# Appendix A: Annotated Bibliography[^1]

# 

1\. Building Envelope

1.1 Opaque Building Assemblies

Metric

1.  Assembly Thermal Conductance

    1.  []{#A597 .anchor}Christian and Kosny 1995 \[73\] described the
        thermal performance of walls in terms of the center-of-cavity
        R-value, clear-wall R-value, and whole-wall R-value.

    2.  []{#A900 .anchor}Christian and Kosny 1997 \[74\] discussed the
        importance of five elements (R-value, thermal mass, air
        tightness, moisture tolerance, and sustainability) to evaluate
        whole-wall performance.

    3.  []{#A1024 .anchor}Christian and Kosny 1999 \[72\] defined and
        compared clear-wall and whole-wall R-values.

    4.  []{#A1020 .anchor}Condon et al. 1980 \[85\] used a wall's
        thermal resistance to relate the heat flux through a wall to the
        temperature difference across the wall.

    5.  []{#A7 .anchor}Desjarlais et al. 1998 \[108\] defined the
        R-value of a window assembly.

    6.  []{#A741 .anchor}Forest et al. 1991 \[165\] measured thermal
        resistance of porous insulation.

    7.  []{#A183 .anchor}Isaacs and Trethowen 1985 \[218\] defined a
        "cumulative" method of determining thermal resistance from a
        series of heat-flux and temperature-difference measurements.

    8.  []{#A735 .anchor}Lambert and Robison \[244\] measured
        whole-house thermal loss in terms of a K factor (slope of line
        regressed to chart of measured space heat average energy use vs.
        inside-to-outside temperature difference).

    9.  []{#A612 .anchor}Modera et al. 1986 \[283\] found through
        computer simulations that the dynamically measured thermal
        conductance of a wall was mostly likely to be inaccurate in the
        cases of (a) well-insulated walls; (b) large indoor and outdoor
        temperature fluctuations; (c) small average indoor-outdoor
        temperature differences; and (d) thermally massive walls.

    10. []{#A509 .anchor}Saunders et al. 1994 \[363\] defined "building
        load coefficient" (BLC), an area-integrated envelope thermal
        heat transfer coefficient (U\*A) incorporating both conduction
        and infiltration effects.

    11. []{#A570 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1983 \[380\] described a wall's
        dynamic thermal performance by a small number of "Simplified
        Thermal Parameters," including a steady-state conductance, a
        time constant, and some storage terms.

    12. []{#A363 .anchor}Sonderegger et al. 1981 \[409\] described the
        thermal performance of an heterogeneous wall in terms of its
        conductance, its time constant, and two or three pairs of
        correction terms that express the wall's heterogeneity.

    13. []{#A432 .anchor}Subbarao et al. 1985 \[418\] reported on the
        early stages of a project to characterize the long-term thermal
        performance of a building using only two short-term-measurable
        parameters (building heat loss coefficient and equivalent clear
        aperture area).

    Insulation Level and Location

    1.  []{#A1002 .anchor}BII 1998 \[53\] discussed insulation
        performance metrics including R-value, installation depth, and
        infiltration rate.

    2.  []{#A189 .anchor}Grot and Chang 1983 \[195\] defined nine
        classes of envelope thermal anomalies (e.g., uninsulated
        exterior-wall cavity regions, improperly-insulated ceiling
        areas, air leakage around door or windows) that thermographic
        inspection of buildings can find.

Diagnostic

3.  Assembly Thermal Conductance

    1.  []{#A484 .anchor}Burch 1980 \[61\] used infrared thermography to
        rank roofs of residential and commercial buildings according to
        their thermal resistances, and found that it worked best under
        low-wind conditions.

    2.  []{#A905 .anchor}Christian and Kosny 1999 \[71\] described Oak
        Ridge National Laboratory's web-based whole-wall R-value
        calculator.

    3.  []{#A598 .anchor}Christian and Kosny 1995 \[73\] described a
        method/procedure for the estimation of whole-wall R-values
        considering both "clear wall" and envelope interface details.
        Generated an R-value database by 3-D heat-conduction simulation
        of 18 systems.

    4.  []{#A1025 .anchor}Christian and Kosny 1999 \[72\] described an
        Internet-based calculation tool that computes whole-wall values
        of thermal resistance for 40 different wall systems.

    5.  []{#A971 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[79\] described the physics and
        mechanisms of heat transfer in buildings. Also discussed general
        insulation strategies.

    6.  []{#A1021 .anchor}Condon et al. 1980 \[85\] discussed
        steady-state measurement of wall thermal resistance with (a)
        heat flux sensors and (b) a guarded hot box. Also discussed the
        use of transient heat transfer analysis with the envelope
        thermal testing unit (a portable guarded hot box) to determine a
        wall's complex conductance (a.k.a. admittance).

    7.  []{#A897 .anchor}Creech and Tiller 1993 \[92\] described the
        "cookie cutter" technique to remove and weigh attic insulation
        samples to check insulation density and R-value.

    8.  []{#A915 .anchor}Crowell 1992 \[93\] discussed visual signs of
        poor insulation installation quality.

    9.  []{#A587 .anchor}Cvetkovic 1982 \[99\] successfully tested a
        compensated heat-flux meter (i.e., one with a heating element
        used to compensate for the flux reduction induced by the
        presence of the meter).

    10. []{#A582 .anchor}Fang et al. 1985 \[141\] measured the thermal
        resistance of the exterior envelopes of six test houses
        using (a) a portable calorimeter and (b) a heat-flux transducer.
        Laboratory tests showed that calorimeter and transducer results
        were within 9% of those yielded by a guarded hot box.

    11. []{#A552 .anchor}Fang and Grot 1985 \[142\] measured the thermal
        resistance of office-building envelopes using (a) heat-flux
        transducers (four-inch-diameter wafer-type sensors with embedded
        thermopiles) and (b) a portable calorimeter.

    12. []{#A837 .anchor}Flanders 1992 \[154\] discussed the effect of
        changing the data time period for the two proposed tests for
        ASTM C1155-90 to measure R-values of building envelope
        components.

    13. []{#A838 .anchor}Flanders et al. 1995 \[155\] discussed test
        protocols and results of two in-situ long-term tests
        (multiple-day long, with values calculated based on incremental
        24 hour blocks of data) to determine R-values of building
        envelope components. Tests are two proposed for ASTM C1155-90:
        summation technique and sum of least squares. Found that the
        R-value agreement between the two techniques varied by material,
        but was within 3% for metal panels, 13% for metal panel/block
        walls, and 1% for masonry walls and attic insulation.

    14. []{#A433 .anchor}Grot et al. 1985 \[194\] discussed four tools
        (non-contact spot radiometer, contact heat flow transducer,
        portable calorimeter, and envelope thermal testing unit
        \[guarded hot plate\]) that can be used to measure the thermal
        resistance of building components.

    15. []{#A586 .anchor}Harrje et al. 1985 \[205\] described the use of
        fan pressurization and infrared thermography to detect
        convective loops in buildings.

    16. []{#A184 .anchor}Isaacs and Trethowen 1985 \[218\] measured the
        thermal resistances of roofs, walls, and floors with
        thermocouples and heat-flux sensors.

    17. []{#A581 .anchor}Janssen and Rasmussen 1985 \[219\] used
        computer simulations of the thermal performance of a house to
        analyze the errors associated with a transient procedure used to
        measure overall "building thermal resistance" (BTR). Also
        programmed the algorithm into a microprocessor-based meter and
        measured the BTR of three homes.

    18. []{#A912 .anchor}Lugano 1998 \[257\] discussed key air sealing
        and insulation locations by house type (colonial, contemporary,
        ranch, and finished half-attics).

    19. []{#A402 .anchor}Modera et al. 1984 \[285\] outlined two
        techniques for thermal testing of walls: one active and one
        passive. The active method uses heat generation to produce the
        necessary delta T across the wall, whereas the passive method
        uses weather conditions.

    20. []{#A613 .anchor}Modera et al. 1986 \[283\] found through
        computer simulations that the dynamically measured thermal
        conductance of a wall was mostly likely to be inaccurate in the
        cases of (a) well-insulated walls; (b) large indoor and outdoor
        temperature fluctuations; (c) small average indoor-outdoor
        temperature differences; and (d) thermally massive walls.

    21. []{#A505 .anchor}Persily et al. 1988 \[323\] described the use
        of calorimeters and heat flux transducers to measure envelope
        thermal resistance.

    22. []{#A914 .anchor}Roeder 1992 \[352\] discussed the American
        Society for Non-Destructive Testing's (ASNT) guidelines for the
        voluntary qualification and certification of thermographers.

    23. []{#A583 .anchor}Roulet et al. 1985 \[356\] described both
        steady-state and dynamic methods for computing the thermal
        conductance and time constants of building assemblies. Presented
        a criterion for determining how close a dynamically computed
        thermal conductance is to its true value. Tested both
        steady-state and dynamic methods on various building elements
        (windows, light sandwich panels, and heavy elements).

    24. []{#A596 .anchor}Sandberg and Jahnsson 1995 \[361\] presented a
        simplified method (periodic electricity meter readings +
        indoor-outdoor air temperature measurements) for measuring the
        thermal loss factor (area-integrated conductance) of the
        envelope of an electrically-heated detached house with low
        thermal mass.

    25. []{#A510 .anchor}Saunders et al. 1994 \[363\] described the
        measured performance rating (MPR) method, an overnight coheating
        procedure that predicts building load coefficient (BLC), thermal
        time constant for the building mass, heating system efficiency,
        and annual fuel consumption of single-family detached home.

    26. []{#A460 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1982 \[400\] described wall
        thermal performance and temperature results using the envelope
        thermal test unit (ETTU).

    27. []{#A571 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1983 \[380\] described the
        Envelope Thermal Test Unit, a device (surface heater +
        surface-temperature sensor + heat-flux meter) that characterizes
        a wall's dynamic thermal performance by controlling and
        measuring heat flux.

    28. []{#A1022 .anchor}Sonderegger et al. 1981 \[409\] discussed the
        Envelope Thermal Test Unit (ETTU), a tool developed to
        dynamically measure component U-values in the field. Also
        described in Condon et al. 1980 \[85\], Sherman et al. 1982
        \[401\], and Sherman et al. 1983 \[382\].

    29. []{#A907 .anchor}Wishner 1996 \[463\] discussed a program to
        determine whether sufficient attic insulation is installed,
        based on the "cookie cutter" method; included a graph showing
        apparent thermal conductivity related to bulk density of four
        insulation materials.

    Insulation Level and Location

    1.  []{#A344 .anchor}ASTM 1990 \[34\] described the ASTM 1060-90
        standard practice for using thermography to qualitatively
        inspect insulation installations in frame buildings.

    2.  []{#A901 .anchor}Christian and Kosny 1997 \[74\] described how
        to determine whole-wall R-values using a guarded hot box and
        computer simulations.

    3.  []{#A190 .anchor}Grot and Chang 1983 \[195\] discussed the use
        of thermography to detect defects in cavity-wall insulation.

    4.  []{#A531 .anchor}Harrje 1981 \[203\] described a technique
        (blower-door depressurization + infrared thermography) for
        detecting envelope leakage sites and insulation defects.

    5.  []{#A521 .anchor}Harrje et al. 1979 \[204\] described an IR
        thermography method for determining insulation irregularities.

    6.  []{#A987 .anchor}NAHB 1997 \[293\] measured air-dried density of
        wall insulation samples that had been extracted with a "cookie
        cutter". Also inspected wall insulation for defects using the
        NAHB Research Center Certified Insulation Contractor checklist
        (detailed in an appendix), and recorded time to install wall
        insulations.

