![](media/image1.png)

**Movement of Breadfruit, (*Artocarpus altilis*), and Jackfruit,
(*Artocarpus heterophyllus*), from Hawaii into the Continental United
States**

**A Qualitative Pathway-Initiated Risk Assessment**

**December 21, 2006**

**Agency Contact:**

**United States Department of Agriculture**

**Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service**

**Plant Protection and Quarantine**

**Center for Plant Health Science andTechnology**

**Plant Epidemiolgy and Risk Analysis Laboratory (Hawaii)**

**300 Ala Moana Blvd., Rm. 8-109**

**Honolulu, Hawaii 96850**

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc155824525 .anchor}**Executive Summary**

This risk assessment examines the risks associated with the entry of
Hawaiian grown breadfruit and jackfruit (*Artocarpus altilis* and
*Artocarpus heterophyllus*, respectively) into the continental United
States. This pest risk assessment identified thirteen quarantine pests
associated with *Artocarpus* species in Hawaii, which could be
introduced into the United States via this pathway.

[Insect:]{.underline}

*Bactrocera cucurbitae* Coquillett (Diptera: Tephritidae)

*Bactrocera dorsalis* (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

*Ceratitis capitata* Wiedemann (Diptera: Tephritidae)

*Aleurodicus dispersus* Russell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

*Aonidiella inornata* McKenzie (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

*Coccus viridis* (Green) (Hemiptera: Coccidae)

*Ceroplastes rubens* Maskell (Hemiptera: Coccidae)

*Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

*Maconellicoccus hirsutus* (Green) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

*Nipaecoccus viridis* (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

*Pseudococcus cryptus* Hempel (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

*Thrips palmi* Karny (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

[Pathogen:]{.underline}

*Phytophthora tropicalis* Aragaki & J.Y. Uchida (Oomycetes: Pythiales)

The quarantine pests were qualitatively analyzed based on international
principles and internal guidelines described in the PPQ Guidelines for
Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessments, Version 5.02 (USDA-APHIS,
2000). This document examined pest biology in the context of
Consequences of Introduction and Likelihood of Introduction, which
helped estimate a Pest Risk Potential for each pest. All of these pests
pose phytosanitary risks to American agriculture. The four pest species
with High risk ratings include *Bactrocera cucurbitae*, *B. dorsalis*,
*Ceratitis capitata*, *Thrips palmi* and *Phytophthora tropicalis*.
Seven insects received Medium risk ratings: *Aleurodicus dispersus*,
*Ceroplastes rubens*, *Coccus viridis*, *Aonidiella inornata*,
*Dysmicoccus neobrevipes*, *Maconellicoccus hirsutus*, *Nipaecoccus
viridis*, and *Pseudococcus cryptus*. Port-of-entry inspections, as a
sole mitigative measure, are insufficient to safeguard U.S. agriculture
from these pests; additional phytosanitary measures are necessary to
reduce risks to acceptable levels.

**Table of Contents**

[**Executive Summary** i](#__RefHeading___Toc155824525)

[**I. Introduction** 1](#__RefHeading___Toc155824526)

[**II. Risk Assessment** 1](#__RefHeading___Toc155824527)

[**2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action**
1](#__RefHeading___Toc155824528)

[**2.2. Assessment of Weed Potential of *Artocarpus altilis* and *A.
heterophyllus*** 1](#__RefHeading___Toc155824529)

[**2.3. Previous Risk Assessment, Current Status and Pest Interceptions,
and Decision History for *Artocarpus altilis* and *A. heterophyllu*s
from Hawaii Islands** 2](#__RefHeading___Toc155824530)

[**2.4. Pest Categorization -- Identification of Quarantine Pests and
Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway**
3](#__RefHeading___Toc155824531)

[**2.5 Identify Quarantine Pest Likely to Follow the Pathway**
4](#__RefHeading___Toc155824532)

[**2.6. Consequences of Introduction** 14](#__RefHeading___Toc155824533)

[**2.7. Introduction Potential** 43](#__RefHeading___Toc155824534)

[**2.8. Conclusion -- Pest Risk Potential and Pests Requiring
Phytosanitary Measures** 48](#__RefHeading___Toc155824535)

[**III. Authors & Reviewers** 50](#__RefHeading___Toc155824536)

[**IV. Literature Cited** 50](#__RefHeading___Toc155824537)

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc155824526 .anchor}**I. Introduction**

The Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory of the United States
Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service,
Plant Protection and Quarantine, Center for Plant Health Science and
Technology (USDA APHIS PPQ CPHST) prepared this pest risk assessment to
examine plant pest risks associated with the movement of breadfruit,
*Artocarpus altilis*, and jackfruit, *A. heterophyllus*, from Hawaii
into the continental United States. This is a qualitative risk
assessment, *i.e*., estimates of risk are expressed in qualitative terms
of High, Medium, and Low rather than probabilities or frequencies. PPQ
Guidelines 5.02 help characterize this risk; Guidelines are available at
*http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/commodity/cpraguide.pdf.*

International plant protection organizations, such as the International
Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) of the United Nations, the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the North American Plant Protection
Organization (NAPPO), provide guidance for conducting pest risk
analyses. The methods used to initiate, conduct, and report pest risk
assessments are consistent with guidelines provided by IPPC and NAPPO.
The use of biological and phytosanitary terms conforms to the
Definitions and Abbreviations (Introduction Section) in the
International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures, Section 1 -- Import
Regulations Guidelines for Pest Risk Analysis (IPPC, 1996), the Glossary
of Phytosanitary Terms (IPPC, 1999), and the NAPPO Compendium of
Phytosanitary terms (IPPC, 1996). These guidelines describe three stages
of pest risk analysis: Stage 1 (Initiation), Stage 2 (Risk Assessment),
and Stage 3 (Risk Management). This document satisfies the requirements
of IPPC Stages 1 and 2.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc155824527 .anchor}**II. Risk Assessment**

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc155824528 .anchor}**2.1. Initiating Event:
Proposed Action**

This commodity-based, pathway-initiated assessment is in response to a
request for USDA authorization to allow entry of a particular commodity
presenting a potential plant pest risk. In this case, the introduction
of *Artocarpus altilis* and *A. heterophyllus* imported from Hawaii into
the continental United States is a potential pathway for the
introduction of plant pests. Title 7, Part 318, Section 13 (7CFR §
318.13) of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations provides regulatory
authority for the movement of fruits and vegetables from Hawaiian
sources into the continental United States.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc155824529 .anchor}**2.2. Assessment of Weed
Potential of *Artocarpus altilis* and *A. heterophyllus***

This step is important to the initiation phase of the assessment process
because if the species considered for importation poses a risk as a weak
pest, then a "pest-initiated" pest risk assessment may be initiated. If
the species to be imported passes the weediness screening, the
pathway-initiated pest risk assessment continues. The results of the
weediness screening for *Artocarpus altilis* and *A. heterophyllus* did
not prompt a pest-initiated risk assessment because *A. altilis* and *A.
heterophyllus* are not weeds in the continental United States.

**Table 1. Assessment of Weed Potential of *Artocarpus altilis* and
*Artocarpus heterophyllus***

**Commodity**: Fruits of *Artocarpus altilis* and *A. heterophyllus*

**Phase 1:**

*Artocarpus altilis* is grown in Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico and A.
heterophyllus is grown in Puerto Rico, Hawaii, and Florida in the United
States (Cran*e et a*l., 2002; USDA-NRCS, 2004).

**Phase 2:** Answer Yes or No to the following questions:

No Geographical Atlas of World Weeds (Hol*m et a*l., 1979)

No World's Worst Weeds (Hol*m et a*l., 1977) or World Weeds: Natural
Histories and Distribution (Holm et al., 1997).

No Report of the Technical committee to Evaluate Noxious Weeds: Exotic
weeds for Federal Noxious Weed Act (Gunn and Ritchie, 1982).

No Economically Important Foreign Weeds (Reed, 1977)

No Weed Science Society of America List (WSSA, 1989)

No Are there any literature references indicating weediness (*e.g*.,
AGRICOLA, CAB, Biological Abstracts, AGRIS; search on "species name"
combined with "weed."

**Phase 3:** Conclusion

The pest risk assessment can proceed because both *Artocarpus altilis*
and *A. heterophyllus* grow in tropical to subtropical regions which are
limited in continental United States. *Artocarpus altilis* is a tropical
plant that requires a temperature range of 60º to 100ºF (15.56º --
37.78ºC), with annual rainfall between 80 to 100 inches (203 -- 254 cm),
and a relative humidity of 70 to 80% (Morton, 1987). *Artocarpus
heterophyllus* is a subtropical plant, adapted to the hot humid climate,
with occasional freezes (Cran*e et a*l., 2002). Randall (2002) lists *A.
altilis* and *A. heterophyllus* as weeds of the following statuses:

Weed\~Naturalised\~Introduced\~Casual Alien and Naturalised\~Introduced,
respectively.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc155824530 .anchor}**2.3. Previous Risk Assessment,
Current Status and Pest Interceptions, and Decision History for
*Artocarpus altilis* and *A. heterophyllu*s from Hawaii Islands**

Records do not indicate a previous assessments of the species
*Artocarpus altilis* and *A. heterophyllus*. Table 2 shows interception
data (since 1985) on Artocarpus species from Hawaii.

**Table 2. Interception on *Artocarpus* spp. from Hawaii from 1985 to
2004 (PIN 309 database; USDA-APHIS-PPQ, 2004)**.

  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  **Host**         **Organism**     **County**   **Imported   **Where         **Number of
                                                 As**         Intercepted**   Interceptions**
  ---------------- ---------------- ------------ ------------ --------------- -----------------
  *Artocarpus      *Atherigona*     Hawaii       Fruit        Baggage         1
  heterophyllus*   spp.                                                       

  *Artocarpus*     *Bactrocera      Hawaii       Fruit        Baggage         1
  spp.             dorsalis*                                                  

  *Artocarpus*     *Bactrocera      Hawaii       Fruit        Mail            1
  spp.             dorsalis*                                                  

  *Artocarpus      *Coccotrypes*    Hawaii       Plant        Baggage         1
  altilis*         spp.                                                       

  *Artocarpus*     *Laminicoccus    Hawaii       Fruit        Baggage         1
  spp.             pandani*                                                   

  *Artocarpus      Pseudococcidae   Hawaii       Fruit        Baggage         1
  altilis*                                                                    

  *Artocarpus      Pseudococcidae   Hawaii       Stem         Baggage         1
  heterophyllus*                                                              

  *Artocarpus      Tephritidae      Hawaii       Fruit        Baggage         1
  heterophyllus*                                                              
  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc155824531 .anchor}**2.4. Pest Categorization --
Identification of Quarantine Pests and Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow
the Pathway**

PPQ adheres to accepted international definitions of quarantine pest: "a
pest of potential economic importance to the area endangered thereby and
not yet present there, or present but not widely distributed and being
officially controlled" (Hopper, 1996; IPPC, 1996). The first step in
identifying quarantine pests is to present a comprehensive pest list of
potential quarantine pests known to occur in the country or region from
which the commodity is to be exported. The list includes all pests in
the exporting country/region associated with the parent species of the
proposed export commodity. Because all pests on the list are associated
with the plant species, they are considered to be "of potential economic
importance" (IPPC, 1996). The listed pests may or may not occur in the
United States.

There are two primary components to the definition of quarantine pest
(Hopper, 1996; IPPC, 1996). First, a pest must be "of potential economic
importance." To be included on the comprehensive list of potential
quarantine pests, an organism is of potential economic importance
because scientific evidence, as indicated by literature, demonstrates
that the organism and its association with the plant species is being
assessed; thus, all of the listed organisms are potential quarantine
pests. Second, to be considered a quarantine pest, an organism must
satisfy geographic and regulatory criteria, specifically, the pest must
be "not yet present there or present but not widely distributed and
being officially controlled" (Hopper, 1996; IPPC, 1996).

The information collected and provided in the risk assessment documents
how each organism satisfies these criteria. Pertinent geographic and
regulatory information, *i.e*., with respect to the exporting country
and the United States, will be provided on the comprehensive pest list.
If none of the potential quarantine pests satisfy the geographic and
regulatory criteria as a quarantine pest, the PRA stops. Table 3 shows
the pest list for breadfruit, *Artocarpus altilis*, and jackfruit, *A.
heterophyllus*, from Hawaii. The pest list identifies the presence or
absence of these pests in the United States; the generally affected
plant part or parts; the quarantine status of the pest with respect to
the United States; whether the pest is likely to follow the pathway to
enter the United States on commercially exported breadfruit and
jackfruit; and pertinent citations for either the distribution or the
biology of the pest. A pest is considered to follow the pathway if it is
associated with the fruit.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc155824532 .anchor}**2.5 Identify Quarantine Pest
Likely to Follow the Pathway**

Quarantine pests identified as likely to be associated with the
potential export commodity are subject to steps 5 to 7. Documentation of
the biology and pest potential for these pests is as complete as
possible. It is reasonable to assume these quarantine pest will:

-   be present in the exporting region,

-   be associated with the commodity at the time of harvest, and

-   remain with the commodity in viable form during harvesting, packing,
    and shipping procedures.

Because pests associated with the parent species are listed, some
quarantine pests are not expected to follow the pathway. For example, a
pest may only be associated with non-commodity plant parts, or a pest
may not be reasonably expected to remain with the commodity during
harvest and packing.

Pests not expected to follow the pathway are not considered further.
Supporting information must be documented in the pest list or text. The
decision to not further analyze a particular pest only applies to the
current PRA; a pest may pose a different level of risk for the same
commodity from a different country, or from a different commodity from
the same host plant species. Should any of the pests be intercepted in
commodity shipments, quarantine action may be taken at the
port-of-entry, and additional risk analyses may be conducted.

