strong wind-driven
upwelling occurs in the SCB in winter and early spring, which causes
modifications to water properties such as salinity and temperature
distributions in the water column within the SCB. One of the most
significant upwelling events occurs off Point Conception, where strong
wind-driven upwelling sends upwelled water into the Santa Barbara
Channel and basins south of the Channel Islands, resulting in
significant modification of water properties in the upper water columns
in these regions (Hickey 1993, Atkinson et al. 1986).

## Watershed and Coastal Water Quality

The six coastal reaches within the study area of this project represent
a large portion of the SCB. Watersheds in this area are diverse, ranging
from large river systems, such as the Los Angeles and San Gabriel
Rivers, to small, coastal streams. Most of the rivers and streams in
these watersheds drain urbanized areas as they approach the coast, which
impacts water quality along the coast. However, a few systems support
diverse aquatic habitats and wildlife. Coastal features within the study
area include bays, harbors, estuaries, wetlands, beaches, and open
ocean. Several coastal wetlands are also found in the study area,
including large wetlands such as Anaheim Bay, Upper Newport Bay, and the
Bolsa Chica wetlands, the moderate-sized Ballona wetlands and Los
Cerritos wetlands, and several smaller wetlands. In addition,
recreational beaches can be found throughout the study area, occurring
along lengthy stretches of coastal waters.

### Watershed Descriptions

#### Regulatory Background 

Within Coastal Reaches 1 through 6 (Figure 3.3-1), four Regional Boards
have the responsibility for setting and enforcing water quality
standards:

-   The Central Coast Region (Region 3): The Central Coast Region is
    responsible for setting water quality standards in the study area on
    the Northern Channel Islands of San Miguel, Santa Rosa, and Santa
    Cruz.

-   The Los Angeles Region (Region 4): The Los Angeles Regional Board
    covers Coastal Reaches 1 through 4, the Southern Channel Islands,
    and Anacapa Island.

-   The Santa Ana Region (Region 8): The Santa Ana Region is responsible
    for all of Coastal Reach 5 and the northern third of Coastal Reach
    6.

-   The San Diego Region (Region 9): The San Diego Region is responsible
    for water quality standards within the southern two-thirds of
    Coastal Reach 6.

Under federal terminology, water quality standards must contain two
components: (1) beneficial uses and (2) water quality objectives. Both
of these must satisfy all of the applicable requirements of the
California Water Code, Division 7 (Porter-Cologne Act) and the Clean
Water Act (CRWQCB 1995a). These standards are regulated by the Regional
Water Quality Control Boards.

A water body has beneficial use if it can be used for the benefit of
people and/or wildlife (CRWQCB 1995b). Examples include drinking,
swimming, industrial and agricultural water supply, and the support of
freshwater and saltwater aquatic habitats. Definitions of the various
beneficial uses listed in the basin plans are presented in Table 3.3-1.
Table 3.3-2 summarizes beneficial uses by Coastal Reach for surface
water bodies within the study area.

![](media/image9.jpeg){width="8.934722222222222in" height="5.74375in"}

Figure 3.3-1. Watersheds and impaired water bodies within the study
area.

(Back of Figure 3.3-1)

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Table 3.3-1\                    
  Beneficial                      
  Use                             
  Definitions                     
  for Water                       
  Bodies in the                   
  Study Area                      
  ------------- ----------------- ---------------------------------------------
  Acronym       Use               Definition

  MUN           Municipal and     Uses of water for community, military, or
                domestic water    individual water supply systems, including
                supply            but not limited to drinking water supply.

  AGR           Agricultural      Uses of water for farming, horticulture, or
                supply            ranching, including but not limited to
                                  irrigation, stock watering, or support of
                                  vegetation for range grazing.

  PROC          Industrial        Uses of water for industrial activities that
                process supply    depend primarily on water quality.

  IND           Industrial        Uses of water for industrial activities that
                service supply    do not depend primarily on water quality,
                                  including but not limited to mining, cooling
                                  water supply, hydraulic conveyance, gravel
                                  washing, fire protection, or oil well
                                  re-pressurization.

  GWR           Ground water      Uses of water for natural or artificial
                recharge          recharge of groundwater for purposes of
                                  future extraction, maintenance of water
                                  quality, or halting of saltwater intrusion
                                  into freshwater aquifers.

  NAV           Navigation        Uses of water for shipping, travel, or other
                                  transportation by private, military, or
                                  commercial vessels.

  POW           Hydropower        Uses of water for hydropower generation.
                generation        

  REC-1         Water contact     Uses of water for recreational activities
                recreation        involving body contact with water, where
                                  ingestion of water is reasonably possible.
                                  These uses include but are not limited to
                                  swimming, wading, water-skiing, skin and
                                  scuba diving, surfing, white water
                                  activities, fishing, or use of natural hot
                                  springs.

  REC-2         Non-contact water Uses of water for recreational activities
                recreation        involving proximity to water, but not
                                  normally involving body contact with water,
                                  where ingestion of water is reasonably
                                  possible. These uses include but are not
                                  limited to picnicking, sunbathing, hiking,
                                  beachcombing, camping, boating, tide pool and
                                  marine life study, hunting, sightseeing, or
                                  aesthetic enjoyment in conjunction with the
                                  above activities.

  COMM          Commercial and    Uses of water for commercial or recreational
                sport fishing     collection of fish, shellfish, or other
                                  organisms, including but not limited to uses
                                  involving organisms intended for human
                                  consumption or bait purposes.

  WARM          Warm freshwater   Uses of water that support warm water
                habitat           ecosystems, including but not limited to
                                  preservation or enhancement of aquatic
                                  habitats, vegetation, fish, or wildlife,
                                  including invertebrates.

  COLD          Cold freshwater   Uses of water that support cold water
                habitat           ecosystems, including but not limited to
                                  preservation or enhancement of aquatic
                                  habitats, vegetation, fish, or wildlife,
                                  including invertebrates.

  EST           Estuarine habitat Uses of water that support estuarine
                                  ecosystems, including but not limited to
                                  preservation or enhancement of estuarine
                                  habitats, vegetation, fish, shellfish, or
                                  wildlife (e.g., estuarine mammals, waterfowl,
                                  or shorebirds).

  MAR           Marine habitat    Uses of water that support marine ecosystems,
                                  including but not limited to preservation or
                                  enhancement of marine habitats, vegetation
                                  such as kelp, fish, shellfish, or wildlife
                                  (e.g., marine mammals or shorebirds).

  WILD          Wildlife habitat  Uses of water that supports terrestrial
                                  ecosystems, including but not limited to
                                  preservation and enhancement of terrestrial
                                  habitats, vegetation, wildlife (e.g.,
                                  mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, or
                                  invertebrates), or wildlife water and food
                                  sources.

  BIOL          Preservation of   Uses of water that support designated areas
                biological        or habitats, such as areas of special
                habitats          biological significance, established refuges,
                                  parks, sanctuaries, ecological reserves, or
                                  other areas where the preservation or
                                  enhancement of natural resources requires
                                  special protection.
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------

  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Table 3.3-2\                                                                   
  Summary of                                                                     
  Beneficial Uses and                                                            
  Impairments Within                                                             
  Coastal Reaches and                                                            
  Channel Island                                                                 
  Subareas of the                                                                
  Study Area                                                                     
  ------------------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ---------- -----------
                      Reach 1 Reach 2 Reach 3 Reach 4 Reach 5 Reach 6 Offshore   Nearshore
                                                                      Channel    Channel
                                                                      Islands    Islands

  Beneficial uses                                                                

  MUN                 X       X       X       X       X               X          X

  IND                         X               X       X       X                  

  PROC                                        X                                  

  NAV                 X       X       X       X       X       X                  X

  GWR                                 I       X       I                          X

  AGR                                                         X                  X

  REC 1               X, I    X, I    X, I    X       X, I    X       X          X

  REC 2               X, I    X, I    X, I    X       X, I    X       X          X

  COMM                X       X, I    X       X       X       X       X          X

  WARM                X, I    X, I    X, I    X, I    X, I    X       X          

  COLD                X                       I                                  

  EST                 X       X               X       X               X          

  MAR                 X       X       X       X       X       X                  X

  WILD                X       X       X       X       X, I    X       X          X

  BIOL                X       X               X       X               X          X

  RARE                X       X       X       X       X       X       X          X

  MIGR                X       X               X               X                  

  SPWN                X, I    X       X       X       X       X                  X

  SHELL               X       X       X       X       X       X                  X

  WET                 X       X       X       X                                  

  Impairments                                                                    

  Abnormal fish                               P                                  
  histology                                                                      

  Ammonia                     P               P                                  

  Beach closures      P       P       P       P                                  

  Benthic community   P                       P                                  
  effects                                                                        

  Coliform bacteria   P       P       P       P       P       P                  

  Debris                      P                                                  

  DDT/PCB fish        P       P       P       P                                  
  consumption                                                                    
  advisory                                                                       

  Enteric viruses     P       P                                                  

  Eutropic            P                       P                                  

  Exotic vegetation           P                                                  

  Fish barriers       P                                                          

  Habitat alterations         P                                                  

  Hydromodification           P                                                  

  Metals              P       P               P       P       P                  

  Nutrients (algae)   P                       P                                  

  Odors                                       P                                  

  Polynuclear                 P               P                                  
  aromatic                                                                       
  hydrocarbons (PAHs)                                                            

  Pathogens                   P       P               P                          

  Pesticides                  P       P               P                          

  Reduced tidal               P                                                  
  flushing                                                                       

  Scum/foam           P                       P                                  

  Sedimentation       P                                                          

  Sediment toxicity           P               P                                  

  Trash               P       P               P                                  

  X = Present or                                                                 
  potential                                                                      
  beneficial use\                                                                
  P = Present\                                                                   
  I = Intermittent                                                               
  beneficial use                                                                 
  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The water quality objectives for surface waters in Coastal Reaches 1
through 6 are established by the Water Quality Control Plans for Regions
3 (Central Coast), 4 (Los Angeles), 8 (Santa Ana), and 9 (San Diego)
(CRWQCB 1995a, 1995b, 1995c, and 1995d, respectively). The standards
represent maximum levels that allow beneficial uses of the water basin
to continue unimpaired.

Assembly Bill 411 includes new standards for concentrations of bacterial
indicators that are used for beach postings and closures. The standards,
known as the AB411 criteria, are applied in Southern California from
April 1 through October 31, which represents the maximum public use
period for Southern California beaches. The minimum protective bacterial
concentrations are established by the AB411 criteria for waters adjacent
to public beaches and public water-contact sports areas.

#### Watershed Descriptions

Watershed descriptions come from the Southern California Watershed
Inventory (SCWI), which is part of the California Coastal Conservancy's
Southern California Wetlands Recovery Project. SCWI has identified six
major hydrologic units that discharge to the SCB within the six coastal
regions defined in this project. The major hydrologic units are shown in
Figure 3.3-1. The characteristics of the hydrologic units and the major
watersheds and wetlands within them are presented in Table 3.3-3. The
six major hydrologic units are:

-   **Santa Monica Bay.** The Santa Monica Bay hydrologic unit covers an
    area of approximately 103,637 hectares (256,000 acres). The
    hydrologic unit is subdivided into 28 separate drainages that
    discharge to Coastal Reaches 1, 2, and 3.

-   **Dominguez Channel.** The Dominguez Channel hydrologic unit covers
    an area of 4,102 hectares (10,131 acres). The Los Angeles Harbor is
    located within Coastal Reach 4.

-   **Los Angeles River.** The Los Angeles River is a large hydrologic
    unit that encompasses 216,351 hectares (534,420 acres). The
    watershed drains into San Pedro Bay and is located within Coastal
    Reach 4.

-   **San Gabriel River.** The San Gabriel River hydrologic unit covers
    an area of 183,778 hectares (453,960 acres). The main stem of the
    San Gabriel River discharges near the Los Angeles/Orange County
    Line. The mouth is located at the southern end of Coastal Reach 4.

-   **Lower Santa Ana River.** The Lower Santa Ana River hydrologic unit
    covers an area of approximately 725,460 hectares (1,792,000 acres)
    and can be divided into two major watersheds. The Santa Ana River
    watershed of approximately 438,248 hectares (1,082,540 acres) and
    the San Diego Creek Watershed of approximately 39,900 hectares
    (98,560 acres). Both watersheds lie within Coastal Reach 5.

-   **San Juan.** The San Juan hydrological unit covers an area of
    approximately 129,546 hectares (320,000 acres). The majority of the
    San Juan Hydrologic Unit lies within Coastal Reach 6. The two
    largest watersheds within this hydrologic unit are the Aliso Creek
    Watershed (7,876 hectares \[19,456 acres\]) and the San Juan Creek
    Watershed (34,693 hectares \[85,696 acres\]).

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
  Table 3.3-3\
  Characterization of Watersheds and Coastal Features Within the Study
  Area

  ![](media/image10.png){width="8.372916666666667in"
  height="5.675694444444445in"}

  **Table 3.3-3\
  Characterization of Watersheds and Coastal Features Within the Study
  Area**

  ![](media/image11.png){width="8.996527777777779in"
  height="5.022222222222222in"}
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

### Coastal Reaches

The major watersheds and coastal features within each of the major
hydrological units are characterized below by coastal reach. Under
Section 303(d) of the 1972 Clean Water Act, states, territories, and
authorized tribes are required to develop a list of water quality
limited segments. These segments do not meet water quality standards,
even after point sources of pollution have installed the minimum
required levels of pollution control technology. The law requires that
these jurisdictions establish priority rankings for water on the lists
and develop Total Maximum Daily Loads to improve water quality. The
Section 303(d)-listed water bodies are shown in Figure 3.3-1.

#### Coastal Reach 1

Several watersheds discharge along Coastal Reach 1, from Point Dume to
Pacific Palisades (Figure 3.3-1). The majority are small watersheds that
drain the deep and narrow canyons of the Santa Monica Mountains. The
largest watersheds in this area are Malibu Creek and Topanga Creek. No
harbors or marinas are located within Coastal Reach 1.

Malibu Creek is the largest watershed within Coastal Reach 1 (Figure
3.3-1). It drains an area of approximately 28,241 hectares (69,760
acres) (Table 3.3-3). Urban land use dominates the watershed,
particularly in the upper segments. However, a large portion of the
watershed is protected within Malibu Creek State Park. Outflow from the
drainage empties into Santa Monica Bay through Malibu Lagoon. The
streambed of Malibu Creek has not been channelized.

Many of the pollutants of concern in the Malibu Creek watershed are from
non-point sources. They include excess nutrients, sediment, and
bacteria. Malibu Creek is on the 303(d) list for fish barriers, high
coliform count, nutrients, scum/foam-unnatural conditions, benthic
community effects, enteric viruses, and eutrophic conditions.

The Topanga Creek watershed lies to the east of Malibu Canyon at the
eastern end of Coastal Reach 1. It encompasses an area of approximately
5,091 hectares (12,575 acres) (Table 3.3-3). Topanga Creek is the sole
tributary to the Topanga Lagoon, which is located at the mouth of the
Creek. Topanga Creek is on the state's 303(d) list for excessive levels
of lead.

Within Coastal Reach 1, 17 water bodies are on the state's 2002 303(d)
list. Two of these (Malibu Creek and Topanga Canyon Creek) are in
watersheds that drain to the study area. The rest are coastal water
features that include numerous beaches and one lagoon (Malibu Lagoon).
Most of the beach sites are listed for exceedances of standards related
to concentrations of DDTs and PCBs in fish tissue and subsequent fish
consumption advisories. In addition, Dan Blocker Memorial Beach was
listed due to exceedances of coliform bacterial levels.

#### Coastal Reach 2

Ballona Creek is the largest drainage within Coastal Reach 2 (Figure
3.3-1). The watershed encompasses an area of approximately 23,059
hectares (56,960 acres) (Table 3.3-3). A large majority of Ballona Creek
is channelized and paved, and the creek contains little in-stream or
riparian habitat. The creek discharges to the Ballona wetlands by four
concrete culverts.

Santa Monica Canyon is located on the northeast border of Santa Monica
Bay (Figure 3.3-1). This watershed encompasses an area of approximately
11,127 hectares (27,485 acres) (Table 3.3‑3). Two major drainages occur
in the watershed: Santa Monica Canyon Creek and Rustic Canyon Creek.

Coastal Reach 2 contains 17 water bodies on the state's 2002 303(d)
list. Four of these are classified as rivers: Santa Monica Canyon
(listed for high coliform count and lead), the Pico Kenter storm drain
(listed for ammonia, copper, enteric viruses, and high coliform counts),
Ballona Creek (listed for cadmium in the sediment), and Ballona Creek
estuary (listed for chlordane in fish tissue and sediment). One tidal
wetland (Ballona Creek wetlands) and one beach site (Manhattan Beach)
occur. The remainder of the water bodies on the 303(d) list within
Coastal Reach 2 are classified as a bay or a harbor. Most of these are
listed for high coliform counts. However, Marina Del Rey is listed for a
variety of contaminants, including organochlorine pesticides (including
DDTs), PCBs, metals, and sediment toxicity. In addition, the offshore
and nearshore areas of all of Santa Monica Bay are included on the
303(d) list in Coastal Reach 2. The list for Santa Monica Bay includes
DDTs and PCBs (in sediment and fish), chlordane, polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), and sediment toxicity.

#### Coastal Reach 3

Coastal Reach 3 encompasses the seaward portion of the Palos Verdes
Peninsula (Figure 3.3-1). The entire reach lies within the Santa Monica
Bay hydrologic unit. However, no sub-watersheds discharge directly to
the coast within Coastal Reach 3. Also, no marinas or harbors are
located within the reach.

Coastal Reach 3 contains 12 water bodies on Palos Verdes Peninsula, all
of which are classified as a coastal shoreline or beach. Nearly the
entire beach area on the Palos Verdes Peninsula is listed on the 303(d)
list (Figure 3.3-1). All of the water bodies listed except Lunada Beach,
Palos Verdes Shoreline Park Beach, and Point Vicente Beach are in
exceedance of standards for DDTs and PCBs. In addition, the entire Palos
Verdes area is covered by a fish consumption advisory.

#### Coastal Reach 4

Three major hydrologic units discharge to the coast within Coastal Reach
4: the Dominguez Channel, the Los Angeles River, and the San Gabriel
River (Figure 3.3-1).

The Dominguez Channel hydrologic unit covers an area of 4,102 hectares
(10,131 acres) (Table 3.3-3). The main drainage in the basin is the
Dominguez Channel, which flows south and empties into the Consolidated
Slip area of Los Angles Harbor in San Pedro Bay. The Dominguez Channel
is on the state's 303(d) list for ammonia, pesticides (including DDTs in
fish tissue and sediment), chromium, ChemA contaminants, and benthic
community effects. The Consolidated Slip is one of the most polluted
areas of Los Angeles Harbor. It is listed for DDTs and PCBs (in fish
tissue and sediment) several metals, chlordane, dieldrin, toxaphene, and
sediment toxicity.

The Los Angeles River hydrologic unit drains an area of approximately
216,351 hectares (534,420 acres) (Table 3.3-3). Two main tributaries
discharge to the lower sections of the Los Angeles River: Compton Creek,
which drains an area northwest of the Los Angeles River main stem, and
Rio Hondo, which drains an area to the northeast. The Los Angeles River
is completely channelized except for one small reach in the middle
portion of the river called the narrows. Both the Los Angeles River and
Queensway Bay, where the river discharges, are listed for several
contaminants.

The Los Angeles and Long Beach Harbors are located in San Pedro Bay at
the mouths of the Dominguez Channel and the Los Angeles River (Figure
3.3-1). Extensive modification of the area has taken place since the
late 1800s, and the Los Angeles/Long Beach Harbor complex is now one of
the largest ports in the country. Influences on water quality in the
area include two generating stations in the inner harbor areas, numerous
non-process waste dischargers, secondary treated effluent from a
public-owned treatment works, and runoff from the Los Angles River and
the Dominguez Channel, which drains a highly industrialized area.