    7.  []{#A1026 .anchor}NAHB 1997 \[294\] provided quality checklists
        for installation of wall insulation, including fiberglass batts,
        spray cellulose, blow-in blankets, and foam-in-place. Included 7
        to 13 possible defects for each type of insulation.

    8.  []{#A506 .anchor}Persily et al. 1988 \[323\] described the use
        of thermography to qualitatively analyze the performance of
        building envelope insulation.

    9.  []{#A209 .anchor}Proskiw 1995 \[340\] discussed the use of
        thermography to detect envelope anomalies.

    10. []{#A116 .anchor}Snell 1993\[408\] explained how to choose an
        infrared thermography system for building-energy audits.

    11. []{#A474 .anchor}Treado and Burch 1983 \[430\] evaluated the
        effectiveness of aerial infrared thermography in detection of
        roofing insulation defects, finding it to be useful in comparing
        adjacent houses (same external climate). Factors to take into
        account when conducting tests are included.

    12. []{#A2 .anchor}Zmeureanu et al. 1998 \[469\] used infrared
        thermography to detect envelope insulation voids in nine row
        houses.

Norm

5.  Assembly Thermal Conductance

    1.  []{#A443 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[27\] specified how envelope
        tradeoff factors can be used in the prescriptive compliance path
        of ASHRAE Standard 90.2-1993: added heating or cooling loads
        imposed by a given envelope component can be offset by load
        savings from other envelope components.

    2.  []{#A843 .anchor}ASHRAE 1995 \[28\] specified, based on local
        degree-days, overall thermal performance requirements for
        replacement building envelope components.

    3.  []{#A346 .anchor}CEC 1999 \[66\] presented the Title 24
        California building code that specifies R- and U-values for
        residential and non-residential roofs, walls, and floors.

    4.  []{#A906 .anchor}Christian and Kosny 1999 \[71\] presented
        clear- and whole-wall R-values calculated using a web-based
        calculator, and provided examples of the effect of installation
        quality on insulation performance.

    5.  []{#A902 .anchor}Christian and Kosny 1997 \[74\] presented
        whole-wall R-values for 18 wall configurations, determined using
        a guarded hotbox and computer simulation procedure.

    6.  []{#A916 .anchor}Conover 1992 \[88\] discussed laboratory test
        results of convective heat loss through loose fill fiberglass
        insulation, in relationship to temperature differentials for
        attics.

    7.  []{#A898 .anchor}Creech and Tiller 1993 \[92\] discussed results
        from a study of attic insulation R-values using the "cookie
        cutter" method; 95% of the houses had loose-fill fiberglass
        insulation, the rest had loose-fill rock wool or fiberglass
        batts; 25% had R-values less than claimed and 50% had R-values
        greater than claimed.

    8.  []{#A903 .anchor}Greenberg 1994 \[178\] reported floor
        insulation techniques and their effect on insulation quality,
        based on work by Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

    9.  []{#A185 .anchor}Isaacs and Trethowen 1985 \[218\] reprinted
        roof & wall R-value standards from NZS 4218P (New Zealand,
        1977).

    10. []{#A865 .anchor}Katz 1997 \[226\] discussed visual inspections
        of insulation installation in 100 homes. With a minimum code
        requirement of R-30 attic insulation, 23% of the homes had attic
        insulation levels below R-30; floor R-values were compromised by
        poor-to-mediocre installation.

    11. []{#A590 .anchor}McBride 1992 \[264\] listed ASHRAE 90.2P\'s
        (ASHRAE 1993 \[27\]) prescriptive requirements for ceiling,
        wall, slab, floor, door, and fenestration thermal conductances
        in single- and multi-family houses.

    12. []{#A403 .anchor}Modera et al. 1984 \[285\] gave data for the
        U-values of various wall types.

    13. []{#A337 .anchor}National Association of State Energy Officials
        (NASEO) 1999 \[295\] gave HERS reference-home R- and U-values.

    14. []{#A899 .anchor}Penn 1993 \[319\] noted Minnesota's building
        code revision that includes a requirement that "all insulation
        materials must achieve their stated performance of 75˚F and no
        less than stated performance at winter design conditions".

    15. []{#A904 .anchor}Rainer 1995 \[341\] compared field findings to
        default framing factors and proposed ways to index and rate wall
        systems.

    16. []{#A877 .anchor}Schalch and Fryer 1992 \[364\] discussed the
        Energy Crafted Home's performance-based requirements for shell
        insulation levels.

    17. []{#A958 .anchor}Uniacke 1996 \[444\] discussed framing and
        insulation quality goals to obtain quality construction.

    18. []{#A29 .anchor}Werling et al. 1998 \[460\] gave Energy-Star
        required performance levels for envelope R- and U-values.

    Insulation Level and Location

    1.  []{#A1003 .anchor}BII 1998 \[53\] described the proper
        installation of building-envelope insulation, with attention to
        insulation type, installation depth, and location.

    2.  []{#A998 .anchor}ConSol 1999 \[89\] specified criteria for a
        quality thermal envelope, and detailed procedures (with
        checklist) for proper installation of wall, ceiling, and floor
        insulation. Included procedures for proper caulking and sealing.

    Energy Efficient Frame Design

    1.  []{#A999 .anchor}ConSol 1999 \[89\] specified procedures for
        energy efficient building frame design, with attention to
        insulation and HVAC system issues.

1.2 Windows and Skylights

Metric

8.  1.  []{#A501 .anchor}Dubrous and Wilson 1992 \[127\] described
        energy rating (ER) numbers, a window thermal performance metric
        that indicates whether a window arrangement increases or
        decreases a building's thermal load.

Diagnostic

9.  Assembly Thermal Conductance

    1.  []{#A529 .anchor}Arasteh et al. \[8\] described an infrared
        thermography laboratory that measures window temperature and is
        used to validate computer models of window heat transfer (more
        detailed version of \[9\]).

    2.  []{#A530 .anchor}Arasteh et al. \[9\] described an infrared
        thermography laboratory that measures window temperature and is
        used to validate computer models of window heat transfer (less
        detailed version of \[8\]).

    3.  []{#A8 .anchor}Desjarlais et al. 1998 \[108\] used a large
        guarded hot-box to measure window heat transfer in accordance
        with ASTM Standard C 236-89.

    4.  []{#A502 .anchor}Dubrous and Wilson 1992 \[127\] presented a
        procedure and data tables for calculating the Energy Rating (ER)
        of a building's windows based on building location, type,
        orientation, and ratio of window area to floor area.

    5.  []{#A187 .anchor}Energy Design Update 1986 \[136\] discussed
        inaccuracies in prediction of window heat transfer (i.e., frame
        effects).

    6.  []{#A210 .anchor}Finlayson et al. 1995 \[150\] described the
        WINDOW5 software package for analysis of fenestration heat
        transfer.

    7.  []{#A199 .anchor}McCabe 1987 \[265\] described calorimeter
        measurement of window heat transfer.

    8.  []{#A584 .anchor}Roulet et al. 1985 \[356\] described both
        steady-state and dynamic methods for computing the thermal
        conductance of building assemblies. Presented a criterion for
        determining how close a dynamically computed thermal conductance
        is to its true value. Tested both steady-state and dynamic
        methods on various building elements (windows, light sandwich
        panels, and heavy elements).

    Radiative Behavior

    1.  []{#A211 .anchor}Finlayson et al. 1995 \[150\] described the
        WINDOW5 software package for analysis of fenestration heat
        transfer.

    2.  []{#A819 .anchor}Griffith 1999 \[181\] discussed a hand-held
        detector that uses an infrared light-emitting diode and a
        phototransistor to indicate whether a window is clear, regular
        low-e, or spectrally-selective low-e.

    3.  []{#A6 .anchor}Griffith et al. 1998 \[182\] found that either a
        portable spectrometer or an inexpensive IR diode and a
        phototransistor could be used to identify the emittance of low-e
        window coatings.

    4.  []{#A5 .anchor}Tinker and Al-Buijan 1998 \[425\] used the
        MoWitt/Passys test cell approach to measure the on-site solar
        control performance of glazing systems, and compared these
        results to those predicted by the ESP-r simulation model.

Norm

11. Assembly Thermal Conductance

    1.  []{#A444 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[27\] specified how envelope
        tradeoff factors can be used in the prescriptive compliance path
        of ASHRAE Standard 90.2-1993: added heating or cooling loads
        imposed by a given envelope component can be offset by load
        savings from other envelope components.

    2.  []{#A1004 .anchor}BII 1998 \[53\] briefly specified procedures
        for proper window installation, including labeling,
        certification, thermal conductance, orientation, and shading.

    3.  []{#A347 .anchor}CEC 1999 \[66\] presented the Title 24
        California building code specification for window U-values for
        residential and non-residential buildings (also refers to
        National Fenestration Council's NFRC-100-91 (1991) and NRFC 100
        (1997)).

    4.  []{#A592 .anchor}McBride 1992 \[264\] listed ASHRAE 90.2P
        (ASHRAE 1993 \[27\]) prescriptive requirements for ceiling,
        wall, slab, floor, door, and fenestration thermal conductances
        in single- and multi-family houses.

    5.  []{#A948 .anchor}Shapiro and James 1997 \[367\] presented air
        tightness measurements and heat loss calculations (WINDOW 4.1)
        for different types of existing windows.

    Radiative Behavior

    1.  []{#A348 .anchor}CEC 1999 \[66\] presented the Title 24
        California building code table for default values of solar heat
        gain coefficient.

    Window Installation

    1.  []{#A1005 .anchor}BII 1998 \[53\] briefly specified procedures
        for proper window installation, including labeling,
        certification, thermal conductance, orientation, and shading.

    2.  []{#A1000 .anchor}ConSol 1999 \[89\] specified criteria for a
        quality window, and procedures for proper window installation.

1.3 Thermal Mass

Metric

14. 1.  []{#A1023 .anchor}Condon et al. 1980 \[85\] described a wall's
        dynamic thermal performance in terms of its admittance, which
        depends on its thermal conductance and thermal mass.

    2.  []{#A585 .anchor}Roulet et al. 1985 \[356\] described both
        steady-state and dynamic methods for computing the thermal
        conductance and time constants of building assemblies. Presented
        a criterion for determining how close a dynamically computed
        thermal conductance is to its true value. Tested both
        steady-state and dynamic methods on various building elements
        (windows, light sandwich panels, and heavy elements).

    3.  []{#A511 .anchor}Saunders et al. 1994 \[363\] described the
        measured performance rating (MPR) method, an overnight
        co-heating procedure that predicts building load coefficient
        (BLC), thermal time constant for the building mass, heating
        system efficiency, and annual fuel consumption of a
        single-family detached home.

    4.  []{#A572 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1983 \[380\] described a wall's
        dynamic thermal performance by a small number of "Simplified
        Thermal Parameters," including a steady-state conductance, a
        time constant, and some storage terms.

    5.  []{#A365 .anchor}Sonderegger et al. 1981 \[409\] defined a time
        constant based on thickness and thermal diffusivity that
        describes the dynamic thermal performance of a wall.

    6.  []{#A579 .anchor}Subbarao et al. 1985 \[419\] used Fourier
        analysis to describe the thermal capacity of a building in terms
        of its thermal admittance, which relates the sinusoidal
        temperature response to the sinusoidal addition of heat to
        interior air.

Diagnostic

15. 1.  []{#A599 .anchor}Christian and Kosny 1995 \[73\] outlined a
        procedure for measuring the energy-savings benefits yielded by
        wall systems with significant thermal mass.

