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**AC 61-67B**

**DATE: 5/17/1991**

ADVISORY CIRCULAR

AC No: 61-67B

Date: 5/17/91

Initiated

by: AFS-840

Change:

Subject: STALL AND SPIN AWARENESS TRAINING

1\. PURPOSE. This advisory circular (AC) explains the stall and

spin awareness training required under Part 61 of the Federal

Aviation Regulations (FAR) and offers guidance to flight

instructors who provide that training. In addition, this AC

informs pilots of the airworthiness standards for the type

certification of small airplanes prescribed in FAR Section 23.221

concerning spin maneuvers and it emphasizes the importance of

observing restrictions that prohibit the intentional spinning of

certain airplanes.

2\. CANCELLATION. AC 61-67A, dated October 8, 1982, and AC 61-

92 dated January 25, 1980, are canceled.

3\. RELATED READING MATERIAL.

a\. Report No. FAA-RD-77-26, General Aviation Pilot Stall

Awareness Training Study. This document may be purchased from

the National Technical Information Service (NTIS), U.S.

Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield,

Virginia 22161. Telephone orders: (703) 487-4650. NTIS

identification number ADA041310.

b\. The following documents may be purchased from the

Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,

Washington, D.C. 20402:

\(1\) AC 61-21, Flight Training Handbook, current edition.

\(2\) AC 91-23, Pilot\'s Weight and Balance Handbook,

current edition.

\(3\) FAA-S-8081-1, Private Pilot - Practical Test

Standards, current edition.

\(4\) FAA-S-8081-2, Commercial Pilot - Practical Test

Standards, current edition.

\(5\) FAA-S-8081-6, Flight Instructor - Airplane Practical

Test Standards, current edition.

4\. BACKGROUND. In January 1980, the Federal Aviation

Administration (FAA) issued AC 61-92, \"Use of Distractions During

Pilot Certification Flight Tests,\" announcing its policy of

incorporating the use of certain distractions during the

performance of flight test maneuvers.

This policy came about as a result of Report No. FAA-RD-77-26

which revealed that stall/spin related accidents accounted for

approximately one-quarter of all fatal general aviation

accidents. National Transportation Safety Board statistics

indicate that most stall/spin accidents result when a pilot is

distracted momentarily from the primary task of flying the

aircraft.

5\. CHANGES. Changes to FAR Part 61, completed in 1991, included

increased stall and spin awareness training for applicants for

recreational, private, and commercial pilot certificates. The

training is intended to emphasize recognition of situations that

could lead to an inadvertent stall and/or spin by using realistic

distractions such as those suggested in Report No. FAA-RD-77-26

and incorporated into the performance of flight test maneuvers.

Although the training is intended to emphasize stall spin

awareness and recovery techniques for all pilots, only flight

instructor-airplane and flight instructor-glider candidates are

required to demonstrate instructional proficiency in spin entry,

spins, and spin recovery techniques as a requirement for

certification. Where applicable, AC 61-67B supersedes AC 61-

21A.

6\. COMMENTS INVITED. Comments regarding this publication should

be directed to:

Federal Aviation Administration

Field Programs Division, AFS-500

Advisory Circular Staff

P.O. Box 20034, Gateway Building

Dulles International Airport

Washington, DC 20041-2034

Every comment will not necessarily generate a direct

acknowledgement to the commenter. Comments received will be

considered in the development of upcoming revisions to AC\'s or

other related technical material.

/s/ William C. Withycombe

Acting Director, Flight Standards Service

CONTENTS

Page No.

CHAPTER 1. GROUND TRAINING - STALL AND SPIN AWARENESS \.... 1

1\. DEFINITIONS \...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...
1

2\. DISTRACTIONS \...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\.....
3

3\. STALL RECOGNITION \...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\... 3

4\. TYPES OF STALLS \...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\..... 4

5\. STALL RECOVERY \...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...
4

6\. SECONDARY STALLS \...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\.... 4

7\. SPINS
\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\... 4

8\. WEIGHT AND BALANCE \...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\..... 5

9\. PRIMARY CAUSE \...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\....
5

10\. TYPES OF SPINS \...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...
5

11\. SPIN RECOVERY \...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\....
5