Due to inputs of contaminants from the above sources, combined with poor
tidal flushing in some areas of the Los Angeles/Long Beach complex,
contaminant levels have repeatedly exceeded the standards for the area.
Both nearshore and offshore zones of all of San Pedro Bay are on the
state's 303(d) list for sediment toxicity and the following contaminants
that have been found in the bay's sediment: chromium, copper, DDTs,
PCBs, PAHs, and zinc. San Pedro Bay is also on the 303(d) list for fish
consumption advisories for excessive levels of DDTs and PCBs that have
been found in fish tissue. The Los Angeles Harbor Consolidated Slip
(which receives runoff from Dominguez Channel), the Main Channel, Fish
Harbor, the Southwest Slip, the Inner Breakwater, and Cabrillo Beach are
all on the 303(d) list for a variety of contaminants, including DDTs and
other pesticides, PCBs, PAHs, metals, sediment toxicity, and benthic
community effects. A similar list of contaminants is found on the 303(d)
list for several areas in Long Beach Harbor, including the Main Channel,
the Southeast Basin, the West Basin, Pier J, and the Breakwater.

The San Gabriel River watershed encompasses an area of approximately
183,778 hectares (453,960 acres) (Table 3.3-3). Flow is dominated by
effluent from several municipal wastewater treatment facilities and
urban runoff. However, the San Gabriel River estuary and the lower
portions of the river are on the 303(d) list only for abnormal fish
histology.

One lake is on the 303(d) list within Coastal Reach 4: Machado Lake,
which is located in Harbor Regional Park. Machado Lake has been impacted
by industrial waste products in the past and is on the 303(d) list for a
variety of constituents, including organochlorine pesticides (including
DDTs), PCBs, ammonia, eutrophic conditions, and trash. Also, two beaches
within Coastal Reach 4 are on the 303(d) list: Inner and Outer Cabrillo
Beaches. Both beaches are listed for the presence of fish consumption
advisories due to excessive levels of DDTs and PCBs.

#### Coastal Reach 5

Coastal Reach 5 extends from the Orange County jurisdictional boundary
just south of the San Gabriel River to Corona Del Mar. All of this area
lies within the Santa Ana River hydrologic unit (Figure 3.3-1). Three
major watersheds terminate along the coast within Coastal Reach 5: the
Anaheim Bay/Bolsa Chica wetlands, the Santa Ana River (including the
Talbert/Huntington Beach wetlands), and the San Diego Creek/Newport Bay
system (Table 3.3‑3). Also, several coastal wetlands occur within Reach
5, including Anaheim Bay, Huntington Harbor, the Bolsa Chica and Santa
Ana River/Huntington Beach wetlands, and Newport Bay.

Of the watersheds that terminate in Coastal Reach 5, the Santa Ana River
watershed is the largest. It drains an area of approximately 438,250
hectares (1,082,500 acres) (Table 3.3-3). Surface diversions and
groundwater pumping have eliminated most of the dry weather surface
flows and most of the Santa Ana River is effluent dominated (CRWQCB
1995c). The Orange County Water District diverts and recharges nearly
all the dry weather flows in the Santa Ana River at the groundwater
recharge areas near Anaheim. Downstream of this area, the Santa Ana
River is normally dry.

The San Diego Creek watershed encompasses approximately 39,900 hectares
(98,560 acres) (Table 3.3-3). Other drainages to Newport Bay include the
Santa Ana-Delhi Channel, which discharges at the north end of the bay.

Seven water bodies within Coastal Reach 5 are on the 303(d) list. Only
one, San Diego Creek (Reach 2), is classified as a stream or river. San
Diego Creek is on the 303(d) list for metals and toxicity from unknown
point sources. This creek is the main tributary to Upper Newport Bay.
The water quality issues in Newport Bay are primarily non-point in
nature. They are discussed under wetlands in Section 3.4.

The remainder of the water bodies on the 303(d) list in Coastal Reach 5
are Seal Beach, Huntington Beach Harbor, and Huntington Beach State
Park. All three are listed for excessive levels of bacterial indicators.

#### Coastal Reach 6

Coastal Reach 6 extends from Corona Del Mar to Dana Point. Two major
hydrologic units occur within Coastal Reach 6: the Santa Ana River and
San Juan Creek (Figure 3.3-1).

The Los Trancos/Muddy Creek watershed lies within the Santa Ana River
hydrologic unit. The watershed covers an area of approximately 2,902
hectares (7,168 acres) and consists of two drainages: Los Trancos Creek
and Muddy Creek (Table 3.3-3). The creeks drain the San Joaquin Hills
and discharge to the beach at Crystal Cove State Park. Los Trancos Creek
is on the state's 303(d) list for excessive levels of fecal coliform
bacteria. Beaches near the Los Trancos/Muddy Creek watersheds are on the
state's 303(d) list for elevated levels of bacterial indicators.

The remainder of the watersheds that discharge within Coastal Reach 6
lie within the San Juan hydrologic unit (Figure 3.3-1). The Laguna
Canyon Watershed covers an area of 2,720 hectares (6,720 acres) (Table
3.3-3) and discharges at Laguna Beach. The main drainage in the
watershed is the Laguna Canyon Channel. The coastline at Laguna Beach is
on the 303(d) list for elevated levels of bacterial indicators.

Aliso Creek is the second largest watershed within the San Juan
hydrologic unit (Figure 3.3-1). It covers an area of 7,876 hectares
(19,456 acres) (Table 3.3-3). Aliso Creek, which discharges at Aliso
Beach, is the main drainage in the watershed. Aliso Canyon Wash is on
the 303(d) list. Also, Aliso Creek, its mouth, and the shoreline at
Aliso Beach are listed.

The Salt Creek Watershed is the smallest within Coastal Reach 6 (1,580
hectares \[3,904 acres\]) (Table 3.3-3) and the smallest in Orange
County (OCWCRD 2003). Arroyo Salado is the major drainage in the
watershed. It discharges at Salt Creek Beach Park, just north of Dana
Point (Figure 3.3-1). Land use in the watershed is primarily urban. Salt
Creek is on the state's 303(d) list for elevated bacterial indicators.

The San Juan Creek Watershed encompasses an area of 34,693 hectares
(85,696 acres) (Table 3.3-3) and is the largest watershed within Coastal
Reach 6 (Figure 3.3-1). San Juan Creek forms the main drainage in the
watershed. Arroyo Trabuco and Oso Creek are major tributaries. At the
mouth of San Juan Creek is the San Juan Creek wetland, which is
discussed under wetlands in Section 3.4. San Juan Creek, its mouth, and
the adjacent shoreline are on the state's 303(d) list for elevated
levels of bacterial indicators.

Dana Point Harbor, located in the City of Dana Point, is the only harbor
within Coastal Reach 6. The Harbor's Baby Beach is on the state's 303(d)
list for elevated levels of bacterial indicators.

#### Northern and Southern Channel Islands

The Northern and Southern Channel Islands have minimal water quality
problems. Except for limited development within Avalon on Santa Catalina
Island, land use on the islands is predominantly open space. Surface
runoff on the islands drains to the coast from intermittently flowing
creeks in small valleys and canyons or through sheet flow over the
ground surface (CRWQCB 1995b). The only water feature on any of the
islands that is on the 303(d) list is Avalon Beach on Santa Catalina
Island, which is listed for bacterial indicators.

### Coastal Water Characteristics

The surface temperatures of the coastal waters within Coastal Reaches 1
through 6 range from about 11^o^ to 23^o^ Centigrade (C) (52^o^ to 73^o^
Fahrenheit \[F\]) (CLADPW 1982). Surface temperatures are affected most
by variations in the California Current and the Southern California
Countercurrent. At a depth of approximately 60 meters (200 feet), water
temperatures in the area range from 10^o^ to 15^o^ C (50 to 59^o^ F).

Historical levels of salinity have been fairly uniform in the surface
waters of the SCB. Salinity ranges from 33.5 to 34.1 parts per thousand
(ppt) in the California Current and from 33.4 to 34.6 ppt in the
California Undercurrent (CLADPW and USEPA 1977). Within the study area,
the salinity values of surface waters typically range from 32 to 34 ppt
and tend to be fairly homogenous with depth, with differences of less
than 1 ppt from surface to bottom waters.

Dissolved oxygen (DO) levels within the study area are usually highest
in surface waters due to photosynthetic activity and contact with the
atmosphere. At the surface, DO levels are generally near saturation,
which varies with temperature and salinity. Historical DO values of
surface water in the study area range from 5.0 to 11.6 milligrams per
liter (mg/L). The pH of water along the Southern California coast
generally has limited variability due to the high buffering capacity of
seawater. Surface water pH values in the study area typically range from
7.5 to 8.6. As depth increases, pH levels decrease. A greater range of
pH values is often observed in coastal embayments and estuaries due in
part due to elevated levels of photosynthesis and respiration.

Turbidity is a result of particles suspended in the water column. In
coastal areas and embayments, elevated turbidity levels can result from
natural causes (e.g., plankton blooms, wave action, and watershed
runoff) and from anthropogenic sources (e.g., urban runoff, wastewater
discharge, and dredging disposal). Concentrations of contaminants are
often higher in turbid waters due to adhesion to sediment particles.
Turbidity levels generally are elevated in coastal embayments and
lagoons due to shallow depths (mixing of bottom sediments), river
discharges, storm water runoff, and algal blooms.

The density of seawater is a function of its temperature and salinity.
Layers of distinctly different water densities (a pycnocline) can result
from changes in temperature (a thermocline), salinity (a halocline) or a
combination of the two. Pycnoclines form natural barriers to exchange of
water between the two layers. Within the study area, a thermocline often
develops in the spring as surface temperatures increase. When the
surface temperature drops in the fall, the thermocline breaks down.
Regional stratification may also occur (primarily in the spring) when
storm water runoff produces a freshwater lens on the sea surface.
Stratification is usually less distinct in shallow coastal embayments.

## Biological Resources

The distribution of marine habitats and species within the SCB is
related to the complex hydrography and geology of the region. The
mainland consists of rocky shores, sandy beaches, wetlands, and
embayments of various types. Distributed between the mainland and the
Channel Islands is a complex mosaic of submarine canyons, ridges,
basins, and seamounts. This habitat complexity has contributed to
abundant and diverse marine biota. More than 5,000 species of benthic
invertebrates, 481 species of fish, and 496 species of algae and
seagrasses occur within the SCB (Dailey et al. 1993). The SCB is also
the seasonal residence of more than 200 species of coastal and offshore
birds and 39 species of marine mammals.

Several sources of information were used to describe existing biological
conditions within the study area. The primary sources of information
were two regional surveys conducted in 1994 and 1998 (SCCWRP 2004); the
data from the vicinity of the Palos Verdes Shelf were augmented by data
from the Los Angeles County monitoring program for the wastewater
outfall at Palos Verdes (LACSD 2002). Other important sources of
information include the comprehensive volume *The Ecology of the
Southern California Bight* (Dailey et al. 1993), monitoring programs
conducted at the Channel Islands, information from the Southern
California Wetlands Recovery Project (2004), environmental sensitivity
index maps prepared by the CDFG, and several published and unpublished
reports.

The discussion of biological resources is organized into three main
subsections. Section 3.4.1 describes the marine and coastal habitats
(pelagic, subtidal benthic, intertidal benthic, coastal wetlands, and
the Channel Islands) that occur in the study area. Sections 3.4.2
through 3.4.5 discuss the animals of special relevance to the project
(namely, fish, birds, marine mammals, and terrestrial mammals). Section
3.4.6 lists the threatened and endangered species in the study area.
Because the injuries of the Montrose case focused on marine-associated
species, terrestrial resources are not the primary focus of this
discussion of biological resources. However, limited discussion of
terrestrial resources is presented for the Channel Islands, as they
represent breeding habitats for bald eagles, peregrine falcons, and a
number of species of seabirds. Sensitive terrestrial species also are
addressed, as appropriate, in the threatened and endangered species
subsection.

### Marine and Coastal Habitats of the Study Area

The marine environment is complex and three-dimensional; it supports a
broad diversity of plants and animals. The Southern California marine
environment includes 481 species of fish, over 5,000 species of
invertebrates, over 400 species of marine macrophytes (plants and
algae), 34 species of marine mammals, and 195 species of birds (Dailey
et al. 1993). In this document, marine habitats are divided into
pelagic, subtidal benthic (soft-bottom and hard-bottom), and intertidal
benthic. This section also discusses coastal wetlands (sandy beach and
rocky shoreline) and habitats on the Channel Islands (terrestrial,
shoreline, and nearshore). The following sections provide brief
descriptions of these habitats, discuss the fish and macrophytes
associated with them, and outline how each habitat relates to the
injuries of the Montrose case.

#### Pelagic Habitats

Pelagic habitats occur in open water and support free-swimming
organisms. The pelagic zone provides important habitat for plankton,
though plankton are not exclusive to pelagic habitats.

Plankton is a generic term that includes a broad and diverse group of
plants and animals that are found everywhere in aquatic environments.
Typically, the smallest plankton are microscopic plant organisms called
phytoplankton. The most abundant and important components of
phytoplankton are generally the diatoms and dinoflagellates, which range
in size from a few micrometers to a few hundred micrometers. Larger
planktonic animals include zooplankton, larvae of benthic invertebrates,
and ichthyoplankton (larval fish and eggs). Bacteria, which play a
critical role in the degradation of particulate organic matter, are also
plankton.

Currents, water column stratification, and winds all can affect the
movement and distribution of planktonic organisms. Plankton are
generally short-lived organisms, or organisms that reside in the water
column a short time (ranging from days to months). Thus, species
composition and abundance patterns vary greatly on a seasonal and
inter-annual basis in response to the fluxes of nutrients, trace
elements, and other conditions that affect phytoplankton production.

The vast majority of life in the sea is dependent on the production of
organic matter (photosynthesis) in the lighted surface layers (the
euphotic zone). Ocean life is largely dependent either directly or
indirectly on phytoplankton, tiny unicellular or colonial algae, and
macrophytes (larger algae and plants). Phytoplankton provides over 90
percent of the basic organic material that supports marine food webs.
Phytoplankton are grazed on by herbivorous zooplankton and small fishes
such as anchovies, which in turn are fed upon by larger carnivorous
creatures. Fish and seabirds also utilize pelagic habitats.

The role of plankton as a basis for pelagic food webs is critical in
several of the restoration options considered in this Restoration Plan.
Plankton communities appear to have much lower levels of DDT and PCB
contamination than do benthic communities, which also act as the basis
of some marine food webs. Fish species that primarily derive their food
from plankton-based food webs tend to be lower in contamination than
those that derive most of their food from benthic-based food webs. Thus,
fish consumption advisories for pelagic fish species tend to occur in
few areas and be less limiting than those applied to soft-bottom species
(Table 3.4-1). This basic concept will be an important building block
for restoring injuries to fish and fishing.