**If no potential quarantine pests are identified, the PRA stops at this
point.**

**Table 3. Pests Associated with Breadfruit, *Artocarpus altilis*, and
Jackfruit, *A. heterophyllus*, in Hawaii.**

+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| **Pest           | **Ge     | **    | **Quar | **F   | **Re       |
| Scientific       | ographic | Plant | antine | ollow | ferences** |
| Name**           | Distri   | Part  | Pest** | Path  |            |
|                  | bution** | Affec |        | way** |            |
|                  |          | ted** |        |       |            |
+==================+==========+=======+========+=======+============+
| **Arthropods**   |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| **Acari**        |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Brevipalpus     | HI, FL   | leaf, | Yes    | No    | CABI, 2003 |
| phoenicis*       |          | stem  |        |       |            |
| (Geijskes)       |          |       |        |       |            |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (Tenuipalpidae)  |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| **Acarina**      |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Eutetranychus   | HI, US   | leaf  | No     | No    | HDOA,      |
| banksi*          |          |       |        |       | 1998;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Mart       |
| (Tetranychidae)  |          |       |        |       | in-Kessing |
|                  |          |       |        |       | and Mau,   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1992b      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| **Insecta**      |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| **Coleoptera**   |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Araecerus       | HI, CA,  | wood  | No     | No    | Swezey,    |
| fasciculatus*    | FL, TX,  | (     |        |       | 1949       |
| (De Geer)        | LA       | dead) |        |       |            |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (Anthribidae)    |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Exillis         | HI       | wood  | Yes    | No    | Swezey,    |
| lepidus* Jordan  |          |       |        |       | 1950       |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (Anthribidae)    |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Coptops         | HI       | wood  | Yes    | No    | Bridwell,  |
| aedificator*     |          |       |        |       | 1920       |
| (Fabricius)      |          |       |        |       |            |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (Cerambycidae)   |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Lagocheirus     | HI, TX   | wood  | No     | No    | CABI,      |
| obsoletus*       |          |       |        |       | 2003;      |
| Thomson          |          |       |        |       | Swezey,    |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1949;      |
| (Cerambycidae)   |          |       |        |       | Swezey,    |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1950       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Oopsis nutator* | HI       | wood  | Yes    | No    | Swezey,    |
| (Fabricius)      |          |       |        |       | 1949;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Swezey,    |
| (Cerambycidae)   |          |       |        |       | 1950       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Pterolophia     | HI       | wood  | No     | No    | Swezey,    |
| camura* Newman   |          |       |        |       | 1949;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Swezey,    |
| (Cerambycidae)   |          |       |        |       | 1950       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Sybra           | HI, FL   | wood, | Yes    | No    | Che*n et   |
| alternans*       |          |       |        |       | a*l.,      |
| (Wiedemann)      |          |       |        |       | 2002;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Swezey,    |
| (Cerambycidae)   |          |       |        |       | 1949;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Swezey,    |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1950;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Thomas,    |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2006       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Dryophthorus    | HI(      | wood  | Yes    | No    | Swezey,    |
| distinguendus*   | Extinct) |       |        |       | 1950;      |
| Perkins          |          |       |        |       | WCMC, 1996 |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (Curculionidae)  |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Oxydema         | HI       | wood  | Yes    | No    | Swezey,    |
| fusiforme*       |          |       |        |       | 1949;      |
| Wollaston        |          |       |        |       | Swezey,    |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1950       |
| (Curculionidae)  |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Crossotarsus    | HI       | wood  | No     | No    | Swezey,    |
| externedentatus* |          |       |        |       | 1950;      |
| (Fairmaire)      |          |       |        |       | WCMC, 2006 |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (Platypodidae)   |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Ericryphalus    | HI       | wood  | Yes    | No    | Swezey,    |
| henshawi*        |          | (     |        |       | 1949       |
|                  |          | dead) |        |       |            |
| (Scolytidae)     |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Ericryphalus*   | HI       | wood  | Yes    | No    | Swezey,    |
| spp.             |          |       |        |       | 1949;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Swezey,    |
| (Scolytidae)     |          |       |        |       | 1950       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Ericryphalus    | HI       | wood  | Yes    | No    | Swezey,    |
| sylvicola*       |          |       |        |       | 1950       |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (Scolytidae)     |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Euwallacea      | HI       | wood  | Yes    | No    | CABI,      |
| fornicatus*      |          |       |        |       | 2003;      |
| (Eichhoff)       |          |       |        |       | Swezey,    |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1950       |
| (Scolytidae)     |          |       |        |       |            |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (= *Xyleborus    |          |       |        |       |            |
| fornicatus*)     |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Hypothenemus    | HI, US   | wood  | No     | No    | Swezey,    |
| insularis*       |          |       |        |       | 1941       |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (Scolytidae)     |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Hypothenemus    | HI       | wood  | Yes    | No    | Swezey,    |
| ruficeps*        |          |       |        |       | 1941       |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (Scolytidae)     |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| **Diptera**      |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Atherigona*     | HI       | fruit | Yes    | Yes   | USDA-      |
| spp.             |          |       |        |       | APHIS-PPQ, |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004       |
| (Muscidae)       |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Bactrocera      | HI       | f     | Yes    | Yes   | CABI, 2003 |
| cucurbitae*      |          | ruit, |        |       |            |
| Coquillett       |          | leaf, |        |       |            |
|                  |          | stem, |        |       |            |
| (Tephritidae)    |          | root, |        |       |            |
|                  |          | f     |        |       |            |
|                  |          | lower |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Bactrocera      | HI, CA,  | fruit | Yes    | Yes   | CABI,      |
| dorsalis*        | FL       |       |        |       | 2003;      |
| (Hendel)         |          |       |        |       | USDA-      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | APHIS-PPQ, |
| (Tephritidae)    |          |       |        |       | 2004       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Ceratitis       | HI       | fruit | Yes    | Yes   | Liquid*o   |
| capitata*        |          |       |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| Wiedemann        |          |       |        |       | 1998;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Pemberton, |
| (Tephritidae)    |          |       |        |       | 1943       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| **Hemiptera**    |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Aleurodicus     | HI, FL   | leaf, | Yes    | Yes   | CABI,      |
| dispersus*       |          | fruit |        |       | 2003;      |
| Russell          |          |       |        |       | CABI,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2006;      |
| (Aleyrodidae)    |          |       |        |       | EPPO,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Mart       |
|                  |          |       |        |       | in-Kessing |
|                  |          |       |        |       | and Mau,   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1993b;     |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981a      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Aphis gossypii* | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | CABI, 2003 |
| Glover           |          | stem, |        |       |            |
|                  |          | s     |        |       |            |
| (Aphididae)      |          | hoot, |        |       |            |
|                  |          | f     |        |       |            |
|                  |          | lower |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Ceroplastes     | HI, FL   | leaf, | Yes    | Yes   | Ben-D*ov   |
| rubens* Maskell  |          | fruit |        |       | et a*l.,   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
| (Coccidae)       |          |       |        |       | CABI,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2003;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b;     |
|                  |          |       |        |       | USDA-      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | APHIS-PPQ, |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Coccus          | HI, FL   | leaf  | Yes    | No    | Ben-Do*v   |
| capparidis*      |          |       |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Green)          |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | USDA-      |
| (Coccidae)       |          |       |        |       | APHIS-PPQ, |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Coccus          | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | No    | Ben-Do*v   |
| hesperidum       |          | stem  |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| hesperidum*      |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
| Linnaeus         |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b      |
| (Coccidae)       |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Coccus          | HI, US   | stem, | No     | No    | Ben-Do*v   |
| longulus*        |          | leaf, |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Douglas)        |          | twig  |        |       | 2004; Mau  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | and Martin |
| (Coccidae)       |          |       |        |       | Kessing,   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1992b;     |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Coccus viridis* | HI, FL   | f     | Y      | Yes   | CABI,      |
| (Green)          |          | ruit, | es[^1] |       | 2006;      |
|                  |          | leaf, |        |       |            |
| (Coccidae)       |          | stem  |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Kilifia         | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| acuminata*       |          | br    |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Signoret)       |          | anch, |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          | fruit |        |       | Hafez et   |
| (Coccidae)       |          |       |        |       | al., 1971; |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
| *Lecanium        |          |       |        |       | 1981b      |
| acuminatum*      |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Milviscutulus   | HI, FL,  | leaf  | No     | No    | Ben-Do*v   |
| mangiferae*      | TX       |       |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Green)          |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Crane et   |
| (Coccidae)       |          |       |        |       | al., 2002  |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| *Protopulvinaria |          |       |        |       |            |
| mangiferae*      |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Parasaissetia   | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | No    | Ben-Do*v   |
| nigra* (Nietner) |          | stem  |        |       | et a*l.,   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
| (Coccidae)       |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Prococcus       | HI, FL,  | leaf  | No     | No    | Ben-Do*v   |
| acutissimus*     | TX       |       |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Green)          |          |       |        |       | 2004       |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (Coccidae)       |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Pulvinaria      | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| psidii* Maskell  |          | stem, |        |       | et a*l.,   |
|                  |          | fruit |        |       | 2004;      |
| (Coccidae)       |          |       |        |       | CABI,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2006;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Saissetia       | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | No    | Ben-Do*v   |
| coffeae*         |          | stem  |        |       | et a*l.,   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
| (Coccidae)       |          |       |        |       | CABI,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2003;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Abgrallaspis    | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| cyanophylli*     |          | bark, |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Signoret)       |          | fruit |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Mart       |
| (Diaspididae)    |          |       |        |       | in-Kessing |
|                  |          |       |        |       | and Mau,   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1993a;     |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Andaspis        | HI, FL   | stem, | Yes    | No    | Ben-Do*v   |
| punicae*         |          | b     |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Lacing)         |          | ranch |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Mossler    |
| (Diaspididae)    |          |       |        |       | and        |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nesheim,   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2002;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Aonidiella      | HI, TX   | fruit | Yes    | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| inornata*        |          |       |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| McKenzie         |          |       |        |       | 2006       |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (Diaspididae)    |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Aspidiotus      | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| destructor*      |          | f     |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| Signoret         |          | ruit, |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          | stem  |        |       | CABI,      |
| (Diaspididae)    |          |       |        |       | 2003;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Cran*e et  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | a*l.,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2002;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Chrysomphalus   | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| aonidum*         |          | stem, |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Linnaeus)       |          | fruit |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | CABI,      |
| (Diaspididae)    |          |       |        |       | 2003;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Chrysomphalus   | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| dictyospermi*    |          | stem, |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Morgan)         |          | fruit |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | CABI,      |
| (Diaspididae)    |          |       |        |       | 2003;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Fiorinia        | HI, US   | leaf  | No     | No    | Ben-Do*v   |
| fioriniae*       |          |       |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Targioni        |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
| Tozzetti)        |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b;     |
| (Diaspididae)    |          |       |        |       | Rosen,     |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1990       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Hemiberlesia    | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| lataniae*        |          | stem, |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Signoret)       |          | fruit |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | CABI,      |
| (Diaspididae)    |          |       |        |       | 2003;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Hemiberlesia    | HI, FL   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | Beardsley, |
| palmae* (Morgan  |          | stem, |        |       | 1983;      |
| & Cockerell)     |          | fruit |        |       | Ben-D*ov   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Diaspididae)    |          |       |        |       | 2004       |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| *Abgrallaspis    |          |       |        |       |            |
| palmae*          |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Pinnaspis buxi* | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | No    | Ben-Do*v   |
| (BouchT)         |          | f     |        |       | et a*l.,   |
|                  |          | lower |        |       | 2004;      |
| (Diaspididae)    |          |       |        |       | Tenbrink   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | and Hara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1992       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Pinnaspis       | HI, US   | f     | No     | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| strachani*       |          | ruit, |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Cooley)         |          | leaf, |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          | stem  |        |       | CABI,      |
| (Diaspididae)    |          |       |        |       | 2003;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Crane et   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | al., 2002; |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Pseudaulacaspis | HI       | bark  | Yes    | No    | Ben-Do*v   |
| subcorticalis*   |          |       |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Green)          |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
| (Diaspididae)    |          |       |        |       | 1981b      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Unaspis citri*  | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | CABI, 2003 |
| (Comstock)       |          | stem, |        |       |            |
|                  |          | fruit |        |       |            |
| (Diaspididae)    |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Icerya          | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | No    | CABI,      |
| purchasi*        |          | stem  |        |       | 2003;      |
| Maskell          |          |       |        |       | Hale, 1970 |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (Margarodidae)   |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Dysmicoccus     | HI, CA,  | f     | No     | yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| brevipes*        | FL, LA   | ruit, |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| Cockerell        |          | leaf, |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          | stem, |        |       | CABI,      |
| (Pseudococcidae) |          | root, |        |       | 2003;      |
|                  |          | shoot |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b;     |
|                  |          |       |        |       | USDA-      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | APHIS-PPQ, |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Dysmicoccus     | HI, FL   | fruit | Yes    | Yes   | Nakahara,  |
| neobrevipes*     |          |       |        |       | 1981b;     |
| Beardsley        |          |       |        |       | USDA-      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | APHIS-PPQ, |
| (Pseudococcidae) |          |       |        |       | 2004       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Ferrisia        | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| virgata*         |          | stem, |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Cockerell)      |          | s     |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          | hoot, |        |       | CABI,      |
| (Pseudococcidae) |          | fruit |        |       | 2003;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Morton,    |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1987;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Laminicoccus    | HI       | fruit | Yes    | N     | Ben-Do*v   |
| pandani*         |          | Leaf  |        | o[^2] | et a*l.,   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
| (Pseudococcidae) |          |       |        |       | USDA-      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | APHIS-PPQ, |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Maconellicoccus | HI, CA,  | leaf, | Yes    | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| hirsutus*        | FL       | s     |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Green)          |          | hoot, |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          | fruit |        |       | CABI,      |
| (Pseudococcidae) |          |       |        |       | 2003;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | USDA-      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | APHIS-PPQ, |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Nipaecoccus     | HI, CA,  | leaf, | No     | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| nipae* (Maskell) | FL, LA   | stem, |        |       | et a*l.,   |
|                  |          | fruit |        |       | 2005;      |
| (Pseudococcidae) |          |       |        |       | CABI,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2003;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981b      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Nipaecoccus     | HI       | br    | Yes    | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| viridis*         |          | anch, |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Newstead)       |          | twig, |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          | f     |        |       | CABI,      |
| (Pseudococcidae) |          | ruit, |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          | leaf, |        |       | Morton,    |
|                  |          | fl    |        |       | 1987       |
|                  |          | ower, |        |       |            |
|                  |          | bud   |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Planococcus     | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | CABI,      |
| citri* (Risso)   |          | stem, |        |       | 2003;      |
|                  |          | root, |        |       | Nakahara,  |
| (Pseudococcidae) |          | s     |        |       | 1981b      |
|                  |          | hoot, |        |       |            |
|                  |          | fl    |        |       |            |
|                  |          | ower, |        |       |            |
|                  |          | fruit |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Pseudococcus    | HI       | leaf, | Yes    | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| cryptus* Hempel  |          | fruit |        |       | et a*l.,   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
| (Pseudococcidae) |          |       |        |       | USDA-      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | APHIS-PPQ, |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Pseudococcus    | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| longispinus*     |          | stem, |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| Targioni         |          | s     |        |       | 2004;      |
| Tozzetti         |          | hoot, |        |       | HDOA,      |
|                  |          | fl    |        |       | 1998;      |
| (Pseudococcidae) |          | ower, |        |       | Nakahara,  |
|                  |          | fruit |        |       | 1981b      |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| **Lepidoptera**  |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Eudocima        | HI       | fruit | Yes    | N     | CABI, 2003 |
| fullonia*        |          |       |        | o[^3] |            |
| (Clerck)         |          |       |        |       |            |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (Noctuidae)      |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Opogona         | HI       | wood  | Yes    | No    | Swezey,    |
| purpuriella*     |          | (     |        |       | 1949       |
|                  |          | dead) |        |       |            |
| (Tineidae)       |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| **Thysanoptera** |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Thrips palmi*   | HI, FL   | f     | Y      | Yes   | CABI,      |
| Karny            |          | ruit, | es[^4] |       | 2003;      |
|                  |          | leaf, |        |       | USDA-      |
| (thripidae)      |          | shoot |        |       | APHIS-PPQ, |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| **Nematodes**    |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Helicotylenchus | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | No    | CABI, 2003 |
| dihystera*       |          | root  |        |       |            |
| (Cobb) Sher      |          |       |        |       |            |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (Hoplolaimidae)  |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Rotylenchulus   | HI, US   | root  | No     | No    | CABI, 2003 |
| reniformis*      |          |       |        |       |            |
| Linford &        |          |       |        |       |            |
| Oliveira         |          |       |        |       |            |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (Hoplolaimidae)  |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| **Plant          |          |       |        |       |            |
| Pathogens**      |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| **Fungi**        |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Athelia         | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| rolfsii* (Curzi) |          | stem, |        |       | et* al.,   |
| C. C. Tu &       |          | fl    |        |       | 2004;      |
| Kimbr.           |          | ower, |        |       | CABI,      |
|                  |          | f     |        |       | 2003;      |
| (Corticiaceae)   |          | ruit, |        |       | USDA-ARS,  |
|                  |          | and   |        |       | 1960       |
| *Pellicularia    |          | seed  |        |       |            |
| rolfsii*         |          |       |        |       |            |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| *Sclerotium      |          |       |        |       |            |
| rolfsii*         |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Botrytis        | HI, US   | fruit | No     | Yes   | Ben-Do*v   |
| cinerea*         |          |       |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| Pers.:Fr.        |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | CABI,      |
| (                |          |       |        |       | 2003;      |
| Sclerotiniaceae) |          |       |        |       | Crane et   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | al., 2002  |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Colletotrichum  | HI       | leaf  | Yes    | No    | Far*r et   |
| artocarpi*       |          |       |        |       | a*l.,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Raab*e et  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | a*l.,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | USDA-ARS,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1960       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Colletotrichum  | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | CABI,      |
| orbiculare*      |          | stem, |        |       | 2003;      |
|                  |          | fruit |        |       | Morton,    |
| *Colletotrichum  |          |       |        |       | 1987       |
| lagenarium*      |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Earliella       | HI, FL,  | wood  | No     | No    | Far*r et   |
| scabrosa*        | LA       |       |        |       | a*l.,      |
| (Pers.) R.L.     |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
| Gilbertson &     |          |       |        |       | G          |
| Ryvarden         |          |       |        |       | ilbertso*n |
|                  |          |       |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| (Polyporaceae)   |          |       |        |       | 2002)      |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| *Trametes        |          |       |        |       |            |
| corrugata* out   |          |       |        |       |            |
| of alphabetical  |          |       |        |       |            |
| order            |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Ganoderma       | HI, US   | root  | No     | No    | Far*r et   |
| applanatum*      |          |       |        |       | a*l., 2004 |
| (Pers.) Pat.     |          |       |        |       |            |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (                |          |       |        |       |            |
| Ganodermataceae) |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Glomerella      | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | CABI,      |
| cingulata*       |          | stem, |        |       | 2003;      |
| (Stonem.)        |          | f     |        |       | Far*r et   |
| Spauld. &        |          | ruit, |        |       | a*l., 2004 |
| Schrenk          |          | f     |        |       |            |
|                  |          | lower |        |       |            |
| (                |          |       |        |       |            |
| Phyllachoraceae) |          |       |        |       |            |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| *Colletotrichum  |          |       |        |       |            |
| gloeosporioides* |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Mycosphaerella  | HI       | leaf  | Yes    | No    | Fa*rr et   |
| artocarpi*       |          |       |        |       | a*l.,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
| (Myc             |          |       |        |       | Gonsalves  |
| osphaerellaceae) |          |       |        |       | and        |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Ferreira,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1994;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Raab*e et  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | a*l.,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | USDA-ARS,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1960       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Orbilia         | HI       | wood, | Yes    | No    | Far*r et   |
| epipora*         |          | bark  |        |       | a*l.,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
| (Orbiliaceae)    |          |       |        |       | Raab*e et* |
|                  |          |       |        |       | al., 1981; |
|                  |          |       |        |       | USDA-ARS,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1960; Farr |
|                  |          |       |        |       | *et al.*,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2006       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Peniophora      | HI, US   | wood  | No     | No    | Far*r et   |
| incarnata*       |          |       |        |       | a*l.,      |
| (Pers.:Fr.) P.   |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
| Karst.           |          |       |        |       | G          |
|                  |          |       |        |       | ilbertso*n |
| (Peniophoraceae) |          |       |        |       | et a*l.,   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2002       |
| *Corticium       |          |       |        |       |            |
| incarnatum*      |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Phyllosticta    | HI, FL   | leaf  | No     | No    | Cran*e et* |
| artocarpi* Speg. |          |       |        |       | al., 2002; |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Far*r et   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | a*l.,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Raab*e et  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | a*l.,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | USDA-ARS,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1960       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Phytophthora    | HI, US   | stem, | No     | Yes   | CABI, 2003 |
| capsici* Leonian |          | leaf, |        |       |            |
|                  |          | root, |        |       |            |
| (Pythiaceae)     |          | fruit |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Phytophthora    | HI, AZ,  | leaf, | No     | Yes   | CABI,      |
| palmivora* (E.   | CA, FL   | stem  |        |       | 2003;      |
| J. Butler) E. J. |          | root, |        |       | Far*r et   |
| Butler           |          | fl    |        |       | a*l.,      |
|                  |          | ower, |        |       | 2004;      |
| (Pythiaceae)     |          | fruit |        |       | Worrell    |
|                  |          |       |        |       | and Sean   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | C          |
|                  |          |       |        |       | arrington, |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1997       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Phytophthora    | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | Far*r et   |
| palmivora* var.  |          | stem, |        |       | a*l., 2004 |
| *palmivora*      |          | root, |        |       |            |
|                  |          | f     |        |       |            |
| (Pythiaceae)     |          | ruit, |        |       |            |
|                  |          | fl    |        |       |            |
|                  |          | ower, |        |       |            |
|                  |          | shoot |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Phytophthora    | HI       | leaf, | Yes    | Yes   | Cerquier*a |
| tropicalis*      |          | stem, |        |       | et a*l.,   |
| Aragaki & J.Y.   |          | root, |        |       | 2005;      |
| Uchida           |          | fruit |        |       | Elliott    |
|                  |          |       |        |       | and        |
| (Oomycetes:      |          |       |        |       | Uchida,    |
| Pythiales)       |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Far*r et   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | a*l., 2004 |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Polyporus       | HI, US   | br    | No     | No    | Far*r et*  |
| zonalis* Berk.   |          | anch, |        |       | al., 2004; |
|                  |          | wood  |        |       | Gilbertson |
| (Polyporaceae)   |          |       |        |       | and        |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Adaskaveg, |
| *Rigidoporus     |          |       |        |       | 1993;      |
| lineatus* out of |          |       |        |       | G          |
| alphabetical     |          |       |        |       | ilbertso*n |
| order            |          |       |        |       | et a*l.,   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2002       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Pythium         | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | No    | Cran*e et  |
| splendens* Braun |          | stem, |        |       | a*l.,      |
|                  |          | root  |        |       | 2002;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Far*r et   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | a*l., 2004 |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Rigidoporus     | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | No    | CABI,      |
| microporus*      |          | stem, |        |       | 2003;      |
| (Fr.) Overeem    |          | root, |        |       | Far*r et   |
|                  |          | fl    |        |       | a*l.,      |
| (Meripilaceae)   |          | ower, |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          | wood  |        |       | Gilbertson |
| *Polyporus       |          |       |        |       | and        |
| lignosus*        |          |       |        |       | Adaskaveg, |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1993;      |
| *Rigidoporus     |          |       |        |       | G          |
| lignosus*        |          |       |        |       | ilbertso*n |
|                  |          |       |        |       | et a*l.,   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2002       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Rigidoporus     | HI, FL   | wood  | No     | No    | Far*r et   |
| vinctus*         |          |       |        |       | a*l.,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
| (Meripilaceae)   |          |       |        |       | Gilbertson |
|                  |          |       |        |       | and        |
| *Poria vincta*   |          |       |        |       | Adaskaveg, |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1993;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | G          |
|                  |          |       |        |       | ilbertso*n |
|                  |          |       |        |       | et a*l.,   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2002       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Rhizopus* spp.  | HI       | fruit | Yes    | Yes   | Far*r et   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | a*l.,      |
| (Mucoraceae)     |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Raab*e et  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | a*l., 1981 |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Rhizopus        | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | Far*r et*  |
| stolonifer*      |          | fruit |        |       | al., 2004  |
| (Ehrenb.:Fr.)    |          |       |        |       |            |
| Vuill.           |          |       |        |       |            |
|                  |          |       |        |       |            |
| (Mucoraceae)     |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Schizophyllum   | HI, US   | wood  | No     | No    | CABI,      |
| commune* Fr.:Fr. |          |       |        |       | 2003;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Far*r et   |
| (S               |          |       |        |       | a*l.,      |
| chizophyllaceae) |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | G          |
|                  |          |       |        |       | ilbertso*n |
|                  |          |       |        |       | et a*l.,   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2002       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Uredo           | HI       | leaf  | Yes    | No    | CABI,      |
| artocarpi* B. &  |          |       |        |       | 2003;      |
| Br.              |          |       |        |       | Far*r et   |
|                  |          |       |        |       | a*l.,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | Morton,    |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1987;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | USDA-      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | APHIS-PPQ, |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 2004;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | USDA-ARS,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1960       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Botryosphaeria  | HI, US   | leaf, | No     | Yes   | Far*r et   |
| rhodina* (Cooke) |          | stem, |        |       | a*l., 2004 |
| Arx              |          | root, |        |       |            |
|                  |          | fl    |        |       |            |
| (Ascomycetes:    |          | ower, |        |       |            |
| Dothideales)     |          | f     |        |       |            |
|                  |          | ruit, |        |       |            |
| *Physalospora    |          | seed  |        |       |            |
| rhodina*         |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| **Alga**         |          |       |        |       |            |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+
| *Cephaleuros     | HI, AR,  | leaf  | No     | No    | Raab*e et  |
| virescens* Künze | LA       |       |        |       | a*l.,      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1981;      |
|                  |          |       |        |       | USDA-ARS,  |
|                  |          |       |        |       | 1960       |
+------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+------------+