CHAPTER 2. FLIGHT TRAINING - STALLS \...\...\...\...\...\...\.... 7

12\. STALL TRAINING \...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...
7

CHAPTER 3. FLIGHT TRAINING - SPINS \...\...\...\...\...\...\..... 11

13\. SPIN TRAINING \...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\....
11

CHAPTER 14. AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS \...\...\...\...\...\...\.... 13

14\. OPERATING LIMITATIONS \...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\..... 13

15\. PLACARDS
\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\... 14

16\. PILOT AWARENESS \...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\.....
14

CHAPTER 1. GROUND TRAINING - STALL AND SPIN AWARENESS

1\. DEFINITIONS. A stall is a loss of lift and increase in drag

that occurs when an aircraft is flown at an angle of attack

greater than the angle for maximum lift. If recovery from a

stall is not effected in a timely and appropriate manner by

reducing the angle of attack, a secondary stall and/or spin may

result. All spins are preceded by a stall on at least part of

the wing. The angle of the relative wind is determined primarily

by the aircraft\'s airspeed. Other factors are considered, such

as aircraft weight, center of gravity, configuration, and the

amount of acceleration used in a turn. The speed at which the

critical angle of the relative wind is exceeded is the stall

speed. Stall speeds are listed in the Airplane Flight Manual

(AFM) or the Pilot Operating handbook (POH) and pertain to

certain conditions or aircraft configurations, e.g., landing

configuration. Other specific operational speeds are calculated

based upon the aircraft\'s stall speed in the landing

configuration. Airspeed values specified in the AFM or POH may

vary under different circumstances. Factors such as weight,

center of gravity, altitude, temperature, turbulence, and the

presence of snow, ice, or frost on the wings will affect an

aircraft\'s stall speed. To thoroughly understand the stall/spin

phenomenon, some basic factors affecting aircraft aerodynamics

and flight should be reviewed with particular emphasis on their

relation to stall speeds. (This advisory circular is principally

concerned with and discusses airplanes. However, much of the

information also is applicable to gliders.) The following terms

are defined as they relate to stalls/spins.

a\. Angle of Attack. Angle of attack is the angle at which

the wing meets the relative wind. The angle of attack must be

small enough to allow attached airflow over and under the airfoil

to produce lift. A change in angle of attack will affect the

amount of lift that is produced. An excessive angle of attack

will eventually disrupt the flow of air over the airfoil. If the

angle of attack is not reduced, a section of the airfoil will

reach its critical angle of attack, lose lift, and stall.

Exceeding the critical angle of attack for a particular airfoil

section will always result in a stall.

b\. Airspeed. Airspeed is controlled primarily by the

elevator or longitudinal control position for a given

configuration and power. If an airplane\'s speed is too slow, the

angle of attack required for level flight will be so large that

the air can no longer follow the upper curvature of the wing.

The result is a separation of airflow from the wing, loss of

lift, a large increase in drag, and eventually a stall if the

angle of attack is not reduced. The stall is the result of

excessive angle of attack - not airspeed. A stall can occur at

any airspeed, in any attitude, and at any power setting.

c\. Configuration. Flaps, landing gear, and other

configuring devices can affect an airplane\'s stall speed.

Extension of flaps and/or landing gear in flight will usually

increase drag. Flap extension will generally increase the

lifting ability of the wings, thus reducing the airplane\'s stall

speed. The effect of flaps on an airplane\'s stall speed can be

seen by markings on the airplane\'s airspeed indicator, where the

lower airspeed limit of the white arc (power-off stall speed with

gear and flaps in the landing configuration) is less than the

lower airspeed limit of the green arc (power-off stall speed in

the clean configuration).

d\. V sub so. V sub so means the stall speed or the minimum

steady flight speed in the landing configuration.

e\. V sub s1. V sub s1 means the stall speed or the minimum

steady flight speed obtained in a specific configuration.

f\. V sub A. V sub A is the design maneuvering speed which

is the speed at which an airplane can be stalled without

exceeding its structural limits.