+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Table 3.4-1\         |     |     |       |                          |
| Summary of           |     |     |       |                          |
| Recreational         |     |     |       |                          |
| Landings (Released   |     |     |       |                          |
| Fish Excluded) and   |     |     |       |                          |
| Fish Consumption     |     |     |       |                          |
| Advisories for       |     |     |       |                          |
| Species Targeted by  |     |     |       |                          |
| Anglers in Southern  |     |     |       |                          |
| California,          |     |     |       |                          |
| 1999--2003           |     |     |       |                          |
+======================+=====+=====+=======+==========================+
| Species              | Rec |     |       | Consumption advisories   |
|                      | rea |     |       |                          |
|                      | tio |     |       |                          |
|                      | nal |     |       |                          |
|                      | la  |     |       |                          |
|                      | ndi |     |       |                          |
|                      | ngs |     |       |                          |
|                      | (   |     |       |                          |
|                      | kg) |     |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
|                      | Sh  | B   | Total | Most limiting (Number of |
|                      | ore | oat |       | Locations)^4^            |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Hard-Bottom Species  |     |     |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Opaleye              | 47, | 72, | 12    |                          |
|                      | 783 | 317 | 0,100 |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Sargo                | 9,  | 14, | 2     |                          |
|                      | 606 | 752 | 4,358 |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Kelp Bass            | 1,  | 1,3 | 1,33  | 1 meal every 2 weeks (1) |
|                      | 640 | 38, | 9,914 |                          |
|                      |     | 274 |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Surfperches- BF^1^   | 1   | 29, | 18    | 1 meal a month (3)\*     |
|                      | 52, | 441 | 2,211 |                          |
|                      | 770 |     |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Surfperches --       | 21, | 712 | 2     | 1 meal a month (3)\*     |
| WCF^2^               | 886 |     | 2,599 |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Rockfishes^3^        | 12, | 8   | 84    | 1 meal every 2 weeks (1) |
|                      | 058 | 34, | 6,150 |                          |
|                      |     | 092 |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| California Sheephead | 1,  | 3   | 31    |                          |
|                      | 617 | 08, | 0,112 |                          |
|                      |     | 496 |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Hard/Soft-Bottom     |     |     |       |                          |
| Species              |     |     |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Topsmelt             | 8,  | 328 | 9,106 |                          |
|                      | 778 |     |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Barred Sandbass      | 5,  | 1,7 | 1,74  |                          |
|                      | 312 | 39, | 4,432 |                          |
|                      |     | 120 |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Halfmoon             | 2,  | 1   | 12    |                          |
|                      | 710 | 24, | 7,389 |                          |
|                      |     | 680 |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| California           | 1,  | 3   | 32    | 1 meal a month (2)       |
| Scorpionfish         | 394 | 24, | 5,560 |                          |
|                      |     | 167 |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| White Seabass        | 5,  | 9   | 96    |                          |
|                      | 399 | 62, | 7,726 |                          |
|                      |     | 327 |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Black Croaker        | 1,  | 1,  | 2,111 | 1 meal a month (2)       |
|                      | 104 | 007 |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Pelagic Species      |     |     |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Chub Mackerel        | 4   | 4   | 88    |                          |
|                      | 29, | 53, | 2,753 |                          |
|                      | 185 | 568 |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Pacific Sardine      | 89, | 791 | 8     |                          |
|                      | 101 |     | 9,892 |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Pacific Bonito       | 3,  | 1   | 11    |                          |
|                      | 002 | 16, | 9,166 |                          |
|                      |     | 163 |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Pacific Barracuda    | 1,  | 1,6 | 1,63  |                          |
|                      | 031 | 32, | 3,761 |                          |
|                      |     | 729 |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Yellowtail           | 91  | 1,5 | 1,54  |                          |
|                      |     | 44, | 4,523 |                          |
|                      |     | 432 |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Soft-Bottom Species  |     |     |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| White Croaker        | 19, | 65, | 8     | Do not consume (7)       |
|                      | 113 | 138 | 4,251 |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Jacksmelt            | 41, | 25, | 6     |                          |
|                      | 690 | 170 | 6,860 |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Yellowfin Croaker    | 58, | 8,  | 6     |                          |
|                      | 574 | 779 | 7,353 |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| California Corbina   | 20, | 672 | 2     | 1 meal every 2 weeks (2) |
|                      | 464 |     | 1,136 |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| California Halibut   | 27, | 1,4 | 1,50  |                          |
|                      | 285 | 78, | 5,741 |                          |
|                      |     | 456 |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Shovelnose           | 45, | 23, | 6     |                          |
| Guitarfish           | 502 | 189 | 8,691 |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Queenfish            | 58, | 2,  | 6     | 1 meal a month (3)       |
|                      | 364 | 014 | 0,379 |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+
| Note: Landings are   |     |     |       |                          |
| divided into boat    |     |     |       |                          |
| and shore modes, and |     |     |       |                          |
| fish species are     |     |     |       |                          |
| organized into the   |     |     |       |                          |
| habitats with which  |     |     |       |                          |
| they are most        |     |     |       |                          |
| frequently           |     |     |       |                          |
| associated. Biomass  |     |     |       |                          |
| estimates are        |     |     |       |                          |
| developed from the   |     |     |       |                          |
| Pacific Recreational |     |     |       |                          |
| Fisheries            |     |     |       |                          |
| Information Network  |     |     |       |                          |
| (RecFIN) data.       |     |     |       |                          |
| Fishing advisories   |     |     |       |                          |
| are as reported by   |     |     |       |                          |
| California EPA's     |     |     |       |                          |
| Office of            |     |     |       |                          |
| Environmental Health |     |     |       |                          |
| Hazard and           |     |     |       |                          |
| Assessment (OEHHA).  |     |     |       |                          |
| "Shore" refers to    |     |     |       |                          |
| all fishing from     |     |     |       |                          |
| shore-based modes    |     |     |       |                          |
| (beach/bank/pier),   |     |     |       |                          |
| and "Boat" refers to |     |     |       |                          |
| boat-based modes 0   |     |     |       |                          |
| to 3 miles from      |     |     |       |                          |
| shore. Species are   |     |     |       |                          |
| grouped according to |     |     |       |                          |
| their habitats       |     |     |       |                          |
| (based on the        |     |     |       |                          |
| information          |     |     |       |                          |
| presented in Allen   |     |     |       |                          |
| 1999).               |     |     |       |                          |
|                      |     |     |       |                          |
| ^1^ The              |     |     |       |                          |
| "Surfperches - BF"   |     |     |       |                          |
| complex includes the |     |     |       |                          |
| following benthic    |     |     |       |                          |
| feeding species of   |     |     |       |                          |
| surfperch: white     |     |     |       |                          |
| seaperch, barred     |     |     |       |                          |
| surfperch, calico    |     |     |       |                          |
| surfperch, pile      |     |     |       |                          |
| perch, black perch,  |     |     |       |                          |
| rainbow seaperch,    |     |     |       |                          |
| dwarf perch, striped |     |     |       |                          |
| seaperch, and        |     |     |       |                          |
| rubberlip seaperch.  |     |     |       |                          |
|                      |     |     |       |                          |
| ^2^ The              |     |     |       |                          |
| "Surfperches - WCF"  |     |     |       |                          |
| complex includes the |     |     |       |                          |
| following water      |     |     |       |                          |
| column feeding       |     |     |       |                          |
| species of           |     |     |       |                          |
| surfperch: walleye   |     |     |       |                          |
| surfperch, silver    |     |     |       |                          |
| surfperch, spotfin   |     |     |       |                          |
| surfperch, shiner    |     |     |       |                          |
| perch, and kelp      |     |     |       |                          |
| perch.               |     |     |       |                          |
|                      |     |     |       |                          |
| ^3^ The "Rockfishes" |     |     |       |                          |
| complex includes the |     |     |       |                          |
| entire *Sebastes*    |     |     |       |                          |
| genus blue rockfish. |     |     |       |                          |
|                      |     |     |       |                          |
| ^4^ Numbers indicate |     |     |       |                          |
| the number of        |     |     |       |                          |
| locations (out of 11 |     |     |       |                          |
| possible locations)  |     |     |       |                          |
| where fish           |     |     |       |                          |
| consumption          |     |     |       |                          |
| advisories are       |     |     |       |                          |
| currently in place   |     |     |       |                          |
| in the Southern      |     |     |       |                          |
| California Bight.    |     |     |       |                          |
| "Most limiting"      |     |     |       |                          |
| refers to the        |     |     |       |                          |
| advisory where the   |     |     |       |                          |
| fewest meals per     |     |     |       |                          |
| month are            |     |     |       |                          |
| recommended for the  |     |     |       |                          |
| species. Absence of  |     |     |       |                          |
| a fish consumption   |     |     |       |                          |
| advisory for a       |     |     |       |                          |
| species may be due   |     |     |       |                          |
| either to a lack of  |     |     |       |                          |
| data or data         |     |     |       |                          |
| indicating low       |     |     |       |                          |
| concentrations of    |     |     |       |                          |
| contaminants.        |     |     |       |                          |
|                      |     |     |       |                          |
| \*Fish consumption   |     |     |       |                          |
| advisories are given |     |     |       |                          |
| for surfperches as a |     |     |       |                          |
| group and are not    |     |     |       |                          |
| broken into "BF" and |     |     |       |                          |
| "WCF"                |     |     |       |                          |
| sub-categories.      |     |     |       |                          |
+----------------------+-----+-----+-------+--------------------------+

#### Subtidal Benthic Habitats 

Benthic habitats include the substrata and the boundary of the water
column that is physically influenced by the substrata. Benthic habitats
are typically characterized by water depth and substrate type. Within
the SCB, both soft-bottom (i.e., sand and mud) and hard-bottom habitats
(i.e., rock and sandstone reefs) are common and each type supports a
unique biota. Organisms that live in the sediments are referred to as
infauna, those that live on the surface are generally referred to as
epifauna or epibenthic, and those that live near the bottom are
generally called demersal.

##### Soft-bottom Habitats

Soft-bottom benthic communities show seasonal variability, with
diversity and abundance typically highest in spring and summer and
lowest in winter. Benthic communities can also be affected by winter
storms (waves and rain) that can physically disrupt bottom communities
and/or subsequent runoff that can transport sediment, debris, and
nutrients to benthic habitats.

Soft-bottom communities show characteristic zonation related to water
depth and (in the nearshore) wave energy and wave surge. Thus, regional
surveys and monitoring studies have found distinct benthic communities
organized along depth gradients (Jones 1969, Fauchald and Jones 1983,
Thompson et al. 1987, Thompson et al. 1993, Diener et al. 1995, Bergen
et al. 1999). Soft-bottom subtidal habitats in the SCB support several
thousand benthic invertebrate species, which in turn are preyed upon by
a variety of demersal fish species.

The types of benthic invertebrates living on and within sediment also
vary according to sediment type, depth, and environmental stress. The
Inner Shelf has fewer invertebrate species and smaller populations than
the Middle and Outer Shelf assemblages. Polychaete worms and small,
mobile crustaceans dominate the Inner to Middle Shelf infaunal
communities. The infauna of the Outer Shelf include annelid polychaetes,
echinoderms, bivalve mollusks, and crustacean ostracods. Epibenthic
invertebrates of the Inner Shelf and Middle Shelf include echinoderms
(e.g., sand stars and sea stars), crustaceans (e.g., rock crabs and
hermit crabs), and mollusks (e.g., sea slugs and sea pens). The Outer
Shelf epibenthic invertebrates include sea urchins, brittlestars, and
rock shrimp.

Nearshore soft-bottom areas of the SCB support a high abundance of
species such as flatfish, surfperch, and croakers. Middle and Outer
Shelf species include numerous kinds of flatfish, sulpin, combfish,
midshipman, and rockfish. The number of fish species caught, abundance,
and biomass increase with water depth out to the Outer Shelf. In many
cases, soft-bottom species derive much of there food from benthic
infauna and are therefore more highly contaminated with DDTs and PCBs in
areas where sediment contamination levels are high. For example, white
croaker, which is typically found in soft-bottom areas and feeds
primarily on benthic infauna has some of the highest levels of DDT and
PCB contamination among the fishes commonly caught in the SCB. Thus,
fish consumption advisories are more widespread and more limiting (i.e.,
"do not consume" in some areas) for this species than for other species
(Table 3.4-1).

Eelgrass (*Zostera* spp.) is the primary plant species found in
soft-bottom habitat; this species generally grows in beds on mud or sand
in protected habitats such as bays, coastal lagoons, and estuaries. It
is found from 0 to 6 meters (20 feet), but occurrences at depths
shallower than 3 meters (10 feet) are rare, as turbidity from
resuspension of fine sediments is a chronic problem. Eelgrass
distribution is controlled by depth, substrate stability, and light
(Backman and Barilotti 1976). Two species have been reported within the
study area. *Z. marina* is the species most commonly reported within the
SCB. *Z. asiatica* recently was reported in a few locations south of
Point Conception; however, it generally ranges northward to Tomales Bay
(Phillips and Echeverria 1990). The characteristics of these species
intergrade, and it is not clear what species occur in the Channel
Islands (CINMS 2000).

Eelgrass habitat is known to be ecologically important habitat for a
variety of invertebrates and fish. Nearly twice as many invertebrates
and fish have been reported to occur within eelgrass beds than on
surrounding sand habitats (CINMS 2000). Eelgrass provides nursery
habitat for a variety of recreationally and commercially important fish
and shellfish. Baitfish, such as anchovies and other small fish (e.g.,
topsmelt), spend an extensive portion of their early life in eelgrass
beds. Seabirds such as California brown pelicans and terns prefer
baitfish and often forage on the invertebrates and fish associated with
eelgrass beds. Waterfowl such as the black brant feed nearly exclusively
on the plants. In addition to these apparent biological values, eelgrass
plays an important role in stabilizing sediments, recycling nutrients,
generating oxygen, and trapping suspended particulates.

Eelgrass beds are found along the coast of Southern California,
including shallow water habitats in Los Angeles Harbor, Alamitos Bay,
Anaheim Bay, Huntington Harbor, Newport Harbor, and Dana Point (MEC
Analytical Systems 1997, MEC Analytical Systems 2000). Eelgrass also
occurs in sheltered coves on Anacapa, Santa Cruz, and Santa Rosa
Islands. It is not known at this time whether eelgrass occurs on the
other Channel Islands.

##### Hard-bottom Habitats

Hard-bottom and rocky reef habitats are considered to be very productive
ecosystems that support a variety of plants and animals. Natural
hard-bottom habitats are common in the subtidal areas of the narrow
mainland shelf, and they become more abundant as one proceeds from the
southeast to the northwest along the coast. Hard-bottom habitats are
especially characteristic around the Channel Islands (Thompson et al.
1993). The types of hard-bottom habitats include submerged rock and
sand/mud platforms, deformed sedimentary substrate, and boulder and
cobble fields. Rocky shores constitute about 20 percent of the SCB
(Bakus 1989), but beyond the depth of 30 meters (98 feet) only about 3
percent of the sea floor is hard substrate (Thompson et al. 1993). The
distribution of subtidal hard-bottom habitats is less well known than
the distribution of intertidal hard-bottom habitats due to a lack of
large-scale mapping studies. Often nearshore reefs are found where rocky
intertidal habitat occurs; kelp beds are generally good indicators of
subtidal reefs (Ambrose et al. 1989).

Many hard-bottom fish species derive their food via pelagic or
kelp-based food webs (Cross and Allen 1993) and therefore are typically
lower in DDT and PCB contamination than species associated with and
feeding from soft-bottom habitats (LACSD 2002). Thus, fish consumption
advisories for the hard-bottom species commonly targeted by Southern
California anglers tend to be less broadly distributed (i.e., occurring
in fewer locations) and less limiting than those applied to soft-bottom
species (Table 3.4-1).

Artificial hard-bottom habitats have become common in the SCB either
incidentally from development of coastal resources (e.g., construction
of piers and wharves, offshore platforms and pipelines, and ocean
outfalls) or by design to enhance fisheries, environmental mitigation,
and/or recreational uses (e.g., artificial fishing reefs or sunken ships
for scuba diving). Lewis and McKee (1989) provides a list of the
artificial reefs that the California Department of Fish and Game has
built in the SCB. Many of the wastewater ocean outfalls provide large
hard-bottom habitats that function as reefs. An ongoing scientific
debate exists about whether artificial hard-bottom habitats contribute
to greater productivity and biomass (e.g., Cross and Allen 1993). Some
studies report comparable or greater fish density and biomass on
artificial reefs than on natural reefs (e.g., Turner et al. 1969,
Stephens et al. 1984, Jessee et al. 1985, Ambrose and Swarbrick 1989,
Thompson et al. 1993). Other studies have found lower biomass on
artificial reefs, which may be related to different reef sizes and
complexity (Ambrose and Swarbrick 1989, DeMartini et al. 1989).
Nonetheless, artificial reefs do alter the benthic community by
providing habitat that displaces soft-bottom species and by recruiting
reef-dwelling species. These effects of artificial reefs on local
community structure, coupled with the fact that many reef-dwelling
species derive there food from sources other than soft-bottom infauna
(i.e., pelagic or hard-bottom macrophyte-based food webs) are important
aspects of the options considered in this Restoration Plan.

In the SCB, the dominant macrophitic communities associated with
hard-bottom habitats are kelp forests. These forests are typically
dominated by the giant kelp (*Macrocystis pyrifera*) but include several
hundred other species of marine algae. Giant kelp grows well in
wave-exposed areas of nutrient-rich, cool water at depths of 6 to 36
meters (20 to 120 feet) (Leet et al. 1992). Kelp attaches to hard
substrate by means of a holdfast. Kelp fronds originate from the
holdfast and grow to the water surface. Each frond has several leaf-like
blades with bladders that buoy the fronds in the water column. The
density and abundance of the kelp canopy vary by location, season, and
year. Kelp beds in Southern California commonly deteriorate to some
degree during summer and fall when temperatures are higher and nutrient
concentrations are lower (Foster and Schiel 1985, Tegner and Dayton
1987). Yearly variations in the spatial extent of kelp beds are common.

Although the spatial extent of kelp beds varies seasonally, persistence
of kelp within a bed is related to hard substrate size and relief. Point
Loma and La Jolla kelp beds in San Diego are typified by large, complex,
and high rocky relief and almost always sustain kelp (persistence over
large areas for longer than 10 years). Factors that affect kelp
persistence include turbidity and/or sedimentation. Kelp are adversely
affected by burial, scour, or reduced ambient light levels (Devinny and
Volse 1978, Foster and Schiel 1985). Temperature and nutrient
concentrations also contribute to yearly differences. El Niño
conditions, which result in higher than average temperatures and low
nutrient concentrations, have been linked to periodic widespread
reductions in kelp canopy (Tegner and Dayton 1987, Dean and Jacobsen
1986).

The presence of kelp on a rocky habitat greatly enhances the community
by providing food, shelter, substrate, and nursery areas for many
species of fish and invertebrates. Invertebrates found in kelp beds are
similar to those found in other hard-bottom habitats. They include
lobster, sea stars, sea urchins, and mollusks. Brown, green, and red
(fleshy and coralline) algae occur in kelp beds. Surfperch and rockfish
(*Sebastes* spp.) usually dominate the fish assemblages (Ebeling et al.
1980, Foster and Schiel 1985, Bodkin 1986). Species generally associated
with the kelp canopy include mysids, fouling organisms (e.g.,
bryozoans), gastropods and crustaceans living on and within the fronds,
transient fish (e.g., mackerel \[*Scombridae*\], Pacific barracuda
\[*Sphyraena argentea*\], Pacific bonito \[*Sarda chiliensis*\],
silversides \[*Atherinidae*\]), and canopy-associated fish (e.g., kelp
perch \[*Brachyistius frenatus*\], señorita \[*Oxyjulis californica*\],
halfmoon \[*Medialuna californiensis*\], blacksmith (*Chromis
punctipinnis*), rockfish, kelp bass \[*Paralabrax clathratus*\], and
kelp fish \[*Clinidae* spp.\]) (Feder et al. 1974). California sheephead
(*Semicossyphus pulcher*), garibaldi (*Hypsypops rubicunda*), and
opaleye (*Girella nigricans*) are common in Southern California kelp
beds (U.S. Navy 1997a, 1997b). Many kelp-bed fish species are also found
in areas of shallower vegetated and unvegetated rocky reefs
(Figure 3.4‑1). However, the abundance of fish is greater on reefs with
high densities of kelp compared to those with low kelp densities (Larson
and DeMartini 1984, Cross and Allen 1993). Kelp beds also provide a
large food supply for marine birds and mammals (Foster and Schiel 1985).
Cormorants are the birds most closely associated with California kelp
beds; however, gulls commonly scavenge on the surface canopy, and
California brown pelicans and terns exploit schooling fish along the
canopy's edge (Foster and Schiel 1985). Mammals such as sea lions,
seals, and whales use kelp beds as transitory foraging areas (Foster and
Schiel 1985). Kelp (genus *Macrocystis)* is commercially harvested for
use in a variety of food products, pharmaceuticals, adhesives, paper
products, paints and finishes, rubbers, and textiles (Bakus 1989).

Surfgrass (*Phyllospadix* sp.) generally forms beds on hard-bottom
substrate in the lower intertidal and shallow subtidal zones, an area
characterized by high turbidity and sedimentation. Surfgrass may form
conspicuous beds in the low intertidal to shallow subtidal zones of
rocky beaches and generally is found from about 0 to 6 meters (0 to 20
feet). Both the vegetative shoot density and the number of flowering
shoots of surfgrass decrease with increasing depth, indicating that
light is a limiting resource for both growth and reproduction (Williams
1995). Photoperiod and temperature are major environmental factors
controlling reproduction in surfgrass. In Southern California, plants
flower all year long, though most reproduction takes place between May
and August, especially during June and July. Predators on surfgrass
include grazers such as fish, particularly opaleye, and crabs (Williams
1995).

Surfgrass beds provide an important habitat for a diverse assemblage of
algae, invertebrates, and fish (Stewart and Myers 1980). In the SCB,
surfgrass serves as a nursery for the California spiny lobster
(*Panulirus interruptus*) (Williams 1995, Engle 1979). Abundant species
of fish found in surfgrass habitats on low-relief, sandstone rock
include topsmelt (*Atherinops affinis*), blacksmith, walleye surfperch
(*Hyperprosopon argenteum*), señorita, opaleye, and black perch
(*Embiotoca jacksoni*) (DeMartini 1981). Garibaldi, surfperch, barred
sand bass (*Paralabrax nebulifer*), the gorgonian (*Muricea
californica*), California spiny lobster, brown algae (*Egregia
menziesii* and *Eisenia arborea*), coralline algae, and a red alga
(*Erythroglossum californicum*) are common to abundant in areas where
reef and surfgrass are more developed.

#### Intertidal Benthic Habitats

Intertidal benthic habitats are those ocean bottom environments that
exist between mean high tide and mean low tide (sometimes also called
the littoral zone). Generally, about 70 percent of the mainland
shoreline is sandy shores, and about 70 percent of all rocky shores in
the SCB are found on the Channel Islands. Generalized summaries of the
sandy beach and rocky intertidal habitats within the SCB are presented
below.

##### Sandy Beach Habitat

Open coast sandy beaches are dynamic environments that undergo sand
accretion in summer due to reduced wave energy and erosion in winter as
a result of larger, higher-energy waves. This seasonal change in the
amount of sand on the beach results in a greater variety and abundance
of

![](media/image12.png){width="9.116666666666667in" height="6.21875in"}

Figure 3.4-1. Schematic diagram of fishes within rocky reef and kelp bed
habitats.

invertebrates inhabiting the intertidal portion of the beach during late
spring through summer. The benthic invertebrates in turn provide prey
for a variety of shorebirds, including migratory species whose abundance
increases in the SCB from summer through fall.

The dynamic nature of sandy beach habitats results in relatively low
organic content in the sediments relative to subtidal soft-bottom areas.
An inshore-offshore gradient occurs in the levels of DDT and PCB
contamination in sediment because DDTs and PCBs adhere more readily to
organic sediments and because the primary source of these contaminants
(i.e., the White Point wastewater outfall) is in deep, offshore water
(LACSD 2002). Thus, the lowest sediment contamination levels are in the
intertidal areas, and the soft-bottom species that forage in these areas
(e.g., California corbina) have lower contamination levels and
consequently less pervasive and restrictive fish consumption advisories
(Table 3.4-1).