Distribution: AR = Arkansas; AZ = Arizona; CA = California; FL =
Florida; HI = Hawaii; LA = Louisiana; TX = Texas; US = continental
United States (widespread)

Quarantine pests reasonably expected to follow the pathway, *i.e*., be
included in commercial shipments of breadfruit and jackfruit
(*Artocarpus altilis* and *A. heterophyllus*), were analyzed in Steps
5-7 (USDA-APHIS, 2000). Other plant pests not chosen for further
scrutiny may be potentially detrimental to the agricultural production
and natural systems of the United States; however, there were a variety
of reasons for not subjecting them to further analysis: they were
associated mainly with plant parts other than the commodity; they may be
associated with the commodity, but it was not considered reasonable to
expect these pests to remain with the commodity during processing; or
they have been intercepted as biological contaminants of these
commodities during inspection by Plant Protection and Quarantine
Officers, but were not expected to be present with every shipment. In
addition, the biological hazard of organisms identified only to the
genus level is not assessed due to the lack of adequate biological
taxonomic information. This lack of biological information on any given
insect or pathogen should not be equated with low risk. By necessity,
pest assessments focus on those organisms for which biological
information is available. By developing detailed assessments for known
pests that inhabit a variety of niches on the parent species, *e.g*., on
the surface of or within the bark/wood, on the foliage, *etc*.,
effective mitigation measures may be developed to eliminate the known
organism and any similar unknown ones that inhabit the same niches. The
organisms in this risk assessment identified to genus level were
*Ericryphalus* spp. (Coleoptera: Scolytidae), *Atherigona* spp.
(Diptera: Muscidae), and *Rhizopus* spp. (Mucorales: Mucoraceae).

Table 4 summarizes the quarantine pests likely to follow the pathway on
breadfruit and jackfruit (*Artocarpus altilis* and *A. heterophyllus*)
from Hawaii.

**Table 4. Quarantine Pests Likely to be Associated with Breadfruit and
Jackfruit from Hawaii.**

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
  **ARTHROPODS**

  *Aleurodicus dispersus* Russell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

  *Aonidiella inornata* McKenzie (Homoptera: Diaspididae)

  *Bactrocera cucurbitae* (Coquillett) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

  *Bactrocera dorsalis* (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

  *Ceratitis capitata* (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

  *Ceroplastes rubens* Maskell (Homoptera: Coccidae)

  *Coccus viridis* (Green) (Homoptera: Coccidae)

  *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* Beardsley (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)

  *Maconellicoccus hirsutus* (Green) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)

  *Nipaecoccus viridis* (Newstead) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)

  *Pseudococcus cryptus* Hempel (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)

  *Thrips palmi* Karny (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

  **FUNGUS**

  *Phytophthora tropicalis* Aragaki & J.Y. Uchida (Oomycetes: Pythiales)
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc155824533 .anchor}**2.6. Consequences of
Introduction**

After identifying those quarantine pests that could reasonably be
expected to follow the pathway (Table 3), the risk assessment continues
by considering the Consequences of Introduction (Table 4). For each of
these quarantine pests, the potential Consequences of Introduction are
rated using five Risk Elements; these elements reflect the biology, host
range and climatic/geographic distribution of the pest. For each Risk
Element, pests are assigned a rating of Low (1 point), Medium (2
points), or High (3 points). A Cumulative Risk Rating is then calculated
by summing all Risk Element values. Table 5 summarizes the values
determined for the Consequences of Introduction for each pest.

The Consequences of Introduction rating system is based on five
elements: Climate, Host Interaction, Host Range, Dispersal Potential,
Economic Impact, and Environmental Impact. The evaluated rating for each
element is either Low (1 point), Medium (2 points), or High (3 points);
this value helps derive a risk value. A summation of each risk value
component determines the Pest Risk Potential (PRP) for the organism. The
PRP is a relative measure of the seriousness of the organism based on
its biology. The PRP is a biological indicator of the potential of the
pest to establish, spread, and cause economic and environmental impacts.

**Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**

When introduced to new areas, a pest can be expected to behave as they
do in their native habitats, if host plants and climates are similar.
This element considers the ecological zonation and the interactions of
pests with their biotic and abiotic environments. Estimates are based on
the availability of host material and suitable climate conditions. This
Risk Element utilizes the United States' Plant Hardiness Zones
(Figure 1) created by U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA-ARS, 1990).
Due to the availability of both suitable host plants and suitable
climate, the pest has the potential to establish a breeding colony:

Low (1): In a single plant hardiness zone.

Medium (2): In two or three plant hardiness zones.

High (3): In four or more plant hardiness zones.

If none of the quarantine pests are capable of establishment due to the
absence of suitable climates or hosts, the PRA stops.

**Risk Element #2: Host Range**

The risk posed by a plant pest depends on its ability to establish a
viable, reproductive population, and its potential for causing plant
damage. For arthropods, risk is positively correlated with host range.
For pathogens, risk depends on host range, aggressiveness, virulence,
and pathogenicity; for simplicity, risk is rated as a function of host
range.

Low (1): Pest attacks a single species or multiple species within a
single genus.

Medium (2): Pest attacks multiple species within a single plant family.

High (3): Pest attacks multiple species among multiple plant families.

**Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**

A pest may disperse after introduction to a new area. The following
items are considered: reproductive patterns of the pest (*e.g*.,
voltinism, biotic potential); inherent powers of movement; factors
facilitating dispersal, wind, water, presence of vectors, human, *etc*.

> Low (1): Pest has neither high reproductive potential nor rapid
> dispersal capability.
>
> Medium (2): Pest has either high reproductive potential OR the species
> is capable of rapid dispersal.
>
> High (3): Pest has high biotic potential, *e.g*., many generations per
> year, many offspring per reproduction ("r-selected" species), AND
> evidence exists that the pest is capable of rapid dispersal, *e.g.,*
> over 10 km/year under its own power; via natural forces, wind, water,
> vectors, *etc*., or human-assistance.

**Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**

Introduced pests are capable of causing a variety of direct and indirect
economic impacts. These impacts are divided into three primary
categories (other types of impacts may occur): lower yield of the host
crop, *e.g*., by causing plant mortality, or by acting as a disease
vector; lower value of the commodity, *e.g*., by increasing costs of
production, lowering market price, or a combination; and loss of foreign
or domestic markets due to the presence of a new quarantine pest.

Low (1): Pest causes any one or none of the above impacts.

Medium (2): Pest causes any two of the above impacts.

High (3): Pest causes all three of the above impacts.

**Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**

The potential of each pest to cause environmental damage (IPPC, 1996)
proceeds by considering the introduction of the pest as it causes
significant, direct environmental impacts, *e.g*., ecological
disruptions, reduced biodiversity. When used within the context of the
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) (7CFR §372), significance is
qualitative and encompasses the likelihood and severity of an
environmental impact. A pest that is expected to have a direct impact on
other existing species is listed by federal agencies as Endangered or
Threatened (50CFR §17.11 and §17.12) by infesting/infecting a list
plant. If the pest attacks other species within the genus, or other
genera within the family, and preference/no preference tests have not
been conducted with the listed plant and the pest, then the plant is
assumed to be a host. The pest is expected to have an indirect impact on
the species listed by federal agencies as Endangered or Threatened by
disrupting the sensitive, critical habitats. The introduction of such a
pest would stimulate chemical or biological control programs.

> Low (1): None of the above would occur. It is assumed that the
> introduction of a nonindigenous pest will have some environmental
> impact (by definition, introduction of a nonindigenous species affects
> biodiversity).
>
> Medium (2): One of the above would occur.
>
> High (3): Two or more of the above would occur.

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Bactrocera cucurbitae*  | *     |
| Coquillett (Diptera: Tephritidae)**                          | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > *Bactrocera cucurbitae* is native to tropical and          |       |
| > subtropical Asia; it is distributed throughout Asia (CABI, | \(2\) |
| > 2003). It is also found in several African countries and   |       |
| > Hawaii. Its distribution corresponds to U.S. Plant         |       |
| > Hardiness Zones 9-11 (USDA-ARS, 1990).                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Bactrocera* *cucurbitae* is a serious pest of cucurbit    | \(3\) |
| > crops (CABI, 2003); its primary host is Cucurbitaceae      |       |
| > (*Cucumis melo*, *Cucurbita maxima*, *Cucurbita pepo*,     |       |
| > *Trichosanthes cucumerina var. anguinea*) (CABI, 2003).    |       |
| > Other host species include Cucurbitaceae (*Cucumis         |       |
| > sativus*, *Benincasa hispida*, *Citrullus colocynthis*,    |       |
| > *Citrullus lanatus*, *Cucumis auguria*, *Cucurbita         |       |
| > moschata*, *Lagenaria siceraria*, *Luffa acutangula*,      |       |
| > *Luffa aegyptiaca*, *Momordica balsamina*, *Momordica      |       |
| > charantia*, *Sechium edule*, *Trichosanthes cucumerina*),  |       |
| > Moraceae (*Artocarpus heterophyllus*, *Ficus carica*),     |       |
| > Malvaceae (*Abelmoschus moschatus*), Caricaceae (*Carica   |       |
| > papaya*), Rutaceae (*Citrus maxima*, *Citrus sinensis*),   |       |
| > Rosaceae (*Cydonia oblonga*, *Prunus persica*), Solanaceae |       |
| > (*Cyphomandra betacea*, *Lycopersicon esculentum*),        |       |
| > Anacardiaceae (*Mangifera indica*), Sapotaceae (*Manilkara |       |
| > zapota*), Passifloraceae (*Passiflora* spp., *Passiflora   |       |
| > edulis*), Lauraceae (*Persea americana*), Fabaceae         |       |
| > (*Phaseolus vulgaris*, *Sesbania grandiflora*, *Vigna      |       |
| > unguiculata*), Myrtaceae (*Psidium guajava*, *Syzygium     |       |
| > samarangense*), and Rhamnaceae (*Ziziphus jujube*) (CABI,  |       |
| > 2003).                                                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > Females can lay up to 40 eggs below the fruit's skin; the  | \(3\) |
| > total fecundity per female is more than 1000 eggs (CABI,   |       |
| > 2003). Eggs hatch within 1-2 days, and larval stages last  |       |
| > for 4-17 days, depending on the thickness of fruit skin    |       |
| > (CABI, 2003). Pupation takes place in the soil under the   |       |
| > host plants for 7-13 days (CABI, 2003). Adults start       |       |
| > mating after 10-12 days and may live 5 to 15 months (CABI, |       |
| > 2003), there may be 8 to 10 generations per year (Weems    |       |
| > and Heppner, 2004).                                        |       |
| >                                                            |       |
| > Many *Bactrocera* species can fly 50-100 km. Infected      |       |
| > plant materials, such as fruit and flowers, can help       |       |
| > disperse *B. curcubitae* (CABI, 2003).                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Bactrocera* *cucurbitae* can attack cucurbit crops (CABI, | \(3\) |
| > 2003). Unprotected crops can be damaged up to 100% (CABI,  |       |
| > 2003). Weems and Heppner (2004) stated that the melon      |       |
| > fruit fly would be a destructive pest if introduced into   |       |
| > Florida and other similar climate zones. In addition to    |       |
| > cucurbit plants, *B.* *cucurbitae* attacks mango, avocado, |       |
| > and tomato.                                                |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Bactrocera* *cucurbitae* has a high potential to damage   | \(3\) |
| > Threatened and Endangered species listed in Title 50, Part |       |
| > 17, Section 12 of the United States Code of Federal        |       |
| > Regulations (50 CFR §17.12). Threatened and Endangered     |       |
| > species, such as *Cucurbita okeechobeensis* spp.           |       |
| > *okeechobeensis* (Endangered species in FL), *Prunus       |       |
| > geniculata* (Endangered species in FL), and *Ziziphus      |       |
| > celata* (Endangered species in FL), can be damaged by *B.  |       |
| > cucurbitae* (USFWS, 2002). The establishment and           |       |
| > introduction of *B. cucurbitae* could stimulate biological |       |
| > and chemical control programs in the continental United    |       |
| > States (as in Hawaii) (Clausen, 1978).                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

**Cumulative Risk Rating: 14/15**

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Bactrocera dorsalis*    | *     |
| (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae)**                            | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > *Bactrocera dorsalis* is distributed through the tropical  |       |
| > and subtropical regions of Asia, Guam, and Hawaii (CABI,   | \(2\) |
| > 2003). Its distribution corresponds to U.S. Plant          |       |
| > Hardiness Zones 9-11 (USDA-ARS, 1990).                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > The oriental fruit fly, *B. dorsalis*, is a serious pest   | \(3\) |
| > of wide range of plant species (CABI, 2003). Its host      |       |
| > species include Moraceae (*Artocarpus altilis*,            |       |
| > *Artocarpus heterophyllus, Ficus racemosa*), Rutaceae      |       |
| > (*Aegle marmelos, Citrus aurantiifolia, Citrus*, *Citrus   |       |
| > maxima*, *Citrus reticulata*), Anacardiaceae (*Anacardium  |       |
| > occidentale, Mangifera foetida, Spondias purpurea,         |       |
| > Mangifera indica*), Arecaceae (*Areca catechu*), Rubiaceae |       |
| > (*Coffea Arabica*), Sapotaceae (*Chrysophyllum cainito,    |       |
| > Mimusops elengi, Manilkara zapota*), Cucurbitaceae         |       |
| > (*Cucumis melo, Cucumis sativus, Momordica charantia*),    |       |
| > Sapindaceae (*Dimocarpus longan*, *Nephelium lappaceum,    |       |
| > Litchi chinensis*), Ebenaceae (*Diospyros kaki*),          |       |
| > Flacourtiaceae (*Flacourtia indica*), Rosaceae (*Prunus    |       |
| > avium*, *Prunus cerasus*, *Prunus mume, Prunus persica*,   |       |
| > *Malus pumila, Pyrus communis, Prunus armeniaca*, *Prunus  |       |
| > domestica*), Punicaceae (*Punica granatum*), Myrtaceae     |       |
| > (*Syzygium aromaticum*, *Syzygium cumini, Psidium guajava, |       |
| > Syzygium aqueum*, *Syzygium jambos*, *Syzygium             |       |
| > malaccense*, *Syzygium samarangense*), Rhamnaceae          |       |
| > (*Ziziphus jujuba*, *Ziziphus mauritiana*), Annonaceae     |       |
| > (*Annona reticulata*, *Annona squamosa*), Oxalidaceae      |       |
| > (*Averrhoa carambola*), Caricaceae (*Carica papaya*),      |       |
| > Solanaceae (*Capsicum annuum*), Malpighiaceae (*Malpighia  |       |
| > glabra*), Musaceae (*Musa*), Tiliaceae (*Muntingia         |       |
| > calabura*), Lauraceae (*Persea americana*), and            |       |
| > Combretaceae (*Terminalia catappa*) (CABI, 2003).          |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > The life-cycle of *B. dorsalis* varies with seasons and    | \(3\) |
| > locations (CABI, 2003); however, oriental fruit fly        |       |
| > completes one generation in about 30 days (Capinera,       |       |
| > 2001). In Hawaii, the average life-cycle takes about 16    |       |
| > days (Mau and Martin Kessing, 1992a). Females deposit eggs |       |
| > under the skin of fruit in clusters of 10 to 50 eggs;      |       |
| > total fecundity per female is approximately 1200 to 1500   |       |
| > eggs, but may be more than 3000 eggs under optimum         |       |
| > conditions (Mau and Martin Kessing, 1992a). Eggs hatch     |       |
| > within a day (CABI, 2003; Mau and Martin Kessing, 1992a).  |       |
| > The larval stage typically lasts 11-15 days in Hawaii (Mau |       |
| > and Martin Kessing, 1992a)(Mau & Martin, 1992). Pupation   |       |
| > occurs in the soil for 10-12 days (CABI, 2003; Mau and     |       |
| > Martin Kessing, 1992a).                                    |       |
| >                                                            |       |
| > The oriental fruit fly's major means of transportation is  |       |
| > via infested fruits (CABI, 2003); however, it is also      |       |
| > capable of flying distances up to 65 km (Fletcher, 1989).  |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Bactrocera dorsalis* is a serious pest of a wide range of | \(3\) |
| > fruits and vegetables, and can damage up to 100% of plants |       |
| > if they are not protected (CABI, 2003). In Hawaii, papaya  |       |
| > is the primary host for oriental fruit fly (Mau and Martin |       |
| > Kessing, 1992a). In 2003, papaya production in Hawaii was  |       |
| > more than 13 million dollars (USDA-NASS, 2004d). Economic  |       |
| > losses resulting from attack by this pest are of three     |       |
| > kinds (Harris, 1989): downgrading of quality caused by     |       |
| > oviposition "stings," which spoil the appearance of        |       |
| > fruits, including those unfavorable for larval survival;   |       |
| > fruit spoilage caused by larval tunneling and the entry of |       |
| > organisms of decay; and indirect damage in the form of     |       |
| > lost markets resulting from the imposition of quarantine   |       |
| > restrictions.                                              |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > Because of its wide host range, *B. dorsalis* has a high   | \(3\) |
| > potential to threaten Threatened or/and Endangered         |       |
| > species. Scrub plum (*Prunus geniculata*) and Florida      |       |
| > ziziphus (*Ziziphus celata*), which are listed as          |       |
| > Endangered species, have a potential to be attacked by *B. |       |
| > dorsalis* (USFWS, 2002). Also, oriental fruit fly is a     |       |
| > major pest of numerous economically significant crops in   |       |
| > the United States. The introduction and establishment of   |       |
| > *B. dorsalis* could stimulate the initiation of chemical   |       |
| > or biological control programs.                            |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