g\. Load Factor. Load factor is the ratio of the lifting

force produced by the wings to the actual weight of the airplane

and its contents. Load factors are usually expressed in terms of

\"G.\" The aircraft\'s stall speed increases in proportion to the

square root of the load factor. For example, an airplane that

has a normal unaccelerated stall speed of 45 knots can be stalled

at 90 knots when subjected to a load factor of 4 G\'s. The

possibility of inadvertently stalling the airplane by increasing

the load factor (by putting the airplane in a steep turn or

spiral, for example) is therefore much greater than in normal

cruise flight. A stall entered from straight and level flight or

from an unaccelerated straight climb will not produce additional

load factors. In a constant rate turn, increased load factors

will cause an airplane\'s stall speed to increase as the angle of

bank increases. Excessively steep banks should be avoided

because the airplane will stall at a much higher speed or, if the

aircraft exceeds maneuvering speed, structural damage to the

aircraft may result before it stalls. If the nose falls during a

steep turn, the pilot might attempt to raise it to the level

flight attitude without shallowing the bank. This situation

tightens the turn and can lead to a diving spiral. A feeling of

weightlessness will result if a stall recovery is performed by

abruptly pushing the elevator control forward, which will reduce

the up load on the wings. Recoveries from stalls and spins

involve a tradeoff between loss of altitude (and an increase in

airspeed) and an increase in load factor in the pullup. However,

recovery from the dive following spin recovery generally causes

higher airspeeds and consequently higher load factors than stall

recoveries due to the much lower position of the nose.

Significant load factor increases are sometimes induced during

pullup after recovery from a stall or spin. It should be noted

that structural damage can result from the high load factors

imposed by intentional stalls practiced above the airplane\'s

design maneuvering speed.

h\. Center of Gravity (CG). The CG location has an indirect

effect on the effective lift and angle of attack of the wing, the

amount and direction of force on the tail, and the degree of

stabilizer deflection needed to supply the proper tail force for

equilibrium. The CG position, therefore, has a significant

effect on stability and stall/spin recovery. As the CG is moved

aft, the amount of elevator deflection will be reduced. An

increased angle of attack will be achieved with less elevator

control force. This could make the entry into inadvertent stalls

easier, and during the subsequent recovery, it would be easier to

generate higher load factors, due to the reduced forces. In an

airplane with an extremely aft CG, very light back elevator

control forces may lead to inadvertent stall entries and if a

spin is entered, the balance of forces on the airplane may result

in a flat spin. Recovery from a flat spin is often impossible.

A forward CG location will often cause the stalling angle of

attack to be reached at a higher airspeed. Increased back

elevator control force is generally required with a forward CG

location.

i\. Weight. Although the distribution of weight has the most

direct effect on stability, increased gross weight can also have

an effect on an aircraft\'s flight characteristics, regardless of

the CG position. As the weight of the airplane is increased, the

stall speed increases. The increased weight requires a higher

angle of attack to produce additional lift to support the weight.

j\. Altitude and Temperature. Altitude has little or no

effect on an airplane\'s indicated stall speed. Thinner air at

higher altitudes will result in decreased aircraft performance

and a higher true airspeed for a given indicated airspeed.

Higher than standard temperatures will also contribute to

increased true airspeed. However, the higher true airspeed has

no effect on indicated approach or stall speeds. The

manufacturer\'s recommended indicated airspeeds should therefore

be maintained during the landing approach, regardless of the

elevation or the density at the airport of landing.

k\. Snow, Ice or Frost on the Wings. Even a small

accumulation of snow, ice or frost on an aircraft\'s surface can

cause an increase in that aircraft\'s stall speed. Such

accumulation changes the shape of the wing, disrupting the smooth

flow of air over the surface and, consequently, increasing drag

and decreasing lift. Flight should not be attempted when snow,

ice, or frost has accumulated on the aircraft surfaces.

l\. Turbulence. Turbulence can cause an aircraft to stall at

a significantly higher airspeed than in stable conditions. A

vertical gust or windshear can cause a sudden change in the

relative wind, and result in an abrupt increase in angle of

attack. Although a gust may not be maintained long enough for a

stall to develop, the aircraft may stall while the pilot is

attempting to control the flightpath, particularly during an

approach in gusty conditions. When flying in moderate to severe

turbulence or strong crosswinds, a higher than normal approach

speed should be maintained. In cruise flight in moderate or

severe turbulence, an airspeed well above the indicated stall

speed and below maneuvering speed should be used.