Although more than 200 species of invertebrates have been reported from
surveys of beaches within the SCB, most of these species have been
washed ashore or dislodged from adjacent rocky habitats. It is probable
that only about 20 species regularly occur on sandy beaches (Straughan
1982, Parr et al. 1978).

Common species of the upper intertidal habitat include insects such as
beach hoppers (*Orchestoidea*) and worms such as the bloodworm (*Euzonus
mucronata*), which can burrow deeply and is patchily distributed (Parr
et al. 1978, Straughan 1982, Thompson et al. 1993). The middle to low
intertidal is often dominated by the common sand crab (*Emerita
analoga*).

Three species of fish are associated with sandy beach habitat. The best
known is the California grunion (*Leuresthes tenuis*), which is managed
as a game species by the CDFG. Grunion travel from their habitat in
nearshore waters to spawn at night on sandy beaches on the first few
nights following each new and full moon between March and August.
Spawning occurs 1 to 3 hours after high tide with the eggs being
deposited deep into the sand. The eggs are exposed on subsequent high
tides, about 10 days later and as they are washed out of the sand they
hatch. Grunion are most often found on long and gently sloping beaches
with moderately fine grain size. The other two fish species associated
with sandy beach habitat include the California corbina (*Menticirrhus
undulatus*) and the barred surfperch (*Amphistichus argenteus*), which
can often be found foraging for sand crabs in the shallow subtidal
habitat of the lower beach (Cross and Allen 1993).

##### Rocky Shoreline Habitat

Rocky intertidal habitats are varied; they include submerged rock
platforms, deformed sedimentary rock, and boulder cobble fields. The
organisms of rocky intertidal communities show vertical zonation in
response to the extremes of the physical environment (e.g., temperature,
tidal exposure, surf exposure, availability, and type of substrate) and
biological interactions (e.g., food availability, predation, and
population density). The variability among these vertical strata results
in different species compositions among rocky habitats: of the 315
species of macroinvertebrates found at 22 sites throughout the SCB, only
14 species were common to all sites (Littler 1979).

The upper intertidal is characterized by acorn barnacles (*Chthamalus*),
periwinkles (*Littorina planaxis*), and the western sea roach (*Liga
occidentalis*), which is a nearly terrestrial isopod. The middle
intertidal zone is often referred to as the mussel zone, with its
mussels (e.g., *Mytilus californiensis* and *M. galloprovincialis*) and
barnacles (e.g., *Pollicipes polymerus)*. Several of the mid-intertidal
species extend into the lower intertidal, and other species such as sea
urchins (*Strongylocentrotus purpuratus*), ochre sea star (*Pisaster
ochraceum*), bat star (*Asterina miniata*), sea hares (*Aplysia
californica*), sand tube worm (*Phragmatopoma californica*), and algae
are more abundant in the lower intertidal.

Only six species of fish are resident in the rocky intertidal zones of
the SCB (Cross and Allen 1993). Wooly sculpin (*Clinocottus analis*),
reef finspot (*Paraclinus nigripinnis*), rockpool blenny (*Hypsoblennis
gilberi*) spotted kelpfish (*Gibbonsi elegans*), and California
clingfish (*Gobiesox rhessodon*) spend all but their larval life in the
intertidal, and the dwarf surfperch (*Micrometrus aurora*) often
releases its young into tide pools. Most of these residents feed on
small crustaceans and worms, and the opaleye is mostly herbivorous. Most
of these fish are small and difficult to see, as they spend much of
their time hiding in holes, crevices, or beneath algae.

#### Coastal Wetlands

Wetlands, which are areas of soft and marshy land, occur where aquatic
habitats meet terrestrial habitats. The wetlands in the study area
include mudflats, salt panne, saltwater marshes, and freshwater marshes.
Wetlands provide many ecological benefits, such as improving water
quality, reducing erosion and flooding, and providing habitat for
wildlife. Coastal wetland habitats have declined over the past decades
due to human population growth and development. However, the loss of
wetland habitat and an increased appreciation of wetland benefits have
resulted in increased efforts to restore coastal wetlands. Although the
extent of wetlands in the SCB has been drastically reduced from
historical levels, several coastal wetlands within the study area still
support diverse plant and animal communities. Unfortunately, many of
these wetlands suffer from restricted flows, habitat degradation, and
polluted urban runoff.

Wetlands represent important habitats for over 200 species of resident
and migratory birds as well as for a variety of other wildlife. The
Southern California coastal wetlands provide important habitat for
various bird species, including shorebirds, marsh birds, water birds,
and terrestrial birds. Both year-round residents and migratory species
use these habitats to breed and forage. Large numbers of migratory birds
(including sandpipers, plovers, and many species of ducks) migrate to
and from Southern California during the fall and spring months. Some of
the bird species that migrate to Southern California wetlands in the
summer include terns, avocets, stilts, and skimmers. A small suite of
bird species, including great blue herons, mallards, and killdeer, are
considered year-round residents of the Southern California coastal
wetlands. Table 3.4-2 provides basic information on the size and habitat
characteristics of wetlands in the study area.

+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| Table  |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| 3.4-2\ |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| S      |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| ummary |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| of     |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| W      |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| etland |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| Size   |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| and    |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| H      |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| abitat |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| Types  |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| in the |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| Study  |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| Area   |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
+========+==========+====+======+=======+====+========+=====+======+
| W      | App      | Op | T    | Tidal | Sa | Bra    | Ri  | Seas |
| etland | roximate | en | idal | Flats | lt | ckish/ | par | onal |
|        | Wetland  | W  | Fl   | (     | M  | Fres   | ian | Wetl |
|        | Size\    | at | ats\ | veget | ar | hwater |     | ands |
|        | (hectare | er | (no  | ated) | sh | Marsh  |     |      |
|        | s/acres) |    | n-ve |       |    |        |     |      |
|        |          |    | geta |       |    |        |     |      |
|        |          |    | ted) |       |    |        |     |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| Malibu | 37(92)   | 12 |      |       | 7  |        | 19  |      |
| Lagoon |          | (2 |      |       | (1 |        | (   |      |
|        |          | 8) |      |       | 8) |        | 46) |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| T      | 0.85 (2) |    |      |       |    |        | 0   |      |
| opanga |          |    |      |       |    |        | .85 |      |
| Lagoon |          |    |      |       |    |        | (2) |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| B      | 7 (16)   | 6  | 0.6  |       |    |        |     |      |
| allona |          | (1 | (1.5 |       |    |        |     |      |
| Lagoon |          | 5) | )^1^ |       |    |        |     |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| B      | 78 (192) |    | 10   | 19    | 43 |        | 6   |      |
| allona |          |    | (24) | (48)  | (  |        | (   |      |
| We     |          |    |      |       | 10 |        | 15) |      |
| tlands |          |    |      |       | 5) |        |     |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| Los    | 95       |    |      |       |    | Pre    |     |      |
| A      | (234)^2^ |    |      |       |    | sent\* |     |      |
| ngeles |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| River  |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| Los    | \> 57    | 39 | 3    |       | 8  | 7 (18) |     |      |
| Ce     | (140)    | (9 | (8   |       | (  |        |     |      |
| rritos |          | 5) | )^3^ |       | 19 |        |     |      |
| We     |          |    |      |       | )^ |        |     |      |
| tlands |          |    |      |       | 4^ |        |     |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| H      | 11 (27)  |    | 4    |       | 6  |        |     | 0.8  |
| ellman |          |    | (10  |       | (1 |        |     | (2)  |
| Ranch  |          |    | )^5^ |       | 5) |        |     |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| A      | 387      | 89 | 61   |       | 2  | 0.81   | 7   |      |
| naheim | (956)    | (  | (    |       | 29 | (2)    | (   |      |
| Bay    |          | 22 | 151) |       | (  |        | 17) |      |
|        |          | 0) |      |       | 56 |        |     |      |
|        |          |    |      |       | 6) |        |     |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| Bolsa  | 365      | 69 | 144  |       | 1  | 2      |     |      |
| Chica  | (900)    | (  | (    |       | 49 | (6)^6^ |     |      |
| We     |          | 17 | 355) |       | (  |        |     |      |
| tlands |          | 1) |      |       | 36 |        |     |      |
|        |          |    |      |       | 8) |        |     |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| Hunt   | Total    | 5  | 2    |       | 51 | Pre    |     |      |
| ington | acreage  | (1 | (4)  |       | (  | sent\* |     |      |
| Beach  | data not | 3) |      |       | 12 |        |     |      |
| We     | a        |    |      |       | 5) |        |     |      |
| tlands | vailable |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| Santa  | Total    |    | 9    |       | 60 | Pre    | Pre |      |
| Ana    | acreage  |    | (21) |       | (  | sent\* | sen |      |
| River  | data not |    |      |       | 14 |        | t\* |      |
| Mouth  | a        |    |      |       | 7) |        |     |      |
| E      | vailable |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| stuary |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| Upper  | 550      | 3  | 27   |       | 1  | 2 (4)  | 0.8 |      |
| N      | (1357)   | 66 | (67) |       | 55 |        | (2) |      |
| ewport |          | (  |      |       | (  |        |     |      |
| Bay    |          | 90 |      |       | 38 |        |     |      |
|        |          | 4) |      |       | 2) |        |     |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| San    | 153      |    |      |       |    | 59     | 30  | 65   |
| J      | (378)    |    |      |       |    | (145)  | (   | (    |
| oaquin |          |    |      |       |    |        | 73) | 160) |
| Marsh  |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| San    | 1 (3)    |    |      |       |    |        | 1   |      |
| Juan   |          |    |      |       |    |        | (3) |      |
| Creek  |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| mouth  |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| Buena  | 90 (223) | 51 |      |       |    | 15     | Pre | 6    |
| Vista  |          | (  |      |       |    | (36)   | sen | (14) |
| Lagoon |          | 12 |      |       |    |        | t\* |      |
|        |          | 7) |      |       |    |        |     |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| Bati   | 212      | 1  |      | 34    | 40 | 3 (7)  |     |      |
| quitos | (524)    | 41 |      | (85)  | (  |        |     |      |
| Lagoon |          | (  |      |       | 10 |        |     |      |
|        |          | 34 |      |       | 0) |        |     |      |
|        |          | 8) |      |       |    |        |     |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+
| Notes: |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
|        |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| Infor  |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| mation |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| pr     |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| ovided |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| in     |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| format |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| of     |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| he     |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| ctares |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| (a     |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| cres). |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
|        |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| \*H    |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| abitat |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| pr     |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| esent, |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| but    |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| a      |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| creage |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| data   |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| not    |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| avai   |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| lable. |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
|        |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| ^1     |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| ^Inter |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| tidal; |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| nu     |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| merous |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| non-   |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| native |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| s      |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| pecies |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| occupy |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| the    |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
| higher |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
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| 2004.  |          |    |      |       |    |        |     |      |
+--------+----------+----+------+-------+----+--------+-----+------+

#### Channel Islands

##### Terrestrial Habitats

The climate of the Channel Islands is cool and wet in the winter and hot
and dry in the summer, though the extremes of temperature are moderated
by the maritime influence of the ocean currents, which produce frequent
fog. This mild maritime climate has allowed a number of species to
persist on the islands even though their mainland counterparts are found
near or to the north of San Francisco Bay, or have been completely
extirpated on the mainland due to climatic and other factors (Raven
1967). Documentation of the original range and distribution of island
endemics is complicated by the current domination of non-native plants
that have "only become naturalized on the islands since their
introduction by Euro-Americans during the last 200 years" (USFWS
1995b)*.* The spread of non-native and invasive plants on the Channel
Islands has been facilitated by overgrazing and trampling of native
vegetation by domestic animals (Raven 1967, Thorne 1967, Philbrick
1980).

The general terrestrial native habitats of the Channel Islands are
maritime scrub, island chaparral, grasslands, coastal dunes, riparian
scrub, riparian woodlands, wetlands, and coastal bluffs. Several
treatments of plant communities exist in the literature. Junak et al.
(1995), as cited in NPS (1999), developed the detailed list of
communities for the Northern Channel Islands based on these treatments.
Scrub and non-native grassland communities dominate the landscapes of
the Channel Islands. Woodlands are sparse on the islands, though they
may have been more extensive before the island habitats were denuded by
introduced grazers.

San Miguel Island was dominated by blowing dunes that buried fertile
grazing lands through the late 1800s and early part of this century.
However, evidence of a scrubland environment on the coast of San Miguel
Island exists in the form of trunks that were carbonized in pre-historic
fires and the evidence of forests represented by the fossilized "caliche
forest" (Johnson 1980, NPS 1999). San Nicolas Island has a history of
drought, vegetation stripping by herbivores, and dune formation that
mirrors that of San Miguel's. After vegetation stripping, blowing sands
turned rocky coastal shores to sandy beaches and wiped out kelp forests
that surrounded the islands. Today the islands have mostly recovered
their rocky shores and kelp.

Only Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and Santa Catalina Islands have significant
arborescent woodlands. Santa Rosa Island has been affected by dune
formation after vegetation denudation, but one woodland exists on the
north-central part of the island. A variety of oak species occur in
woodlands on Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and Santa Catalina Islands along
with endemic ironwood. A small woodland of the federally endangered
Catalina Island mountain mahogany (*Cercocarpus traskiae*) grows on
Santa Catalina Island in Wild Boar Canyon. Significant Bishop pine
woodlands are found on three mostly north-facing slopes on Santa Cruz
Island (Hobbs 1980). Riparian woodlands are uncommon in spite of the
many suitable canyon streams because they have been impacted by erosion
and vegetation denudation, though a few woody riparian species can be
found on most islands (Minnich 1980).

##### Shoreline and Nearshore Habitats

The Northern Channel Islands experience strong northerly winds that
produce active dunes on the windward side of the islands and a zone of
strong onshore flow that leaves beaches rocky or gravelly (NPS 1999,
Dailey et al. 1993). Sandy beaches account for 20 to 35 percent of the
shoreline on San Miguel, Santa Rosa, and Santa Cruz Islands, and are
more common on the lee side of the islands or in protected coves (Table
3.1-2).

The Southern Channel Islands have a combination of hard substrate, and
sand and gravel beaches (Table 3.1-2). Rocky shores are a predominant
habitat, and gravel and/or sandy beaches account for most of the
remaining shoreline.

Ocean upwelling from deep basins on the south sides of the Northern
Channel Islands provides a rich source of nutrients for plankton and the
food chain that supports the island species. Kelp beds favor the
northwest and south shores of these islands providing additional habitat
and cover to support abundant marine and bird life.

### Fish

Fish are an important resource relevant to the Montrose Settlements
Restoration Program (MSRP). Although no direct impacts from DDTs and
PCBs were demonstrated to have occurred on fish in the Montrose case,
fish habitat was demonstrated to have been impacted by these chemicals
in a way that compromised the services rendered by fish (Dixon and
Schroeter 1998). The Southern California fish fauna comprises over 129
families with over 450 species (Cross and Allen 1993). This diverse
assemblage of fish makes use of all habitats, from shallow wetlands and
intertidal areas to open pelagic and deepwater benthic habitats (see
Section 3.4.1 for more details). The fish assemblage also has a broad
size range and a wide range of life-spans. For example, the blue-banded
goby (*Lythrypnus dalli*) rarely exceeds 1 inch and typically lives no
more than a year, whereas the giant (black) sea bass (*Stereolepis
gigas*) may exceed 7 feet, reach a weight of 500 pounds, and live as
long as 75 years (Love 1996). This diversity of fish in the SCB results
in the broad ecological, recreational, and commercial value of this
resource. Fish are important predators of all sizes of prey and are
therefore an important structuring force in marine communities. Fish are
a major prey item for birds, marine mammals, other larger fishes, and
humans, and are therefore a principal transfer pathway of DDTs and PCBs
through the food web to species in which the effects of the contaminants
of the case were demonstrated (Figure 3.4-2). As a result, fish
contamination advisories have been released for several of the fish
species that anglers commonly target in the SCB (Table 3.4-1). The fish
of the SCB also support important commercial and recreational fisheries
and attract thousands of scuba and free divers to the inshore and
offshore waters of the SCB every year for sightseeing, fish-counting,
hunting, and underwater photography.

![](media/image13.jpeg){width="6.324305555555555in"
height="4.4743055555555555in"}

Figure 3.4-2. Major DDT/PCB pathways and the role of fish in the
transfer of DDTs and PCBs to upper trophic levels.

The recreational fisheries of the SCB are of particular importance in
the Montrose case because the court accepted the lost use of fish
resources due to DDT- and PCB-related consumption advisories as an
injury in the case. Recreational fishing occurs along the entire
Southern California coast, from near Point Conception to the U.S.-Mexico
border. The Marine Recreation Fisheries Statistics Survey from 1980 to
the present (RecFin 2004) provides a basis for assessing where and how
recreational fish species are caught and how the catch has changed over
time.

Studies of seafood consumption by recreational anglers indicate that the
fish consumption rate in Southern California exceeds the national
average (Puffer et al. 1982). A study conducted in the early 1990s found
that chub mackerel (*Scomber japonicus*) is the most frequently caught
species, but the most frequently consumed species are kelp bass, barred
sand bass, rockfishes, Pacific barracuda, and California halibut
(*Paralichthys californicus*) (Allen et al. 1996). A more recent review
of the fishes retained by anglers in the SCB based on data from the
Pacific Recreational Fisheries Information Network (RecFIN 2004) found
that the most commonly consumed fish were barred sand bass, Pacific
barracuda, yellowtail (*Seriola lalandi*), California halibut, and kelp
bass, and that chub mackerel were not the most commonly captured species
(Table 3.4-1). Angler consumption rates of potentially contaminated
species (e.g., white croaker) varied by ethnic group, indicating that
health risk advisories should target the languages and habits of
high-risk anglers.

###  Birds

Birds are another important resource relevant to the MSRP. Top predators
such as the bald eagle (*Haliaeetus leucocephalus)* continue to be
injured by the DDTs and PCBs that are the subject of the case. Also,
seabirds were dramatically impacted by the past discharges of these
contaminants and are in various states of recovery since the discharges
were stopped. Bald eagles and peregrine falcons consume certain seabird
species; thus, the impact of contamination on seabirds is important to
understand not only for the potential for adverse impacts on their
populations but also as a causative factor in the injury of top
predators. DDT and PCB contamination in bald eagles, peregrine falcons,
and seabirds, as considered in the case history, is addressed in Section
2.

Over 200 species of birds use coastal and/or offshore habitats within
the SCB (Baird 1993). The number of birds fluctuates seasonally with
migratory patterns. Seabirds (e.g., auklets, cormorants, gulls,
pelicans, phalaropes, shearwaters, storm-petrels, skimmers, and terns)
and grebes, loons, and sea ducks account for the greatest biomass of
birds within the SCB. The distribution and relative abundance of
selected species and groups of birds are described in the following
subsections.

#### Bald Eagles

The bald eagle is currently federally listed as a threatened species.
However, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) has proposed to
de-list the bald eagle, as the birds have made a substantial recovery
within their range, particularly on the mainland of the United States.
The Pacific Bald Eagle Recovery Plan indicates that the most suitable
habitat for recovery in Southern California is on the Channel Islands,
particularly Santa Catalina and Santa Cruz Islands (USFWS 1986, Jurek
2000).

Historically, bald eagles occupied all of the Channel Islands in the
SCB. From the 1800s to 1950, bald eagle nesting areas were reported from
a minimum of 35 different locations on the islands, making the Channel
Islands a stronghold for this species in Southern California (Kiff
2000). However, by the early 1960s, bald eagles had disappeared from the
Channel Islands. The extirpation is believed to have resulted from a
combination of factors, including egg collecting, hunting, urbanization,
and DDE contamination (see Section 2.1).