**Cumulative Risk Rating: 14/15**

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Ceratitis capitata*     | *     |
| Wiedemann (Diptera: Tephritidae)**                           | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Ceratitis capitata* is found in Africa, southern Europe,  | \(3\) |
| > west Asia, South and Central America, and northern         |       |
| > Australia (CABI, 2003). This species is more tolerant of   |       |
| > colder climates than most other species of Tephritidae     |       |
| > (Papadopoulou*s et a*l., 1996; Weems, 1981). Its           |       |
| > distribution corresponds to USDA Plant Hardiness Zones     |       |
| > 8-11, which exists in CA, TX, FL, and HI (USDA-ARS, 1990)  |       |
| > .                                                          |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > This pest has a wide range of host species and attacks     | \(3\) |
| > over 400 different species (Capinera, 2001). Those species |       |
| > include Rubiaceae (*Coffee* spp.), Solanaceae (*Capsicum   |       |
| > annuum*), Rutaceae (*Citrus* spp.), Rosaceae (*Malus       |       |
| > pumila*, *Prunus* spp.), Moraceae (*Ficus carica*),        |       |
| > Myrtaceae (*Psidium guajava*), Sterculiaceae (*Theobroma   |       |
| > cacao*), Arecaceae (*Phoenix dactylifera*), and            |       |
| > Anacardiaceae (*Mangifera indica*) (CABI, 2003).           |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > Eggs are deposited on fruits in clusters of 3-9, with an   | \(3\) |
| > average of 300 eggs laid per female (Capinera, 2001).      |       |
| > Under ideal conditions, it takes 18 days to complete a     |       |
| > generation; however, 30-40 days is common (Capinera,       |       |
| > 2001). Up to 15 generations can be observed per year       |       |
| > (Bedfor*d et a*l., 1998). In the adult stage, *C.          |       |
| > capitata* is highly mobile, flying distances of two or     |       |
| > more kilometers when associated with wind (Capinera,       |       |
| > 2001); however, there is evidence that *C. capitata* can   |       |
| > fly at least 20 kilometers (CABI, 2003). The               |       |
| > transportation of infested fruits is a major means of      |       |
| > movement and dispersal to previously uninfested areas      |       |
| > (CABI, 2003).                                              |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > This species is a serious pest of *Prunus* and *Citrus*.   | \(3\) |
| > In 2002, CA, TX, and FL produced over \$2.3 billion worth  |       |
| > of *Citrus* and \$333 million worth of *Prunus*            |       |
| > (USDA-NASS, 2004a; USDA-NASS, 2004d). In Mediterranean     |       |
| > countries, it is particularly damaging to citrus and peach |       |
| > crops (CABI, 2003). *Ceratitis capitata* is one of the     |       |
| > most significant quarantine pests for any tropical or warm |       |
| > temperate zones in which it is not yet established (CABI,  |       |
| > 2003). Bedfor*d et a*l. (1998) stated that susceptible     |       |
| > deciduous fruit crops can suffer losses up to 80% when     |       |
| > control measures are not applied. Damage is caused by      |       |
| > larvae tunneling through host fruit, often accompanied by  |       |
| > fruit-rotting fungi and bacteria; infested fruit may       |       |
| > prematurely drop (Hill, 1983).                             |       |
| >                                                            |       |
| > This species is of quarantine significance throughout the  |       |
| > world, especially in Japan and the United States. The      |       |
| > presence of *C. capitata*, even as temporary adventive     |       |
| > populations, can lead to additional constraints when       |       |
| > exporting fruits to uninfested areas of the world          |       |
| > (CABI/EPPO, 1997). Moreover, *C. capitata* constantly      |       |
| > threatens to invade (or reinvade) new areas (Yuval and     |       |
| > Hendrichs, 2000). In this respect, *C. capitata* is one of |       |
| > the most significant quarantine pests for any tropical or  |       |
| > warm temperate areas in which it is not yet established    |       |
| > (CABI, 2003).                                              |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > The introduction and establishment of *C. capitata* would  | \(3\) |
| > stimulate chemical or biological control programs, as has  |       |
| > occurred in California (Carey, 1991) and Hawaii (Clausen,  |       |
| > 1978), respectively. *Ceratitis capitata* has the          |       |
| > potential to damage Endangered/Threatened species, such as |       |
| > *Prunus genuclata* (FL), *Argemone pleiacantha* (NM),      |       |
| > *Asimina tetramera* (FL), *Berberis nevivii* (CA), *B.     |       |
| > pinnata* (CA), *B. sonnei* (CA), *Cucurbita                |       |
| > okeechobeensis* (FL), *Echinocereus chisoensis* (TX), *E.  |       |
| > reichenbachii* (TX), *E. iridiflorus* (TX), *E. fendleri*  |       |
| > (NM), *E. triglochidiatus* (AZ), *E. telephioides* (FL),   |       |
| > *Opuntia treleasei* (CA), *Solanum drymophilum* (PR),      |       |
| > *Ribes echinellum* (FL, SC), and *Ziziphus celata* (FL)    |       |
| > (USFWS, 2002).                                             |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

**Cumulative Risk Rating: 15/15**

FL -- Florida; NM -- New Mexico; CA -- California; TX -- Texas; AZ --
Arizona; SC -- South Carolina

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Aleurodicus dispersus*  | *     |
| Russell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)**                           | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > Spiraling whitefly, *A. dispersus,* is native to the       |       |
| > tropical Americas, occurring in Central and South America, | \(2\) |
| > the Caribbean, Africa, Asia, and Oceania (Akinlosotu *et   |       |
| > al*., 1993). Its distribution corresponds to U.S.          |       |
| > Hardiness Zones 9-11 (USDA ARS, 1990).                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Aleurodicus dispersus* is a highly polyphagous species.   | \(3\) |
| > It has been recorded on 38 genera of plants belonging to   |       |
| > 27 plant families and more than 100 species (Akinlosotu    |       |
| > *et al*., 1993; Martin Kessing & Mau, 1993). Primary host  |       |
| > species include Arecaceae (*Cocos nucifera*), Rutaceae     |       |
| > (*Citrus* spp.), Papilionoideae (*Glycine max*),           |       |
| > Euphorbiaceae (*Manihot esculenta*), Musaceae (*Musa x     |       |
| > paradisiacal*), Lauraceae (*Persea Americana*), Rosaceae   |       |
| > (*Prunus* spp.), and Myrtaceae (*Psidium guajava*) (CABI,  |       |
| > 2004). Other host species include Moraceae (*Artocarpus*   |       |
| > spp., *Ficus* spp., *Morus* spp.), Fabaceae (*Acacia*      |       |
| > spp., *Arachis hypogaea*, *Pongamia pinnata*, *Bauhinia*   |       |
| > spp., *Cassia* spp., *Phaseolus* spp., *Vigna* spp.),      |       |
| > Nyctaginaceae (*Bougainvillea* spp.), Asteraceae           |       |
| > (*Chrysanthemum* spp., *Dahlia pinnata*, *Lactuca          |       |
| > sativa*), Lauraceae (*Cinnamomum camphora*), Cucurbitaceae |       |
| > (*Cucumis melo*, *Cucumis* spp., *Luffa aegyptiaca*),      |       |
| > Lamiaceae (*Coleus* spp., *Salvia* spp.), Euphorbiaceae    |       |
| > (*Euphorbia pulcherrima*, *Euphorbia* spp., *Acalypha*     |       |
| > spp., *Ricinus communis*), Myrtaceae (*Eugenia* spp.),     |       |
| > Araliaceae (*Hedera* spp.), Oleaceae (*Jasminum* spp.,     |       |
| > *Osmanthus fragrans*), Convolvulaceae (*Ipomoea batatas*,  |       |
| > *Ipomoea* spp.), Araceae (*Monstera deliciosa*, *Colocasia |       |
| > esculenta*), Ericaceae (*Rhododendron* spp.), Brassicaceae |       |
| > (*Rorippa indica*), Anacardiaceae (*Schinus                |       |
| > terebinthifolius*, *Mangifera indica*), Solanaceae         |       |
| > (*Solanum melongena*, *Solanum* spp., *Cestrum* spp.,      |       |
| > *Capsicum* spp., *Lycopersicon esculentum*, *Physalis*     |       |
| > spp.), Poaceae (*Sorghum bicolor*), Strelitziaceae         |       |
| > (*Strelitzia* spp.), Zingiberaceae (*Zingiber zerumbet*),  |       |
| > Agavaceae (*Agave americana*), Amaranthaceae (*Amaranthus* |       |
| > spp.), Annonaceae (*Annona squamosa*), Arecaceae (*Areca   |       |
| > catechu*, *Chrysalidocarpus lutescens*), Begoniaceae       |       |
| > (*Begonia* spp.), Ulmaceae (*Celtis* spp.), Caricaceae     |       |
| > (*Carica papaya*), Cannaceae (*Cannas* pp.), Rubiaceae     |       |
| > (*Coffea* spp.), Malvaceae (*Hibiscus* spp.), Proteaceae   |       |
| > (*Macadamia* spp.), Sapotaceae (*Manilkara zapota*),       |       |
| > Musaceae (*Musa* spp.), Apocynaceae (*Plumeria* spp.),     |       |
| > Rosaceae (*Rosa* spp., *Rubus* spp.), and Combretaceae     |       |
| > (*Terminalia catappa*) (CABI, 2004; Martin Kessing & Mau,  |       |
| > 1993; EPPO, 2004a). In Florida, *A. dispersus* has been    |       |
| > reported on avocados, citrus, guavas and palms (CABI,      |       |
| > 2004).                                                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > Females begin laying eggs within a day of emergence, and   |       |
| > continue to lay eggs throughout their lives (Martin        | \(2\) |
| > Kessing & Mau, 1993). Females lay about 14-26 eggs in a    |       |
| > loose spiral on the underside of leaves (CABI, 2004). Eggs |       |
| > hatch in 7-11 days (Martin Kessing & Mau, 1993; CABI,      |       |
| > 2004). There are four larval stages (Martin Kessing & Mau, |       |
| > 1993): the first instar lasts for 6-7 days; the second     |       |
| > instar, 4-5; the third instar, 5-13 days; and the fourth   |       |
| > (pupae), 5-16 days (CABI, 2004; Martin Kessing & Mau,      |       |
| > 1993). Adults live for about two weeks (CABI, 2004).       |       |
| >                                                            |       |
| > The first instar is the only immature stage capable of     |       |
| > active movement (Martin Kessing & Mau, 1993). Adults       |       |
| > disperse by flying, and are most active in the morning     |       |
| > (Martin Kessing & Mau, 1993). Long distance dissemination  |       |
| > is via infested plants and fruits (EPPO, 2004).            |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > *Aleurodicus dispersus* is polyphagous and a serious pest  |       |
| > of tropical and subtropical crops (EPPO, 2004a).           | \(2\) |
| > *Aleurodicus dispersus* causes at least three kinds of     |       |
| > economic damage: direct feeding damages on leaves;         |       |
| > indirect damages to excreted honeydew that encourages the  |       |
| > development of sooty moulds; and a vector of plant         |       |
| > diseases (CABI, 2004; Martin Kessing & Mau, 1993).         |       |
| > Whiteflies cause over 40 plant diseases worldwide related  |       |
| > to vegetables and crops (Martin Kessing & Mau, 1993).      |       |
| > *Aleurodicus dispersus* is a vector of the lethal          |       |
| > yellowing virus of coconut palms in Florida (Akinlosotu    |       |
| > *et al*., 1993). Crop damage from *Aleurodicus dispersus*  |       |
| > can vary from 20-100%, depending on the crop, season, and  |       |
| > prevalence (Martin Kessing & Mau, 1993). In Florida, *A.   |       |
| > dispersus* has been reported on avocados, citrus, guavas   |       |
| > and palms (CABI, 2004).                                    |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Aleurodicus dispersus* could damage Threatened and        | \(3\) |
| > Endangered species, such as the Endangered *Manihot        |       |
| > walkerae* (TX), *Prunus geniculata* (FL), *Eugenia         |       |
| > haematocarpa* (PR), *E. woodburyana* (PR), *Rhododendron   |       |
| > chapmanii* (FL), *Rorippa gambellii* (CA), *Solanum        |       |
| > drymophilum* (PR), and *Agave arizonica* (AZ), and the     |       |
| > Threatened *Euphorbia telephioides* (FL) and *Amaranthus   |       |
| > pumilus* (DE, MA, MD, NC, NJ, NY, RI, SC, VA) (USFWS,      |       |
| > 2002).                                                     |       |
| >                                                            |       |
| > The introduction and establishment of *A. dispersus* in    |       |
| > the continental U.S. could stimulate chemical or           |       |
| > biological control programs. Successful biological control |       |
| > has been established in Hawaii (CABI, 2004; Martin Kessing |       |
| > & Mau, 1993).                                              |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

**Cumulative Risk Rating: 12/15**

TX -- Texas; FL -- Florida; PR -- Puerto Rico; CA -- California; AZ --
Arizona; DE -- Delaware; MA -- Massachusetts; MD -- Maryland; NC --
North Carolina; NJ -- New Jersey; NY -- New York; RI -- Rhode Island; SC
-- South Carolina; VA -- Virginia

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Ceroplastes rubens*     | *     |
| Maskell (Hemiptera: Coccidae)**                              | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > *Ceroplastes rubens* is distributed throughout the tropics |       |
| > and subtropics of the Orient, southern Asia, Australia,    | \(2\) |
| > India, the South Pacific, east Africa, and the West        |       |
| > Indies. This insect has become established in Florida and  |       |
| > Hawaii, and has potential to establish in U.S. Plant       |       |
| > Hardiness Zones 10 -- 11 (USDA-ARS, 1990).                 |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > Primary host species include citrus (*Citrus*, *Citrus     | \(3\) |
| > deliciosa*, *Citrus limon*, *Citrus reticulata*, *Citrus   |       |
| > sinensis*, *Citrus unshiu*) (Rutaceae) and mango           |       |
| > (*Mangifera indica*) (Anacardiaceae) (CABI, 2003). Other   |       |
| > host species of *C. rubens* include Moraceae               |       |
| > (*Artocarpus*, *Ficus*, *Morus alba*, *Artocarpus          |       |
| > altilis*), Zingiberaceae (*Alpinia purpurata*), Annonaceae |       |
| > (*Annona*), Asteraceae (*Artemisia*, *Chrysanthemum*,      |       |
| > *Helianthus*), Theaceae (*Camellia sinensis*), Arecaceae   |       |
| > (*Cocos nucifera*), Lauraceae, (*Cinnamomum*, *Cinnamomum  |       |
| > verum*, *Laurus nobilis*, *Persea*, *Persea americana*),   |       |
| > Rubiaceae (*Coffea*), Malvaceae (*Hibiscus*), Sapindaceae  |       |
| > (*Litchi chinensis*), Rosaceae (*Malus*, *Prunus*, *Prunus |       |
| > domestica*, *Prunus mume*, *Pyrus*, *Pyrus communis*),     |       |
| > Musaceae (*Musa*), Myristicaceae (*Myristica*, *Myristica  |       |
| > fragrans*), Apocynaceae (*Nerium*), Oleaceae (*Olea*),     |       |
| > Piperaceae (*Piper*), Pinaceae (*Pinus*, *Pinus            |       |
| > thunbergii*, *Pinus caribaea*), Myrtaceae (*Pimenta        |       |
| > dioica*, *Psidium*, *Psidium guajava*, *Syzygium*,         |       |
| > *Eugenia*), and Zingiberaceae (*Zingiber officinale*)      |       |
| > (CABI, 2003).                                              |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > In Australia, where *C. rubens* was accidentally           |       |
| > introduced, the species has two generations per year       | \(2\) |
| > (CABI, 2003). Oviposition begins in mid September and ends |       |
| > in early December, and then begins again in mid February   |       |
| > until June (CABI, 2003). Females, on average, lay around   |       |
| > 300 eggs, but can lay as few as five, or as many as 1178   |       |
| > eggs (CABI, 2003). The mortality of *C. rubens* is related |       |
| > to the quality of the food source rather than natural      |       |
| > enemies (CABI, 2003). In Australian studies, the mortality |       |
| > rate was highest in the first 24 hours after hatching,     |       |
| > when approximately 50% of the hatchings were lost (CABI,   |       |
| > 2003). Primary dispersal is via infected plant parts, and  |       |
| > facilitated by a wide range of host species (CABI, 2003).  |       |
| > Only first-instar Coccoidea insects are dispersed by wind. |       |
| > Distances carried by wind can be several kilometers to     |       |
| > hundreds of kilometers; mortality rates are high at longer |       |
| > distances (Gullan and Kosztarab, 1997) .                   |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > In 2002, CA, TX, and FL produced over \$2.3 million worth  |       |
| > of citrus (USDA-NASS, 2004a). The pest is present in FL.   | \(2\) |
| >                                                            |       |
| > *Ceroplastes rubens* is a widespread pest of citrus,       |       |
| > coffee, tea, *Cinnamomum*, mango, avocado and litchi       |       |
| > (CABI, 2003). It is a major pest of citrus in Australia,   |       |
| > Hawaii, Korea, China and Japan. Indirect damage caused     |       |
| > through phloem feeding, indirectly promotes sooty mold     |       |
| > growth (CABI, 2003), which results in lower fruit quality, |       |
| > and an increase in processing costs.                       |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > This insect is established in Hawaii and Florida (CABI,    |       |
| > 2003). It has limited potential to destabilize the         | \(2\) |
| > ecosystem, reduce the biodiversity or eliminate            |       |
| > Endangered/Threatened species, such as *Helianthus         |       |
| > eggertii* (Threatened species in AL, KY and TN), *H.       |       |
| > paradoxus* (Threatened species in NM and TX), *H.*         |       |
| > *schweinitzii* (Endangered species in NC and SC), *Prunus  |       |
| > geniculata* (Endangered species in FL), and *Eugenia       |       |
| > woodbuyrana* (Endangered species in PR) (USFWS, 2002).     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