    2.  []{#A580 .anchor}Subbarao et al. 1985 \[419\] measured the
        thermal capacitance of a room-sized test cell, and discussed why
        a sinusoidal driving function is superior to a step function in
        the measurement of building capacitance.

Norm

16. 1.  []{#A349 .anchor}CEC 1999 \[66\] presented the California Title
        24 code that specifies minimum interior thermal mass for some
        residential prescriptive compliance packages (component-based
        list of energy-efficient features).

1.4 Airtightness

Metric

17. Envelope and Interzone Leakage

    1.  []{#A292 .anchor}ASTM 1992 \[35\] defined leakage terms,
        including air changes per hour (ACH) and effective leakage area
        (ELA) using fan pressurization.

    2.  []{#A573 .anchor}ASTM 1995 \[39\] described the standard
        specification and performance of an air retarder for low-rise
        framed building walls, gaged by the rate of air leakage through
        the envelope (cfm/ft^2^) at a pressure difference of 0.3 in.
        w.g.

    3.  []{#A295 .anchor}ASTM 1997 \[41\] defined leakage terms,
        including air changes per hour (ACH) and effective leakage area
        (ELA) using an orifice blower door.

    4.  []{#A151 .anchor}Bahnfleth et al. 1999 \[43\] listed four
        metrics for envelope leakage (flow coefficients, Q~50~, ELA~4~,
        and ACH at some reference pressure), and defined whole-building
        pressure differential for tall buildings.

    5.  []{#A972 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[79\] described the physics and
        mechanisms of airflow in buildings. Also discussed how to do air
        sealing.

    6.  []{#A690 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[80\] discussed a test procedure to
        measure the air leakage rate and structural performance of air
        barrier systems in wood frame walls.

    7.  []{#A274 .anchor}Cummings 1998 \[94\] compared leakage flow
        metrics evaluated at a single pressure difference (single-point
        Q~env~) to those evaluated at several pressure differences
        (multi-point Q~env~).

    8.  []{#A256 .anchor}Cummings and Withers 1997 \[96\] defined
        CFM~50~, ACH~50~, and uncontrolled airflow (UAF).

    9.  []{#A165 .anchor}Cummings and Withers 1998 \[95\] defined
        ACH~50~, CFM~25~, CFM~25,out~, CFM~25,tot~, and CFM~50~.

    10. []{#A742 .anchor}Forest et al. 1991 \[165\] discussed metrics
        for evaluating moisture and airflow (moisture content, moisture
        release rates, infiltration rates, relative humidity, ambient
        conditions, thermal resistance). Also measured airflow
        resistance of porous insulation.

    11. []{#A626 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1979 \[189\] compared
        tracer-gas based infiltration measurements and predicted
        infiltration based on air leakage measurements using fan
        pressurization and on surface-pressure-difference measurements.
        Grimsrud et al. 1979 \[191\] presented a subset of these
        results.

    12. []{#A614 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1981 \[188\] defined the
        effective leakage area of a building envelope.

    13. []{#A391 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1981 \[192\] defined ELA~4~.
        Described fan pressurization techniques and the use of specific
        leakage areas, nomographs, and component leakage guides to be
        used by practitioners in determining building leakage and
        infiltration rates.

    14. []{#A747 .anchor}Harrje et al. 1990 \[206\] described metrics
        related to three tracer gas measurements (constant tracer gas
        method, multiple tracer measurement system \[MTMS\], and
        perfluorocarbon tracer measurement method \[PFT\]).

    15. []{#A395 .anchor}Jump and Modera 1993 \[222\] measured envelope
        leakage as part of a research project on zoned distribution
        systems.

    16. []{#A108 .anchor}Keefe 1994 \[228\] compared ACH vs. CFM as
        envelope leakage metrics (the latter can be measured without
        knowing the building volume), and noted that CFM~50~
        measurements are made at a pressure low enough to be easily
        achievable and high enough to resist wind-induced errors.
        Mentioned \$/CFM~50~ as an estimate of the cost or benefit of a
        leakage change.

    17. []{#A678 .anchor}Koles et al. 1996 \[241\] discussed
        airtightness as defined by normalized leakage area (ASHRAE
        Standard 119-1989).

    18. []{#A736 .anchor}Lambert and Robison \[244\] used four envelope
        leakage metrics: (1) specific leakage area at 4 Pa (SLA~4~); (2)
        estimated seasonal infiltration at 4 Pa (infiltration ACH); (3)
        ACH~50~; and (4) perfluorocarbon passive tracer gas infiltration
        rate ("PFT").

    19. []{#A10 .anchor}Lstiburek 1998 \[256\] presented an electrical
        circuit analog for envelope leakage.

    20. []{#A122 .anchor}Modera 1993 \[279\] discussed the merits of
        CFM~25~ vs. CFM~50~, noting that duct pressure is closer to 25
        Pa when the system fan is running.

    21. []{#A757 .anchor}National Association of State Energy Officials
        (NASEO) 1999 \[295\] defined annual average ACH, which is the
        normalized building leakage multiplied by W, a local weather
        factor defined in ASHRAE Standard 136 (ASHRAE 1993 \[26\]).

    22. []{#A765 .anchor}Robison and Lambert 1989 \[351\] discussed
        measurement metrics, including duct pressures, duct leakage,
        airflows, whole-house air infiltration, and fan pressurization
        results.

    23. []{#A610 .anchor}Sherman 1986 \[373\] defined effective leakage
        area (ELA), infiltration rate, leakage class, infiltration
        degree-days, and air changes per hour (ACH).

    24. []{#A382 .anchor}Sherman 1986 \[374\] defined a leakage area
        normalized by the floor area and height of a house. Normalized
        leakage area usually falls between 0.2 and 1.0, but large
        potential errors caused the authors to group leakage into
        classes. Classification ranges from A to J.

    25. []{#A377 .anchor}Sherman and Grimsrud 1980 \[390\] measured
        envelope leakage using fan pressurization and weather data.

    26. []{#A459 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1986 \[382\] defined
        infiltration degree days, a weather-based value used to
        calculate envelope infiltration rates in the same fashion that
        degree days are used to calculate building heat transfer rates.

    27. []{#A457 .anchor}Sherman and Matson 1997 \[402\] defined
        specific infiltration rate, stack and wind factors, hourly
        infiltration rate, and effective leakage area.

    28. []{#A37 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[448\] defined a
        single-pressure-differential envelope leakage metric (Q~25~).

    Air Barrier Type and Location

    1.  []{#A166 .anchor}Cummings and Withers 1998 \[95\] discussed
        eight configurations of thermal and air boundaries in commercial
        buildings.

    2.  Finley 1997 \[422\] evaluated interzonal airtightness to
        determine its effect on indoor air problems (mold and moisture)
        and their mitigation strategies.

Diagnostic

19. Envelope Leakage

    1.  []{#A107 .anchor}Anderson 1995 \[3\] presented a history of the
        blower door and case studies of current users.

    2.  []{#A896 .anchor}Anderson 1995 \[4\] in a letter to the editor,
        discussed how to diagnose and seal air leakage paths between
        conditioned space and the attic, using a blower door or pressure
        gages.

    3.  []{#A758 .anchor}ASHRAE 1988 \[26\] specified a calculation
        methodology to determine annual effective ventilation rates,
        based on the weather factor (W), normalized leakage area (NL),
        and hourly ventilation fan airflows and schedules.

    4.  []{#A465 .anchor}ASTM 1988 \[33\] presented a standard test
        method for airflow calibration of fan pressurization devices
        used for measuring air leakage rates through building envelopes.

    5.  []{#A293 .anchor}ASTM 1992 \[35\] described multi-point
        fan-pressurization measurement of envelope leakage.

    6.  []{#A299 .anchor}ASTM 1995 \[38\] described the five ASTM
        E1186-87 (1992) methods to detect air leakage sites in building
        envelopes: building \[de\]pressurization + infrared scanning;
        building \[de\]pressurization + smoke tracers; building
        \[de\]pressurization + airflow measurement devices; sound; and
        tracer gas.

    7.  []{#A574 .anchor}ASTM 1995 \[39\] described a test procedure for
        measuring the performance of air retarder materials and systems
        for low-rise framed building walls.

    8.  []{#A297 .anchor}ASTM 1995 \[40\] described the ASTM Standard
        E741-95 tracer-gas measurement method for single-zone air change
        rates.

    9.  []{#A296 .anchor}ASTM 1997 \[41\] described the ASTM E1827-96
        multi-point fan-pressurization envelope leakage measurement
        using a blower door, and included an uncertainty analysis.

    10. []{#A152 .anchor}Bahnfleth et al. 1999 \[43\] applied
        fan-pressurization and tracer gas methods to measure the
        envelope leakage of a tall building.

    11. []{#A628 .anchor}Berk et al. 1981 \[51\] discussed
        fan-pressurization measurement of envelope airtightness.

    12. []{#A1006 .anchor}BII 1998 \[53\] used blower door
        depressurization to measure ACH~50~.

    13. []{#A121 .anchor}Blasnik and Fitzgerald 1992 \[55\] proposed
        three blower-door methods to quantify zone leakage and better
        understand series leakage paths (interstitial leakage). Test 1:
        "add a hole" - calculates leakage between living space and attic
        by using a "calibrated hole". Test 2: "opening a door" -
        measures leakage between living space and basement, garage,
        attics with doors or pull-down stairs. Test 3: "single point
        attic test for roof venting" - calculates "bypass leakage" from
        house to attic based on zone pressure differences and attic vent
        sizes.

    14. []{#A600 .anchor}Christian and Kosny 1995 \[73\] proposed using
        a combination of ASTM Standards (C236, C976, E1424, E283) to
        measure air leakage and heat loss through wall assemblies under
        simulated wind conditions ranging from 0 to 15 mph, and building
        pressure differentials ranging from 0 to 25 to 50 Pa.

    15. []{#A691 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[80\] discussed a test procedure to
        measure air leakage and structural performance of air barrier
        systems in wood-frame walls.

    16. []{#A973 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[79\] described the physics and
        mechanisms of airflow in buildings. Also discussed how to do air
        sealing.

    17. []{#A275 .anchor}Cummings 1998 \[94\] recommended performing the
        blower-door test in depressurization mode because building
        pressurization overestimates leakiness by pushing open dampers,
        skylights, windows, and ceiling tiles. Also, in a study of 150
        Central Florida homes, used tracer gas and blower door
        measurements to find that infiltration increased four-fold when
        the central air handler unit was on; infiltration rates went
        from 1.13 ach to 0.54 ach after duct sealing.

    18. []{#A257 .anchor}Cummings and Withers 1997 \[96\] gave an
        example of using building fans to measure CFM~50~, and included
        a chart used to determine CFM~50~ from CFM measured at some
        other pressure.

    19. []{#A342 .anchor}Downey and Proctor 1994 \[125\] briefly
        described blower-door measurement of CFM~50~.

    20. []{#A558 .anchor}EPA 1997 \[138\] listed four tests used to
        ensure that subcontractors are performing quality work: a
        blower-door test to detect excessive envelope leakage, a duct
        leakage test, an HVAC system inspection, and testing airflow
        across the inside coil to ensure proper airflow to the duct
        system.

    21. []{#A743 .anchor}Forest et al. 1991 \[165\] compared three
        techniques for tracer gas measurement.

    22. []{#A744 .anchor}Forest et al. 1991 \[165\]measured indoor
        infiltration, attic ventilation, and indoor-attic exchange rates
        with a dual tracer gas technique. Measured airflow through wall
        panels with a small orifice plate flowmeter. Measured flow air
        resistances of porous insulation panels.