Bald eagles reside along seacoasts, lakeshores, and major rivers. They
are large birds, weighing between 10 and 14 pounds, with females
typically weighing more than males. Bald eagles that breed in the
southern United States are smaller in size than those that reside in the
northern United States and Canada. They are a monogamous species, mating
for life; however, if one partner dies, the other will select a new
mate. The breeding season generally occurs between January and August.
Bald eagles do not always breed every year. Nests are built in large
trees and are often re-used year after year. Bald eagles lay from one to
three eggs, which are incubated for 35 days. The length of time from
when the eggs are laid to when all chicks are fledged (first flight) is
16 to 18 weeks. Hatched eagle chicks have a 50 percent survival rate
during their first year. Bald eagles reach sexual maturity between the
ages of 4 and 5 years, at which time they develop their distinctive
white feathers on the head and tail. In the wild, the lifespan of a bald
eagle is approximately 30 years.

Bald eagles are only partially migratory. In the winter, migration from
their breeding grounds to nearby coastal areas only occurs if their
fishing areas freeze over. They have also been known to migrate during
the winter from northern breeding grounds to warmer southern regions.
The bald eagle is a scavenger and predator of a variety of species. The
diet of eagles on Santa Catalina Island consists mainly of pelagic fish
snatched from the ocean surface; however, bald eagles also eat birds,
mammals (mainly carcasses of sea lions and seals), and invertebrates as
well (Garcelon 1994b). Diet is probably similar among individuals on all
the Channel Islands (Sharpe and Garcelon 1999a, Valoppi et al. 2000).
Adult bald eagles spend more time hunting and killing prey, whereas
juveniles are more likely to scavenge and steal food due to their
undeveloped hunting skills.

In 1980, the Institute of Wildlife Studies, the USFWS, and the CDFG
initiated a program to reintroduce bald eagles to Santa Catalina Island
(Figure 3.4-3). The MSRP Trustee Council has funded recent years of this
program. Between 1980 and 1986, 33 chicks from wild nests were brought
to the island, reared on artificial nest platforms, and released (Sharpe
2003). Several of these eagles have survived and formed nesting pairs.
However, none of their eggs have been hatched normally to date, as the
eggshells have been too thin for normal incubation, and would have
broken under the weight of the adults. Also, the embryos have suffered
water loss through the thin eggshells. From1989 to 2005, the population
was maintained by collecting the eggs, transporting them to the San
Francisco Zoo for artificial incubation, and re-introducing the chicks
back to the nests. In 2005, an incubation facility was built on the
island, and the eggs were hatched on-site.

![](media/image14.jpeg){width="4.591666666666667in"
height="3.3833333333333333in"}

Figure 3.4-3. Active bald eagle territories and points of reference on\
Santa Catalina Island, California.

#### Golden Eagles

Prior to the 1990s, golden eagles (*Aquila chrysaetos*) were never known
to be year-round residents of the Channel Islands. The species increased
in abundance on the Northern Channel Islands because feral pigs provided
an abundant food source. With little competition from bald eagles,
golden eagles took up residence on several of the Northern Channel
Islands. Feral pigs have since been eradicated from Santa Rosa Island,
and the eradication of pigs from Santa Cruz Island began in 2005.

Golden eagles became a specific issue of concern on the Northern Channel
Islands beginning in the 1990s, when they began preying on the
endangered Santa Cruz island fox. In 1999 a program was initiated to
capture golden eagles on Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa Islands and relocate
them to the mainland in cooperation with the National Park Service and
other agencies. From 1999 through September 2005, 19 males, 9 females,
and 7 nestlings were removed from Santa Cruz Island and relocated, and 2
males, 1 female, and 3 nestlings were removed from Santa Rosa Island and
relocated. As of September 2005, the best estimates are that 1 to 2
adult females, 1 adult male, and 2 to 3 sub-adults remain on Santa Cruz
Island and only 1 adult female remains on Santa Rosa Island (Sharpe,
pers. comm., 2005).

#### Peregrine Falcons

Peregrine falcons once numbered in the hundreds in Southern California,
and between 20 and 30 pairs nested on the Channel Islands prior to 1945
(Kiff 1980, Hunt 1994). However, peregrine falcons had disappeared from
the Channel Islands by 1955, and only two pairs were located in
California in 1970 (see Section 2). The peregrine falcon has made a
dramatic recovery since 1975, in large part due to an active release
program conducted by the Santa Cruz Predatory Bird Research Group.
Incubation of thin-shelled eggs removed from wild nests and a captive
breeding program provided source birds for the release program. At least
719 peregrine falcons were released in California between 1978 and 1993
(Hunt 1994). Between 1985 and 1993, six peregrine falcon hatchlings were
released at sites on San Miguel Island, and 17 hatchlings were released
on Santa Catalina Island.

The minimum breeding age for peregrine falcons is 2 years. In 1987, the
first reestablished peregrine falcon pair was recorded on San Miguel
Island. In 1989, active nests were recorded on Anacapa and Santa Cruz
Islands (Hunt 1994). Between 8 and 10 pairs were noted on the Northern
Channel Islands between 1992 and 1994 (Hunt 1994). In 2004,
approximately 21 peregrine falcon pairs were occupying breeding
territories on six of the eight Channel Islands (PBRG 2004). The
majority of the pairs (18 of 21) occur on the Northern Channel Islands
(San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and Anacapa Islands), and 3 pairs
occur on the Southern Channel Islands (2 pairs were recently confirmed
on Santa Catalina Island and 1 on Santa Barbara Island). Peregrine
falcons nest almost exclusively on cliff ledges that are associated with
suitable foraging areas; they also have been observed nesting on
man-made structures in urbanized areas (CINMS 2000).

The release program has had substantial success in increasing the
population of peregrine falcons in California and the rest of the United
States. The number of peregrine falcons in California increased from an
estimated low of 5 to 10 breeding pairs in the early 1970s to a minimum
of 167 occupied sites in 1998 (Herman et al. 1970, USFWS 1999). The
Pacific Coast Recovery Plan for the peregrine falcon outlined a recovery
goal of 120 pairs in California, including 5 pairs for the Channel
Islands (USFWS 1982).

The peregrine falcon was de-listed from the List of Threatened and
Endangered Species on August 25, 1999 (USFWS 1999). At the time of
de-listing, the recovery goals had been met in California, though full
recovery in some areas of California was impeded by ongoing elevated
levels of DDTs (Jarman 1994, Walton 1997). Eggshells measured in
1992--1993 averaged 19 percent thinner than eggshells measured before
1947 and had elevated concentrations of DDE (Hunt 1994, Kiff 1994).
Productivity rates are substantially lower when eggshells range between
17 and 20 percent thinner than normal (Peakall and Kiff 1988). It has
been estimated that 1 ppm of DDE in the diet of peregrine falcons is
sufficient to cause the eggshells to be 16 percent thinner, and 3 ppm of
DDE results in eggshells that are 10 to 28 percent thinner (Enderson et
al. 1982, Deweese et al. 1986, Hunt 1994). Peregrine falcons prey almost
exclusively on other birds. Data collected in 1992 indicated that
contamination in the food web was still at sufficient levels to result
in substantial eggshell thinning on the Channel Islands.

As mentioned above, the peregrine falcon is a highly specialized feeder,
concentrating almost entirely on other birds. Kiff (1980) reports that
peregrine falcons prey on at least 22 species of birds on the Channel
Islands and Coronado Islands. Dietary studies of peregrine falcons in
1992 and 1993 showed that gulls, alcids, and land birds constituted
between 73 and 82 percent of their diet, depending on season (Hunt
1994). Grebes, shorebirds, and phalaropes constituted a smaller but
still substantial part of their diet. Within these groups of birds, the
species that accounted for 5 percent or more of the prey biomass
included the California gull (*Larus californicus*), western gull
(*Larus occidentalis*), Cassin's auklet (*Ptychoramphus aleuticus*),
Xantus's murrelet (*Synthliboramphus hypoleucus*), unidentified grebes,
red phalarope (*Phalaropus fulicaria*), rock dove (*Columba livia*),
mourning dove (*Zenaida macroura*), and European starling (*Sturnus
vulgaris*).

In 1998, eggs from eight peregrine falcon territories on the Northern
Channel Islands were sampled to determine eggshell thinning. The average
eggshell thinning for all territories on the Channel Islands was
slightly below 17 percent. In most coastal Channel Island territories,
eggshell thinning exceeded the 17 percent level, whereas the results in
most inland Channel Island territories were less than this level (Walton
1999). These differences are likely a reflection of the higher levels of
DDE in marine-oriented prey (i.e., seabirds) than terrestrial prey
(i.e., land birds) (Walton 1999).

#### Seabirds

A total of 43 species of seabirds have been reported in the SCB (Baird
1993). These include albatrosses, alcids, cormorants, gulls, jaegers,
pelicans, phalaropes, shearwaters, storm-petrels, skimmers, and terns. A
total of 14 species of seabirds breed on the Channel Islands (Table
3.4-3). The following sections provide brief profiles of the different
types of seabirds within the SCB. Foraging areas for selected seabirds
are shown in Figure 3.4-4.

##### Alcids

This group of seabirds includes the common murre (*Uria aalge*),
Xantus's murrelet, Cassin's auklet, Rhinoceros auklet (*Cerorhinca
monocerata*), pigeon guillemot (*Cepphus columba*), and the tufted
puffin (*Fratercula cirrhata*).

Common murres spend most of their time on the open ocean; they nest on
sea cliffs and protected seacoasts (Baird 1993). They build no nests and
lay their eggs on narrow rock ledges. They dive to depths of up to 100
meters (328 feet) and feed primarily on fish, shrimp, and squid. They
have been extirpated from the Channel Islands, but were observed in 2004
in breeding plumage on Prince Island (Whitworth, pers. comm., 2004).
Common murres may also be observed in the SCB in offshore areas. They
are particularly vulnerable to entanglement in gill nets due to their
underwater foraging behavior, oil spills because they spend long periods
sitting on the water, and El Niño events that affect their food supply.

  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Table 3.4-3\                                                                                                    
  List of Seabirds                                                                                                
  with Breeding                                                                                                   
  Colonies on the                                                                                                 
  Channel Islands                                                                                                 
  ---------------- ------------------ -------- --------- ------- ------- --------- --------- --------- ---------- ----------
  Common Name      Scientific Name    Status   Channel                                                            
                                               Islands                                                            

                                               San       Santa   Santa   Anacapa   Santa     San       Santa      San
                                               Miguel    Rosa    Cruz              Barbara   Nicolas   Catalina   Clemente

  Ashy             *Oceanodroma       SSC      X                 X       S         X                   S          X
  storm-petrel     homochroa*                                                                                     

  Black            *Oceanodroma       SSC      S                         S         X                              S
  storm-petrel     melania*                                                                                       

  Leach's          *Oceanodroma                X                                   X                              
  storm-petrel     leucorhoa beali*                                                                               

  California brown *Pelecanus         FE, SE   E                 E       X         X                              
  pelican          occidentalis*                                                                                  

  Brandt's         *Phalacrocorax              X         X       X       X         X         X                    X
  cormorant        penicillatus*                                                                                  

  Double-crested   *Phalacrocorax     SSC      X                 E       X         X                   E          
  cormorant        auritus*                                                                                       

  Pelagic          *Phalacrocorax              X         X       X       X         X                              
  cormorant        pelagicus*                                                                                     

  Western gull     *Larus                      X         X       X       X         X         X         X          X
                   occidentalis*                                                                                  

  Common murre     *Uria aalge*                E                                                                  

  Pigeon guillemot *Cepphus columba*           X         X       X       X         X                              

  Cassin's auklet  *Ptychoramphus              X                 X       X         E                   X          
                   aleuticus                                                                                      
                   aleuticus*                                                                                     

  Rhinoceros       *Cerrorhinca       SSC      X                                                                  
  auklet           moncerata*                                                                                     

  Tufted puffin    *Fratercula        SSC      S                 E       E         E                              
                   cirrhata*                                                                                      

  Xantus's         *Synthiboramphus   SSC, ST  X                 X       X         X                   S          X
  murrelet         hypoleucus                                                                                     
                   scrippsi*                                                                                      

  FE = Federal                                                                                                    
  endangered\                                                                                                     
  SE = State                                                                                                      
  endangered, ST=                                                                                                 
  State                                                                                                           
  threatened\                                                                                                     
  SSC = Species of                                                                                                
  Special Concern\                                                                                                
  Notes: X-                                                                                                       
  Breeder; S-                                                                                                     
  Suspected                                                                                                       
  Breeder; E =                                                                                                    
  Extirpated\                                                                                                     
  Sources: Carter                                                                                                 
  et al. 1992,                                                                                                    
  Wolf 2002,                                                                                                      
  Carter, pers.                                                                                                   
  comm., 2003.                                                                                                    
  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Xantus's murrelets are small, burrow-nesting seabirds (Unitt 1984) that
establish colonies on crevices, ledges, and sometimes under dense
vegetation. They are particularly vulnerable to nest predation by deer
mice and introduced rats on some of the Channel Islands. This species is
nocturnal and feeds mostly on fish such as anchovies, the larvae of
other fish, and aquatic invertebrates (CINMS 2000). The worldwide
breeding range of Xantus's murrelet is restricted to the Channel Islands
and the west coast of Baja California, Mexico. Currently, this range
consists of only 12 nesting islands scattered along 500 miles of
coastline (Burkett et al. 2003). Historical accounts and literature from
the 1940s indicate that Xantus's murrelet numbers have declined
substantially. At present, the murrelet is considered an uncommon
species, with approximately

![](media/image15.png){width="5.934722222222222in" height="8.625in"}

Figure 3.4-4. Most heavily used foraging areas for selected seabirds in
the SCB.

3,000 breeding birds in California and less than 10,000 birds worldwide
(Burkett et al. 2003). The California Fish and Game Commission made a
finding in February 2004 to list the Xantus's murrelet as a threatened
species under the California Endangered Species Act. This listing was
finalized in June 2004 (CDFG 2004a).

In May 2004, the Xantus's murrelet was also listed as a candidate
species for listing as a federally threatened species.

Cassin's auklets breed primarily on Prince Island (near San Miguel
Island) and have been observed and may be breeding on other Channel
Islands (Carter et al. 1992, Wolf 2002). During the breeding season,
Cassin's auklets are dispersed from the midshelf seaward to 150
kilometers (93 miles) offshore. From August through October, following
the nesting season, they are observed throughout the SCB (Briggs et al.
1987, Baird 1993). Cassin's auklets are small, burrow-nesting seabirds
that are nocturnal and feed diurnally (mainly on copepods and euphasids)
at sea, mainly offshore around the Channel Islands. The species is
listed as a second priority Species of Special Concern (PRBO 2005).

Rhinoceros auklets are abundant during the winter months on offshore
waters along the California coastline concentrating seaward of the shelf
break, where they spend their time resting and foraging (Briggs et al
1987, Baird 1993). No historical data exist on breeding populations
prior to 1991; however, in 1994, this species was recorded breeding on
San Miguel Island (Carter, pers. comm., 2003). The species breeds
colonially in burrows in maritime and inland grassy slopes, occasionally
on flat ground on forest floors (CINMS 2000). It feeds mainly on small
fish, and sometimes squid. Auklets are particularly vulnerable to oil
spills because they spend a considerable amount of time sitting on the
water (Briggs et al. 1987, Baird 1993).

The pigeon guillemot is more abundant north of Point Conception, but
breeding colonies are located on San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz,
Anacapa, and Santa Barbara Islands, which form the southern limit of
their breeding range (Baird 1993). This species can breed either in
colonies or solitarily on cliffs and slopes, occasionally excavating a
burrow; eggs are laid in natural crevices or holes (CINMS 2000). It
feeds on small demersal fish (blennies and sculpins) and nearshore
schooling fish.

Tufted puffins bred on the Channel Islands (Anacapa, Santa Barbara, and
San Miguel Islands), the southernmost part of their breeding range,
until they were extirpated in the mid-1900s. Recently, this species has
been observed in small numbers on Prince Island near San Miguel Island
(McChesney et al. 1995, Wolf 2002). The tufted puffin is listed as a
first priority Species of Special Concern (PRBO 2005). It builds its
nests in holes or crevices; it feeds by diving on fish, squid, and
crustaceans and catching them while underwater (CINMS 2000).

##### Cormorants

This group of seabirds include the Brandt's cormorant (*Phalacrocorax
penicillatus*), the double-crested cormorant (*Phalacrocorax auritus*),
and the pelagic cormorant (*Phalacrocorax pelagicus*). These species
spend most of their time on land roosting and typically forage within 1
kilometer (0.6 miles) of the shore (McChesney et al. 2000).

Brandt's cormorant is considered to be one of the most abundant seabirds
in the SCB (Baird 1993). It breeds on all of the Channel Islands with
the exception of Santa Catalina Island. This cormorant species is
typically found within 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) of the shore and no
further than 25 kilometers (15.5 miles) from the mainland or island
roosts and colonies. It breeds on islands and gently sloping hillsides
(CINMS 2000). The most heavily used foraging areas are around the
Channel Islands (Briggs et al. 1987, Baird 1993). It feeds by diving and
capturing fish. Although not listed, the Brandt's cormorant has been
affected by human disturbance, habitat destruction, and DDE in their
eggshells, which causes nesting failure (Gress et al. 1973, Hunt et al.
1980, Baird 1993).

Double-crested cormorants breed on San Miguel, Anacapa, and Santa
Barbara Islands; they have been extirpated on Santa Cruz and Santa
Catalina Islands (Carter et al. 1992, Wolf 2002). These cormorants were
once abundant in the SCB; however, habitat destruction, the presence of
DDE in their eggshells, and human disturbance have led to nesting
failure and have contributed to population declines (Remsen 1978, Gress
et al. 1973, Hunt et al. 1980, Baird 1993). Populations have increased
since the 1980s; and breeding populations on the Channel Islands have
numbered approximately 2,500 birds in the 1990s (Carter et al. 1992,
Gress 1994, McChesney et al. 2000). Double-crested cormorants also have
been observed roosting and foraging in the winter in the open water
habitats of Bolsa Chica wetlands (Chambers Group 2000). It feeds on
schooling fish, aquatic invertebrates, and (rarely) small invertebrates.
It builds a nesting platform of sticks, seaweed, and other material and
nests along the coast, around marshes or lakes, or on coastal cliffs
(CINMS 2000).

Pelagic cormorants are found year-round in the SCB. They breed in small
colonies primarily on the Northern Channel Islands and Santa Barbara
Island. They are found along the north coast of the SCB, near Point
Conception. Peak numbers occur in mid-winter (McChesney et al. 2000).

##### Gulls

This group of seabirds includes Bonaparte's gull (*Larus philadelphia*),
Heermann's gull (*Larus heermanni*), the ring-billed gull (*Larus
delawarensis*), the California gull, the herring gull (*Larus
argentatus*), the western gull, and the black-legged kittiwake (*Rissa
tridactyla*).

Bonaparte's gulls overwinter in the SCB from December through March,
congregating along the coastal shores (Briggs et al. 1987, Baird 1993).
These gulls forage along the mainland coast and around the Channel
Islands.

Heermann's gulls are found in large numbers in San Diego County and
along the beaches in the Santa Barbara Channel (Briggs et al. 1987,
Baird 1993). Only small numbers of these gulls can be found over open
water or near the Channel Islands; most forage within a few kilometers
of the mainland shore.

Ring-billed gulls congregate in sheltered bays and estuaries along the
mainland coast of the SCB. In winter, they rarely venture further than 1
kilometer (0.6 miles) offshore, and during late spring they migrate to
the Rocky Mountain states to begin breeding (Baird 1976).