2\. DISTRACTIONS. Improper airspeed management resulting in

stalls are most likely to occur when the pilot is distracted by

one or more other tasks, such as locating a checklist or

attempting a restart after an engine failure; flying a traffic

pattern on a windy day; reading a chart or making fuel and/or

distance calculations; or attempting to retrieve items from the

floor, back seat, or glove compartment. Pilots at all skill

levels should be aware of the increased risk of entering into an

inadvertent stall or spin while performing tasks that are

secondary to controlling the aircraft.

3\. STALL RECOGNITION. There are several ways to recognize that

a stall is impending before it actually occurs. When one or more

of these indicators is noted, initiation of a recovery should be

instinctive (unless a full stall is being practiced intentionally

from an altitude that allows recovery above 1,500 feet above

ground level (AGL) for single-engine airplanes and 3,000 feet AGL

for multiengine airplanes). One indication of a stall is a mushy

feeling in the controls and less control effect as the aircraft\'s

speed is reduced. This reduction in control effectiveness is

attributed in part to reduced airflow over the flight control

surfaces. In fixed-pitch propeller airplanes, a loss of

revolutions per minute (RPM) may be evident when approaching a

stall in power-on conditions. For both airplanes and gliders, a

reduction in the sound of air flowing along the fuselage is

usually evident. Just before the stall occurs, buffeting,

uncontrollable pitching, or vibrations may begin. Many aircraft

are equipped with stall warning devices that will alert the pilot

when the airflow over the wing(s) approaches a point that will

not allow lift to be sustained. Finally, kinesthesia (the

sensing of changes in direction or speed of motion), when

properly learned and developed, will warn the pilot of a decrease

in speed or the beginning of a \"mushing\" of the aircraft. These

preliminary indications serve as a warning to the pilot to

increase airspeed by adding power, and/or lowering the nose,

and/or decreasing the angle of bank.

4\. TYPES OF STALLS. Stalls can be practiced both with and

without power. Stalls should be practiced to familiarize the

student with the aircraft\'s particular stall characteristics

without putting the aircraft into a potentially dangerous

condition. In multiengine airplanes, single-engine stalls must

be avoided. A description of some different types of stalls

follows:

a\. Power-off stalls (also known as approach-to-landing

stalls) are practiced to simulate normal approach-to-landing

conditions and configuration. Many stall/spin accidents have

occurred in these power-off situations, such as crossed control

turns from base leg to final approach (resulting in a skidding or

slipping turn); attempting to recover from a high sink rate on

final approach by using only an increased pitch attitude; and

improper airspeed control on final approach or in other segments

of the traffic pattern.

b\. Power-on stalls (also known as departure stalls) are

practiced to simulate takeoff and climb-out conditions and

configuration. Many stall/spin accidents have occurred during

these phases of flight, particularly during go-arounds. A causal

factor in such accidents has been the pilot\'s failure to maintain

positive control due to a nose-high trim setting or premature

flap retraction. Failure to maintain positive control during

short field takeoffs has also been an accident causal factor.

c\. Accelerated stalls can occur at higher-than-normal

airspeeds due to abrupt and/or excessive control applications.

These stalls may occur in steep turns, pullups, or other abrupt

changes in flightpath. Accelerated stalls usually are more

severe than unaccelerated stalls and are often expected because

they occur at higher-than-normal airspeeds.

5\. STALL RECOVERY. The key factor in recovery from a stall is

regaining positive control of the aircraft by reducing the angle

of attack. At the first indication of a stall, the aircraft

angle of attack must be decreased to allow the wings to regain

lift. Every aircraft in upright flight may require a different

amount of forward pressure to regain lift. It should be noted

that too much forward pressure can hinder recovery by imposing a

negative load on the wing. The next step in recovering from a

stall is to smoothly apply maximum allowable power (if

applicable) to increase the airspeed and to minimize the loss of

altitude. Certain high performance airplanes may require only an

increase in thrust and relaxation of the back pressure on the

yoke to effect recovery. As airspeed increases and the recovery

is completed, power should be adjusted to return the airplane to

the desired flight condition. Straight and level flight should

be established with full coordinated use of the controls. The

airspeed indicator or tachometer, if installed, should never be

allowed to reach their high-speed red lines at anytime during a

practice stall.