    23. []{#A437 .anchor}Gadsby and Harrje 1985 \[172\] discussed
        calibration errors in measuring fan flow from fan pressure when
        measuring envelope leakage by fan pressurization.

    24. []{#A755 .anchor}Gammage et al. 1986 \[173\] discussed tracer
        gas airflow measurements used to determine the effect of central
        fan operation and duct leakage on infiltration air change rates.

    25. []{#A615 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1981 \[188\] briefly described
        the Lawrence Berkeley Lab infiltration model relating total
        envelope infiltration to stack-, wind-, and
        mechanical-system-induced infiltration. In addition, related
        fan-pressurization measurements of envelope leakage to actual
        heating-season infiltration rates, and briefly described the
        ASTM 779-81(5) fan pressurization technique.

    26. []{#A392 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1981 \[192\] described the LBL
        infiltration model predicting envelope infiltration from
        effective leakage area and local weather conditions. Included
        formulas and parameter tables for standard terrain classes.
        Described use of infiltration in an instrumented audit.
        Described fan pressurization techniques and the use of specific
        leakage areas, nomographs, and component leakage guides by
        practitioners in determining building leakage and infiltration
        rates.

    27. []{#A226 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1999 \[184\] reported
        blower-door measurements of ACH~50~ rates in 111 homes.

    28. []{#A532 .anchor}Harrje 1981 \[203\] described a technique
        (blower-door depressurization + infrared thermography) for
        detecting envelope leakage sites and insulation defects.

    29. []{#A522 .anchor}Harrje et al. 1979 \[204\] used blower-door
        pressurization and infrared thermography to locate envelope
        leakage sites. These "bypass routes" by which warm air leaves
        the building include the furnace shaft, party-wall gap,
        party-wall convection, attic, basement, and thermal bridges.

    30. []{#A148 .anchor}Infiltec 1999 \[217\] presented specifications
        for the Infiltec blower-door.

    31. []{#A40 .anchor}Jump et al. 1996 \[223\] used a slight variant
        on ASTM Standard 779 to measure envelope leakage by fan
        pressurization.

    32. []{#A109 .anchor}Keefe 1994 \[228\] presented a how-to guide to
        blower-door measurement of envelope leakage by fan
        pressurization.

    33. []{#A1030 .anchor}Knight et al. 1995 \[239\] discussed the
        development and testing of a hand-held device to detect air
        leakage sites on building surfaces. Soap is applied to a
        building surface and the PACT unit is used to apply a vacuum to
        the surface. Air leakage sites are identified by the appearance
        of soap bubbles, created by the vacuum. The unit is calibrated,
        relating pressure differences to leakage area. The PACT unit is
        able to detect smaller and more leaks than the use of smoke,
        however has trouble with larger leakage sites, most of which are
        better detected visually.

    34. []{#A617 .anchor}Modera et al. 1987 \[276\] described the "pulse
        pressurization" technique for acoustic measurement of a building
        envelope's effective leakage area. This is the reference paper
        on the subject.

    35. []{#A988 .anchor}NAHB 1997 \[293\] measured CFM~50~ and ACH~50~
        with the ASTM E-779 house depressurization test. Also measured
        corrected envelope leakage rate ACH~50~\*, which is the envelope
        leakage minus the house-volume-normalized duct leakage.

    36. []{#A588 .anchor}Persily 1982 \[321\] measured the accuracy and
        repeatability of fan pressurization (blower-door) measurements
        of envelope airtightness by testing a home 80 times in one year.
        Discussed sources of error (fan calibrations, wind) and a
        temperature correction for blower door measurements.

    37. []{#A507 .anchor}Persily et al. 1988 \[323\] described tracer
        gas and fan pressurization measurements of air change rates.

    38. []{#A464 .anchor}Proctor 1997 \[338\] used a blower door test
        and Sherman's infiltration model (Sherman 1987 \[384\]) to
        estimate natural infiltration rate.

    39. []{#A429 .anchor}Reardon et al. 1987 \[343\] measured the
        envelope leakage of a home connected to another home by using a
        second, "balancing" fan to equalize the interior pressures in
        the two homes.

    40. []{#A145 .anchor}Retrotec 1998 \[347\] presented Retrotec's line
        of blower-door products and discussed their features.

    41. []{#A749 .anchor}Robison and Lambert 1989 \[351\] discussed fan
        pressurization, tracer gas, and flow hood measurement techniques
        to determine the relationships between duct leakage, envelope
        leakage, infiltration rates, and ventilation rates.

    42. []{#A512 .anchor}Saunders et al. 1994 \[363\] used
        manual-sampling and automated-sampling SF~6~ tracer gas
        techniques to measure house infiltration rate (ACH), noting that
        the cost of automated sampling equipment is minor relative to
        labor costs. Also measured envelope ELA with a blower-door
        pressurization test.

    43. []{#A949 .anchor}Shapiro and James 1997 \[367\] described a
        simple measurement device to measure air leakage around windows.

    44. []{#A375 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1980 \[378\] surveyed tracer-gas
        techniques for measuring air infiltration. Also discussed
        non-tracer-gas methods (e.g., the LBL infiltration model, which
        estimates hourly infiltration flow rates based on measured
        leakage area, building characteristics and local weather data).

    45. []{#A378 .anchor}Sherman and Grimsrud 1980 \[390\] combined fan
        pressurization measurements with simple weather data to
        determine envelope air infiltration.

    46. []{#A411 .anchor}Sherman and Modera 1986 \[375\] used the "AC
        pressurization" technique to measure leakage area by using
        fluctuating building pressure instead of a static building
        pressurization. Preliminary results agreed fairly well with
        conventional pressurization testing.

    47. []{#A604 .anchor}Sherman and Modera 1988 \[376\] presented
        theory related to the "AC pressurization" acoustic technique for
        measurement of envelope leakage.

    48. []{#A386 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1989 \[397\] presented a method
        (based on AC pressurization) for measuring envelope leakage at
        low pressures (below 10 Pa) where traditional blower door tests
        become inaccurate.

    49. []{#A618 .anchor}Sherman and Palmiter 1994 \[394\] evaluated
        various standards and protocols for measuring ELA from a general
        perspective, looking at uncertainty (accuracy, measurement
        error, measurement uncertainty, precision, bias). Also proposed
        improved measurement procedures, including instrumentation
        specifications and analysis methods that lower uncertainties
        from the teens to 3-4%.

    50. []{#A26 .anchor}Siegel and Davis 1998 \[403\] used a
        depressurization blower-door test to measure CFM~50~, and the
        LBL infiltration model to estimate natural infiltration, in
        eight manufactured (HUD-code) homes before and after retrofits.

    51. []{#A808 .anchor}Ternes 1987 \[420\] described data parameters
        to collect in single-family retrofit research projects and
        described data analysis approaches and issues. Data parameters
        include (a) basic data (house characteristics, leakage
        measurements, metered performance of HVAC systems, and
        verification of retrofit installation quality); (b)
        time-sequential data (submetered space-conditioning energy
        consumption, weather station measurements \[dry bulb, horizontal
        solar radiation, humidity, wind speed and direction\], indoor
        temperature and humidity, total fuel consumptions \[billing
        meter data\], wood heating usage, and submetered water heating
        energy consumption); (c) optional occupant-behavior data
        (additional indoor temperature and humidity, hourly heating and
        cooling thermostat setpoints); (d) geographic characteristics
        (terrain and shielding); and (e) distribution system data (duct
        leakage area measured using fan pressurization).

    52. []{#A144 .anchor}The Energy Conservatory 1998 \[421\] explained
        how to use their Automated Performance Testing (APT) system in
        conjunction with a blower door to automate blower-door leakage
        measurements.

    53. []{#A140 .anchor}The Energy Conservatory 1999 \[422\] answered
        FAQs related to using Energy-Conservatory's duct blaster, blower
        door, and Automated Performance Testing System (APT) to measure
        envelope leakage and duct leakage.

    54. []{#A714 .anchor}Tooley and Davis 1994 \[428\] discussed test
        methodology and problem diagnosis for attic ventilators,
        depressurization, moisture damage, and air barriers.

    55. []{#A114 .anchor}Torry 1994 \[429\] used a cruise-control blower
        door to measure envelope leakage by fan pressurization.

    56. []{#A476 .anchor}Tsongas and Nelson 1991 \[439\] located
        exterior wall air leaks via infrared thermography, and found
        wall moisture damage at the leakage sites.

    57. []{#A959 .anchor}Uniacke 1996 \[444\] discussed air sealing and
        testing strategies and priorities.

    58. []{#A38 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[448\] specified single and
        multi pressure differential fan pressurization techniques for
        measuring envelope leakage.

    59. []{#A9 .anchor}Yuill and Yuill 1998 \[466\] used a blower-door
        test to measure the airtightness of several materials used to
        seal the outer surface of house walls.

    60. []{#A3 .anchor}Zmeureanu et al. 1998 \[469\] used infrared
        thermography and blower-door pressurization to locate leaks and
        measure the leakage area of nine row houses.

    Air Barrier Type and Location

    1.  Bohac et al. 1996 \[310\] described a short-term monitoring
        protocol to determine the effectiveness of building envelope
        and/or mechanical system improvements. The protocol works better
        on a sample of houses than on an individual house.

    2.  []{#A974 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[79\] described air and vapor
        barriers, including air and moisture transport and related
        problems, including air and moisture transport physics and
        mechanisms, construction requirements, and evaluation
        checklists.

    3.  []{#A276 .anchor}Cummings 1998 \[94\] described how to identify
        a building's primary air boundary with a blower-door
        building-pressurization test.

    4.  []{#A115 .anchor}Fitzgerald et al. 1994 \[153\] presented
        detailed instructions for locating a building's air boundary by
        using a blower door to pressurize a building, and then measuring
        the building's air-pressure distribution.

    5.  []{#A913 .anchor}Lugano 1998 \[257\] discussed key air sealing
        and insulation locations by house type (colonial, contemporary,
        ranch, and finished half-attics).

    6.  []{#A943 .anchor}Makepeace 1999 \[261\] described a technique to
        install the air barrier and insulation on the outside of the
        frame construction to minimize air leakage and moisture
        problems.

    7.  []{#A945 .anchor}Obst and Hendricks 1991 \[305\] discussed air
        barriers and vapor retarders, providing construction details and
        specifications.

    8.  []{#A910 .anchor}Tooley 1999 \[426\] discussed specifying and
        installing air barriers in houses. Provided installation details
        and responsibilities for each project team leader; discussed
        basics of air, moisture and heat movement. (\[427\] is Part 1 of
        this two-part article).

    9.  []{#A911 .anchor}Tooley 1999 \[427\] explained thermal and air
        barrier basics, and provided examples using the 3C (continuous,
        contiguous and complete) method. (\[426\] is Part 2 of this
        two-part article).

Norm

21. Envelope and Interzone Leakage

    1.  []{#A455 .anchor}ASHRAE 1988 \[15\] described requirements for
        residential building airtightness performance to reduce air
        infiltration thermal loads (does not apply to buildings that are
        conditioned for human comfort less than 876 hours of the year).
        It also provided a method of classifying the airtightness of
        residential buildings.

    2.  []{#A445 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[27\] specified that the envelope
        leakage-related prescriptive requirements of ASHRAE Standard
        90.2-1993 consist of measured air leakage (in compliance with
        ASHRAE Standard 119-1981) or component leakage requirements
        (windows, doors, foundations, caulking and sealant, infiltration
        retardants).