California gulls are abundant in the SCB along the shallow waters of the
coast during the fall and winter months (Briggs et al. 1987, Baird
1993). They typically forage along the mainland coast and around the
Northern Channel Islands. Peak numbers occur in the SCB from January
through March. During the spring the birds migrate inland to begin
breeding.

Herring gulls are found throughout the SCB on island and mainland
beaches. During the winter, smaller populations are found on the beaches
of San Diego and the eastern portion of the Santa Barbara Channel, and
larger populations are found foraging west of the Santa Rosa--Cortes
Ridge. Peak numbers occur from January through March (Briggs et al.
1987, Baird 1993).

Western gulls are found extensively throughout the SCB. They are one of
the most abundant breeding seabirds in the SCB (McChesney et al. 2000).
These birds breed during the months of April through August on all of
the Channel Islands. Anacapa Island currently hosts approximately 5,000
breeding pairs (Martin, pers. comm., 2005), and from 1994--1996 western
gull populations on Santa Barbara Island ranged from 2,500 to 4,100
breeding pairs. Western gulls also occasionally breed in small numbers
along the Southern California mainland at North San Diego Bay, the La
Jolla cliffs in San Diego County, Lower Newport Bay in Orange County,
and Vandenberg Air Force Base in Santa Barbara County. Western gulls
breed colonially, and nests are located on rocky cliffs or headlands on
the ground. Western gulls are also found foraging year-round along the
shallow waters of the SCB, such as in Anaheim Bay and Upper Newport Bay
(MEC Analytical Systems 1995, MEC Analytical Systems 1997). They seldom
venture further than 25 kilometers (15.5 miles) offshore of the shelf
break. Periods of storms and ocean warming have contributed to
population declines (Briggs et al. 1987, Baird 1993).

Black-legged kittiwakes are a Northern California resident species that
occasionally migrates to the SCB during the winter. During this time
large numbers of kittiwakes can be found on the open ocean, inshore
waters, and along beaches and estuaries. A few individuals can be seen
in the SCB throughout the year (Briggs et al. 1987, Baird 1993).

##### California Brown Pelicans

The California brown pelican (*Pelecanus occidentalis*) largely breeds
on Anacapa Island in the Channel Islands. A smaller colony also exists
on Santa Barbara Island. In 2002, the number of nests and fledglings
produced by the Southern California nesting population was estimated at
6,440 and 3,220 individuals, respectively, though the number of nest
attempts and fledglings produced is variable by year (the range is 628
to 6,440 and 372 to 6,390, respectively, during the past twenty years
\[1983--2002\]) (Gress et al. 2003).

The Channel Islands also provide important nocturnal and diurnal
roosting sites for this ground-nesting bird. High numbers of pelicans
(up to 6,000) roost on Santa Barbara Island compared to other areas in
the SCB (Baird 1993). Pelicans also roost on a variety of shoreline
structures (such as offshore rocks and islands) where human disturbance
and predation from mammals is limited. Along the coast of the SCB,
pelicans primarily use artificial structures such as breakwaters or
jetties. Some important mainland roosting sites are the breakwaters of
Long Beach Harbor and Marina del Rey due to the length of the
structures, which provide unlimited capacity and protection from winter
surf (Strong and Jaques 2003). Higher numbers of pelicans roost on the
mainland coast during the months of June through October, as the
pelicans move away from their nesting sites. Abundances at roosting
sites are affected not only by the time of the year but also by pulses
of migration, large storm events (such as El Niño), or high localized
abundances of prey. Non-existing or limited roosting habitat occurs from
Point Dume to the Santa Monica breakwater (Strong and Jaques 2003).
Figure 3.4-5 shows California brown pelican roosting sites along the
Southern California coast.

California brown pelicans primarily forage in shallow waters residing
within 20 kilometers (12.4 miles) of the mainland coast (Briggs et al.
1987, Baird 1993). These birds have a preference for warmer waters and
have been known to concentrate at sea during the months of August
through October, when surface temperatures are higher. The California
brown pelican is listed as state and federally endangered and is further
discussed in Section 3.4.6 of this report.

![](media/image16.jpeg){width="6.595138888888889in" height="4.88125in"}

Figure 3.4-5. California brown pelican roosting sites along the Southern
California coast.

##### Storm-petrels

This group of seabirds includes Leach's storm-petrel (*Oceanodroma
leucorhoa*), the black storm-petrel (*Oceanodroma melania*), the ashy
storm-petrel (*Oceanodroma homochroa*), and the least storm-petrel
(*Oceanodroma microsoma*).

Leach's storm-petrels can be found nesting in small numbers on Prince
Island (near San Miguel Island) and Santa Barbara Island in the SCB
(Figure 3.1-5). A highly pelagic species, this storm-petrel is most
numerous offshore of the central continental slope, where they spend
most of their time foraging for food. Non-breeding Leach's storm-petrels
are found more than 75 kilometers (46.5 miles) offshore during their
mid-summer migration (Briggs et al. 1987, Baird 1993). Although the
majority continue to migrate northwest, a few can be found during the
winter months 100 kilometers (62 miles) offshore of Point Conception
(Crossin 1974).

Black storm-petrels are found year-round in the SCB, preferring to
forage in waters with warm surface temperatures. Small numbers of this
species nest on Santa Barbara Island and Sutil Island; these constitute
the entire breeding population of California (Pitman and Speich 1976,
Baird 1993) (Figure 3.1-5). Peak numbers occur during the late summer
months through the fall. The black storm-petrel is listed as a third
priority Species of Special Concern (PRBO 2005).

The ashy storm-petrel is a sparrow-sized seabird endemic to California
islands and a few adjacent mainland sites (Ainley 1995). Ashy
storm-petrels are restricted to the northeast Pacific Ocean, breeding on
islands from central to Southern California (with a few small colonies
in Baja California and Northern California). Unlike most other
storm-petrels, ashy storm-petrels are non-migratory, residing within the
California Current system year-round. Approximately half of the world's
population of ashy storm-petrels, which is estimated at less than 10,000
individuals, nest at the Farallon Islands, and half at the Channel
Islands, primarily at San Miguel, Santa Barbara, and Santa Cruz Islands
(Carter et al. 1992). During the past 20 years, this species has
undergone a dramatic decline in abundance at its largest colony on the
Farallon Islands (Sydeman et al. 1998). In the Channel Islands, ashy
storm-petrels nest at scattered locations among talus, within rocky
crevices in sea caves, and on steep, inaccessible cliffs (Hunt et al.
1979, Carter et al. 1992). The ashy storm-petrel is a globally rare
seabird species. Currently, it has the following listings: "near
threatened" by the World Conservation Union (Bird Life International
2000), Category 2 Candidate Species under the Endangered Species Act
(USFWS 1994), and a Species of Management Concern by USFWS and CDFG.

Least storm-petrels are found in the SCB during the fall months. In the
late 1980s, approximately 200,000 birds could be found during this time
of year, usually in the warmer waters of the SCB (Briggs et al. 1987).

##### Skimmers and Terns 

Skimmers and terns are seabirds that breed in coastal areas of the SCB.
This group of seabirds includes the royal tern (*Sterna maxima*),
elegant tern (*Sterna elegans*), common tern (*Sterna hirundo*), arctic
tern (*Sterna paradisaea*), Forster's tern (*Sterna forsteri*), Caspian
tern (*Sterna caspia*), black skimmer (*Rynchops niger*), and the
California least tern (*Sterna antillarum browni*). Tern populations
have been greatly reduced since the early part of the twentieth century
due to human disturbance and destruction of their habitat. Human
population growth has infringed on their nesting sites, which mainly
occur on mainland beaches, estuaries, and lagoons (Baird 1993). The
California least tern has been listed as a federally Endangered Species
and is discussed under threatened and endangered species (Section
3.4.6).

Royal terns nest in San Diego Bay and in Bolsa Chica Lagoon (Baird
1993). They are found in small numbers (a few hundred) along the shores
of San Miguel, Santa Rosa, and San Clemente Islands during their
non-breeding season. They are rarely found greater than 1 kilometer (0.6
miles) offshore preferring areas of warmer waters. Peak abundance is
during the month of September. Royal terns are listed as a third
priority Species of Special Concern (PRBO 2005).

Elegant terns have been observed nesting in San Diego Bay, Bolsa Chica
Lagoon, and along the western riprap of Pier 400 in the Port of Los
Angeles (Baird 1993, Chambers Group 2000). They have also been sighted
courting along the Santa Margarita River estuary at Camp Pendleton.
Non-breeding elegant terns are found on mainland beaches throughout
Southern California, and are rarely sighted more than 4 kilometers (2.5
miles) offshore of the mainland, preferring areas of warmer waters.
Numbers range in the several thousands and are on the increase.
Northward migration to Northern California occurs during the late summer
and fall (Baird 1993). The elegant tern is listed as a Species of
Special Concern (PRBO 2005).

Common terns and arctic terns are migratory species and do not breed in
the SCB. They are typically found west of the Santa Barbara channel to
the Cortes Bank during their fall migration to South America, where they
spend the winter. Common terns in the SCB usually occur within 25
kilometers (15.5 miles) of the mainland on coastal beaches and estuaries
and forage close to shore. Arctic terns are more numerous than common
terns over 25 kilometers (15.5 miles) offshore. Peak abundance for both
species in the SCB occurs during their spring migration (April to May).
Approximately 30,000 to 50,000 common and arctic terns were reported in
the early 1990s (Briggs et al. 1987, Baird 1993) and these species today
remain common visitors to the SCB.

Forster's terns are typically found throughout the SCB foraging along
mainland beaches, coastal bays, and estuaries during the late spring and
summer (Baird 1993). They have been observed nesting in Upper Newport
Bay and Bolsa Chica (MEC Analytical Systems 1997, Chambers Group 2000).
This species can also be found up to 15 kilometers (9.3 miles) from the
mainland shore. Approximately 500 Forster's terns were found along the
beaches and 80 at Bolsa Chica Lagoon during the early 1990s (Baird
1993).

Caspian terns are observed year-round in the SCB. They typically nest
along the coast and in marshes, rivers, and inland lakes (NGS 1987).
Nesting sites have been recorded at San Diego Bay (less than a thousand
breeding pairs) and Bolsa Chica Lagoon (around two hundred breeding
pairs) (CDFG 1980, Baird 1993, Chambers Group 2000). They also have been
observed nesting in the Port of Los Angeles along Pier 400 (over 300
nests) (Port of LA 2005).

Black skimmer nesting sites are located at Bolsa Chica Lagoon (more than
300), Anaheim Bay, and San Diego Bay (Baird 1993, Chambers Group 2000).
They are relatively common in the Bolsa Chica lowlands during migration
and winter periods and have been observed nesting in the Port of Los
Angeles along Pier 400 (183 birds) (Chambers Group 2000). The black
skimmer is listed as a Species of Special Concern (PRBO 2005).

#### Other Seabirds

Other seabird species that are occasionally found in the SCB include the
black-footed albatross (*Phoebastria nigripes*), Laysan's albatross (*P.
immutabilis*), and the short-tailed albatross (*P. albatrus*); the
northern fulmar (*Fulmarus glacialis*); the pomarine jaeger
(*Stercorarius pomarinus*) and the parasitic jaeger (*S. parasiticus*);
the red phalarope (*Phalaropus fulicaria*) and the red-necked phalarope
(*P. lobatus*); and the pink-footed shearwater (*Puffinus creatopus*),
sooty shearwater (*P. griseus*), Buller's shearwater (*P. bulleri*),
black-vented shearwater (*P. opisthomelas*), and the short-tailed
shearwater (*P. tenuirostris*). Water birds found in the SCB include the
western grebe (*Aechmophorus occidentalis*) and Clark's grebe (*A.
clarkii*); the Pacific loon (*Gavia pacifica*), common loon (*G. immer*)
and the red-throated loon (*G. stellata*); and the surf scoter (sea
duck) (*Melanitta perspicillata*) and the white-winged scoter (sea duck)
(*M. fusca*).

### Marine Mammals

The waters off the coast of California support numerous species of
marine mammals, including sea lions and seals (pinnipeds), dolphins,
whales, porpoises (cetaceans), and sea otters. Thirty-four species have
been recorded in the SCB. Many of these species are common to the area,
having established breeding populations or foraging grounds. Other
species migrate through the SCB at certain times of the year, and many
species are infrequent or rare (Bonnell and Dailey 1993). These marine
mammals have varied diets, including pelagic and demersal fish,
cephalopods, and crustaceans.

The following subsections summarize the more common marine mammals that
occur in the SCB. This discussion covers species distribution, breeding
populations (if they exist in the SCB), migratory patterns, and relevant
dietary information. The last subsection reviews marine mammal
strandings in Los Angeles County and Orange County based on the most
recent data available.

#### Sea Lions and Seals

Six pinniped species are known to inhabit the SCB: the California sea
lion (*Zalophus californianus californianus*), Pacific harbor seal
(*Phoca vitulina richardsi*), northern elephant seal (*Mirounga
angustirostris*), northern fur seal (*Callorhinus ursinus*), northern or
Stellar sea lion (*Eumetopias jubatus*), and the Guadalupe fur seal
(*Arctocephalus townsendi*). Of these, the California sea lion, Pacific
harbor seal, northern elephant seal, and the northern fur seal have
breeding populations within the SCB. Pacific harbor seals and northern
elephant seals breed throughout the Channel Islands (Stewart et al.
1994, Bonnell and Dailey 1993). The breeding range of the California sea
lion extends from the Channel Islands south to the Gulf of California in
Mexico (Bonnell and Dailey 1993). Northern fur seals breed on San Miguel
Island (USDI et al. 2002 \[2003\]). Although northern sea lions and
Guadalupe fur seals once ranged extensively along California, they are
rarely seen today in the SCB (Bonnell and Dailey 1993) and are not
discussed further in this report.

#### Sea Otters

The normal range of the sea otter (*Enhydra lutris*) in California
extends from the Santa Maria River north to Point Año Nuevo. In 1987, 69
sea otters were translocated to San Nicolas Island, within the SCB, in
an attempt to rebuild the California population, which had greatly
declined due to commercial hunting into the early 1900s. In recent
years, it has been estimated that approximately 20 sea otters remain
around the island. Quite a few of the sea otters died or were
unaccounted for after a winter storm. Others migrated to the mainland
and subsequently were returned to their range in central California
(Bonnell and Dailey 1993).

It is estimated that sea otters in California can live up to 12--16
years (Pietz et al. 1988). Females usually have one pup every one or two
years and give birth in the water. They care for their young for about
six months. The pups reach sexual maturity in about 3 to 4 years.
Dietary preferences are primarily macroinvertebrates, including mussels,
crabs, clams, tunicates, abalone, and sea stars. Sea otters also prey on
octopus (Estes et al. 1981, Ralls et al. 1988). They live in kelp beds
and seldom forage more than 1 to 1.5 miles from shore.

#### Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises

Several species of baleen and toothed whales may be seen offshore of
Southern California. The whale species commonly seen in the SCB include
grey (*Eschrichtius robustus*), blue (*Balaenoptera musculus*), fin
(*Balaenoptera physalus*), minke, and humpback (*Megaptera
novaeangliae*) whales. Uncommon whale species include beaked whale
species, sperm (*Physeter macrocephalus*), killer (*Orcinus orca*),
false killer (*Pseudorca crassidens*), pygmy sperm (*Kogia* breviceps),
dwarf sperm (*Kogia simius*), northern right (*Balaena glacialis*), sei
(*Balaenoptera borealis*) and Bryde's whales (*Balaenoptera edeni*).

Dolphins and porpoises belong to the same order as toothed whales
(*Odontocetes*). Common species within the SCB include common
(*Delphinus delphis*), bottlenose (*Tursiops truncates*), northern
right-whale (*Lissodelphis borealis*) and Risso's (*Grampus griseus*)
dolphins as well as Dall's porpoise (*Phocoenoides dalli*). Two species,
the harbor porpoise (*Phocoena phocoena*) and the striped dolphin
(*Stemella coeruleoalba*, a tropical delphinid), mainly occur offshore
on the outer continental shelf and are infrequent or rare visitors to
the SCB.

### Terrestrial Mammals

Three native terrestrial mammal species are found on the Channel
Islands: the island fox (*Urocyon littoralus)*, which is federally
endangered, the deer mouse (*Peromyscus maniculatus*), and the island
spotted skunk (*Spilogale gracilis*).

The island fox, a diminutive relative of the mainland gray fox is
distributed as six subspecies, one on each of the six largest California
Channel Islands. Three of the subspecies occur on the Northern Channel
Islands, within the boundaries of Channel Islands National Park: the San
Miguel island fox, Santa Rosa Island fox, and the Santa Cruz Island fox.
The latter occurs on both National Park Service (NPS) lands and lands
owned by The Nature Conservancy on Santa Cruz Island. On the Southern
Channel Islands, the San Nicolas Island fox and San Clemente Island fox
occur on lands managed by the U. S. Navy, and the Santa Catalina Island
fox occurs on lands managed by the Catalina Island Conservancy.

Island foxes have undergone a catastrophic decline on San Miguel, Santa
Rosa, and Santa Cruz Islands (Coonan et al. 1998, Roemer 1999), as well
as an unrelated catastrophic decline on Santa Catalina Island. The
decline in populations on the Northern Channel Islands was caused by the
recent appearance of golden eagles as a resident species on the island.
Golden eagles are aggressive predators of terrestrial mammals and were
never known to be year-round residents on the islands prior to the
1990s. A captive breeding program, designed to protect the subspecies
from elimination by enhancing breeding, was initiated on all the
Northern Channel Islands where fox populations declined. Efforts are
currently under way to remove golden eagles on the Northern Channel
Islands by live trapping and translocating the birds.

The fox decline on Santa Catalina Island was due to the introduction of
distemper to the island, probably by a domestic dog. The Santa Catalina
Island fox population has largely recovered, and the Catalina Island
Conservancy is working to educate the public about the threat that
domestic dog diseases pose to island foxes.

All of the Channel Islands (including Prince Island and Sutil Rocks)
have native deer mice. Separate subspecies have been identified on each
of the major islands, but the mice on Prince Island and Sutil Rocks are
not known to be separate subspecies from the mice on San Miguel Island
or Santa Barbara Island, respectively.

Island spotted skunks occur only on Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa Islands,
having been extirpated from San Miguel Island. Little is known about the
ecology of the Channel Islands spotted skunk. Skunk populations on Santa
Cruz and Santa Rosa Islands appear to have increased substantially in
conjunction with the decline of fox populations.

### Threatened and Endangered Species

Several threatened and endangered species occur within the study area.
Several of these species are associated with habitats that have become
limited within the ranges of these species (e.g., coastal wetlands,
riparian forests, or dune habitats). Other species are endemic to the
Channel Islands and have been impacted by feral and/or exotic animals
and human disturbance. In a few cases, the species were put into
jeopardy by DDT contamination, human disturbance, and/or
overexploitation.

Table 3.4-4 lists the threatened and endangered (federally and
state-listed) plants of the Channel Islands. Table 3.4-5 presents the
threatened and endangered (federally and state-listed) animals of the
study area and the parts of the study area where they occur.