6\. SECONDARY STALLS. If recovery from a stall is not made

properly, a secondary stall or a spin may result. A secondary

stall is caused by attempting to hasten the completion of a stall

recovery before the aircraft has regained sufficient flying

speed. When this stall occurs, the back elevator pressure should

again be released just as in a normal stall recovery. When

sufficient airspeed has been regained, the aircraft can then be

returned to straight-and-level flight.

7\. SPINS. A spin in a small airplane or glider is a controlled

or uncontrolled maneuver in which the glider or airplane descends

in a helical path while flying at an angle of attack greater than

the angle of maximum lift. Spins result from aggravated stalls

in either a slip or a skid. If a stall does not occur, a spin

cannot occur. In a stall, one wing will often drop before the

other and the nose will yaw in the direction of the low wing.

8\. WEIGHT AND BALANCE. Minor weight or balance changes can

affect an aircraft\'s spin characteristics. For example, the

addition of a suitcase in the aft baggage compartment will affect

the weight and balance of the aircraft. An aircraft that may be

difficult to spin intentionally in the utility category

(restricted aft CG and reduced weight) could have less resistance

to spin entry in the normal category (less restricted aft CG and

increased weight) due to its ability to generate a higher angle

of attack and increased load factor. Furthermore, an aircraft

that is approved for spins in the utility category, but loaded in

the normal category, may not recover from a spin that is allowed

to progress beyond one turn.

9\. PRIMARY CAUSE. The primary cause of an inadvertent spin is

exceeding the critical angle of attack for a given stall speed

while executing a turn with excessive or insufficient rudder,

and, to a lesser extent, aileron. In an uncoordinated maneuver,

the pitot/static instruments, especially the altimeter and

airspeed indicator, are unreliable due to the uneven distribution

of air pressure over the fuselage. The pilot may not be aware

that a critical angle of attack has been exceeded until the stall

warning device activates. If a stall recovery is not promptly

initiated, the airplane is more likely to enter an inadvertent

spin. The spin that occurs from cross controlling an aircraft

usually results in rotation in the direction of the rudder being

applied, regardless of which wing tip is raised. In a skidding

turn, where both aileron and rudder are applied in the same

direction, rotation will be in the direction the controls are

applied. However, in a slipping turn, where opposite aileron is

held against the rudder, the resultant spin will usually occur in

the direction opposite the aileron that is being applied.

10\. TYPES OF SPINS.

a\. An incipient spin is that portion of a spin from the

time the airplane stalls and rotation starts, until the spin

becomes fully developed. Incipient spins that are not allowed to

develop into a steady spin are commonly used as an introduction

to spin training and recovery techniques.

b\. A fully developed spin occurs when the aircraft angular

rotation rates, airspeed, and vertical speed are stabilized from

turn-to-turn in a flightpath that is close to vertical.

c\. A flat spin is characterized by a near level pitch and

roll attitude with the spin axis near the CG of the airplane.

Recovery from a flat spin may be extremely difficult and, in some

cases, impossible.

11\. SPIN RECOVERY. Before flying any aircraft, in which spins

are to be conducted, the pilot should be familiar with the

operating characteristics and standard operating procedures,

including spin recovery techniques, specified in the approved AFM

or POH. The first step in recovering from an upright spin is to

close the throttle completely to eliminate power and minimize the

loss of altitude. If the particular aircraft spin recovery

techniques are not known, the next step is to neutralize the

ailerons, determine the direction of the turn, and supply full

opposite rudder. When the rotation slows, briskly move the

elevator control forward to approximately the neutral position.

Some aircraft require merely a relaxation of back pressure;

others require full forward elevator control pressure. Forward

movement of the elevator control will decrease the angle of

attack. Once the stall is broken, the spinning will stop.