    3.  []{#A575 .anchor}ASTM 1995 \[39\] specified the minimum
        performance factor for air retarders for low-rise framed
        building walls, including air leakage, structural integrity,
        water resistance, and water vapor.

    4.  []{#A629 .anchor}Berk et al. 1981 \[51\] presented envelope
        airtightness results for nine houses before and after
        retrofitting.

    5.  []{#A350 .anchor}CEC 1999 \[66\] presented the California
        building code Title 24 standards for air leakage around exterior
        doors and windows.

    6.  []{#A975 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[79\] described the physics and
        mechanisms of airflow in buildings. Also discussed how to do air
        sealing.

    7.  []{#A692 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[80\] discussed proposed
        airtightness levels (L s^-1^ m^-2^ @ 75 Pa) for three
        construction classifications.

    8.  []{#A277 .anchor}Cummings 1998 \[94\] recommended and justified
        ACH~50~ values for commercial buildings. He also specified
        building areas that should operate at positive pressure with
        respect to outdoors to avoid infiltration by humid outside air.

    9.  []{#A732 .anchor}Cummings et al. 1990 \[98\], in a study of 150
        Central Florida homes, used tracer gas and blower door
        measurements to find that infiltration increased four-fold when
        the central air handler unit was on; infiltration rates went
        from 1.13 ach to 0.54 ach after duct sealing.

    10. []{#A258 .anchor}Cummings and Withers 1997 \[96\] recommended
        ACH~50~ values for commercial buildings.

    11. []{#A128 .anchor}DOE 1995 \[116\] discussed background
        information on HERS infiltration-related policy options, and
        included DOE's 1995 request for comments on the HERS normalized
        leakage and infiltration levels for the reference and rated
        homes. At the time of this document, DOE proposed using 0.35 ACH
        as the minimum allowable air change rate on which energy savings
        may be calculated for the rated home. DOE proposed using ASHRAE
        Standards (119 for normalized leakage, 136 for effective
        ventilation) for the reference house, with a minimum of 0.35
        ACH.

    12. []{#A542 .anchor}EPA 1998 \[139\] noted a commercial-building
        infiltration rate recommended by the National Association of
        Architectural Metal Manufacturers (not to exceed 0.06 cfm per
        ft^3^. of exterior wall at a pressure difference of 0.3 in.
        w.g.). Referenced to the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook, 1997, p.
        25.19.

    13. []{#A616 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1981 \[188\] reported the
        median value of heating-season-averaged infiltration rates
        measured in 300 houses in the U.S. and Canada, and tabulated
        heating-season specific infiltration in 59 U.S. cities.

    14. []{#A866 .anchor}Katz 1997 \[226\] discussed Advanced Energy\'s
        targets for air tightness (envelope leakage less than 0.30
        CFM~50~/ft^2^ of surface area) and presented results of
        air-tightness tests in 100 new homes.

    15. []{#A110 .anchor}Keefe 1994 \[228\] classified houses as tight
        or leaky based on values of CFM~50~ and ACH~50~.

    16. []{#A399 .anchor}Kiel et al. 1986 \[232\] analyzed a large
        envelope-leakage data set and found correlations between housing
        construction type and flow exponent.

    17. []{#A816 .anchor}Matson and Feustel 1998 \[263\] presented
        leakage characteristics (air change rate at 50 Pa and normalized
        leakage values) for post-1980 construction homes (97 in New York
        and 66 in California) based on blower door tests.

    18. []{#A814 .anchor}Modera 1986 \[277\] described a database of
        1,100 fan-pressurization test results (752 houses: 452 U.S. and
        300 Canadian). Presented data included: leakage (averages of
        depressurization and pressurization test results such as leakage
        area, flow exponent, specific leakage area; the average flow at
        100 Pa), leakage characteristics (descriptions of the
        depressurization and pressurization leakage measurements and
        analysis: flow exponents, flow coefficients, regression
        correlation coefficients, leakage areas, and air changes at 50
        Pa), house characteristics (number of stories, floor type, roof
        type, wall type, building type \[detached, duplex, townhouse\],
        HVAC and fireplace descriptions, building height, shielding and
        terrain classes), and location (zip code).

    19. []{#A466 .anchor}Modera 1994 \[280\] presented envelope-leakage
        measurements performed in 31 California homes.

    20. []{#A427 .anchor}Murphy et al. 1991 \[291\] conducted studies to
        determine the repeatability of fan-pressurization measurements.

    21. []{#A339 .anchor}National Association of State Energy Officials
        (NASEO) 1999 \[295\] specified HERS-reference envelope leakage
        values for homes.

    22. []{#A737 .anchor}Parker 1989 \[313\] discussed blower-door and
        tracer-gas air-change-rate measurements of 1980-construction.
        Discussed conventional and Model Conservation Standards (MCS)
        for the construction of homes in the Pacific Northwest.
        Estimated mean seasonal air change rates were 0.55 ach for the
        conventional and 0.28 ach for the MCS homes. Using the tracer
        gas technique, average air change rates (December through March)
        were 0.31 ach (not corrected for non-uniform mixing) for the
        conventional homes and 0.35 (including heat recovery ventilation
        airflow) for the MCS homes.

    23. []{#A750 .anchor}Robison and Lambert 1989 \[351\] discussed the
        effect of duct leakage on house leakage, with duct leakage
        adding 10% to house leakiness in 20 Residential Standards
        Demonstration Program (RSDP) homes.

    24. []{#A878 .anchor}Schalch and Fryer 1992 \[364\] discussed the
        Energy Crafted Home's infiltration specifications (maximum of
        1.0 in^2^ of opening per 100 ft^2^ of shell at 4 Pa of pressure
        difference).

    25. []{#A611 .anchor}Sherman 1986 \[373\] tabulated infiltration
        degree-days and acceptable envelope leakage classes in various
        U.S. cities. Also presented U.S. maps of infiltration degree-day
        zones, standard infiltration rates, and standard infiltration
        load.

    26. []{#A410 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1984 \[395\] surveyed leakage
        data from 500 houses. Flow coefficients and exponents were found
        to correlate with type of vapor barrier and wall construction.
        They did not correlate with age, but did correlate with climate;
        houses in cold climates were tighter.

    27. []{#A960 .anchor}Uniacke 1996 \[444\] discussed air sealing and
        air-tightness goals to obtain quality construction.

    28. []{#A30 .anchor}Werling et al. 1998 \[460\] presented
        Energy-Star required performance levels for the air change rate
        of homes.

    Air Barrier Type and Location

    1.  []{#A844 .anchor}ASHRAE 1995 \[28\] specified exterior joint
        sealing and optimizing ventilation openings.

    2.  []{#A278 .anchor}Cummings 1998 \[94\] recommended locations for
        air and thermal barriers in commercial buildings.

1.5 Moisture Damage Susceptibility

Metric

23. 1.  []{#A576 .anchor}ASTM 1995 \[39\] specified water resistance
        testing procedures of air retarder (AR) materials or systems for
        low-rise framed building walls.

    2.  []{#A976 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[79\] described air and vapor
        barriers, including air and moisture transport physics and
        mechanisms, construction requirements, and evaluation
        checklists.

    3.  []{#A718 .anchor}Forest and Walker 1991 \[161\] discussed
        measurement and model input variables to determine airflow and
        moisture content in attics. Forest and Walker 1992 \[162\], 1993
        \[163\], 1993 \[164\], and Walker and Forest 1995 \[452\] also
        discussed this research.

    4.  []{#A745 .anchor}Forest et al. 1991 \[165\] measured wood's
        moisture content by weight.

    5.  []{#A989 .anchor}NAHB 1997 \[293\] measured the installed
        moisture content (moisture by dry weight) of spray-insulated
        systems

Diagnostic

24. 1.  []{#A687 .anchor}CMHC 1996 \[78\] discussed non-destructive test
        methods and equipment to assess the strength, serviceability,
        and deterioration of buildings.

    2.  []{#A977 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[79\] described air and vapor
        barriers, including air and moisture transport physics and
        mechanisms, construction requirements, and evaluation
        checklists. Also described the physics and mechanisms of
        moisture transport and related problems, including a checklist
        of possible moisture problems (water vapor, capillary water, and
        bulk water-related). Provided figures showing how to diagnose
        moisture problems in exterior finishes and materials. Discussed
        window moisture problems, including a checklist of typical
        problems and solutions.

    3.  []{#A331 .anchor}Dubose and Odon 1994 \[126\] discussed sources
        of moisture-related building damage (e.g., infiltration of moist
        outside air into depressurized building spaces); building
        commissioning techniques to identify the source of moisture
        damage (e.g., zone depressurization); and ways to prevent
        moisture damage (e.g., rebalancing flows to positively
        pressurize interior spaces).

    4.  Finley 1997 \[422\] described diagnostic methods, and provided
        lists of possible moisture and mold sources and mitigation
        strategies.

    5.  []{#A841 .anchor}Foarde et al. 1996 \[159\] discussed the use of
        a moisture conductivity meter to determine the moisture content
        of materials in relationship to fungal growth; found that any
        non-zero reading generally was related to some level of fungal
        growth. The moisture conductivity meter can be used to select
        sampling sites during microbial investigations.

    6.  []{#A719 .anchor}Forest and Walker 1991 \[161\] discussed
        measuring and modeling airflow and moisture content in attics.
        Forest and Walker 1992 \[162\], 1993 \[163\], 1993 \[164\], and
        Walker and Forest 1995 \[452\] also discussed this research.

    7.  []{#A746 .anchor}Forest et al. 1991 \[165\] used moisture pins
        to measure the moisture content of wood-based building
        components.

    8.  []{#A473 .anchor}Knehans and Styer 1983 \[238\] broadly
        described the process of detecting wet roofing insulation by IR
        thermography.

    9.  []{#A942 .anchor}Larson and Huelman 1992 \[246\] discussed a
        case study where dark streaks appeared on the outside of siding
        material, caused by the improper installation of a vapor barrier
        and interior moisture problems. Provided a detailed list of the
        problems and the solutions proposed to the homeowner.

    10. []{#A820 .anchor}Lichtman et al. \[252\] described concrete slab
        moisture measurement techniques. Qualitative tests included the
        "mat test" (laying a piece of impermeable material on an exposed
        section of slab and, after a period of time, inspecting the
        concrete surface below for signs of wetness), and the "bond
        test" (fixing or bonding a sample piece of flooring material to
        the slab and observing any adverse reactions to the flooring due
        to moisture). Quantitative tests included electrical
        conductivity measurements, coring, and the Vapor Emission Test
        (VET) (a small, airtight container covering a sample of
        absorbent material is taped down on a small section of bare
        slab, after a period of time \[60-72 hours\], the weight of
        water absorbed by the material is determined). The VET method
        allows the determination of the quantity and rate of moisture
        transmission through the slab, and is included in ASTM Standard
        E1907-97: Standard Practices for Determining Moisture-Related
        Acceptability of Concrete Floors to Receive Moisture-Sensitive
        Finishes.

    11. []{#A939 .anchor}Lstiburek and Carmody 1995 \[255\] provided
        moisture fundamentals, including definitions, explanation about
        conditions that are conducive to mold and moisture. Discussed
        diagnostic tests and tools, and discussed how to identify and
        control moisture problems.

    12. []{#A990 .anchor}NAHB 1997 \[293\] measured moisture content of
        wall insulation samples that had been extracted with a "cookie
        cutter".

    13. []{#A4001 .anchor}National Research Council Canada 1996 \[297\]
        discussed applications of non-destructive test methods for
        assessing moisture and associated problems. Discussions include
        the advantages and limitations of methods, as well as the
        equipment required for the tests.