<table>
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 21%" />
<col style="width: 24%" />
<col style="width: 8%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
<col style="width: 5%" />
</colgroup>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th colspan="11">Table 3.4-4<br />
Threatened and Endangered Plants of the Channel Islands</th>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<th>Common Name</th>
<th>Scientific Name</th>
<th>Status</th>
<th><blockquote>
<p>San Miguel Island</p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p>Santa Rosa Island</p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p>Santa Cruz Island</p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p>Anacapa Island</p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p>Santa Barbara Island</p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p>San Nicolas Island</p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p>Santa Catalina Island</p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p>San Clemente Island</p>
</blockquote></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Hoffmann’s rock cress</td>
<td><em>Arabis hoffmannii</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Santa Rosa Island manzanita</td>
<td><em>Arctostaphylos confertiflora</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Island barberry</td>
<td><em>Berberis pinnata</em> ssp. <em>Insularis</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X?</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>San Clemente Island Indian paintbrush</td>
<td><em>Castilleja grisea</em></td>
<td>SE/FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Soft-leaved Indian paintbrush</td>
<td><em>Castilleja mollis</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Catalina Island mountain-mahogany</td>
<td><em>Cercocarpus traskiae</em></td>
<td>SE/FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>San Clemente Island larkspur</td>
<td><em>Delphinium variegatum</em> ssp. <em>Kinkiense</em></td>
<td>SE/FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Beach spectaclepod</td>
<td><em>Dithyrea maritima</em></td>
<td>ST</td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Santa Cruz Island dudleya</td>
<td><em>Dudleya nesiotica</em></td>
<td>FT</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Santa Barbara Island dudleya</td>
<td><em>Dudleya traskiae</em></td>
<td>SE/FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>San Nicolas Island buckwheat</td>
<td><em>Eriogonum grande</em> var. <em>timorum</em></td>
<td>SE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Box bedstraw</td>
<td><em>Galium buxifolium</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>San Miguel Island bedstraw</td>
<td><em>Galium californicum</em> ssp. <em>Miguelense</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>San Clemente Island bedstraw</td>
<td><em>Galium catalinense</em> ssp. <em>Acrispum</em></td>
<td>SE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Hoffmann’s slender-flowered gilia</td>
<td><em>Gilia tenuiflora</em> ssp. <em>Hoffmannii</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Island rush-rose</td>
<td><em>Helianthemum greenei</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td>X?</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Santa Cruz Island woodland star</td>
<td><em>Lithophragma maximum</em></td>
<td>SE/FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>E</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>San Clemente Island bird’s-foot trefoil</td>
<td><em>Lotus argophyllus</em> var. <em>adsurgens</em></td>
<td>SE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Santa Cruz Island bird’s-foot trefoil</td>
<td><em>Lotus argophyllus</em> var. <em>niveus</em></td>
<td>SE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>San Clemente Island lotus</td>
<td><em>Lotus dendroideus</em> var. <em>traskiae</em></td>
<td>SE/FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>San Clemente Island bush mallow</td>
<td><em>Malacothamnus clementinus</em></td>
<td>SE/FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Santa Cruz Island bush mallow</td>
<td><em>Malacothamnus fasciculatus</em> var. <em>nesioticus</em></td>
<td>SE/FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Santa Cruz Island malacothrix</td>
<td><em>Malacothrix indecora</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Island malacothrix</td>
<td><em>Malacothrix squalida</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Lyon’s pentachaeta</td>
<td><em>Pentachaeta lyonii</em></td>
<td>SE/FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Northern Channel Islands phacelia</td>
<td><em>Phacelia insularis</em> var. <em>insularis</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Santa Cruz Island rock cress</td>
<td><em>Sibara filifolia</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>E</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>E</td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Santa Cruz Island fringepod</td>
<td><em>Thysanocarpus conchuliferus</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td colspan="11"><p>Notes:</p>
<p>E=Extirpated in these localities as reported by Philbrick 1980.</p>
<p>FE=Federally endangered</p>
<p>FT=Federally Threatened</p>
<p>SE=State Endangered</p>
<p>ST=State Threatened</p>
<p>X= extant</p>
<p>X?=location uncertain</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

<table>
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 25%" />
<col style="width: 25%" />
<col style="width: 8%" />
<col style="width: 4%" />
<col style="width: 4%" />
<col style="width: 4%" />
<col style="width: 4%" />
<col style="width: 4%" />
<col style="width: 4%" />
<col style="width: 4%" />
<col style="width: 4%" />
<col style="width: 4%" />
</colgroup>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th colspan="12">Table 3.4-5<br />
Threatened and Endangered Wildlife within the Study Area</th>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<th><strong>Common Name</strong></th>
<th><strong>Scientific Name</strong></th>
<th><strong>Status</strong></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p><strong>San Miguel Island</strong></p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p><strong>Santa Rosa Island</strong></p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p><strong>Santa Cruz Island</strong></p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p><strong>Anacapa Island</strong></p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p><strong>Santa Barbara Island</strong></p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p><strong>San Nicolas Island</strong></p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p><strong>Santa Catalina Island</strong></p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p><strong>San Clemente Island</strong></p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p><strong>Coastal Mainland</strong></p>
</blockquote></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td colspan="12"><strong>Invertebrates</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>El Segundo blue butterfly</td>
<td><em>Euphilotes battoidea allyni</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Palos Verdes blue butterfly</td>
<td><em>Glaucopsyche lygdamus palosverdesensis</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>White abalone</td>
<td><em>Haliotis sorenseni</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>E</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td colspan="12"><strong>Fish</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Southern steelhead trout</td>
<td><em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Tidewater goby</td>
<td><em>Eucyclogobius newberryi</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td colspan="12"><strong>Reptiles</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Island night lizard</td>
<td><em>Xantusia riversiana</em></td>
<td>FT</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Green sea turtle</td>
<td><em>Chelonia mydas</em></td>
<td>FT</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>M</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Leatherback sea turtle</td>
<td><em>Dermochelys coriacea</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Loggerhead sea turtle</td>
<td><em>Caretta caretta</em></td>
<td>FT</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Olive ridley sea turtle</td>
<td><em>Lepidochelys olivacea</em></td>
<td>FT</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>M</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td colspan="12"><strong>Birds</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Bald eagle</td>
<td><em>Haliaeetus leucocephalus</em></td>
<td>SE,FT</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Belding’s savannah sparrow</td>
<td><em>Passerculus sandwichensis beldingi</em></td>
<td>SE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>California black rail</td>
<td><em>Laterallus jamaicensis coterniculis</em></td>
<td>ST</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>E</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>California brown pelican</td>
<td><em>Pelicanus occidentalis californicus</em></td>
<td>SE,FE</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Coastal California gnatcatcher</td>
<td><em>Polioptila californica californica</em></td>
<td>FT</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>California least tern</td>
<td><em>Sterna antillarum browni</em></td>
<td>SE,FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Least Bell’s vireo</td>
<td><em>Vireo bellii pusillus</em></td>
<td>SE,FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Light-footed clapper rail</td>
<td><em>Rallus longirostris levipes</em></td>
<td>SE,FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Marbled murrelet*</td>
<td><em>Brachyramphus marmoratus</em></td>
<td>SE,FT</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Peregrine falcon</td>
<td><em>Falco peregrinus anatum</em></td>
<td>SE</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>San Clemente loggerhead shrike</td>
<td><em>Lanius ludovicianus mearnsi</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>San Clemente sage sparrow</td>
<td><em>Amphispiza belli clementeae</em></td>
<td>FT</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Southwestern willow flycatcher</td>
<td><em>Empidonax traillii extimus</em></td>
<td>SE,FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Western snowy plover</td>
<td><em>Charadrius alexandrinus nivosus</em></td>
<td>FT</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Xantus’s murrelet</td>
<td><em>Synthliboramphus hypoleucus</em></td>
<td>ST</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td colspan="12"><strong>Mammals</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Pacific pocket mouse</td>
<td><em>Perognathus longimembris pacificus</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Island fox</td>
<td><em>Urocyon littoralus</em></td>
<td>ST,FE</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>X</td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Southern sea otter</td>
<td><em>Enhydra lutris nereis</em></td>
<td>FT</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>X</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Guadalupe fur seal*</td>
<td><em>Arctocephalus townsendi</em></td>
<td>ST,FT</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Stellar sea lion*</td>
<td><em>Eumetopias jubatus</em></td>
<td>FT</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Sei whale</td>
<td><em>Balaenoptera borealis</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Blue whale</td>
<td><em>Balaenoptera musculus</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Fin whale</td>
<td><em>Balaenoptera physalus</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Humpback whale</td>
<td><em>Megaptera novaeangliae</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Right whale</td>
<td><em>Balaena glacialis</em></td>
<td>FE</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
<td>M</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td colspan="12"><p>Notes:</p>
<p>*Rarely seen throughout study area.</p>
<p>E=Extirpated in these localities</p>
<p>FE=Federally endangered</p>
<p>FT=Federally Threatened</p>
<p>M=Migratory</p>
<p>SE=State Endangered</p>
<p>ST=State Threatened</p>
<p>X=Extant</p>
<p>X?=location uncertain</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

## Land Use AND RECREATION

### Coastal Land Use and Recreation

The coastal study area encompasses sixteen cities and a number of
unincorporated communities in Los Angeles and Orange Counties (Figures
3.5-1 and 3.5-2). The cities are as follows (generally from north to
south):

-   City of Malibu

-   City of Santa Monica

-   City of Los Angeles

-   City of El Segundo

-   City of Manhattan Beach

-   City of Hermosa Beach

-   City of Redondo Beach

-   City of Torrance

-   City of Palos Verdes Estates

-   City of Rancho Palos Verdes

-   City of Long Beach

-   City of Seal Beach

-   City of Huntington Beach

-   City of Newport Beach

-   City of Laguna Beach

-   City of Dana Point

Generally, the land uses along the coastline include public beaches,
marinas, and/or harbors. Inland from the immediate coastline, the land
use pattern is typically mixed, with residential and supporting
commercial uses. Two key industrial ports (Port of Los Angeles and Port
of Long Beach) are situated in Coastal Reach 4, and several parks are
located in various reaches. The state, county, and local beaches that
are within each of the six coastal reaches are identified in Figures
3.5-3 and 3.5-4. The beaches are often operated by a jurisdiction
different from the adjacent city or community. Restoration projects on
the immediate coastline require consultation with and approval by both
jurisdictions, if applicable.

The Los Angeles, and Orange County coastlines have abundant recreational
facilities. Much of the shorelines have been preserved as open space
and/or for recreational uses. Favored recreational resources include
state and county parks and beaches. Other recreational facilities
include piers, golf courses, and small neighborhood parks.

![](media/image17.jpeg){width="8.979861111111111in"
height="5.209722222222222in"}

Figure 3.5-1. Coastal cities and communities, Los Angeles County.

![](media/image18.jpeg){width="8.990972222222222in"
height="5.238888888888889in"}

Figure 3.5-2. Coastal cities and communities, Orange County.

![](media/image19.png){width="8.545833333333333in" height="6.0in"}

Figure 3.5-3. Generalized locations of recreational resources, Coastal
Reaches 1 and 2.

![](media/image20.png){width="8.402777777777779in" height="5.88125in"}

Figure 3.5-4. Generalized locations of recreational resources, Coastal\
Reaches 3, 4, 5, and 6.

### Land Use and Recreation on the Channel Islands

#### Northern Channel Islands

The Northern Channel Islands---San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and
Anacapa---include four of the five islands in the Channel Islands
National Park, which is operated by the NPS. The Nature Conservancy owns
76 percent of Santa Cruz Island, the largest of the Channel Islands;
however, this island is under the jurisdiction of the NPS. The fifth
island in the Channel Islands National Park, Santa Barbara, is located
further south and is grouped with the Southern Channel Islands in this
document. The Channel Islands National Park is the only national park in
the study area. It includes the five islands and 1 nautical mile of
marine waters surrounding the islands. In 1980, the U.S. Congress
designated the islands and 50,000 hectares (125,000 acres) of the
surrounding waters as a national park because of their unique natural
and cultural resources. For this reason, the NPS has jurisdiction over
the islands and surrounding waters. The parkland holds an Open Space
land use designation as well as a National Marine Sanctuaries
jurisdictional designation. The Channel Islands National Marine
Sanctuary extends for 6 nautical miles surrounding these same islands.

For each of the Northern Channel Islands, the following discussion lists
the island's relevant management agency, size, and available
recreational opportunities. Opportunities for kayaking, ranger-led
hikes, and educational programs are available on the park's islands.
Some restrictions and closures are in force to protect sensitive
species. Two popular dive sites---Wilson Rock and Richardson Rock---are
located in the vicinity of the Northern Channel Islands but are not
connected to one island. Figure 3.5-5 shows the dive sites and
recreational sites on the Northern Channel Islands.

-   Anacapa Island (NPS)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   283 hectares (699 acres)

-   Hiking trails, visitor center, lighthouse exhibits, primitive
    campground, and picnic areas

-   Opportunities for scuba diving, snorkeling, bird-watching, fishing,
    and observing marine mammals

-   Recreational areas: Frenchy's Cove, Winifield Scott Wreck, and East
    Fish Camp.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   San Miguel Island (NPS)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   3,774 hectares (9,325 acres)

-   Primitive campground, miles of hiking, and beaches

-   Ranger-led hikes, marine-mammal observation, beach exploration, and
    bird-watching

-   Recreational areas: Crook Point, Tyler Bight, Judith Rock, Adams
    Cove, Point Bennett, Harris Point, Cuyler Harbor, and Nifty Rock

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Santa Rosa Island (NPS)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   21,118 hectares (52,794 acres)

-   Hiking trails and primitive campground

![](media/image21.png){width="8.161111111111111in"
height="5.872916666666667in"}

Figure 3.5-5. Dive sites and recreational sites, Northern Channel
Islands.

-   Beach exploration, wildlife observation, ranger-led hikes, vehicle
    tours, and kayak beach-camping

-   Recreational areas: Carrington Point, Northeast Anchorage, Southeast
    Anchorage, Skunk Point, East Point, Ford Point, Johnson's Lee, South
    Point, S.S. Chickasaw shipwreck, Sand Point, and Brockway Point

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Santa Cruz Island (The Nature Conservancy: 76% ownership/NPS: 24%
    ownership)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   24,258 hectares (60,645 acres)

-   NPS land: observe wildlife, hike, camp

-   Marine resources: 125,000 acres for sailing, power boating, fishing,
    SCUBA diving, snorkeling, surfing, wildlife observation and bird
    watching

-   Recreational areas: West Point, Painted Cave, Hazard's Anchorage,
    Cueva Anchorage, Ledy's Harbor, Baby's Harbor, Diablo Anchorage,
    Fry's Harbor, Platt's Harbor, Twin Harbors, Pelican Bay, Prisoners'
    Harbor, Chinese Harbor, Coche Point, Potato Harbor, Scorpion
    Anchorage, Little Scorpion Anchorage, San Pedro Point, Hungryman's
    Anchorage, Smugglers' Cove, Yellow Banks Anchorage, Middle
    Anchorage, Sandstone Point, Valley Anchorage, Blue Banks Anchorage,
    Albert's Anchorage, Coches Prietos Anchorage, Bowen Point, Willows
    Anchorage, Laguna Harbor, Punta Arena, Morse Point, Pozo Anchorage,
    Kinton Point, and Black Point

#### Southern Channel Islands

The Southern Channel Islands---Santa Barbara, Santa Catalina, San
Nicolas, and San Clemente---all have separate jurisdictions. Santa
Barbara Island is the southernmost island in the Channel Islands
National Park, and the island and its surrounding waters are under the
jurisdiction of the NPS. Santa Catalina Island is owned by the Catalina
Island Conservancy, with a small portion still belonging to the previous
owner: the Santa Catalina Island Company. The island is also a part of
the Los Angeles Park System. Santa Catalina Island is approximately 197
square kilometers (76 square miles). The island is the highest-visited
island in California, with visitors coming for both the terrestrial and
the marine environments. Both the island and the surrounding waters are
under the jurisdiction of the Catalina Island Conservancy and Los
Angeles County. Santa Catalina Island includes the City of Avalon, the
only city on the Channel Islands. Avalon is the only place in the
Channel Islands with permanent residents, excluding the U.S. Navy owned
islands of San Nicolas and San Clemente. The land use designation in
Avalon is Open Space, Residential, and Commercial. Areas of Special
Biological Significance are designated at the east and west ends of the
islands.

San Nicolas Island and San Clemente Island are owned and operated by the
U.S. Navy. These islands are not open for public visitation; however,
the surrounding waters are periodically open for diving expeditions. San
Clemente Island has terrestrial amenities for S.E.A.L. operations and
Underwater Demolition Team facilities. Other parts of the island are
used for artillery storage and other naval activities. The island is
included in the County of Los Angeles Land Use Policy and is designated
as Open Space. Restoration projects on these islands would require
coordination with the U.S. Navy and Los Angeles County.

For each of the Southern Channel Islands, the following discussion lists
the agency with jurisdiction over the island, the size of the island,
and the recreational opportunities available on the island. Three major
dive sites---Osbourne Bank, Farnsworth Bank, and Tanner Bank---are
located in the vicinity of the Southern Channel Islands but are not
connected to one island. Figure 3.5-6 shows the dive sites and other
recreational sites on the Southern Channel Islands:

-   Santa Barbara Island (NPS)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   256 hectares (639 acres)

-   Hiking trails, visitor center, primitive campground, and picnic
    areas

-   Opportunities for scuba diving, snorkeling, bird-watching, fishing,
    and observing marine mammals

-   Recreational areas: Arch Point, Landing Cove, Canyon View Nature
    Trail, Sea Lion Rookery, Webster Point, Elephant Seal Cove, and the
    Santa Barbara Island Light.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Santa Catalina (Los Angeles County, Catalina Island Conservancy)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   19,472 hectares (48,680 acres)

-   Sport fishing, yachting, snorkeling, scuba diving

-   Camping, hiking, biking

-   Recreational areas: Two Harbors, Avalon, Seal Rocks, Church Rock,
    Salta Verde Point, China Point, Ben Weston Beach, Little Harbor,
    Catalina Harbor, Lobster Bay, Iron Bound Bay, Starlight Beach, and
    Parsons Landing

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   San Nicolas (U.S. Navy)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   5,632 hectares (14,080 acres)

-   Part of Pacific Missile Range

-   Access by special arrangement only

-   Diving areas surround the island, but use is restricted

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   San Clemente (U.S. Navy)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   14,336 hectares (35,840 acres)

-   Access by special arrangement only

-   Diving areas surround the island, but use is restricted

![](media/image22.png){width="8.677777777777777in"
height="6.1618055555555555in"}

Figure 3.5-6. Dive sites and recreational sites, Southern Channel
Islands.

## Aesthetics and Visual Resources

### Coastal Aesthetics and Visual Resources

The coastline from the Ventura County line to the San Diego County line
is a scenic stretch of Southern California; the terrain ranges from
rocky cliffs to sandy beaches. Picturesque views from the coast include
the Pacific Ocean and, in clear weather, many of the Channel Islands.
The islands are known for their gorgeous land views and diversity as
well as their striking underwater variety and abundance of life.

California state scenic routes are designated and managed by the
California Department of Transportation Office of State Landscape
Architecture. A scenic highway includes the road and the right-of way as
well as a scenic corridor. The scenic corridor is the area visible from
the road and generally adjacent to the right-of-way with scenic,
historical, or aesthetic characteristics. The California Scenic Highway
Program designates highways using the following nine categories:

-   Officially Designated State Scenic Highway

-   Officially Designated County Scenic Highway

-   Officially Designated State Scenic Highway and National Scenic Byway

-   Officially Designated State Scenic Highway and All American Road

-   Eligible State Scenic Highway---Not Officially Designated

-   Unconstructed State Highway Eligible for Scenic Designation

-   Historic Parkway

-   Connecting Federal Highway

-   Connecting Federal Highway and National Scenic Byway

State goals for scenic highways include preserving the visual,
biological, and ecological resources; preventing conditions that
compromise aesthetic resources; encouraging development that contributes
to aesthetic qualities; encouraging historical preservation; and
encouraging community civic groups to create programs that increase
local interest in the visual resources.