> **Cumulative Risk Rating: 12/15**

CA -- California; FL -- Florida; TX -- Texas

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Coccus viridis* (Green)   | **Risk  |
| (Homoptera: Coccidae)**                                    | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | Medium  |
|                                                            |         |
| This species is pantropical in distribution. It has been   | \(2\)   |
| reported from India through Indo-China, Malaysia, the      |         |
| Philippines and Indonesia, Oceania and sub-Saharan Africa  |         |
| (CABI, 2004). In the New World, it is present in Florida,  |         |
| Central America, northern South America, and the           |         |
| Caribbean. It is estimated that it could become            |         |
| established in additional areas of the continental United  |         |
| States corresponding to Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11.        |         |
| Survival outside of these areas would be limited to        |         |
| greenhouse or other artificial situations.                 |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            |         |
| This pest is often associated with citrus species (*Citrus | \(3\)   |
| deliciosa*, *Citrus limon*, *Citrus reticulata*, *Citrus   |         |
| sinensis*) in the family Rutaceae; however, it has wide    |         |
| host range. Potential hosts include Moraceae               |         |
| (*Artocarpus*), Theaceae (*Camellia sinensis*), Rubiaceae  |         |
| (*Coffea*, *Coffea Arabica, Ixora*), Euphorbiaceae         |         |
| (*Manihot esculenta*), Anacardiaceae (*Mangifera indica*), |         |
| Myrtaceae (*Psidium guajava*), Sterculiaceae (*Theobroma   |         |
| cacao*), Zingiberaceae (*Alpinia purpurata*), Asteraceae   |         |
| (*Chrysanthemum*), Sapotaceae (*Manilkara zapota*),        |         |
| Apocynaceae (*Nerium oleander*, *Plumeria rubra* var.      |         |
| *acutifolia*), and Lauraceae (*Persea americana*) (CABI,   |         |
| 2004).                                                     |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | High    |
|                                                            |         |
| Females can lay up to 500 eggs, which can hatch within a   | \(3\)   |
| few hours (CABI, 2004). Life-cycle generations vary from   |         |
| one to several months, depending on temperatures and       |         |
| available food supplies (CABI, 2004). There may be several |         |
| generations per year (Kosztarab, 1997). Although it has    |         |
| high reproductive rate, there is no evidence of natural    |         |
| long range dispersal by *C. viridis* (CABI, 2004; Tandon   |         |
| and Veeresh, 1987). The scale can, and has, spread quickly |         |
| and widely via the transport of infested plant material.   |         |
| Interception by PPQ of this plant occurred on many         |         |
| occasions on a variety of plants from many countries       |         |
| (USDA-APHIS-PPQ, 2005).                                    |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | Medium  |
|                                                            |         |
| *Coccus viridis* is a major pest of coffee in Haiti        | \(2\)   |
| (Aitken-Soux, 1985) and India (Narasimham, 1987). In       |         |
| Brazil, infestations of 50 scales per plant caused         |         |
| significant damage to coffee seedlings, reducing leaf area |         |
| and plant growth rate (Silva and Parra, 1982). This insect |         |
| is a major cause of yield loss in coffee in New Guinea     |         |
| (Williams, 1986). In India, citrus fruit quality was       |         |
| significantly lower on trees following *C*. *viridis*      |         |
| infestation and the sooty mold (*Capnodium citri*)         |         |
| contamination that accompanied it (Haleem, 1984). The      |         |
| scale is a quarantine pest for Korea, New Zealand, and     |         |
| Venezuela (PRF, 2004); however, as it is established in    |         |
| parts of the continental United States, and under no       |         |
| apparent official control, additional introductions of the |         |
| scale are unlikely to result in the further loss of        |         |
| foreign markets.                                           |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| The extreme polyphagy of *C*. *viridis* predisposes it to  |         |
| attack vulnerable, native plants in the continental United |         |
| States (*e.g.*, *Manihot walkerae*). Additional            |         |
| introductions of this species could have a negative impact |         |
| on the citrus industry in areas, such as Arizona and       |         |
| Texas, and can stimulate the initiation of chemical or     |         |
| biological control programs, as has occurred in Hawaii and |         |
| Puerto Rico (Bartlett, 1978a). Currently, *Coccus viridis* |         |
| exists in Hawaii and Florida (CABI, 2004), and has a       |         |
| potential to destabilize an ecosystem, reduce              |         |
| biodiversity, or eliminate Threatened and Endangered       |         |
| species.                                                   |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Aonidiella inornata*    | *     |
| McKenzie (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)**                          | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > *Aonidiella inornata* is distributed Guinea, Oceania, the  |       |
| > Pacific Islands, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Puero Rico,  | \(2\) |
| > and south Asia. It is a tropical and subtropical species   |       |
| > (Ben-Do*v et a*l., 2006).                                  |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > The host species of Aonidiella inornata include Agavaceae  | \(3\) |
| > (*Cordyline* *terminalis*), Anacardiaceae (*Campnosperma*  |       |
| > *brevipetiolata*, *Mangifera* *indica*), Apocynaceae       |       |
| > (*Allemanda*, *Nerium* *oleander*, *Ochrosia*, *Plumeria*  |       |
| > *acuminata*, *Plumeria* *rubra*), Barringtoniaceae         |       |
| > (*Barringtonia*), Bischofiaceae (*Bischofia* *javanica*),  |       |
| > Caricaceae (*Carica* *papaya*), Casuarinaceae              |       |
| > (*Casuarina*), Cycadaceae (*Cycas*), Euphorbiaceae         |       |
| > (*Annesijoa*, *Euphorbia*), Hippocrateaceae (*Salacea*),   |       |
| > Leguminosae (*Cassia*), Moraceae (*Artocarpus* *alticis*), |       |
| > Musaceae (*Musa*), Myrtaceae (*Melaleuca*), Oleaceae       |       |
| > (*Jasminum* *sambac*), Palmae (*Areca* *catechu*, *Cocos*  |       |
| > *nucifera*, *Nipa* *fruticans*), Pandanaceae (*Pandanus*   |       |
| > *odoratissimus*), Piperaceae (*Piper*, *Piper* *aduncum*,  |       |
| > *Piper* *betle*, *Piper* *methysticum*), Polygonaceae      |       |
| > (*Polygonum*), Potaliaceae (*Fagraea* *cambageana*),       |       |
| > Rhizophoraceae (*Rhizophora* *mucronata*), Rubiaceae       |       |
| > (*Hedyotis* *ocutangulus*, *Platanocephalus*               |       |
| > *morindaefolius*), Rutaceae (*Astronia*, *Citrus*,         |       |
| > *Citrus* *paradisi*, *Citrus* *reticulata*), Vitidaceae    |       |
| > (*Vitis* *vinifera*), and Zingiberaceae (*Elettaria*       |       |
| > *cardamomum*) (Ben-Do*v et a*l., 2006).                    |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > No specific life-cycle information was obtained for        | \(3\) |
| > *Aonidiella inornata*. The life-cycle of *A. aurantii*     |       |
| > varies with seasons, but is about 61 days in mid summer    |       |
| > and 138 days in winter (CABI, 2006). It reportedly has 4   |       |
| > to 7 generations per year (CABI, 2006). Under controlled   |       |
| > environment, *A. orientalis* males took 19.5 days to       |       |
| > develop from crawler to adult, and females took 44.2 days  |       |
| > from crawler to first production of crawler (CABI, 2006).  |       |
| > Five generations per year were recorded in Iran; four      |       |
| > generations were observed in Saudi Arabia (CABI, 2006).    |       |
| >                                                            |       |
| > The means of long distance dispersal of *A. inornata* can  |       |
| > be via a shipment of infested plant materials.             |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > Most of the most species listed by (Ben-Do*v et a*l.,      |       |
| > 2006) are tropical and subtropical species. In continental | \(2\) |
| > United States, grapes and mangoes are produced in limited  |       |
| > locations. *Aonidiella inornata* has been reported as a    |       |
| > pest of papaya in Taiwan, and mango in Puero Rico and      |       |
| > Philippines (Ben-Do*v et a*l., 2006).                      |       |
| >                                                            |       |
| > Similar species, such as *A. orientalis* and *A.           |       |
| > autantii*, can have severe impacts on some host species.   |       |
| > *Aonidiella orientalis* is a polyphagous species; it is a  |       |
| > pest of coconut, arecanut, neem, papaya, guava, tamarind   |       |
| > tree, citrus and mango in many countries, decreasing fruit |       |
| > quality and yield (Watson, 2005). *Aonidiella autantii* is |       |
| > a serious pest of Citrus in many countries (Watson, 2005). |       |
| > *Aonidiella inornata* can potentially reduce the quality   |       |
| > and quantity of some host species in the continental       |       |
| > United States.                                             |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > *Aonidiella inornata* has a potential to damage Endangered |       |
| > and Threatened species, such as *Euphorbia haeleeleana*    | \(2\) |
| > (Endangered species in HI), *Euphorbia telephioides*       |       |
| > (Threatened species in FL), *Hedyotis cookiana*            |       |
| > (Endangered species in HI*), H. coriacea* (Endangered      |       |
| > species in HI), *H. degeneri* (Endangered species in HI),  |       |
| > *H. mannii* (Endangered species in HI), *H. parvula*       |       |
| > (Endangered species in HI), *Hedyotis purpurea* var.       |       |
| > *montana* (Endangered species in NC and TN), *H.           |       |
| > schlechtendahliana* var. *remyi* (Endangered species in    |       |
| > HI), and *H. st.-johnii* (Endangered species in HI)        |       |
| > (USFWS, 2002). Chemical and biological controls are        |       |
| > available for Aonidiella species. *A. aurantii* and *A.    |       |
| > orientalis* have established in limited areas of the       |       |
| > continental United States. In California, several controls |       |
| > are used to treat *A. autantii*, including biological      |       |
| > controls, chemical controls, oils, *etc*. No additional    |       |
| > treatments are necessary to control *A. inornata* once     |       |
| > this species is established in the continental United      |       |
| > States.                                                    |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Dysmicoccus             | *     |
| neobrevipes* Beardsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)**         | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* is distributed in Fiji, Jamaica, |       |
| > Malaysia, Mexico, Micronesia, Philippines, Taiwan, Hawaii, | \(2\) |
| > and Florida (Martin-Kessing and Mau, 1992a; Miller and     |       |
| > Miller, 2002). Its distribution corresponds to U.S. Plant  |       |
| > Hardiness Zones 9 -- 11 (USDA-ARS, 1990).                  |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > Host species of *D. neobrevipes* include Fabaceae (*Acacia | \(3\) |
| > farnesiana*, *Piscidia piscipula*, *Samanea saman*),       |       |
| > Sapotaceae (*Achras zapota*), Agavaceae (*Agave            |       |
| > sisalana*), Annonaceae (*Annona retuculata*, *Annona*      |       |
| > spp.), Musaceae (*Musa* spp., *Musa paradisiacal           |       |
| > sapientum*), Lecythidaceae (*Barringtonia speciosa*),      |       |
| > Arecaceae (*Cocus nucifera*), Rubiaceae (*Coffea* spp.,    |       |
| > *Guettarda* spp.), Bignoniaceae (*Cresentia alata*),       |       |
| > Clusiaceae (*Garcinia mangostana*), Cactaceae (*Opuntia    |       |
| > megacantha*), Bromeliaceae (*Ananas comosus*), Urticaceae  |       |
| > (*Pipturus argentea*), and Sterculiaceae (*Theobroma       |       |
| > cacao*) (Martin-Kessing and Mau, 1992a).                   |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > The life span of *D. neobrevipes* varies from 59 to 117    | \(3\) |
| > days, averaging 90 days (Martin-Kessing and Mau, 1992a).   |       |
| > This mealybug is ovoviviparous, meaning the eggs hatch     |       |
| > within the female. A female can produce about 350 larvae   |       |
| > in 30 days, although some produce up to 1000 larvae        |       |
| > (Martin-Kessing and Mau, 1992a). Three instars occur with  |       |
| > females, and four instars with males. The total larval     |       |
| > period for female varies from 26 to 52 days, averaging at  |       |
| > 35 days; whereas the total larval period for males last    |       |
| > from 22 to 53 days.                                        |       |
| >                                                            |       |
| > The primary dispersal stage is larvae period. *Dysmicoccus |       |
| > neobrevipes* is transported by wind (Martin-Kessing and    |       |
| > Mau, 1992a). Long distance dispersal is accomplished       |       |
| > through the movement of infested plant materials (Williams |       |
| > and Granara de Willink, 1992).                             |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* attacks commercial crops, such   |       |
| > as pineapple, citrus, banana, coffee, coconut, *etc*. The  | \(2\) |
| > gray pineapple mealybug is one of the most economically    |       |
| > important mealybug pests in Hawaii because it is a vector  |       |
| > of mealybug wilt, which is the most serious type of        |       |
| > damage, and the principal cause of crop failure in Hawaii  |       |
| > (Jahn, 1993; Martin-Kessing and Mau, 1992a). Feeding by    |       |
| > large mealybug populations may cause a loss of host plant  |       |
| > vigor (CABI, 2004). The honeydew deposited on leaves and   |       |
| > fruit by mealybugs serves as a medium for the growth of    |       |
| > black sooty molds, which interfere with photosynthesis and |       |
| > reduce the market value of the crop. Insecticides are      |       |
| > often applied to control these mealybugs (or the attending |       |
| > ants) that aid in their spread, and interfere with         |       |
| > biological control (Jah*n et a*l., 2003). *Dysmicoccus     |       |
| > neobrevipes* is a quarantine pest for Korea and New        |       |
| > Zealand (PRF, 2005). It is established in the continental  |       |
| > United States, but is not under any official control.      |       |
| > Further introduction of the mealybug is unlikely to result |       |
| > in a loss of foreign markets.                              |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* has a potential to attack        | \(3\) |
| > Threatened and Endangered species, such as *Opuntia        |       |
| > treleasei* (Endangered species in CA) and *Helianthus      |       |
| > paradoxus* (USFWS, 2002). Biological and/or chemical       |       |
| > control is likely to be implemented upon introduction, as  |       |
| > has occurred in Hawaii and Puerto Rico (Bartlett, 1978b).  |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