Neutralize the rudder when the spinning stops to avoid entering a

spin in the opposite direction. When the rudder is neutralized,

gradually apply enough aft elevator pressure to return to level

flight. Too much or abrupt aft elevator pressure and/or

application of rudder and ailerons during the recovery can result

in a secondary stall and possibly another spin. If the spin is

being performed in an airplane, the engine will sometimes stop

developing power due to centrifugal force acting on the fuel in

the airplane\'s tanks causing fuel interruption. It is,

therefore, recommended to assume that power is not available when

practicing spin recovery. As a rough estimate, an altitude loss

of approximately 500 feet per each 3-second turn can be expected

in most small aircraft in which spins are authorized. Greater

losses can be expected at higher density altitudes.

CHAPTER 2. FLIGHT TRAINING - STALLS

12\. STALL TRAINING. Flight instructor-airplane and flight

instructor-glider applicants must be able to give stall training.

The flight instructor should emphasize that techniques and

procedures for each aircraft may differ and that pilots should be

aware of the flight characteristics of each aircraft flown.

Single-engine stalls should not be demonstrated or practiced in

multiengine airplanes. Engine-out minimum control speed

demonstrations in multiengine airplanes should not be attempted

when the density altitude and temperature are such that the

engine-out minimum control speed is close to the stall speed,

since loss of directional or lateral control could result. The

flight training required by FAR Part 61 does not entail the

actual practicing of spins for other than flight instructor-

airplane and flight instructor-glider applicants, but emphasizes

stall and spin avoidance. The most effective training method

contained in Report No. FAA-RD-77-26 is the simulation of

scenarios that can lead to inadvertent stalls by creating

distractions while the student is practicing certain maneuvers.

Stall demonstrations and practice, including maneuvering during

slow flight and other maneuvers with distractions that can lead

to inadvertent stalls, should be conducted at a sufficient

altitude to enable recovery above 1,500 feet AGL in single-

engine airplanes and 3,000 feet AGL in multiengine airplanes.

The following training elements are based on Report No. FAA-RD-

77-26:

a\. Stall Avoidance Practice at Slow Airspeeds.

\(1\) Assign a heading and an altitude. Have the student

reduce power and slow to an airspeed just above the stall speed,

using trim as necessary.

\(2\) Have the student maintain heading and altitude with

the stall warning device activated.

\(3\) Demonstrate the effect of elevator trim (use neutral

and full nose-up settings) and rudder trim, if available.

\(4\) Note the left turning tendency and rudder

effectiveness for lateral/directional control.

\(5\) Emphasize how right rudder pressure is necessary to

center the ball indicator and maintain heading.

\(6\) Release the rudder and advise the student to observe

to the left yaw.

\(7\) Adverse yaw demonstration. While at a low airspeed,

have the student enter left and right turns without using rudder

pedals.

\(8\) Have the student practice turns, climbs, and

descents at low airspeeds.

\(9\) Demonstrate the proper flap extension and retraction

procedures while in level flight to avoid a stall at low

airspeeds. Note the change in stall speeds with flaps extended

and retracted.

\(10\) Realistic distractions at low airspeeds. Give the

student a task to perform while flying at a low airspeed.

Instruct the student to divide his/her attention between the task

and flying the aircraft to maintain control and avoid a stall.

The following distractions can be used:

\(i\) Drop a pencil. Ask the student to pick it

up. Ask the student to determine a heading to an airport using a

chart.

\(ii\) Ask the student to reset the clock to

Universal Coordinated Time.

\(iii\) Ask the student to get something from the

back seat.

\(iv\) Ask the student to read the outside air

temperature.

\(v\) Ask the student to call the Flight Service

Station (FSS) for weather information.

\(vi\) Ask the student to compute true airspeed

with a flight computer.

\(vii\) Ask the student to identify terrain or

objects on the ground.

\(viii\) Ask the student to identify a field suitable

for forced landing.

\(ix\) Have the student climb 200 feet and maintain

altitude, then descend 200 feet and maintain altitude.

\(x\) Have the student reverse course after a

series of S-turns.

\(11\) Flight at low airspeeds with the airspeed indicator

covered. Use various flap settings and distractions.

b\. Departure Stall.

\(1\) At a safe altitude, have the student attempt

coordinated power-on (departure) stalls straight ahead and in

turns. Emphasize how these stalls could occur during takeoff.

\(2\) Ask the student to demonstrate a power-on

(departure) stall and distract him/her just before the stall

occurs. Explain any effects the distraction may have had on the

stall or recovery.

c\. Engine Failure in a Climb Followed by a 180-Degree Turn.