    14. []{#A4006 .anchor}Tooley and Davis 1994 \[428\] presented test
        methodology and problem diagnosis for attic ventilators,
        depressurization, moisture damage, and air barriers.

    15. []{#A477 .anchor}Tsongas and Nelson 1991 \[439\] located
        exterior wall air leaks via infrared thermography, and found
        moisture damage at the leakage sites. They measured the moisture
        content of wooden wall sheathing with an electrical-resistance
        meter probe.

    16. []{#A784 .anchor}Walker 1993 \[450\] discussed an attic
        simulation model (airflow and moisture) and measured data to
        evaluate attic ventilation and moisture problems.

    17. []{#A711 .anchor}Walker et al. 1995 \[454\] presented the AVENT
        attic ventilation model and compared modeled results to measured
        data.

    18. []{#A936 .anchor}Warner 1991 \[456\] discussed how to avoid
        window condensation by increasing window R-values, sealing
        cracks and joints around windows, or by increasing house
        ventilation rates.

Norm

25. 1.  []{#A446 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[27\] specified that to meet the
        prescriptive requirements of ASHRAE Standard 90.2-1993, water
        vapor retarders and moisture barriers should be in accordance
        with chapters 20 and 21 of the 1989 ASHRAE Handbook of
        Fundamentals.

    2.  []{#A856 .anchor}ASTM 2000 \[36\] discussed the prevention of
        moisture damage through proper design and construction of
        foundation systems, control of crawlspace moisture, prevention
        of rain penetration at exterior surfaces, condensation within
        wall construction, control of water leakage at the roof, and
        control of plumbing leaks.

    3.  []{#A940 .anchor}Cheple and Heulman 1998 \[70\] discussed ways
        to decrease moisture problems in bathrooms, including "build
        tight, ventilation right"; included wall construction details.

    4.  []{#A895 .anchor}Fisette 1996 \[152\] discussed how to prevent
        ice dams by air sealing, insulating, and providing attic
        ventilation; included construction details and specifications.

    5.  []{#A842 .anchor}Foarde et al. 1996 \[159\] presented microbial
        and moisture conductance results from moisture investigations in
        homes and schools. Materials with higher moisture conductance
        values tended to have predominantly Aspergillus while materials
        with lower moisture conductance values tended to have
        predominantly Cladosporium. Corresponding room RH levels were in
        the 40-70% range.

    6.  []{#A941 .anchor}Kirkland 1993 \[236\] discussed using spray
        foam insulation on floor trusses to prevent airborne moisture
        from coming in contact with building materials.

    7.  []{#A821 .anchor}Lichtman et al. \[252\] described physical
        signs and conditions relating to moisture intrusion in concrete
        slabs. Discussed factors to consider and design specifications
        to put in place to minimize moisture intrusion.

    8.  []{#A894 .anchor}Lstiburek 1999 \[254\] discussed un-vented
        attics in cold climates, including construction details.

    9.  []{#A944 .anchor}Makepeace 1999 \[261\] described a technique to
        install the air barrier and insulation on the outside of the
        frame construction to minimize air leakage and moisture
        problems.

    10. []{#A946 .anchor}Obst and Hendricks 1991 \[305\] discussed air
        barriers and vapor retarders, providing construction details and
        specifications.

    11. []{#A879 .anchor}Schalch and Fryer 1992 \[364\] discussed the
        Energy Crafted Home's moisture control specifications, including
        vapor retarders and moisture retarders under floors and slabs.

    12. []{#A938 .anchor}Tsongas 1995 \[437\] discussed moisture damage
        found in manufactured houses (pre-1980) with vapor barriers on
        the outside of the wall cavity. No decay was found in homes
        without the vapor barrier. Defined conditions required for dry
        rot to occur, and briefly discussed an additional study to
        monitor moisture condensation, thermal performance and
        ventilation to determine how weatherization activities may cause
        or other affect moisture in houses.

2\. Heating, ventilation and air conditioning

2.1 Cooling Equipment - Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps

Metric

26. Steady-State Capacity and Efficiency

    1.  []{#A207 .anchor}ASHRAE 1995 \[29\] defined the seasonable
        energy efficiency rating (SEER) for unitary air conditioners and
        heat pumps.

    2.  []{#A500 .anchor}Bittle and Goldschmidt 1985 \[54\] analyzed
        heat pump test performance measurements on 98 units and found
        that various performance factors (SEER, EER, HSPF, COP) were
        linearly related, with correlation coefficients near 0.8.

    3.  []{#A14 .anchor}Farrar et al. 1998 \[145\] used AC power
        consumption as an indicator of the relative thermal performances
        of two side-by-side houses (one an energy-saving prototype, the
        other a control).

    4.  []{#A479 .anchor}Kavanaugh 1992 \[227\] explained and compared
        metrics used to rate unitary air-source pumps, air-source
        (direct-expansion) cooling units, furnaces, and water-to-air
        heat pumps. These included seasonal energy efficiency ratio
        (SEER) and heating seasonal performance factor (HSPF) for
        air-source heat pumps and cooling units, and three
        Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI) metrics used
        to rate ground-source heat pumps.

    5.  []{#A18 .anchor}Neal 1998 \[298\] defined field-adjusted SEER
        (SEERFA), which can be appreciably lower than SEER, due to poor
        installation of AC equipment.

    6.  []{#A428 .anchor}Nguyen et al. 1982 \[303\] found that the
        seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) of a residential air
        conditioner is linearly related to its steady-state energy
        efficiency ratio.

    7.  []{#A367 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1987 \[401\] measured EER and
        SEER using in-situ appliance efficiency measurements.

    8.  []{#A44 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[449\] concluded that
        nameplate ratings alone are a poor indicator of how much cooling
        will be delivered to the conditioned space, and that duct system
        efficiency is as important as SEER variations in cooling
        delivery.

    9.  []{#A641 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[453\] discussed REGCAP, a
        computer model that evaluates residential HVAC system component
        performance and whole house performance based on measured data
        (ducts, equipment, envelope, and climate) to provide an estimate
        of duct, equipment and envelope performance and net cooling
        delivered (tons at the register).

    10. []{#A48 .anchor}Walker et al. 1999 \[447\] compared installed
        capacity to nameplate and ARI ratings and to ACCA Manual J load
        estimates.

    Refrigerant Charge

    1.  []{#A867 .anchor}Neal 1998 \[298\] discussed the effect of
        improper refrigerant charge on SEER, and referred to other
        studies (Katz 1997 \[226\]; Proctor 1997 \[338\]) that measured
        refrigerant charge.

Diagnostic

28. Steady-State Capacity and Efficiency

    1.  []{#A845 .anchor}ASHRAE 1995 \[28\] described basic requirements
        for cooling equipment, including minimum equipment efficiency,
        field-assembled equipment and components, equipment controls,
        and maintenance.

    2.  []{#A208 .anchor}ASHRAE 1995 \[29\] described measurements to
        determine the SEER of unitary air conditioners and heat pumps.

    3.  []{#A543 .anchor}EPA 1998 \[139\] recommended a tune-up of a
        building's heat exchange equipment that includes (1)
        mechanically cleaning the air side of heating and cooling
        coils; (2) chemically cleaning the water side of heating and
        cooling systems; and (3) unblocking terminal fan coil units and
        baseboards. Noted that typical cooling and heating system
        savings can range up to 10%. Also recommended a tune-up of a
        building's heating and cooling systems (chiller and boiler).

    4.  []{#A481 .anchor}Farzad and O'Neal 1993 \[146\] placed air
        conditioners in an environmental test chamber (simulating indoor
        and outdoor temperature and humidity) and measured capacity,
        EER, and SEER according to DOE/ARI and ASHRAE standards.

    5.  []{#A488 .anchor}Groff 1987 \[193\] described a method to rate
        air conditioning equipment that reflects part load operating
        characteristics, proposed as part of ASHRAE/IES 90.1P.

    6.  []{#A776 .anchor}LeRoy et al. 1998 \[249\] evaluated how well
        three heat exchanger simulation programs (PUREZ, HPSIM, and
        ACMODEL) predict the dehumidification performance of air
        conditioning systems over a wide range of conditions and
        off-design airflow rates. In general, PUREZ and HPSIM
        over-predicted the sensible heat ratio, while ACMODEL was able
        to accurately predict total capacity but over-predicted latent
        capacity.

    7.  []{#A498 .anchor}Miller et al. 1989 \[272\] detailed an
        exploratory study in which motor-current signal analysis was
        used as a diagnostic tool for air conditioners and heat pumps,
        relating motor-current startup waveforms to level of refrigerant
        charge and coefficient of performance.

    8.  []{#A933 .anchor}Proctor 1991 \[333\] discussed how to
        field-measure cooling system efficiency using airflows,
        temperatures and electrical input rates. Discussed the superheat
        method to determine charge, and new and replacement equipment
        sizing and installation criteria.

    9.  []{#A321 .anchor}Proctor 1997 \[338\] compared installed
        capacity to design load estimated by ACCA Manual J.

    10. []{#A368 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1987 \[401\] found that EER and
        SEER accuracies were unacceptable due to problems measuring
        condenser airflow.

    11. []{#A485 .anchor}Sonderegger et al. 1980 \[411\] measured
        cooling efficiency of a central air conditioning system with the
        electric co-heat technique.

    12. []{#A809 .anchor}Ternes 1987 \[420\] described data parameters
        to collect in single-family retrofit research projects and
        described data analysis approaches and issues. Data parameters
        include (a) basic data (house characteristics, leakage
        measurements, metered performance of HVAC systems, and
        verification of retrofit installation quality); (b)
        time-sequential data (sub-metered space-conditioning energy
        consumption, weather station measurements \[dry bulb, horizontal
        solar radiation, humidity, wind speed and direction\], indoor
        temperature and humidity, total fuel consumptions \[billing
        meter data\], wood heating usage, and sub-metered water heating
        energy consumption); (c) optional occupant-behavior data
        (additional indoor temperature and humidity, hourly heating and
        cooling thermostat set-points); (d) geographic characteristics
        (terrain and shielding); and (e) distribution system data (duct
        leakage area measured using fan pressurization).

    13. []{#A550 .anchor}UL 1999 \[442\] named U.S. and Canadian test
        standards for measuring the energy efficiency of large and small
        air conditioners and heat pumps.

    14. []{#A642 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[453\] discussed REGCAP, a
        computer model that evaluates residential HVAC system component
        performance and whole house performance based on measured data
        (ducts, equipment, envelope, and climate) to provide an estimate
        of duct, equipment and envelope performance and net cooling
        delivered (tons at the register).

    Refrigerant Charge

    1.  []{#A351 .anchor}CEC 1999 \[66\] presented California building
        code Title 24 energy efficiency requirements (EERs) and
        integrated part load values (IPLVs) for unitary air conditioners
        and heat pumps.

    2.  []{#A475 .anchor}Damasceno et al. 1991 \[102\] discussed three
        modeling options (refrigerant mass inventory, coil circuitry
        mapping and internal volume calculations, and a void fraction
        model) used to correlate heat pump refrigerant charge to heating
        and cooling capacities.

    3.  []{#A559 .anchor}EPA 1997 \[138\] listed Energy-Star qualifying
        energy efficiencies for HVAC devices including gas and oil
        furnaces, gas and oil boilers, central air conditioners, air
        source heat pumps, geothermal heat pumps, and gas-fired heat
        pumps.

    4.  []{#A482 .anchor}Farzad and O'Neal 1993 \[146\] looked at the
        effect of the level of refrigerant charge and type of expansion
        device on AC system performance (total capacity, EER, SEER).