**Cumulative Risk Rating: 13/15**

CA -- California

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction: *Maconellicoccus hirsutus* | **Risk  |
| (Green) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)**                      | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | Medium  |
|                                                            |         |
| *Maconellicoccus hirsutus* is native to southern Asia      | \(2\)   |
| (CABI, 2003). It is reported in northern and sub-Saharan   |         |
| Africa, the Middle East, south and southeast Asia, the Far |         |
| East, Central America, Australia and Oceania (CABI, 2003). |         |
| This pest currently has a limited distribution in the U.S. |         |
| (Hawaii, California, and Florida) (Capinera, 2001; Ho*y et |         |
| a*l., 2003). It is estimated to establish in the United    |         |
| States Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11 (USDA-ARS, 1990). One or |         |
| more of its potential hosts occurs in these zones          |         |
| (USDA-NRCS, 2004).                                         |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            |         |
| This species is extremely polyphagous. It has been         | \(3\)   |
| recorded on plants in over 200 genera from 73 families,    |         |
| showing some preference for hosts in the Malvaceae,        |         |
| Fabaceae, and Moraceae (CABI, 2004). Hosts include         |         |
| Acanthaceae (*Acanthus ilicifolius*, *Eranthemum           |         |
| pulchellum, Pachystachys lutea, Thumbergia erecta*),       |         |
| Amaranthaceae (*Achyranthes indica, Amaranthus* spp.,      |         |
| *Celosia cristata*), Amaryllidaceae (*Calostemma* spp.)    |         |
| Anacardiaceae (*Mangifera indica, Schinus* spp.,           |         |
| *Spondias* spp.), Annonaceae (*Annona* spp., *Canaga       |         |
| odorata*), Apiaceae (*Daucus carota*), Apocynaceae         |         |
| (*Allamanda* spp., *Carissa* spp., *Catharanthus roseus,   |         |
| Ervatamia coronaria, Nerium* spp., *Tabernamontana         |         |
| divaricata, Vinca minor*), Araceae (*Aglaonema* spp.,      |         |
| *Alocasia cucullata, Anthurium andraeanum, Colocasia       |         |
| esculenta, Dieffenbachia* spp., *Philodendron* spp.,       |         |
| *Scindapsus aureus, Syngonium podophyllum, Xanthosoma*     |         |
| spp.), Araliaceae (*Aralia* spp., *Brassaia actinophylla,  |         |
| Schefflera* spp., *Sciadophyllum pulchrum*), Basellaceae   |         |
| (*Basella alba*), Begoniaceae (*Begonia* spp.),            |         |
| Bignoniaceae (*Bignonia* spp., *Crescentia cujete,         |         |
| Jacaranda mimusifolia, Kigelia* spp., *Tabebuia* spp.,     |         |
| *Tecoma* spp., ), Bombacaceae (*Ceiba pentandra*),         |         |
| Boraginaceae (*Cordia curssavica*), Cactaceae (*Opuntia*   |         |
| spp., *Pereskia bleo*), Caricaceae (*Carica papaya*),      |         |
| Casuarinaceae (*Casuarina* spp.), Chenopodiaceae (*Beta    |         |
| vulgaris, Chenopodium, album*), Combretaceae (*Quisqualis* |         |
| sp., *Rhoeo* sp., *Terminalia* spp.), Compositae (*Bidens  |         |
| pilesa, Chrysanthemum coronarium, Cosmos* spp., *Dahlia*   |         |
| spp., *Emilia* sp., *Gerbera* spp., *Helicanthus annuus,   |         |
| Lactuca sativa, Mikania cordata, Parthenium hysterophorus, |         |
| Symedrella nodifloa, Tithonia urticifolia*),               |         |
| Convolvulaceae (*Ipomoea* spp.), Crassulaceae (*Kalanchoe* |         |
| sp.), Cucurbitaceae (*Cucumis* spp., *Cucurbita* spp.),    |         |
| Cyperaceae (*Cyperus* spp.), Dilleniaceae (*Tetracera*     |         |
| spp.), Dioscoraceae (*Dioscorea* spp.), Ebenaceae          |         |
| (*Diospyros kaki*), Euphorbiaceae (*Acalypha* spp.,        |         |
| *Codiaeum* sp., *Croton* spp., *Euphorbia* spp., *Hevea*   |         |
| spp., *Macarangua* sp., *Manihot esculenta*., *Ohyllanthus |         |
| amarus, Phyllanthus* spp., *Ricinus communis*), Fabaceae   |         |
| (*Acacia arabica, Albizia* spp., *Arachis hypogaea,        |         |
| Bauhinia* spp., *Caesalpinia* spp., *Cajanus* spp.,        |         |
| *Calliandra* spp., *Cassia* spp., *Ceratonia siliqua,      |         |
| Clitoria ternatea, Crotalaria* sp., *Erythrina* spp.,      |         |
| *Gliricidium sepium, Glycine max, Grewia* sp., *Inga* sp., |         |
| *Leucaena glauca, Medicago sativa, mimosa pudica,          |         |
| Parkinsonia aculeate, Phaseolus mungo, Phaseolus vulgaris, |         |
| Poinciana regia, Robinia pseudacacia, Samanea saman, Sena* |         |
| spp., *Sesbania aegyptiaca, Tamarindus indica,             |         |
| Templetonia* sp., *Tephrosia* sp., *Vigna unguiculata*),   |         |
| Fagaceae (*Pasania* spp., *Quercus* spp.) Flacourtiaceae   |         |
| (*Flacourtis indica*), Gesneriacae (*Chrysothemis          |         |
| pulchella*), Gramineae (*Saccharum officinarum, Zea        |         |
| mays*), Lamiaceae (*Clerodendrum aculeatum, Leonotis       |         |
| nepetifolia*), Lauraceae (*Persea americana*),             |         |
| Lecythidaceae (*Courouptia guianensis*), Liliaceae         |         |
| (*Asparagus* spp., *Cordyline terminalis, Dracaena* spp.), |         |
| Lythraceae (*Lagerstroemia speciosa, Lawsonia* spp.),      |         |
| Malvaceae (*Abelmoschus esculentus, Abutilon indicum,      |         |
| Gossypium* spp., *Hibiscus* spp., *Holmskia sanguinea*,    |         |
| *Malvaviscus arboreus*, *Paritium* spp., *Pavonia* spp.,   |         |
| *Thespesia* spp.), Melastomataceae (*Miconia cornifolia*), |         |
| Meliaceae (*Azadirachta indica, Ficus* spp., *Morus*       |         |
| spp.), Moraceae (*Heliconia* spp., *Musda sp*), Myrtaceae  |         |
| (*Callistemon* spp., *Eugenia* spp., *Myrtus communis,     |         |
| Psidium guajava, Syzygium* spp.), Nyctaginaceae            |         |
| (*Bougainvillea* spp.), Oleaceae (*Jasminum* spp.),        |         |
| Orchidaceae (*Dendrobium* spp.), Oxalidaceae (*Averrhoa    |         |
| carambola*), Palmae (*Cocos nucifera, Phoenix* spp.),      |         |
| Passifloraceae (*Passiflora* spp.), Phytolacaceae (*Rivina |         |
| humilis, Petiveria alliacea*), Piperaceae (*Peperomia      |         |
| pellucida, Piper tuberculatum*), Plumbaginaceae (*Plumbago |         |
| auriculata*), Polygonaceae (*Cocoloba uvifera,             |         |
| Nephrolepis* spp.), Portulacaceae (*Portulaca* spp.),      |         |
| Proteaceae (*Grevillea robusta*), Rhamnaceae (*Colubrina   |         |
| arborescens, Ziziphus* spp.), Rosaceae (*Crataegus* spp.,  |         |
| *Cydonia oblonga, Eriobotra japonica, Prunus* spp.,        |         |
| *Pyrus* spp., *Rosa* sp.), Rubiaceae (*Coffea* spp.,       |         |
| *Haldina cordifolia, Hamelia* spp., *Ixora* spp.),         |         |
| Rutaceae (*Aegle marmelos, Citrus* spp., *Murraya* spp.,   |         |
| *Mussaenda* sp.), Salicaceae (*Salix* spp.), Sapindaceae   |         |
| (*Blighia sapida, Dodonaea viscose, Melicocca* spp.),      |         |
| Sapotaceae (*Manilkara zapota*), Scrophulariaceae          |         |
| (*Russelia equisetifolia, Scoparia dulcis*), Solnaceae     |         |
| (*Capsicum* spp., *Cestrum nocturnum, Datura* spp.,        |         |
| *Lycopersicon esculentum, Solanum* spp.), Sterculiaceae    |         |
| (*Theobroma cacao*), Tiliaceae (*Corchorus olitorius*),    |         |
| Urticaceae (*Boehmeria nivea, Laportea aestuans*),         |         |
| Verbenaceae (*Tectona grandis*), Vitaceae (*Cissus         |         |
| verticillata, Vitis vinifera*), and Zigiberaceae           |         |
| (*Alpinia* spp*.*) (Ben-Do*v et a*l., 2005).               |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Each adult female can lay from 80-600 eggs over a one week |         |
| period (CABI, 2004; Meyerdir*k et a*l., 2003). Hatching    |         |
| occurs in 609 days (CABI, 2004). In warm conditions, a     |         |
| generation is complete in five weeks; in colder climates,  |         |
| the species can survive as eggs or other stages, on the    |         |
| host plant or in the soil. There may be as many as 15      |         |
| generations per year. Local dispersal is accomplished by   |         |
| the first-instar crawler, via air or water, or on animals  |         |
| (CABI, 2004). All stages may be dispersed over longer      |         |
| distances through the transport of infested plant          |         |
| materials.                                                 |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Maconellicoccus hirsutus* attacks a wide range of         |         |
| (usually woody) plants, including agricultural,            |         |
| horticultural, and forest species (CABI, 2004). Feeding on |         |
| young growth causes severe stunting and leaf distortion,   |         |
| thickening of stems, and a bunchy-top appearance of        |         |
| shoots; in severe cases the leaves may prematurely fall.   |         |
| Honeydew and sooty mold contamination of fruit may reduce  |         |
| its value. In Grenada, estimated annual losses to crops    |         |
| and the environment were \$3.5 million before biological   |         |
| controls were implemented (CABI, 2004). Other crops        |         |
| seriously damaged by *M*. *hirsutus* include cotton in     |         |
| Egypt, with growth sometimes virtually halted; tree cotton |         |
| in India, with reduction in yield; the fiber crop          |         |
| *Hibiscus sabdariffa* var. *altissima* (roselle) in India  |         |
| and Bangladesh, with reduction in yields of between 21 and |         |
| 40%; and grapes in India, with up to 90% of bunches        |         |
| destroyed. *Maconellicoccus hirsutus* is a quarantine pest |         |
| for Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Korea, New        |         |
| Zealand, Panama, and Uruguay (PRF, 2004), suggesting that  |         |
| its widespread establishment in the United States could    |         |
| result in a loss of foreign markets for various            |         |
| commodities. This species is an actual or potential pest   |         |
| of a wide range of economically important plants; risk     |         |
| associated with its economic impact is estimated to be     |         |
| High (EPPO, 2006). EPPO (2004c) records this as an A1      |         |
| pest; thus, its establishment in the U.S. may lead to the  |         |
| loss of export markets. It is currently a program pest     |         |
| under official control.                                    |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Because of its extreme polyphagy, this pest poses a threat |         |
| to plants in the continental United States listed as       |         |
| Threatened or Endangered, including *Cucurbita             |         |
| okeechobeensis* ssp. *Okeechobeensis* (FL), *Helianthus    |         |
| eggertii* (AL,KY, TN), *H. paradoxus (TX), H. schweinitzii |         |
| (NC, SC), Manihot walkerae (TX),* *Opuntia treleasei       |         |
| (CA)*, *Rhododendron chapmanii (FL), Amaranthus pumilus    |         |
| (DE, MA, MD, NC, NJ, NY, RI, SC, VA), Euporbia telephiodes |         |
| (FL), Prunus geniculata (FL*), and others (USFWS, 2002).   |         |
| It is also a potential threat to a number of crops of      |         |
| considerable economic value in the United States (*e.g.*,  |         |
| soybean, cotton, corn, citrus, grapes) (CABI, 2004). Its   |         |
| introduction into additional mainland states could lead to |         |
| the initiation of chemical or biological control programs. |         |
| This species is currently the target of an official        |         |
| program of biological control throughout its present range |         |
| in the United States (Meyerdir*k et* al., 2003). It has    |         |
| been targeted for biological control in other countries,   |         |
| such as Egypt and India (Bartlett, 1978b).                 |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Nipaecoccus viridis*    | *     |
| (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)**                     | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > *Nipaecoccus viridis* occurs in tropical regions, and is   |       |
| > widespread in Africa and Asia. It is also distributed in   | \(2\) |
| > Oceania and North America (CABI, 2003). Its distribution   |       |
| > corresponds to U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11 (USDA-ARS,  |       |
| > 1990).                                                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Nipaecoccus viridis* has been recorded on host plants in  | \(3\) |
| > more than 40 families (Ben-Do*v et a*l., 2006). The        |       |
| > primary host species are Rutaceae (*Citrus* spp.),         |       |
| > Rubiaceae (*Coffea* spp.), and Malvaceae (*Gossypium*      |       |
| > spp). The following species are host plants: Fabaceae      |       |
| > (*Acacia karroo*, *Leucaena leucocephala*, *Leucaena*      |       |
| > spp., *Albizia lebbeck*, *Glycine max*), Lamiaceae         |       |
| > (*Clerodendrum infortunatum*), Rutaceae (*Citrus limon*,   |       |
| > *Citrus aurantiifolia*, *Citrus aurantium*, *Citrus        |       |
| > maxima*, *Citrus x paradisi*, *Citrus sinensis*),          |       |
| > Apocynaceae (*Nerium oleander*), Punicaceae (*Punica       |       |
| > granatum*), Moraceae (*Artocarpus heterophyllus*, *Ficus   |       |
| > carica*, *Morus nigra*), Tiliaceae (*Corchorus             |       |
| > capsularis*), Malvaceae (*Alcea rosea*, *Gossypium         |       |
| > hirsutum*, *Hibiscus manihot*), Liliaceae (*Asparagus      |       |
| > officinalis*), Fabaceae (*Cajanus* spp., *Tamarindus*      |       |
| > spp., *Tamarindus indica*), Rubiaceae (*Coffea arabica*),  |       |
| > Rosaceae (*Eriobotrya japonica*), Euphorbiaceae            |       |
| > (*Euphorbia hirta*, *Phyllanthus niruri*), Proteaceae      |       |
| > (*Grevillea robusta*), Bignoniaceae (*Jacaranda            |       |
| > mimosifolia*, *Spathodea campanulata*), Anacardiaceae      |       |
| > (*Mangifera indica*), Myrtaceae (*Psidium guajava*),       |       |
| > Asteraceae (*Parthenium hysterophorus*), Solanaceae        |       |
| > (*Solanum tuberosum*), Tamaricaceae (*Tamarix* spp.),      |       |
| > Vitaceae (*Vitis vinifera*), and Rhamnaceae (*Ziziphus     |       |
| > mauritiana*, *Ziziphus spina-christi*) (CABI, 2003).       |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > The life-cycle of *N. viridis* is about 68 days under      | \(3\) |
| > optimum conditions (Bedfor*d et* al., 1998). In South      |       |
| > Africa, there are three generations per year (CABI, 2003). |       |
| > A female lays 90-138 eggs; the egg and nymphal stages last |       |
| > 10-13 and 31-43 days, respectively (CABI, 2003). Long      |       |
| > distance dispersal can occur through infected plant        |       |
| > materials (CABI, 2003). Fecundity may exceed 1100 eggs per |       |
| > female (Bartlett, 1978b).                                  |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Nipaecoccus viridis* is a serious pest for many           | \(3\) |
| > agricultural crops, such as citrus, coffee, cotton,        |       |
| > grapes, *etc*. Citrus is grown in AZ, CA, FL, and TX       |       |
| > (ideal environments for *N. viridis)*. Annual citrus       |       |
| > production in the United States is over \$2.3 billion      |       |
| > (USDA-NASS, 2004a). In 2003, cotton production was over    |       |
| > \$5.5 billion (USDA-NASS, 2004b). (Cotton is produced in   |       |
| > the regions where *N. viridis* probably does not survive.) |       |
| > Grapes are also widely produced in the United States.      |       |
| > Grape production in AZ, CA, and TX has high potential to   |       |
| > be damaged by this mealybug; grape production is worth     |       |
| > more than \$2.2 billion in these states (2003) (USDA-NASS, |       |
| > 2004d).                                                    |       |
| >                                                            |       |
| > Economic damage, such as the 5% damage in India, caused by |       |
| > *N. viridis*, can occur (CABI, 2003). Losses in citrus     |       |
| > orchards are due to fruit drop caused by large mealybug    |       |
| > infestations. In South Africa, 50% or more of the navel    |       |
| > orange crop was lost in this way. Fruits with deformities  |       |
| > caused by mealybug feeding are culled in the packinghouse, |       |
| > result in further production lost (CABI, 2003). Copious    |       |
| > quantities of honeydew may contaminate fruit and other     |       |
| > plant parts, serving as a medium for the growth of sooty   |       |
| > molds. From this contamination, fruits become unmarketable |       |
| > (Sharaf and Meyerdirk, 1987). *Nipaecoccus viridis* is     |       |
| > difficult to control with chemicals, resulting in repeated |       |
| > application of insecticides at increased rates (Sharaf and |       |
| > Meyerdirk, 1987). Mille*r et a*l. (2002) consider *N*.     |       |
| > *viridis* to be a major threat to U.S. agriculture. The    |       |
| > species is a quarantine pest for Korea and New Zealand     |       |
| > (PRF, 2005), suggesting that its introduction into the     |       |
| > continental United States could result in a loss of        |       |
| > foreign markets for various agricultural commodities.      |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Nipaecoccus viridis* can potentially damage Endangered    | \(3\) |
| > and Threatened species in the United States (*e.g*.,       |       |
| > *Euphorbia* spp., *Hibiscus* spp., *Solanum* spp., and     |       |
| > *Ziziphus celata*, *Manihot walkerae*) (USFWS, 2002). The  |       |
| > introduction of this species would result in chemical      |       |
| > and/or biological control programs. *Nipaecoccus vastator* |       |
| > has been the target for successful biological control in   |       |
| > Hawaii and Egypt (Bartlett, 1978b).                        |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

**Cumulative Risk Rating: 14/15**

AZ -- Arizona; CA -- California; FL -- Florida; TX - Texas

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Pseudococcus cryptus*   | *     |
| Hempel (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)**                         | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| > *Pseudococcus cryptus* is widely distributed in southeast  |       |
| > Asia, tropical Africa, the mideastern Mediterranean, South | \(2\) |
| > America, and Oceania (Ben-Do*v et a*l., 2004). Its         |       |
| > distribution corresponds to U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones     |       |
| > 9-11 (USDA-ARS, 1990).                                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > Host species of *P. cryptus* include Anacardiaceae         | \(3\) |
| > (*Mangifera* *indica*), Apocynaceae (*Plumeria* spp.),     |       |
| > Compositae (*Dahlia* spp.), Dilleniaceae (*Dillenia*       |       |
| > *indica*), Euphorbiaceae (*Hevea* *brasiliensis*),         |       |
| > Guttiferae (*Calophyllum* *inophyllum*), Heliconiaceae     |       |
| > (*Heliconia* spp.), Lauraceae (*Ocotea* *pedalifolia*,     |       |
| > *Persea* *americana*), Leguminosae (*Erythrina* spp.),     |       |
| > Liliaceae (*Crinum* *asiaticum*), Moraceae (*Artocarpus*   |       |
| > *altilis*, *Artocarpus* *incisa*, *Artocarpus*             |       |
| > *odoratissimus*), Musaceae (*Musa* spp.), Myrtaceae        |       |
| > (*Osbornia* *ocdonta*, *Psidium* *guajava*), Palmae        |       |
| > (*Cocos* *nucifera*, *Elaeis* *guineensis*), Pandanaceae   |       |
| > (*Pandanus* spp., *Pandanus* *upoluensis*), Passifloraceae |       |
| > (*Passiflora* *foetida*), Piperaceae (*Piper*              |       |
| > *methysticum*), Rubiaceae (*Coffea* *arabica*, *Coffea*    |       |
| > *liberica*, *Gardenia* spp., *Ixora* spp.), Rutaceae       |       |
| > (*Citrus* spp., *Citrus* *aurantifolia*, *Citrus*          |       |
| > *aurantium*, *Citrus* *grandis*, *Citrus* *limon*,         |       |
| > *Citrus* *paradisi*, *Citrus* *reticulata*, *Citrus*       |       |
| > *sinensis*), and Selaginellaceae (*Selaginella* spp.)      |       |
| > (Ben-Do*v et a*l., 2004).                                  |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > The number of eggs produced by females vary with the       | \(3\) |
| > seasons. The greatest number of eggs are produced in the   |       |
| > summer, and the smallest number in the winter. Females     |       |
| > typically lay groups of 30-50 eggs, with a total of        |       |
| > 200-500 eggs (Avidov and Harpaz, 1969). This mealybug is   |       |
| > able to have six generations per year (Avidov and Harpaz,  |       |
| > 1969). Long distance dispersal can occur by the movement   |       |
| > of infected plant materials.                               |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Pseudococcus cryptus* is a serious pest of citrus, and    | \(3\) |
| > attacking all parts of citrus plants from the roots to its |       |
| > fruit (Avidov and Harpaz, 1969). This mealybug produces    |       |
| > honeydew, on which sooty mold can develop. In heavy        |       |
| > infestation, the leaves and fruits are prematurely shed,   |       |
| > infecting the entire tree (Avidov and Harpaz, 1969).       |       |
| >                                                            |       |
| > Citrus are commercially produced in the continental United |       |
| > States (AZ, CA, FL, and TX); this area supports a suitable |       |
| > environment for *P. cryptus* establishment*.* Citrus       |       |
| > production in this area is worth more than \$2.3 billion   |       |
| > (USDA-NASS, 2004a). This mealybug may have a high          |       |
| > potential to damage the citrus industry in the continental |       |
| > United States. High population densities on coconut palm   |       |
| > may dry the inflorescence and cause button shedding        |       |
| > (Moore, 2001). The pest is a major threat to U.S.          |       |
| > agriculture (Mille*r et a*l., 2002). In Israel, both       |       |
| > biological and chemical controls have succeeded in         |       |
| > maintaining populations below economically damaging        |       |
| > densities (Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; Blumber*g et a*l.,     |       |
| > 2001). The introduction of this mealybug into the          |       |
| > continental United States could result in a loss of        |       |
| > domestic markets for various commodities. It is a          |       |
| > quarantine pest for Belarus, Argentina, Korea, and Peru    |       |
| > (EPPO, 2003; PRF, 2005).                                   |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Pseudococcus cryptus* has the potential to damage         | \(3\) |
| > Threatened and Endangered species listed in Title 50, Part |       |
| > 17, Section 12 of the United States Code of Federal        |       |
| > Regulations (50 CFR §17.12), such as *Gardenia* species    |       |
| > (USFWS, 2002). *Pseudococcus cryptus* introduction in      |       |
| > Israel is successfully controlled by its natural enemy,    |       |
| > *Clausenia purpurea* (Ben-Do*v et a*l., 2004). Chemical    |       |
| > treatment is also used to control *P. cryptus* in Israel   |       |
| > (Ben-Dov *et al.*, 2006). The introduction and             |       |
| > establishment might stimulate biological and chemical      |       |
| > controls in the continental United States.                 |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