This section describes the varying coastline visual characteristics from
Point Dume to Dana Point. Figure 3.6-1 shows representative photographs
of the various types of scenic views in the study area, including
undeveloped coastline, sandy beach, pier and boardwalk, mixed-use
residential/commercial, rugged cliffs, marina, and port/harbor.

### Channel Islands Aesthetics and Visual Resources

Figure 3.6-2 shows representative photographs of the Channel Islands.

#### Northern Channel Islands 

The coastlines of the Northern Channel Islands include sandy and rocky
beaches, cliffs, tide pools, and sandy and rocky sea caves. Inland, the
islands are home to rugged mountains, scenic fields, deep canyons, and
year-round streams. The land and underwater diversity of these islands

![](media/image23.png){width="9.063888888888888in"
height="5.133333333333334in"}

Figure 3.6-1. Representative photographs of the Los Angeles and Orange
County coastline environment.

Figure 3.6-1 BACK

![](media/image24.png){width="9.096527777777778in" height="5.3375in"}

Figure 3.6-2. Representative photographs of the Channel Islands.

Figure 3.6-2 BACK

creates an aesthetically stimulating experience that is vastly different
than the nearby California coast. The pristine natural beauty of the
Channel Islands is visually pleasing to visitors.

No Eligible State Scenic Highways or Officially Designated State Scenic
Highways are located on the Northern Channel Islands.

#### Southern Channel Islands

The Southern Channel Islands also provide diverse and beautiful
underwater scenery. The land forms and diversity of Santa Catalina
Island are similar to those of the Northern Channel Islands. The land
forms of San Clemente and San Nicolas Islands are relatively flat, and
do not exhibit the rugged hills and cliffs of the other islands. The
land forms of Santa Barbara Island include both flat areas and rugged
cliffs.

No Eligible State Scenic Highways or Officially Designated State
Highways are located on the Southern Channel Islands.

## Transportation

### Coastal Transportation

Coastal access is readily available along most of the coastline of Los
Angeles and Orange Counties. The beach can be accessed via a variety of
major highways, roads, paths, and sandy trails. Much of the coastline is
lined with roadways, boardwalks, and trails. Several ports offer
transportation to the Channel Islands. Once on the islands, developed
roadways allow car traffic around many of the islands, and dirt trails
allow hiking and biking.

The counties or cities with jurisdiction along the coastline areas each
have general plans that include a circulation element. This element
identifies the roads and highways within the jurisdictional boundaries
as well as the programs and policies in place to provide an effective
transportation network. Any restoration project that would affect
transportation or involve roadways would need to consider the land use
and circulation elements of the applicable general plans.

### Channel Islands Transportation

The Channel Islands do not have extensive roadway networks.

Santa Catalina Island has the most developed roadway system of all of
the Channel Islands. The island has primary and secondary roadways that
traverse the length of the island and several maintenance roads/trails
that increase the accessible areas of the island.

Santa Rosa, Anacapa, San Miguel, Santa Barbara, and Santa Cruz Islands
do not have primary or secondary roadways but have dirt roads and/or
trails. These islands are owned by the NPS and are accessible to the
public for recreational purposes.

The remaining two Channel Islands, San Nicolas and San Clemente, are
owned and operated by the U.S. Navy. These islands have roadways that
are maintained by the Navy, but the roadways are not open to the public.

Access to the Channel Islands is available through various transport
companies leaving from the California coast. Air travel to Santa Rosa
and Santa Catalina Islands is also available.

## Air Quality

"Air pollution" is a general term that refers to one or more chemical
substances that degrade the quality of the atmosphere. Individual air
pollutants may adversely affect human or animal health, reduce
visibility, damage property, or reduce the productivity or vigor of
crops and natural vegetation.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has identified seven air
pollutants of nationwide concern: carbon monoxide (CO); ozone (O~3~);
nitrogen dioxide (NO~2~); particulate matter equal to or less than 10
microns in size (PM~10~), which is also called respirable particulate
and suspended particulate; fine particulate matter equal to or less than
2.5 microns in size (PM~2.5~); sulfur dioxide (SO~2~); and lead (Pb).
These pollutants are collectively referred to as criteria pollutants.

The federal Clean Air Act (Title 42 United States Code Sections
7401--7671q) requires the adoption of national ambient air quality
standards (NAAQS) to protect the public health and welfare from the
effects of air pollution. The NAAQS have been updated as needed. Current
standards are set for CO, NO~2~, SO~2~, O~3~, PM~10~, PM~2.5~, and Pb.
Areas are classified under the federal Clean Air Act as either
"attainment" or "nonattainment" areas for each criteria pollutant based
on whether or not the NAAQS have been achieved. In 2004, the Santa
Barbara County remained unclassified for all criteria pollutants.
Ventura County was classified as a nonattainment area for O~3~,
unclassified for PM~10~, CO, and NO~2~, and as an attainment area for
SO~2~. Los Angeles and Orange Counties were classified as nonattainment
areas for O~3~, PM~10~, and CO, unclassified for NO~2~, and as
attainment areas for SO~2~. San Diego County was classified as a
nonattainment area for O~3~, unclassified for PM~10~, CO and NO~2~, and
as an attainment area for SO~2~ (CARB 2005).

The State of California Air Resources Board (CARB) has established
additional standards, which are generally more stringent than the NAAQS;
CARB has also set standards for sulfates, hydrogen sulfide, and
"visibility-reducing particles." In 2004, the areas from Santa Barbara
to San Diego remained unclassified for CO, NO~2~, SO~2~, sulfates, Pb,
hydrogen sulfide, and visibility-reducing particles. These areas were
classified as nonattainment areas for 0~3~, PM~10~, and PM~2.5~, except
for Santa Barbara County, which was unclassified for PM~2.5~ (CARB
2005).

## Noise

### Overview and Noise Standards

Noise is defined as unwanted or objectionable sound. The effects of
noise on people can include general annoyance, interference with speech
communication, sleep disturbance, and, in the extreme, hearing
impairment. The A-weighted noise scale, which measures noise levels in
decibels (dBA), weighs the frequencies to which humans are sensitive.
Because decibels are measured on a logarithmic scale, a doubling of the
energy of a noise source equates to a 3 dBA increase in noise level.

Number range CHAPTERPeople tend to compare an intruding noise with the
existing background noise. If the new noise is readily identifiable or
considerably louder than the background or ambient noise levels, it
usually becomes objectionable. An aircraft flying over a residential
area is an example. In the presence of normal environmental background
noise, an average healthy ear can readily detect a 5 dBA change in noise
level. A 10 dBA change is usually perceived as a doubling, or halving,
of the noise level.

### Coastal Noise Generators and Sensitive Receptors

The existing noise environment and additional noise sources associated
with the six coastal reaches are summarized in Table 3.9-1 (MSRP 2003).

+--------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
| Table  |                   |                   |                   |
| 3.9-1\ |                   |                   |                   |
| Ba     |                   |                   |                   |
| seline |                   |                   |                   |
| Noise  |                   |                   |                   |
| Enviro |                   |                   |                   |
| nment, |                   |                   |                   |
| Noise  |                   |                   |                   |
| Gener  |                   |                   |                   |
| ators, |                   |                   |                   |
| and    |                   |                   |                   |
| Sen    |                   |                   |                   |
| sitive |                   |                   |                   |
| Noise  |                   |                   |                   |
| Rece   |                   |                   |                   |
| ptors\ |                   |                   |                   |
| in the |                   |                   |                   |
| Study  |                   |                   |                   |
| Area   |                   |                   |                   |
+--------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
| C      | Baseline Noise    | Noise Generators  | Sensitive         |
| oastal | Environment       |                   | Receptors         |
| Reach  |                   |                   |                   |
+--------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
| **1**  | Surf,\            | No major noise    | Malibu Pier and   |
|        | Residential,\     | generators        | beaches\          |
|        | Commercial        |                   | Surfrider beach\  |
|        |                   |                   | Coastline         |
|        |                   |                   | recreation        |
+--------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
| **2**  | Residential,\     | Santa Monica      | Recreational      |
|        | Commercial        | Municipal         | beaches\          |
|        |                   | Airport\          | Boardwalks and    |
|        |                   | Los Angeles       | piers             |
|        |                   | International     |                   |
|        |                   | Airport\          |                   |
|        |                   | Traffic and       |                   |
|        |                   | roadways          |                   |
+--------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
| **3**  | Residential,\     | No major noise    | Residential       |
|        | Commercial        | generators        | development\      |
|        |                   |                   | Point Fermin Park |
|        |                   |                   |                   |
|        |                   |                   | Abalone Cove      |
|        |                   |                   | Beach Park        |
|        |                   |                   |                   |
|        |                   |                   | Portuguese Bend   |
|        |                   |                   | Co-op Preschool   |
|        |                   |                   |                   |
|        |                   |                   | Long Point Resort |
|        |                   |                   | Hotel             |
+--------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
| **4**  | Commercial        | Port of Los       | Residential       |
|        |                   | Angeles\          | development\      |
|        |                   | Port of Long      | Long Beach Pier   |
|        |                   | Beach             |                   |
+--------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
| **5**  | Surf,\            | Naval Weapons     | Seal Beach NWR\   |
|        | Residential,\     | Stations\         | Bolsa Chica       |
|        | Commercial        | Huntington        | Ecological        |
|        |                   | Harbor\           | Reserve           |
|        |                   | Traffic and       |                   |
|        |                   | roadways          |                   |
+--------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
| **6**  | Residential,      | Harbor at Dana    | Crystal Cove      |
|        |                   | Point\            | State Park\       |
|        | Commercial        | Amtrak trains     | Laguna Coast      |
|        |                   |                   | Wilderness Park   |
+--------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+

NWR = National Wildlife Refuge

### Noise Generators and Sensitive Receptors on the Channel Islands

Six of the eight Channel Islands are protected ecologically sensitive
areas: Santa Catalina, San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, Anacapa, and
Santa Barbara Islands. These islands preserve a diverse range of plant
and animal species that are noise sensitive. Each of these six islands
is available at some level for recreational use to the public, which has
expectations of a natural, low-noise environment. The plant and wildlife
species on these islands are all sensitive receptors.

The remaining two Channel Islands, San Nicolas and San Clemente, are
owned and operated by the U.S. Navy and are used for training. Naval
operations such as bombing and target practice can generate high noise
levels. The underwater areas surrounding the islands are periodically
used for recreational purposes, including whale watching and diving, and
host many species that are noise sensitive.

## Cultural Resources

This section presents an overview of the historical and cultural
resources that are likely to be found in the coastal areas of Los
Angeles and Orange Counties. Future restoration projects must be aware
of potentially significant cultural resources that may be located within
these coastal and offshore areas. These resources include archaeological
sites and historic sites listed on the National Register of Historic
Places that are near the coast.

### Prehistoric Overview

The initial occupation of the Southern California coast appears to have
occurred as early as 10,000 years ago (Jones 1992).

Southern California coastal archaeological sites increase dramatically
in number after about 8,000 years ago, a period when sites associated
with the Milling Stone Horizon appear (Wallace 1955). Research in
Southern California demonstrates that this period was marked by regional
differentiation, adaptation to local conditions, and more permanent
habitation.

The Late Prehistoric period, spanning from approximately 1,500 years ago
to the mission era, is the period associated with contemporary Native
American groups known as the Chumash and the Gabrieliño (Wallace 1955).
Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo was the first documented European to make
contact with these groups in 1542.

### Historic Overview

The Chumash and Gabrieliño were virtually ignored between Cabrillo's
visit and the Spanish Period, which began in 1769. Missions were
established at San Gabriel in 1771, San Juan Capistrano in 1776, and San
Fernando in 1797. By the 1800s, the majority of the Chumash and
Gabrieliño mainland population had entered the Spanish mission system
(Jackson 1999), with the island populations entering somewhat later.

The pueblo Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Angeles de Prociuncula (Los
Angeles) was founded in 1781, and grew slowly based primarily on cattle
ranching. The first civilian land grants in the Los Angeles area were
awarded in 1784 to Manuel Nieto (Rancho Los Alamitos) and Jose Maria
Verdugo (Rancho San Rafael). By the mid-1800s, hunters, settlers, and
ranchers, made their way to the area, and ranching became an economic
mainstay.

In 1821, colonial New Spain became the independent Republic of Mexico.
Economic competition and political tension between the new Mexican
republic and the Catholic Church became intense, and the missions were
secularized beginning in 1831 (Rolle 1998). In 1845, Governor Pio Pico
moved the capital of California to Los Angeles, and in 1850 California
gained statehood.

Attracting settlers during the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, the beautiful California coastline became accessible by rail
and quickly became a mecca for industrial, commercial, residential, and
recreational uses. The coastline continues to serve these uses into the
twenty-first century.

### Archaeological Resources

#### Onshore Sites

Archaeological surveys and excavations over the past century have
revealed a diverse and extensive cultural landscape. Hundreds of
archaeological sites have been identified along the Southern California
coast; the major concentrations are in the vicinity of bays, estuaries,
lakes, streams, marshes, and at the mouths of canyons (Altschul and
Grenda 2002). Four key locations in Los Angeles and Orange Counties have
been identified: (1) from the vicinity of Malibu Lagoon, south to Malibu
Point, and north to the Ventura County line; (2) Santa Monica Bay, in
the vicinity of Marina del Rey and the Ballona Lagoon; (3) the southern
portion of San Pedro Bay, in and around Seal Beach, Long Beach, and
Huntington Beach and the Bolsa Chica Lagoon; and (4) the vicinity of
Newport Bay (Jones 1992).

Thousands of archaeological sites have been identified on the Channel
Islands. Due to the lack of abundant terrestrial resources, island sites
tend to concentrate along the island fringes, particularly on the shores
of the islands' small, protected inlets (Jones 1992).

#### Offshore Sites

Over 100 prehistoric underwater archaeological sites have been
identified off the coast of Southern California (Masters and Schneider
2000). Although the majority of underwater sites identified are located
offshore of San Diego County, underwater sites are also likely to occur
in the waters offshore of Los Angeles and Orange Counties.

#### Shipwrecks

As of June 2001, the California State Lands Commission listed 156
shipwrecks off the Los Angeles County coast (ships built between 1853
and 1945) and 37 shipwrecks off the Orange County coast (ships built
between 1837 and 1944). Shipwrecks tend to cluster in Santa Monica Bay,
San Pedro Bay, and Newport Bay; the shipwrecks involve schooners, oil
screws, steamboats, barges, masted ships, ferries, military craft,
tankers, submarines, and sailboats. The general locations of these
shipwrecks can be seen on Figure 3.10-1.

### Historic Resources

The area encompassing the Los Angeles and Orange County coastlines and
the Channel Islands contains a variety of historic resources, including
an assortment of structures, features, and cultural landscapes, most
associated with late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century shipping
and rail industry, early-twentieth-century residential and commercial
development, and coastal tourism and recreation. Many of these resources
are likely to have historic significance, but have yet to be evaluated.

## Socioeconomics

The section provides a summary of the socioeconomic state of the coastal
cities within the study area. This information is largely presented in
tables, which present the demographic and economic data from the 2000
Census (http://factfinder.census.gov) that pertain to the 19 coastal
cities within Los Angeles and Orange Counties. The study area includes
cities along the coast of both counties and extends inland for
approximately 3.2 kilometers (2 miles). Communities such

![](media/image25.jpeg){width="8.697916666666666in"
height="6.101388888888889in"}

> Source: California State Lands Commission 2005.

Figure 3.10-1. Generalized locations of known shipwrecks.

as Venice and Playa del Rey are within 3.2 kilometers (2 miles) of the
coastline yet are part of the larger City of Los Angeles. Accordingly,
the tables in this section include the City of Los Angeles as a line
item. This jurisdiction encompasses a substantially larger area and
population than any of the other 80+ cities in Los Angeles County and
dwarfs the areas and populations of the other coastal cities.

Avalon City, on the island of Santa Catalina, is also included under Los
Angeles County data. It is the only portion of the Channel Islands for
which demographic data are available; the remaining islands have small
populations because they are parklands or are limited to military
personnel.

### Population and Age

Table 3.11-1 shows the total population and median age of the cities
within the study area. Most of the cities within the study area have
relatively small populations, with many having significantly less than
20,000 residents. The obvious exception is Los Angeles, which extends
many kilometers (miles) inland from the coast. The smallest city,
Rolling Hills, with 1,871 residents, accounts for only 0.02 percent of
the total population of Los Angeles County. Only a few cities show
larger populations. Long Beach, the largest city within the study area,
forms 4.85 percent of the population of Los Angeles County and
significantly exceeds the population of Huntington Beach, the second
largest city, which forms 1.99 percent of the total population of Orange
County.

The median ages within the study area are substantially higher than the
respective county averages. In Los Angeles County, the median age is 32
years. In comparison, the median age in the Cities of Palos Verdes
Estates (46.7 years), Rancho Palos Verdes (44.7 years), and Rolling
Hills (47.7 years) is significantly higher. In Orange County, with an
average median age of 33.3 years, the tendency of median ages to be
higher in the study area is most pronounced in the Cities of Laguna
Beach (43.4 years) and Seal Beach (54.1years).

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  Table 3.11-1\
  Los Angeles and Orange Counties: Population and Age (2000)

  ![](media/image26.wmf)
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### Race and Ethnicity

Table 3.11-2 shows the racial and ethnic characteristics of the study
area. The majority of the population within the coastal cities is white,
with much smaller proportions of other racial or ethnic minorities.
Apart from the Cities of Long Beach, Signal Hill, and Avalon, all of the
cities within the study area showed white populations much greater than
that of the respective county averages, ranging from 59.2 percent
(Torrance) to as high as 92.2 percent (Newport Beach).

It should be noted that "Hispanic" refers to ethnicity and is not a
racial category. Thus, persons can be considered Hispanic regardless of
race. Due to this overlap, racial and ethnic categories total in excess
of 100 percent. With regard to Hispanic populations, apart from the
Cities of Los Angeles, Avalon, Long Beach, Signal Hill and Costa Mesa,
all of the cities within the study area showed much lower levels than
that of the respective county averages, ranging from 15.9 percent (San
Clemente) to as low as 4.5 percent (Rolling Hills).

### Income, Household Size, and Poverty Status

Table 3.11-3 shows the income, household size, and poverty status within
the coastal study area. The majority of cities in the study area show
median household income levels that are significantly above their
respective county averages, with some cities such as Rolling Hills,
Palos Verdes Estates, and Malibu showing extremely high income levels.
Within the study area, only Avalon City, Los Angeles, Long Beach, and
Seal Beach show median household income levels that are below their
respective county averages. Although the average household sizes of all
of the cities within the study area were below their respective county
average household sizes, within the Cities of Hermosa Beach (1.95
persons), Santa Monica (1.83 persons), and Seal Beach (1.83 persons) the
average household sizes were substantially below the respective county
averages.

The majority of the cities in the study area show poverty levels that
are substantially below their respective county averages, dramatically
lower in the case of Rolling Hills (0.0 percent) Palos Verdes Estates
(1.1 percent), and Rancho Palos Verdes (2.0 percent). The Cities of Long
Beach, Los Angeles, and Costa Mesa, at 19.3 percent, 18.3 percent, and
8.2 percent, respectively, are the only cities within the study area
that showed poverty levels that were above their respective county
averages. The City of Signal Hill, at 13.6 percent, is only marginally
below its county average.

[]{.mark}

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  Table 3.11-2\
  Los Angeles and Orange Counties: Race and Ethnicity (2000)
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  ![](media/image27.png){width="8.990972222222222in"
  height="5.134722222222222in"}

  ![](media/image28.png){width="8.990972222222222in"
  height="3.0659722222222223in"}
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  Table 3.11-3\
  Los Angeles and Orange Counties: Income, Household Size and Poverty
  Level (2000)
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  ![](media/image29.png){width="8.999305555555555in"
  height="5.636805555555555in"}

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