    5.  []{#A777 .anchor}Kirby et al. 1998 \[235\] presented the results
        of research looking at non-uniform airflow across a room air
        conditioner condensing coil; over a wide range of operating
        conditions with superheated exit conditions, the resulting
        sensible and latent heat transfer and air-side pressure drop
        penalties were quite small.

    6.  []{#A499 .anchor}Miller et al. 1989 \[272\] detailed an
        exploratory study in which motor-current signal analysis was
        used as a diagnostic tool for air conditioners and heat pumps,
        relating motor-current startup waveforms to level of refrigerant
        charge and coefficient of performance.

    7.  []{#A20 .anchor}Neal 1998 \[298\] mentioned ACCA Manual J
        equipment sizing criteria.

    8.  []{#A801 .anchor}Perry et al. 1999 \[320\] described a program
        to market the CheckMe! refrigerant-charge and airflow computer
        expert system (CES) to HVAC contractors, technicians, and
        customers. Described the CES inputs, outputs, and apparatus,
        including the use of superheat and subcooling to determine
        refrigerant charge level on AC units with fixed and variable
        metering devices, respectively. Also described how the AC's
        measured superheat or subcooling can be compared to target
        values to determine if the unit is correctly charged.

    9.  []{#A806 .anchor}Proctor and Downey 1999 \[336\] described a
        program to market the Check-Me! refrigerant-charge and airflow
        computer expert system (CES) to HVAC contractors, technicians,
        and customers. Briefly described the CES inputs, outputs, and
        apparatus. This material also covered in Proctor 1999 \[334\].

    10. []{#A4004 .anchor}Rossi and Braun \[355\] presented a method
        designed to run in real-time for automated detection and
        diagnosis of faults in vapor compression air conditioners. It
        only requires temperature measurements and one humidity
        measurement. The differences between measured thermodynamic
        states and predicted states obtained from models for normal
        performance (residuals) are used as performance indices for both
        fault detection and diagnosis. For fault detection, uses
        statistical properties of the residuals for current and normal
        operation to classify the current operation as normal or faulty.
        Performs a diagnosis by comparing the directional change of each
        residual with a generic set of rules unique to each fault.
        States this diagnostic technique does not require
        equipment-specific learning, is capable of detecting about a 5%
        loss of refrigerant and can distinguish between refrigerant
        leaks, condenser fouling, evaporator fouling, liquids line
        restrictions and compressor valve leakage.

    Evaporative Coolers

    1.  []{#A926 .anchor}Otterbein 1996 \[309\] discussed methods to
        determine evaporative cooler pad performance. Also presented
        cooler maintenance guidelines and sizing and installation
        guidelines for three evaporative cooling system types (air
        conditioner add-on, independent ducted and window mounted
        systems).

    Equipment Selection and Sizing

    1.  []{#A929 .anchor}Neal 1992 \[299\] discussed air conditioning
        service call components (written report, coil cleaning, airflow,
        charge, capacity). Discussed factors to be taken into account to
        optimize performance when sizing and installing equipment in
        retrofit applications, including sensible/latent ratio, duct
        efficiency, charge, equipment location, and replacing indoor
        unit when replacing outdoor unit with higher efficiency
        condenser.

    2.  []{#A930 .anchor}Parker 1991 \[311\] provided pointers for
        designing and installing whole house fan systems.

    3.  []{#A928 .anchor}Proctor et al. 1995 \[332\] discussed different
        sizing methods, comparing various rules of thumb (for example,
        ft^2^/ton) to ACCA Manual J and Manual S load calculations. Also
        discussed how oversized systems increase cost and decrease
        system efficiency.

    4.  []{#A927 .anchor}Proctor and Albright 1996 \[335\] discussed
        sizing and retrofit recommendations to optimize cooling
        equipment performance (charge, sizing, airflow and ducts).

Norm

32. 1.  []{#A447 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[27\] specified equipment
        selection criteria, minimum equipment-efficiency levels, sizing
        procedures from ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, sizing factors
        (not more than 125% of design sensible load, latent capacity not
        less than calculated design latent load), and design conditions
        to be used for compliance with the prescriptive requirements of
        ASHRAE Standard 90.2-1993.

    2.  []{#A846 .anchor}ASHRAE 1995 \[28\] specified standard rating
        conditions, operating factors, applicable standards, and minimum
        performance factors for air conditioners and heat pumps.

    3.  []{#A1007 .anchor}BII 1998 \[53\] recommended a general
        procedure for sizing HVAC equipment, specifying who should
        perform the sizing.

    4.  Cummings et al. 1990 \[98\] found that after sealing duct leaks
        in 25 homes, cooling consumption dropped 18% in those homes.

    5.  []{#A129 .anchor}DOE 1995 \[116\] discussed background
        information on HERS heating, air-conditioning and water heating
        equipment for HERS policy options being discussed in DOE\'s 1995
        request for comments on fuel neutrality and adjustment factors,
        and standard efficiencies.

    6.  []{#A136 .anchor}DOE 1995 \[117\] discussed (in greater detail
        than DOE 1995 \[116\]) the analysis of heating,
        air-conditioning, and water-heating equipment adjustment factors
        for the HERS guidelines.

    7.  []{#A868 .anchor}Katz 1997 \[226\] discussed results of heat
        pump / air conditioner charge and sizing evaluations in 100 new
        homes; of 22 systems measured, 14 were over-charged, five were
        under-charged and only three were correctly charged. Of 50 house
        load calculations run (59 systems), one was undersized, six were
        within the correct range and 52 were oversized; median
        oversizing was 0.81 tons.

    8.  []{#A931 .anchor}Parker 1991 \[311\] discussed and compared the
        thermal performance of whole house fans, air conditioning, and
        combined whole house fan / air conditioner systems in a Florida
        home. Discussed the impact of the systems on floor slab
        temperatures.

    9.  []{#A803 .anchor}Perry et al. 1999 \[320\] reported the results
        of 264 CheckMe! refrigerant charge level tests performed in
        Fresno and Clovis, CA.

    10. []{#A934 .anchor}Proctor 1991 \[333\] discussed problems found
        in cooling systems in 15 existing Fresno, California homes.

    11. []{#A322 .anchor}Proctor 1997 \[338\] measured refrigerant
        charge level by weighing, compared levels to factory nameplate
        ratings and actual refrigerant line set lengths, and discussed
        demerits of various rules of thumb for using refrigerant gage
        pressure to predict charge level.

    12. []{#A156 .anchor}Skopek 1999 \[406\] described an alarm system
        triggered by a refrigerant leak.

    13. []{#A651 .anchor}Treidler and Modera 1994 \[431\] compared the
        energy impact of high-SEER AC units vs. the effect of downsized
        units with duct retrofits. Based on simulation results,
        high-SEER units saved energy over the cooling seasons while
        downsized units with duct retrofits saved peak demand
        consumption.

    14. []{#A643 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[453\] discussed REGCAP, a
        computer model that evaluates residential HVAC system component
        performance and whole house performance based on measured data
        (ducts, equipment, envelope, and climate) to provide an estimate
        of duct, equipment and envelope performance and net cooling
        delivered (tons at the register). Applied in a Sacramento field
        test (2,000 ft^2^ house), they found that tight ducts could save
        almost a ton of cooling.

    15. []{#A31 .anchor}Werling et al. 1998 \[460\] specified
        Energy-Star home SEER level requirements for homes in hot,
        moderate, and cold climates.

2.2 Heating Equipment - Furnaces, Boilers, and Heat Pumps

Metric

33. Steady-State Capacity and Efficiency

    1.  []{#A425 .anchor}Domanski et al. 1991 \[124\] defined heat pump
        performance metrics, including heating seasonal performance
        factor (HPSF), heating capacity at 47ºF (Q~47~), and indoor coil
        scaling factor F~c~ (ratio of condensing capacities of a mixed
        and matched coil).

    2.  []{#A434 .anchor}Kweller 1985 \[243\] defined part-load
        efficiency and off-period sensible heat loss of vented heating
        equipment.

    3.  []{#A324 .anchor}Phillips 1998 \[325\] discussed furnace
        performance factors including cfm per 1000 Btu/hr, pressure
        drops, fan power consumption, power factors, furnace efficiency,
        and sizing factors.

    4.  []{#A369 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1987 \[401\] measured parameters
        to determine furnace steady-state and seasonal efficiency,
        including electric energy use by fans, cycling losses, and flue
        losses.

    5.  []{#A176 .anchor}Walker and Modera 1998 \[451\] compared
        measured data to calculated duct system delivery effectiveness
        using the ASHRAE Standard 152P and the ASHRAE 1996 Handbook
        delivery effectiveness methods. On average, the 152P methods
        adequately estimate delivery efficiency as measured. Conducted
        pre- and post-duct leakage reduction measurements and
        calculations.

Diagnostic

34. Steady-State Capacity and Efficiency

    1.  []{#A852 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[24\] specified the ASHRAE test
        procedure for determining cyclic and part-load performance,
        methods for interpolating and extrapolating test data, and a
        calculation procedure for establishing seasonal performance
        using a test chamber and test rig. The test procedures can be
        used to compare energy consumption measures of various furnace
        and boiler models, rather than an absolute measure of
        performance of any specific installation configuration.

    2.  Bohac et al. 1996 \[310\] described a short-term monitoring
        protocol to determine the effectiveness of building envelope
        and/or mechanical system improvements. The protocol works better
        on a sample of houses than on an individual house.

    3.  []{#A426 .anchor}Domanski et al. 1991 \[124\] described a
        procedure for calculating heat pump's heat capacity at 47ºF
        (Q~47~) and heating seasonal performance factor (HPSF) without
        laboratory testing of a complete system; evaluates impact of
        indoor coil, expansion device, and fan on system performance.

    4.  []{#A966 .anchor}Dutton 1994 \[129\] discussed flame adjustments
        for furnace and water-heater burners. A diagnosis table for
        burner problems included possible conditions, symptoms, and how
        to correct the problem. Discussed flue gas analysis and
        combustion efficiency, acceptable limits, testing devices
        (chemical or electronic flue gas analyzers, CO~2~ and O~2~
        analyzer, stack thermometer, CO tester, draft gage, combustion
        efficiency calculators, manometer), troubleshooting table
        (symptoms, causes and repair strategies).

    5.  []{#A544 .anchor}EPA 1998 \[139\] recommended a tune-up of a
        building's heat exchange equipment that includes (1)
        mechanically cleaning the air side of heating and cooling
        coils; (2) chemically cleaning the water side of heating and
        cooling systems; and (3) unblocking terminal fan coil units and
        baseboards. Noted that typical cooling and heating system
        savings can range up to 10%. Also recommended a tune-up of a
        building's heating and cooling systems (chiller and boiler).

    6.  []{#A212 .anchor}Greely et al. 1992 \[177\] described the use of
        an elapsed-time meter to record furnace run time, the results of
        which are used with the measured firing rate and local weather
        data to determine pre- and post-retrofit furnace energy
        consumption.

    7.  []{#A534 .anchor}Griffith 1983 \[183\] discussed measuring
        average furnace gas consumption using an inline gas meter. A
        year of weekly average gas consumption was plotted versus weekly
        average outdoor temperature to evaluate the effect of vent
        dampers on gas consumption. Also discussed the effect of pulse
        combustion furnaces and vent dampers on heating gas consumption
        in eight installations (seven in basements and one in a
        slab-on-grade house). The use of a pulse combustion furnace
        resulted in an 18.3% improvement in performance. The use of vent
        dampers resulted in an 8.8% improvement in performance in the
        slab-on-grade house, and a 3.8% improvement in performance for
        furnaces and water heaters located in the heated space of
        split-level houses. No improvement was seen in houses where the
        furnaces were located in unconditioned basements.