**Cumulative Risk Rating: 14/15**

AZ -- Arizona; CA -- California; FL -- Florida; TX - Texas

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| Consequences of Introduction: *Thrips palmi* Karny         | Risk    |
| (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)                                  | Value   |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction               | **M     |
|                                                            | edium** |
| > ***Thrips palmi* is a tropical to subtropical species    |         |
| > that cannot survive subzero temperatures for more than a | **(2)** |
| > few days (Lewis, 1997). Populations can exist in         |         |
| > temperate climates by overwintering in greenhouses and   |         |
| > interior landscapes (CABI, 2006). It is present in       |         |
| > Africa, Asia, Australia, the United States, Japan, Latin |         |
| > America, the Caribbean and Pacific Islands (CABI,        |         |
| > 2004a). United States populations are restricted to      |         |
| > American Samoa, Florida, Guam, Hawaii and Puerto Rico    |         |
| > (CABI, 2006). Based on this distribution, it is          |         |
| > estimated that *T*. *palmi* could establish permanent    |         |
| > outside populations in the United States in USDA         |         |
| > Hardiness Zones 9-11. One or more of its potential hosts |         |
| > occur in these zones (USDA-NRCS, 2004).**                |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| Risk Element #2: Host Range                                | *       |
|                                                            | *High** |
| > ***Thrips palmi* is a polyphagous pest that attacks      |         |
| > plants in the families Anacardiaceae, Asteraceae,        | **(3)** |
| > Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae, Lauraceae, Liliaceae,           |         |
| > Malvaceae, Orchidaceae, Pedaliaceae, Poaceae and         |         |
| > Solanaceae (CABI, 2006).**                               |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential                       | *       |
|                                                            | *High** |
| > **Female *Thrips palmi* can mature and deposit up to 204 |         |
| > eggs during their life, and generation times range from  | **(3)** |
| > 11.5-20 days depending on temperature and host plant     |         |
| > (CABI, 2006; Capinera, 2004); so several generations per |         |
| > year are possible. Adults are capable of flight and      |         |
| > their small size and fringed wings allow long distance   |         |
| > dispersal via wind or as passengers in commercial        |         |
| > commodities (Lewis, 1997).**                             |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| Risk Element #4: Economic Impact                           | *       |
|                                                            | *High** |
| > **Feeding by *Thrips palmi* may cause leaves to yellow   |         |
| > and die, terminal growth to be arrested and fruits to be | **(3)** |
| > scarred or deformed (Capinera, 2004). *Thrips palmi* can |         |
| > severely reduce tomato yields by spreading tomato        |         |
| > spotted wilt disease, and even low population densities  |         |
| > (4.5 adults per sticky trap per day) may reduce the      |         |
| > yield of greenhouse grown peppers (CABI, 2006). Yield    |         |
| > reductions in excess of 30% have been reported for       |         |
| > numerous vegetables crops attacked by *T*. *palmi*       |         |
| > (CABI, 2006). In addition to substantial yield           |         |
| > reductions, *T*. *palmi* lowers crop values by requiring |         |
| > controls, and its wide spread establishment in the       |         |
| > United States would cause foreign and domestic markets   |         |
| > to be lost. *Thrips palmi* is listed by EPPO as an A1    |         |
| > quarantine pest for Europe (CABI/EPPO, 1997).**          |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact                      | *       |
|                                                            | *High** |
| > ***Thrips palmi* could potentially attack plants listed  |         |
| > as Threatened or Endangered in 50 CFR §17.12 (*e*.*g*.   | **(3)** |
| > *Allium munzii*), and control programs would undoubtedly |         |
| > be initiated if it were introduced into new areas of the |         |
| > United States.**                                         |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Consequences of Introduction:** ***Phytophthora            | *     |
| tropicalis* (Oomycetes: Pythiales)**                         | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -- Host Interaction**             | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Phytophthora tropicalis* is found in Hawaii on several    | \(3\) |
| > plants (Far*r et* al., 2006). Its distribution includes    |       |
| > Germany, the Netherlands, and the United States (Virginia) |       |
| > (Gerlach and Schubert, 2001; Hon*g et a*l., 2006). This    |       |
| > species can survive in tropical and temperate regions. Its |       |
| > distribution corresponds to U.S. Plant Hardiness Zone 6 -- |       |
| > 11 (USDA-ARS, 1990).                                       |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                              | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Phytophthora tropicalis* has been reported on following   | \(3\) |
| > plant species: Annonaceae (*Annona cherimola*), Araceae    |       |
| > (*Anthurium andraeanum*), Moraceae (*Artocarpus*           |       |
| > *altilis*)*,* Caricaceae (*Carica papaya*), Primulaceae    |       |
| > (*Cyclamen persicum*), Caryophyllaceae (*Dianthus          |       |
| > caryophyllus*), Araliaceae (*Hedera helix*), Proteaceae    |       |
| > (*Leucospermum* sp., *Macadamia integrifolia)*, Ericaceae  |       |
| > (*Pieris japonica*, *Rhododendron catawbiense*),           |       |
| > Bignoniaceae (*Radermachera* sp.), Cucurbitaceae (*Sechium |       |
| > edule*), Solanaceae (*Solanum melongena*) and              |       |
| > Sterculiaceae (*Theobroma cacao*) (Aragaki and Uchida,     |       |
| > 2001; Cerquier*a et a*l., 2005; Far*r et a*l., 2006; Hon*g |       |
| > et a*l., 2006).                                            |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                     | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Phytophthora* species produce asexual spores called       | \(3\) |
| > sporangium (sporangia) (Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996).          |       |
| > Sporangium germinates in aqueous solutions, and zoospores  |       |
| > emerge from sporangium. Sporangium can also directly       |       |
| > germinate by producing germ tubes, which begin new fungal  |       |
| > colony (Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996).                          |       |
| >                                                            |       |
| > The sexual structures of *Phytophthora* are composed of    |       |
| > antheridium (male) and oogonium (female) (Erwin and        |       |
| > Ribeiro, 1996). The diploid oospore germinates under       |       |
| > suitable conditions by producing a single or multiple germ |       |
| > tube(s) at the tip of which sporangia may or may not form  |       |
| > (Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996). Some *Phytophthora* are         |       |
| > homothallic, whereas others are heterothallic (Erwin and   |       |
| > Ribeiro, 1996).                                            |       |
| >                                                            |       |
| > Zoospores can swim for hours (Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996),    |       |
| > and sporangia are moved by contact with field equipment,   |       |
| > clothing, gloves, and tools (University-of-Hawaii, 2006).  |       |
| > Interception of *Phytophthora* occurred at the             |       |
| > ports-of-entry (USDA-APHIS-PPQ, 2006). This species could  |       |
| > be transferred to new areas by infested plant materials.   |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                         | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > Most of the species identified as host species of          | \(3\) |
| > *Phytophthora tropicalis* are tropical and subtropical     |       |
| > species that are not widely distributed in the continental |       |
| > United States; however, some ornamental plants, such as    |       |
| > *Pieris japonica* and *Rhododendrom catawbiense,* may have |       |
| > some impact. The nursery industry may result in economic   |       |
| > loss because some *Phytophthra* species can cause plant    |       |
| > mortality. The recent introduction of *P. ramorum* in the  |       |
| > United States has caused a severe impact to U.S.           |       |
| > agriculture and industries. The permanent establishment of |       |
| > *P. tropicalis* may result in loss of domestic and foreign |       |
| > markets.                                                   |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                    | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| > *Phytophthora tropicalis* may impact Threatened and        | \(3\) |
| > Endangered species listed in Title 50, Part 17, Section 12 |       |
| > of the United States Code of Federal Regulations (50 CFR   |       |
| > §17.12), such as *Rhododendron chapmanii* (Endangered      |       |
| > species in FL), *Solanum drymophilum* (Endangered species  |       |
| > in PR), *S. incompletum* (Endangered species in HI), and   |       |
| > *S. sandwicense* (Endangered species in HI) (USFWS, 2002). |       |
| > Some chemical controls may efficiently control             |       |
| > *Phytophthora* diseases (Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996). The     |       |
| > introduction and establishment of *P. tropicalis* may      |       |
| > stimulate chemical controls in the continental United      |       |
| > States.                                                    |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

For each pest, the sum of the five Risk Elements gives a Cumulative Risk
Rating. This Cumulative Risk Rating is a biological indicator of the
potential of the pest to establish, spread, and cause economic and
environmental impacts. Table 5 summarizes the risk ratings for the
Consequences of Introduction.

Low: 5-8 points

Medium: 9-12 points

High: 13-15 points

**Table 5. Risk Ratings for the Consequences of Introduction
(*Artocarpus altilis* and *Artocarpus heterophyllus*)** from Hawaii

+----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| **Pest** | **Risk** | **Risk  | **Risk | **Risk | **Risk | **Cum   |
|          |          | Element | E      | E      | E      | ulative |
|          | *        | #2**    | lement | lement | lement | Risk    |
|          | *Element |         | #3**   | #4**   | #5**   | R       |
|          | #1**     | *       |        |        |        | ating** |
|          |          | *Host** | **Dis  | **Ec   | **En   |         |
|          | **Clim   |         | persal | onomic | viron- |         |
|          | ate/Host | **      | Poten  | Im     | mental |         |
|          | Inter    | Range** | tial** | pact** | Im     |         |
|          | action** |         |        |        | pact** |         |
+----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| *Ba      | Medium   | High    | High   | High   | High   | *       |
| ctrocera |          |         |        |        |        | *High** |
| cuc      | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\)  |         |
| urbitae* |          |         |        |        |        | *       |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *(14)** |
+----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| *Ba      | Medium   | High    | High   | High   | High   | *       |
| ctrocera |          |         |        |        |        | *High** |
| d        | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\)  |         |
| orsalis* |          |         |        |        |        | *       |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *(14)** |
+----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| *C       | High     | High    | High   | High   | High   | *       |
| eratitis |          |         |        |        |        | *High** |
| c        | \(3\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\)  |         |
| apitata* |          |         |        |        |        | *       |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *(15)** |
+----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| *Ale     | Medium   | High    | Medium | Medium | High   | **M     |
| urodicus |          |         |        |        |        | edium** |
| di       | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(2\)  | \(2\)  | \(3\)  |         |
| spersus* |          |         |        |        |        | *       |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *(12)** |
+----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| *Cer     | Medium   | High    | Medium | Medium | Medium | **M     |
| oplastes |          |         |        |        |        | edium** |
| rubens*  | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(2\)  | \(2\)  | \(2\)  |         |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *       |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *(11)** |
+----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| *Coccus  | Medium   | High    | High   | Medium | Medium | **M     |
| viridis* |          |         |        |        |        | edium** |
|          | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(2\)  | \(2\)  |         |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *       |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *(12)** |
+----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| *Ao      | Medium   | High    | High   | Medium | Medium | **M     |
| nidiella |          |         |        |        |        | edium** |
| i        | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(2\)  | \(2\)  |         |
| nornata* |          |         |        |        |        | *       |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *(12)** |
+----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| *Dys     | Medium   | High    | High   | Medium | High   | *       |
| micoccus |          |         |        |        |        | *High** |
| neob     | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(2\)  | \(3\)  |         |
| revipes* |          |         |        |        |        | *       |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *(13)** |
+----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| *Maconel | Medium   | High    | High   | High   | High   | *       |
| licoccus |          |         |        |        |        | *High** |
| h        | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\)  |         |
| irsutus* |          |         |        |        |        | *       |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *(14)** |
+----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| *Nip     | Medium   | High    | High   | High   | High   | *       |
| aecoccus |          |         |        |        |        | *High** |
| viridis* | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\)  |         |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *       |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *(14)** |
+----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| *Pseu    | Medium   | High    | High   | High   | High   | *       |
| dococcus |          |         |        |        |        | *High** |
| cryptus* | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\)  |         |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *       |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *(14)** |
+----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| *Thrips  | Medium   | High    | High   | High   | High   | *       |
| palmi*   |          |         |        |        |        | *High** |
|          | \(2\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\)  |         |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *       |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *(14)** |
+----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+---------+
| *Phyt    | High     | High    | High   | High   | High   | *       |
| ophthora |          |         |        |        |        | *High** |
| tro      | \(3\)    | \(3\)   | \(3\)  | \(3\)  | \(3\)  |         |
| picalis* |          |         |        |        |        | *       |
|          |          |         |        |        |        | *(15)** |
+----------+----------+---------+--------+--------+--------+---------+

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc155824534 .anchor}**2.7. Introduction Potential**

The Likelihood of Introduction Rates each pest on two separate
components: an estimate of the quality of the commodity likely to be
imported (Risk Element #6), and pest opportunity (Risk Element #7)
according to five biological features. Details of these two Risk
Elements and the rating criteria are provided in the Guidelines
(USDA-APHIS, 2000). Table 6 summarizes the ratings and the cumulative
score for Risk Element #6 and #7.

**Risk Element #6: Pest Opportunity (Survival and Access to Suitable
Habitats and Hosts)**

For each pest, consider six sub-elements:

**1. Quantity of commodity imported annually:**

The likelihood that an exotic pest will be introduced depends on the
amount of the potentially-infested commodity imported. For qualitative
pest risk assessments, the amount of commodity imported is estimated in
units of standard 40-foot long shipping containers. Should the commodity
quantity be identified in terms of kilograms, pounds, number of items,
*etc*., the number of units is converted into terms of 40-foot shipping
containers.

Low (1 point): \< 10 containers/year

Medium (2 points): 10 -- 100 containers/year

High (3 points): \> 100 containers/year

The amount of breadfruit and jackfruit produced for Hawaiian export to
the United States is unknown; however, the combined production of
special Hawaiian tropical fruits, which include abiu, atemoya,
breadfruit, caimito, canistel, cherimoya, durian, jaboticaba, jackfruit,
langsat, loquat, mangosteen, persimmon, poha, rollina, sapodilla,
soursop, white sapote, and other fruits, was 141,000 pounds (70.5 U.S.
tons) (USDA-NASS, 2004c). (Note, USDA-FAS (2003) states that sea
shipping containers are 40-feet in length, and hold approximately 40,000
pounds (20 U.S. tons). The anticipated volume of breadfruit and
jackfruit to be shipped from Hawaii to the continental United States is
estimated less than 10 containers (Low).

**2. Survive post-harvest treatment:**

For this sub-element, post-harvest treatment refers to any manipulation,
handling, or specific phytosanitary treatment to which the commodity is
subjected. Examples of post-harvest treatment include culling, washing,
chemical treatment, cold storage, *etc*. If there is no post-harvest
treatment, the estimate for this sub-element is High.

Fruit flies (*Bactrocera cucurbitae*, *Bactrocera dorsalis*, and
*Ceratitis capitata*) are ranked High (3) for their ability to survive
post-harvest treatment, due to internal feeding. These species are
unlikely to be affected by post-harvest treatments, such as washing and
culling, especially if fruit infestation is not obvious.

External feeders, such as scales and mealybugs (*Ceroplastes rubens*,
*Coccus viridis*, *Aonidiella inornata*, *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes*,
*Maconellicoccus hirsutus*, *Nipaecoccus viridis*, and *Pseudococcus
cryptus*), are easily treated by post-harvest applications. Breadfruit
and jackfruit have rough, hard, bumpy, and spiky green skins (Morton,
1987) that may provide hiding and protective areas for these species.
The coccidae have sessile stages that firmly adhere to plant surface,
often appearing as colorless. This posture, and their water-repellent,
waxy cuticles, make them difficult to see or dislodge, especially if
sheltered at the stem end of the fruits. The hard and rough skin of the
breadfruit and jackfruit, allow for efficient washing and brushing,
which are approved mitigation measures. All scales and mealybugs incur a
Medium (2) rating.

Only immatures of Aleyrodid (*Aleurodicus dispersus)* will remain on the
fruit; disturbed adults fly away during harvesting and packing; immature
stages of *Aleurodicus dispersus* are washed off the fruit, and rated
Medium (2). Immature stages of scales, mealybugs, and aleyrodids are
susceptible to dessication during harvesting and packing operations.

*Thrips palmi* is rated Medium. It is an external pest and is likely to
be washed off and/or culled at packing houses. It is unlikely to survive
after post-harvest treatments.