This demonstration will show the student how much altitude the

airplane loses following a power failure after takeoff and during

a 180-degree turn back to the runway and why returning to the

airport after losing an engine is not a recommended procedure.

This can be performed using either a medium or steep bank in the

180-degree turn, but emphasis should be given to stall avoidance.

\(1\) Set up best rate of climb (V sub y).

\(2\) Reduce power smoothly to idle as the airplane passes

through a cardinal altitude.

\(3\) Lower the nose to maintain the best glide speed and

make a 180-degree turn at the best glide speed.

\(4\) Point out the altitude loss and emphasize how

rapidly airspeed decreases following a power failure in a climb

attitude.

d\. Cross Controlled Stalls in Gliding Turns. Perform stalls

in gliding turns to simulate turns from base to final. Perform

the stalls from a properly coordinated turn, a slipping turn, and

a skidding turn. Explain the difference between slipping and

skidding turns. Explain the ball indicator position in each turn

and the aircraft behavior in each of the stalls.

e\. Power off (Approach-To-Landing) Stalls.

\(1\) Have the student perform a full-flap, gear extended,

power-off stall with the correct recovery and cleanup procedures.

Note the loss of altitude.

\(2\) Have the student repeat this procedure and distract

the student during the stall and recovery and note the effect of

the distraction. Show how errors in flap retraction procedure

can cause a secondary stall.

f\. Stalls During Go-Arounds.

\(1\) Have the student perform a full-flap, gear extended,

power-off stall, then recover and attempt to climb with flaps

extended. If a higher than normal climb pitch attitude is held,

a secondary stall will occur. (In some airplanes, a stall will

occur if a normal climb pitch attitude is held.)

\(2\) Have the student perform a full-flap, gear extended,

power-off stall, then recover and retract the flaps rapidly as a

higher than normal climb pitch attitude is held. A secondary

stall or settling with a loss of altitude may result.

g\. Elevator Trim Stall.

\(1\) Have the student place the airplane in a landing

approach configuration, in a trimmed descent.

\(2\) After the descent is established, initiate a

go-around by adding full power, holding only light elevator and

right rudder pressure.

\(3\) Allow the nose to pitch up and torque to swerve the

airplane left. At the first indication of a stall, recover to a

normal climbing pitch attitude.

\(4\) Emphasize the importance of correct attitude

control, application of control pressures, and proper trim during

go-arounds.

CHAPTER 3. FLIGHT TRAINING - SPINS

13\. SPIN TRAINING. Spin training is required for flight

instructor-airplane and flight instructor-glider applicants only.

Upon completion of the training, the applicant\'s logbook or

training record should be endorsed by the flight instructor who

provided the training. A sample endorsement of spin training for

flight instructor applicants is available in AC 61-65,

Certification: Pilots and Flight Instructors, current edition.

a\. Spin training must be accomplished in an aircraft that is

approved for spins. Before practicing intentional spins, the AFM

or POH should be consulted for the proper entry and recovery

techniques.

b\. The training should begin by practicing both power-on and

power-off stalls to familiarize the applicant with the aircraft\'s

stall characteristics. Spin avoidance, incipient spins, and

actual spin entry, spin, and spin recovery techniques should be

practiced from an altitude above 3,500 feet AGL.

c\. Spin avoidance training should consist of stalls and

maneuvering during slow flight using realistic distractions such

as those listed in Chapter 2. Performance is considered

unsatisfactory if it becomes necessary for the instructor to take

control of the aircraft to avoid a fully developed spin.

d\. Incipient spins should be practiced to train the

instructor applicant to recover from a student\'s poorly performed

stall or unusual attitude that could lead to a spin.

\(1\) Configure the aircraft for a power-on or power-off

stall, and continue to apply back elevator pressure. As the

stall occurs, apply right or left rudder and allow the nose to

yaw toward the stalled wing. Release the spin inducing controls

and recover as the spin begins by applying opposite rudder and

forward elevator pressure. The instructor should discuss control

application in the recovery.

e\. Spin entry, spin, and spin recovery should be

demonstrated by the instructor and repeated, in both directions,

by the applicant.