*Phytophthora tropicalis* exhibit similar symptoms as *P. capsici* , and
has been reported to infect the fruit completely, causing desiccation
(Aragaki and Uchida, 2001; University-of-Hawaii, 2006). *P. tropicalis*
would be protected from any post-harvest operations and is rated High
(3).

**3. Survive shipment:**

To estimate the survival of pests during shipment, assume standard
shipping conditions.

Breadfruit and jackfruit are stored at 10--12◦C (Cran*e et a*l., 2002;
Morton, 1987); all pests will survive at this temperature. All insect
species have been intercepted at ports-of-entry on numerous occassions.
According to Agricultural Quarantine Activity System database,
*Bactrocera cucurbitae* was intercepted for 316 times at ports-of-entry;
*B. dorsalis,* 4292 times; *Ceratitis capitata,* 2244 times,
*Ceroplastes rubens*, 4680 times; *Coccus viridis,* 11205 times;
*Aonidiella inornata,* 422 times; *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes,* 3038 times;
*Maconellicoccus hirsutus,* 999 times; *Nipaecoccus viridis,* 25 times;
*Thrips palmi* 9262 times; and *Pseudococcus cryptus* 502 times since
1985 (USDA-APHIS-PPQ, 2006). Since there are no specific shipment
conditions for *Artocarpus* spp. from Hawaii into the continental United
States, all the insects are able to survive in standard shipping
conditions, and receive a High (3) risk rating.

*Phytophthora tropicalis* can survive standard shipping. *Phytophthora*
spp. have been intercepted at various ports-of-entry 10 times, and can
survive between the temperature of 10-12 ◦C; as a result, this
sub-element received a High (3) rating.

**4. Not be detected at the port-of-entry:**

Unless specific protocols are in place, standard inspection protocols
for like commodities are assumed. If no inspection is planned, this
sub-element is rated High.

Internal feeders (*Bactrocera cucurbitae*, *Bactrocera dorsalis*, and
*Ceratitis capitata*) have a High (3) potential to escape detection at
ports-of-entry. These insects will not be detected unless fruits are
destructively sampled. White and Elson-Harris (1992) stated that fruit
flies had a high probability of escaping detection at a port-of-entry;
infested fruit could go unrecognized.

Scales, mealybugs, and aleyrodids are easily detected at ports-of-entry;
however, skin textures and the depth of the stem cavity of breadfruit
and jackfruit, depending on variety, sometimes make detection difficult
to the naked eye. Scales, mealybugs, aleyrodids, and thrips are rated
Medium (2).

Fungus, *Phytophthora tropicalis*, received a High (3) risk rating.
*Phytophthora capsici* infects pepper fruit through fruit stalks
(Robert*s et a*l., 2001); As a result, the early stages of
*Phytophthora* fruit infection are difficult to detect and inspect.

**5. Imported or move subsequently to an area with an environment
suitable for survival:**

Consider the geographic location of likely markets, and the proportion
of the commodity likely to move to locations suitable for pest survival.

All insects (*Bactrocera cucurbitae*, *Bactrocera dorsalis*, *Ceratitis
capitata*, *Aleurodicus dispersus*, *Ceroplastes rubens*, *Coccus
viridis*, *Aonidiella inornata*, *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes*,
*Maconellicoccus hirsutus*, *Nipaecoccus viridis*, *Pseudococcus
cryptus* and *Thrips palmi*) received a Medium (2) rating because all
insects can survive in subtropical or tropical conditions. In the
continental United States, these regions are limited to the South and
the West Coast, which comprise an estimated 10-12% of the total land
area of the continental United States.

*Phytophthora tropicalis* is capable of moving into a new area, if the
environment is suitable for survival. This species occurs in Hawaii, and
recent records indicate that it is also present in Virginia (United
States) (Hon*g et a*l., 2006). This species can survive in both tropical
and temperate regions, and is rated High (3).

**6. Come into contact with host material suitable for reproduction:**

Even if the final destination of infested commodities is conducive for
pest survival, suitable host material must be available in order for the
pest to survive. Consider the complete host range of the pest species.

Fruit flies (*Bactrocera cucurbitae*, *Bactrocera dorsalis*, and
*Ceratitis capitata*) receive a High (3) rating for this sub-element.
Three fruits flies have wide range of host species, which include
habitats in subtropical, tropical, and temperate zones. Although
establishment involves many stages, and colonization is extremely
difficult for any species, even under the most ideal conditions (Carey,
1991), *Bactrocera dorsalis* and *Ceratitis capitata* have been
introduced in the continental United States. These fruit flies are
officially controlled in the United States. *Ceratitis capitata*
sporadically establishes, indicating that there is a high probability of
coming into contact with host material suitable for reproduction.

Whitefly (*Aleurodicus dispersus*) is rated as Medium (2). It is a
highly polyphagous species, and natural dispersal is ensured by flying
adults (EPPO, 2004). As a pest of tropical and subtropical crops (EPPO,
2006), it is limited to such areas in the continental United States.

Scales, *Ceroplastes rubens* and *Coccus viridis*, are rated as High
(3). Scales have numerous host species, with tropical, subtropical, and
temperate zones distribution. Because of their Floridian establishment,
there is a high potential for their contact with host materials suitable
for reproduction.

*Aonidiella inornata* is rated High (3). Most of the host species are
tropical and subtropical species. Its establishment in Texas is
indicative that this species has an ability to contact with host
material suitable for reproduction.

Mealybugs (*Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* and *Nipaecoccus viridis*) are
rated as Medium (2). Both species are tropical and subtropical, having a
wide range of host species. Mealybugs have limited powers of natural
dispersal because they lack wings (or other means to achieve flight)
(Gullan and Kosztarab, 1997). For insects such as these, successful
establishment in a new environment is contingent on the likelihood of at
least two necessary conditions occuring: close prozimity of susceptible
hosts, and their presence on imported fruit (or other mobile forms) to
transfer to new hosts (Blan*k et a*l., 1993; Gullan and Kosztarab, 1997;
Miller, 1985); these circumstances are unlikely to co-occur. Although
*D. neobrevipes* and *N. viridis* have established in Florida and
California, respectively, it is rated Medium because mealybugs have
limited abilities to establish in a new area. Similar reasoning applies
to mealybug, *Maconellicoccus hirsutus,* which is rated Medium (2), but
has established populations in California and Florida. *Maconellicoccus
hirsutus* is under official control in the continental United States.

*Pseudococcus cryptus* is rated as Low (1). *Pseudococcus cryptus* has
variety of host species; however, biological attributes limit the
probability of successful establishment. *Pseudococcus cryptus* lacks
wings, which limit its dispersal; therefore, it lacks the ability to
quickly locate host species. Specifically, the sessile nature of scales
limit its chances of coming into contact with host species (Gullan and
Kosztarab, 1997).

*Thrips palmi* is rated High. It is a polyphagous species, and its host
species are distributed throughout the continental United States. This
species has been established in limited area of Florida (Capinera,
2004). This clearly suggests that *T. palmi* has ability to come into
new environment to contact with host materials suitable for
reproduction.

*Phytophthora tropicalis* is rated as Medium (2). Most of the species
identified as hosts are tropical species; the distribution of host
species is limited in the United States.

Table 6 summarizes the ratings for the Likelihood of Introduction.

Low: 6 -- 9 points

Medium: 10 -- 14 points

High: 15 -- 18 points

Table 6. Risk Rating for Likelihood of Introduction

+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| **Pest**  | **Qua | **S    | **Su  | *    | **   | *    | **Cum   |
|           | ntity | urvive | rvive | *Not | Move | *Con | ulative |
|           | imp   | post-h | shipm | dete | to   | tact | Risk    |
|           | orted | arvest | ent** | cted | suit | with | R       |
|           | annua | treat  |       | at   | able | host | ating** |
|           | lly** | ment** |       | por  | h    | ma   |         |
|           |       |        |       | t-of | abit | teri |         |
|           |       |        |       | -ent | at** | al** |         |
|           |       |        |       | ry** |      |      |         |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *B        | Low   | High   | High  | High | Me   | High | *       |
| actrocera |       |        |       |      | dium |      | *High** |
| cu        | \(1\) | \(3\)  | \(3\) | \    |      | \    |         |
| curbitae* |       |        |       | (3\) | \    | (3\) | *       |
|           |       |        |       |      | (2\) |      | *(15)** |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *B        | Low   | High   | High  | High | Me   | High | *       |
| actrocera |       |        |       |      | dium |      | *High** |
| dorsalis* | \(1\) | \(3\)  | \(3\) | \    |      | \    |         |
|           |       |        |       | (3\) | \    | (3\) | *       |
|           |       |        |       |      | (2\) |      | *(15)** |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *         | Low   | High   | High  | High | Me   | High | *       |
| Ceratitis |       |        |       |      | dium |      | *High** |
| capitata* | \(1\) | \(3\)  | \(3\) | \    |      | \    |         |
|           |       |        |       | (3\) | \    | (3\) | *       |
|           |       |        |       |      | (2\) |      | *(15)** |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *Al       | Low   | Medium | High  | Me   | Me   | Me   | **M     |
| eurodicus |       |        |       | dium | dium | dium | edium** |
| d         | \(1\) | \(2\)  | \(3\) |      |      |      |         |
| ispersus* |       |        |       | \    | \    | \    | *       |
|           |       |        |       | (2\) | (2\) | (2\) | *(12)** |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *Ce       | Low   | Medium | High  | Me   | Me   | High | **M     |
| roplastes |       |        |       | dium | dium |      | edium** |
| rubens*   | \(1\) | \(2\)  | \(3\) |      |      | \    |         |
|           |       |        |       | \    | \    | (3\) | *       |
|           |       |        |       | (2\) | (2\) |      | *(13)** |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *Coccus   | Low   | Medium | High  | Me   | Me   | High | **M     |
| viridis*  |       |        |       | dium | dium |      | edium** |
|           | \(1\) | \(2\)  | \(3\) |      |      | \    |         |
|           |       |        |       | \    | \    | (3\) | *       |
|           |       |        |       | (2\) | (2\) |      | *(13)** |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *A        | Low   | Medium | High  | Me   | Me   | High | **M     |
| onidiella |       |        |       | dium | dium |      | edium** |
| inornata* | \(1\) | \(2\)  | \(3\) |      |      | \    |         |
|           |       |        |       | \    | \    | (3\) | *       |
|           |       |        |       | (2\) | (2\) |      | *(13)** |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *Dy       | Low   | Medium | High  | Me   | Me   | Me   | **M     |
| smicoccus |       |        |       | dium | dium | dium | edium** |
| neo       | \(1\) | \(2\)  | \(3\) |      |      |      |         |
| brevipes* |       |        |       | \    | \    | \    | *       |
|           |       |        |       | (2\) | (2\) | (2\) | *(13)** |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *Macone   | Low   | Medium | High  | Me   | Me   | Me   | **M     |
| llicoccus |       |        |       | dium | dium | dium | edium** |
| hirsutus* | \(1\) | \(2\)  | \(3\) |      |      |      |         |
|           |       |        |       | \    | \    | \    | *       |
|           |       |        |       | (2\) | (2\) | (2\) | *(12)** |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *Ni       | Low   | Medium | High  | Me   | Me   | Me   | **M     |
| paecoccus |       |        |       | dium | dium | dium | edium** |
| viridis*  | \(1\) | \(2\)  | \(3\) |      |      |      |         |
|           |       |        |       | \    | \    | \    | *       |
|           |       |        |       | (2\) | (2\) | (2\) | *(12)** |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *Pse      | Low   | Medium | High  | Me   | Me   | Low  | **M     |
| udococcus |       |        |       | dium | dium |      | edium** |
| cryptus*  | \(1\) | \(2\)  | \(3\) |      |      | \    |         |
|           |       |        |       | \    | \    | (1\) | *       |
|           |       |        |       | (2\) | (2\) |      | *(11)** |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *Thrips   | Low   | Medium | High  | Me   | Me   | High | **M     |
| palmi*    |       |        |       | dium | dium |      | edium** |
|           | \(1\) | \(2\)  | \(3\) |      |      | \    |         |
|           |       |        |       | \    | \    | (3\) | *       |
|           |       |        |       | (2\) | (2\) |      | *(13)** |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+
| *Phy      | Low   | High   | High  | High | High | Me   | *       |
| tophthora |       |        |       |      |      | dium | *High** |
| tr        | \(1\) | \(3\)  | \(3\) | \    | \    |      |         |
| opicalis* |       |        |       | (3\) | (3\) | \    | *       |
|           |       |        |       |      |      | (2\) | *(15)** |
+-----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------+---------+

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc155824535 .anchor}**2.8. Conclusion -- Pest Risk
Potential and Pests Requiring Phytosanitary Measures**

To estimate the Pest Risk Potential for each pest, the Cumulative Risk
Rating for the Consequences of Introduction and the Likelihood of
Introduction are summed in Table 7.

**Pest Potential Ratings:**

Low: 11 -- 18 points

Medium: 19 -- 26 points

High: 27 -- 33 points

Table 7. Pest Risk Potential

+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| **Pest**    | **C         | *           | **Pest Risk | **Risk      |
|             | onsequences | *Likelihood | Potential** | Rate**      |
|             | of          | of          |             |             |
|             | Int         | Int         |             |             |
|             | roduction** | roduction** |             |             |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| *Bactrocera | High        | High        | 29          | High        |
| cucurbitae* |             |             |             |             |
|             | \(14\)      | \(15\)      |             |             |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| *Bactrocera | High        | High        | 29          | High        |
| dorsalis*   |             |             |             |             |
|             | \(14\)      | \(15\)      |             |             |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| *Ceratitis  | High        | High        | 30          | High        |
| capitata*   |             |             |             |             |
|             | \(15\)      | \(15\)      |             |             |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| *           | Medium      | Medium      | 24          | Medium      |
| Aleurodicus |             |             |             |             |
| dispersus*  | \(12\)      | \(12\)      |             |             |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| *           | Medium      | Medium      | 25          | Medium      |
| Ceroplastes |             |             |             |             |
| rubens*     | \(11\)      | \(14\)      |             |             |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| *Coccus     | Medium      | Medium      | 25          | Medium      |
| viridis*    |             |             |             |             |
|             | \(12\)      | \(13\)      |             |             |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| *Aonidiella | Medium      | Medium      | 26          | Medium      |
| inornata*   |             |             |             |             |
|             | \(12\)      | \(14\)      |             |             |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| *           | High        | Medium      | 26          | Medium      |
| Dysmicoccus |             |             |             |             |
| n           | \(13\)      | \(13\)      |             |             |
| eobrevipes* |             |             |             |             |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| *Maco       | High        | Medium      | 26          | Medium      |
| nellicoccus |             |             |             |             |
| hirsutus*   | \(14\)      | \(12\)      |             |             |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| *           | High        | Medium      | 26          | Medium      |
| Nipaecoccus |             |             |             |             |
| viridis*    | \(14\)      | \(12\)      |             |             |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| *P          | High        | Medium      | 26          | Medium      |
| seudococcus |             |             |             |             |
| cryptus*    | \(14\)      | \(12\)      |             |             |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| *Thrips     | High        | Medium      | 27          | High        |
| palmi*      |             |             |             |             |
|             | \(14\)      | \(13\)      |             |             |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| *P          | High        | High        | 30          | High        |
| hytophthora |             |             |             |             |
| tropicalis* | \(15\)      | \(15\)      |             |             |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+

Following the assignment of the Pest Risk Potential for each pest, the
risk assessor may briefly comment on risk management options associated
with the requested commodity importations. The following guidelines are
offered as an interpretation of the Low, Medium, and High Pest Risk
Potential Ratings:

Low: Pest will typically not require specific mitigation measures; the
port of entry inspection to which all imported commodities are subjected
can be expected to provide sufficient phytosanitary security.

Medium: Specific phytosanitary measure may be necessary.

High: Specific phytosanitary measures are strongly recommended. Port of
entry inspection is not considered sufficient to provide phytosanitary
security.

An appropriate risk mitigation option is an irradiation treatment at a
dose of 400 Gy for all quarantine-significant insect pests (7 CFR
§305.31). A fungicidal dip or preventive fungicide sprays in the field,
along with culling and inspection of fruit at the packinghouse, are
other options for *Phytophthora tropicalis*.

*Phytophthora tropicalis* also infects Hawaiian papaya. It is a common
practice to dip papaya fruit in a mixture of water, wax, and fungicide,
*i.e*., Thiobendazole, before packing. Post-harvest fruit waxing
improves the visual quality, and extends the shelf life of the fruit; it
also controls fungi on fruit surface. Fungicide spraying in papaya
orchards is a preventive measure to control incidence of fungal
diseases; as a result, preventive fungicide sprays in the field, and
culling and inspection of fruit in the packinghouse, are appropriate
quarantine measures to mitigate the risk of *P. tropicalis* on
*Artocarpus* spp.

Another appropriate risk mitigation option is an irradiation treatment
at a dose of 150 Gy (7 CFR §305.31a) for *Bactrocera cucurbitae,
Bactrocera dorsalis,* and *Ceratitis capitata*, followed by a warm,
soapy water wash, and brushing (T102-c, PPQ Treatment Manual) for the
associated surface-feeding homoptera and hemiptera. A fungicidal dip or
preventive fungicide sprays in the field, along with culling and
inspection of the fruit at the packinghouse, are other options for *P.
tropicalis*.

There are no data on the tolerance level of breadfruit and jackfruit to
USDA-approved irradiation treatment dosages.

[]{#__RefHeading___Toc155824536 .anchor}**III. Authors & Reviewers**

Prepared by: Yu Takeuchi, Plant Physiologist, CPHST, PERAL

Reviewed by: Tom Culliney, Entomologist, CPHST, PERAL

Barney Caton, Ecologist, CPHST, PERAL

Feridoon Mehdizadegan, Plant Pathologist, CPHST, PERAL

Nicanor Liquido (Lead Scientist), Senior Risk Analyst, CPHST, PERAL

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[^1]: Quarantine significant species with a limited distribution in the
    United States (NIS, 2004).

[^2]: *Laminicoccus pandani* was intercepted on Artocarpus fruit only
    one time at the port-of-entry. Because there was no scientific
    information available to indicate that *L. pandani* attacked
    Artocarpus fruit; therefore, it is unlikely to follow the pathway
    with breadfruit and/or jackfruit fruits.

[^3]: *Endocima fullonia* is a fruit sucking insect; it is unlikely to
    follow the pathway with jackfruit and/or breadfruit fruits.

[^4]: *Thrips palmi* is established in Florida, however, only in limited
    area of Florida (South of Orlando) (Capinera, 2004).