\(1\) Apply the entry procedure for a power-off stall. As

the airplane approaches a stall, smoothly apply full rudder in

the direction of desired spin rotation and continue to apply back

elevator to the limit of travel. The ailerons should be neutral.

\(2\) Allow the spin to develop, and be fully recovered no

later than one full turn. Observe the airspeed indicator during

the spin and subsequent recovery to ensure that it does not reach

the red line (V sub NE).

\(3\) Follow the recovery procedures recommended by the

manufacturer in the AFM or POH. In most aircraft, spin recovery

techniques consist of retarding power (if in a powered aircraft),

applying opposite rudder to slow the rotation, neutralizing the

ailerons, applying positive forward-elevator movement to break

the stall, neutralizing the rudder as the spinning stops, and

returning to level flight.

CHAPTER 4. AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS

14\. OPERATING LIMITATIONS. Operating limitations are imposed

for the safety of pilots and their passengers. Operations

contrary to these restrictions are a serious compromise of

safety. It is, therefore, most important that all pilots, flight

and ground instructors, and pilot examiners apply the following

information on spinning to pilot training and flight operations.

a\. Normal Category. Single-engine normal category airplanes

are placarded against intentional spins. However, to provide a

margin of safety when recovery from a stall is delayed, these

airplanes are tested during certification and must be able to

recover from a one-turn spin or a 3-second spin, whichever takes

longer, in not more than one additional turn with the controls

used in the manner normally used for recovery. In addition:

\(1\) For both the flaps-retracted and flaps-extended

conditions, the applicable airspeed limit and positive limit

maneuvering load factor may not be exceeded. For the flaps-

extended condition, the flaps may be retracted during recovery;

\(2\) There may be no excessive back pressure during the

spin recovery; and

\(3\) It must be impossible to obtain uncontrollable spins

with any use of the controls.

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

Note: Since airplanes certificated in the normal category have

not been tested for more than a one-turn or 3-second spin, their

performance characteristics beyond these limits are unknown.

This is the reason they are placarded against intentional spins.

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

b\. Acrobatic Category. An acrobatic category airplane must

meet the following requirements.

\(1\) The airplane must recover from any point in a spin,

in not more than one and one-half additional turns after normal

recovery application of the controls. Prior to normal recovery

application of the controls, the spin test must proceed for six

turns or 3 seconds, whichever takes longer, with flaps retracted,

and one turn or 3 seconds, whichever takes longer, with flaps

extended. However, beyond 3 seconds, the spin may be

discontinued when spiral characteristics appear with flaps

retracted.

\(2\) For both the flaps-retracted and flaps-extended

conditions, the applicable airspeed limit and the positive limit

maneuvering load factor may not be exceeded. For the flaps-

extended condition, the flaps may be retracted during recovery,

if a placard is installed prohibiting intentional spins with

flaps extended.

\(3\) It must be impossible to obtain uncontrollable spins

with any use of the controls.

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

Note: Since airplanes certificated in the acrobatic category

have not been tested for more than six turns or 3 seconds, their

performance characteristics beyond these limits are unknown.

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

c\. Utility Category. A utility category airplane must meet

the requirements for either the normal or acrobatic category.

15\. PLACARDS. Under FAR Section 23.1567, all airplanes type

certificated under FAR Part 23 must have a flight maneuver

placard containing the following information:

a\. For normal category airplanes, there must be a placard in

front of and in clear view of the pilot stating: \"No acrobatic

maneuvers, including spins, approved.\"

b\. Additionally, for those utility category airplanes, with

a certification basis after March 1978 and that do not meet the

spin requirements for acrobatic category airplanes, there must be

an additional placard in clear view of the pilot stating: \"Spins

Prohibited.\"

c\. For acrobatic category airplanes, there must be a placard

in clear view of the pilot listing the approved acrobatic

maneuvers and the recommended entry airspeed for each. If

inverted flight maneuvers are not approved, the placard must

include a notation to this effect.

16\. PILOT AWARENESS. The pilot of an airplane placarded against

intentional spins should assume that the airplane may become

uncontrollable in a spin. In addition, stall warning devices

should not be deactivated for pilot certification flight tests in

airplanes for which they are required equipment.