    8.  []{#A919 .anchor}Hayden 1992 \[209\] discussed retrofit
        strategies (reduced firing rate, dilution air, delayed-action
        solenoid valve, flame retention head burner) to improve oil
        furnace efficiency.

    9.  []{#A890 .anchor}Jenkins 1991 \[220\] discussed how to identify
        and troubleshoot heat pump heating performance problems (ducts,
        thermostats and controls, airflow, refrigerant charge and
        leakage), and how to measure heating efficiency.

    10. []{#A435 .anchor}Kweller 1985 \[243\] described an alternative
        to tracer-gas methods (controlled flow of gas to a small
        gas-fueled burned that simulates normal operating flue or stack
        temperatures) for measuring off-cycle energy loss from vented
        heating equipment.

    11. []{#A325 .anchor}Phillips 1998 \[325\] measured furnace
        performance factors including cfm per 1000 Btu/hr, pressure
        drops, fan power consumption, power factors, furnace efficiency,
        and sizing factors. Also, described a protocol for measuring the
        energy performance of residential forced-air heating systems
        installed in Canadian houses (occupant interview, collection of
        HVAC nameplate data, measurements of airflow, pressure, and
        power consumption). Also recommended that the minimum external
        static pressure rise used in furnace annualized fuel utilization
        efficiency (AFUE) tests be increased to at least 125 Pa, and
        that consumer-oriented furnace efficiency ratings include
        information on furnace electrical consumption.

    12. []{#A921 .anchor}Shen 1991 \[370\] described the Minnesota
        Low-Income Weatherization Program's "energy buster" computerized
        auditor training program; includes the "energy buster" furnace
        audit form that covers general information, controls, gas
        supply, distribution, operational tests, venting and chimneys.

    13. []{#A370 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1987 \[401\] found that the
        steady-state seasonal efficiency test takes approximately 2
        hours.

    14. []{#A644 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[453\] compared measured
        data to calculated duct system delivery effectiveness using the
        ASHRAE Standard 152P and the ASHRAE 1996 Handbook delivery
        effectiveness methods. On average, the 152P methods adequately
        estimate delivery efficiency as measured. Conducted pre- and
        post- duct leakage reduction measurements and calculations.

    Equipment Selection and Sizing

    1.  []{#A922 .anchor}Beers 1994 \[47\] discussed sizing and
        installation requirements for condensing furnaces (venting,
        chimney liners, condensate drainage, sizing, electrical
        consumption, filters and ductwork). Discussed how house indoor
        air quality may change due to upgrading to a condensing furnace,
        including higher humidity (the old naturally-vented furnace may
        have been acting as a continuously running exhaust fan because
        of stack effect), additional noise, and cooler air (due to
        higher airflow across the heat exchanger); provided
        troubleshooting recommendations.

    2.  []{#A880 .anchor}Schalch and Fryer 1992 \[364\] discussed the
        Energy Crafted Home's requirement that heating and water heating
        equipment must have sealed or closed combustion.

Norm

36. Steady-State Capacity and Efficiency

    1.  []{#A448 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[27\] specified equipment
        selection criteria, minimum equipment efficiency levels, sizing
        procedures (ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals), sizing factors
        (not more than 170% of design load), and design conditions to be
        used for compliance with the prescriptive requirements of ASHRAE
        Standard 90.2-1993.

    2.  []{#A847 .anchor} ASHRAE 1995 \[28\] specified standard rating
        conditions, operating factors, applicable standards, and minimum
        performance factors for furnaces.

    3.  []{#A352 .anchor}CEC 1999 \[66\] presented California building
        code Title 24 thermal efficiency requirements for warm-air
        furnaces.

    4.  []{#A280 .anchor}Cummings et al. 1990 \[98\] found that after
        sealing duct leakage in 25 homes, heating capacity could be
        reduced 1.6 kW per house on average.

    5.  []{#A131 .anchor}DOE 1995 \[116\] discussed background
        information on HERS heating, air-conditioning and water heating
        equipment for HERS policy options being discussed in DOE\'s 1995
        request for comments on fuel neutrality and adjustment factors,
        and standard efficiencies.

    6.  []{#A137 .anchor}DOE 1995 \[117\] discussed (in greater detail
        than DOE 1995 \[116\]) the analysis of heating,
        air-conditioning, and water heating equipment adjustment factors
        for the HERS guidelines.

    7.  []{#A560 .anchor}EPA 1997 \[138\] listed Energy-Star qualifying
        energy efficiencies for various HVAC devices, including gas and
        oil furnaces, gas and oil boilers, central air conditioners,
        air-source heat pumps, geothermal heat pumps, and gas-fired heat
        pumps.

    8.  []{#A471 .anchor}Macriss and Zawacki 1981 \[259\] discussed the
        furnace-related energy savings achieved from five retrofit
        options: reducing gas input rate; reducing gas input rate and
        adding a baffle to the flue outlet; adding a vent restrictor;
        adding a vent damper; and adding electronic ignition.

    9.  []{#A738 .anchor}Parker 1989 \[313\] discussed the effect of
        heating system type on air change rates and energy consumption
        in electrically heated homes. Found that forced air systems use
        17% to 22% more energy than non-forced-air electric resistance
        systems. Possible causes included duct air leakage and
        associated heat transfer, induced air leakage from combustion
        systems with chimneys, and differential pressures within the
        building envelope.

    10. []{#A326 .anchor}Phillips 1998 \[325\] conducted a field study
        of furnace performance factors, including airflow per unit
        heating capacity (newer post-1990 furnaces have double the
        cfm/kW of pre-1980 furnaces), duct sizing, system pressure drops
        and noise factors, fan power consumption, power factor, and
        furnace efficiency (AFUE). Reduced system airflow results in
        higher flue losses and lower AFUEs pressure drop across dirty
        filters are significant. Fan energy parasitics, static pressure
        drops over dirty filters, and effect of reduced airflow should
        be taken into account when determining AFUE values. Also,
        tabulated characteristics (fuel type, drive type, operation
        mode, rated output) of 71 furnaces surveyed in 68 Canadian
        homes.

    11. []{#A810 .anchor}Ternes 1987 \[420\] described data parameters
        to collect in single-family retrofit research projects and
        described data analysis approaches and issues. Data parameters
        include (a) basic data (house characteristics, leakage
        measurements, metered performance of HVAC systems, and
        verification of retrofit installation quality); (b)
        time-sequential data (submetered space-conditioning energy
        consumption, weather station measurements \[dry bulb, horizontal
        solar radiation, humidity, wind speed and direction\], indoor
        temperature and humidity, total fuel consumptions \[billing
        meter data\], wood heating usage, and submetered water heating
        energy consumption); (c) optional occupant-behavior data
        (additional indoor temperature and humidity, hourly heating and
        cooling thermostat setpoints); (d) geographic characteristics
        (terrain and shielding); and (e) distribution system data (duct
        leakage area measured using fan pressurization).

    Equipment Selection and Sizing

    1.  []{#A449 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[27\] specified equipment
        selection criteria, minimum equipment efficiency levels, sizing
        procedures (ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals), sizing factors
        (not more than 170% of design load), and design conditions to be
        used for compliance with the prescriptive requirements of ASHRAE
        Standard 90.2-1993.

    2.  []{#A1008 .anchor}BII 1998 \[53\] recommended a general
        procedure for sizing HVAC equipment, specifying who should
        perform the sizing.

2.3 Thermal Distribution Systems--- Air and/or Water Flow

Metric

38. Distribution System Efficiency

    1.  []{#A52 .anchor}Andrews 1996 \[5\] defined delivery efficiency
        and distribution efficiency.

    2.  []{#A87 .anchor}ASHRAE 1999 \[32\] defined and formulated
        delivery effectiveness, distribution system efficiency,
        equipment efficiency, equipment factor, equipment capacity,
        design efficiency, and seasonal efficiency.

    3.  []{#A172 .anchor}Francisco and Palmiter 1998 \[168\] presented a
        general equation for steady-state delivery efficiency \[same as
        in ASHRAE 152P (ASHRAE 1999 \[32\])\].

    4.  []{#A16 .anchor}Francisco et al. 1999 \[169\] defined
        Francisco-Palmiter delivery efficiency, distribution efficiency,
        and regain.

    5.  []{#A41 .anchor}Jump et al. 1996 \[223\] defined delivery
        efficiency and equipment efficiency.

    6.  []{#A401 .anchor}Modera et al. 1992 \[282\] proposed a framework
        for characterizing the thermal distribution system efficiency
        that accounts for (a) the interaction between the thermal
        distribution system and the building envelope; (b) interactions
        with the space conditioning equipment; and (c) weather-dependent
        energy loss.

    7.  []{#A605 .anchor}Modera and Jump 1995 \[274\] defined system
        delivery efficiency, fractional energy loss due to conduction,
        and distribution efficiency.

    8.  []{#A58 .anchor}Palmiter and Francisco 1996 \[310\] defined air
        leakage efficiency and overall duct efficiency.

    9.  []{#A174 .anchor}Proctor 1998 \[339\] defined distribution
        system efficiency.

    10. []{#A27 .anchor}Siegel and Davis 1998 \[403\] verbally defined
        system efficiency.

    11. []{#A601 .anchor}Walker et al. 1996 \[446\] defined power
        delivered to duct system, power lost from ducts due to supply
        leakage, fractional leakage loss for supply ducts, power
        delivered by ducts to the conditioned space, power lost from the
        ducts by conduction, fractional conduction loss, return loss,
        and fractional return loss.

    12. []{#A49 .anchor}Walker et al. 1999 \[447\] defined delivery
        efficiency.

    Duct Leakage

    1.  []{#A205 .anchor}ASHRAE 1988 \[14\] defined duct leakage
        classifications.

    2.  []{#A345 .anchor}ASTM 1994 \[37\] defined effective leakage area
        and compared ELA~25~ to ELA~4~.

    3.  []{#A281 .anchor}Cummings 1998 \[94\] described duct leakage in
        terms of CFM~25~ per duct surface area and CFM~25~ per floor
        area.

    4.  []{#A489 .anchor}Cummings and Tooley 1989 \[97\] measured duct
        leakage, as well as air change rates with and without the forced
        air system running, before and after duct sealing.

    5.  []{#A167 .anchor}Cummings and Withers 1998 \[95\] defined
        CFM~25~, CFM~25,out~, and CFM~25,tot~ duct leakage area metrics.

    6.  []{#A561 .anchor}EPA 1997 \[138\] listed four tests used to
        ensure that subcontractors are performing quality work: a
        blower-door test to detect excessive envelope leakage, a duct
        leakage test, an HVAC system inspection, and testing airflow
        across the inside coil to ensure proper airflow to the duct
        system.

    7.  []{#A124 .anchor}Kolb and Ternes 1995 \[240\] measured CFM~50~
        before and after duct sealing in 96 houses to gage the benefits
        of retrofit.

    8.  []{#A101 .anchor}Modera and Byrne 1997 \[275\] gave formulas for
        supply and return duct leakage flows.

    9.  []{#A340 .anchor}National Association of State Energy Officials
        (NASEO) 1999 \[295\] discussed observable leakage pathways in
        relation to HERS rating.

    10. []{#A117 .anchor}Proctor et al. 1993 \[337\] discussed choice of
        leakage-flow exponent, and defined two duct leakage ratios
        (ratio of duct leakage inside envelope versus that outside
        envelope, and ratio of supply leakage area to return leakage
        area).

    11. []{#A94 .anchor}Siegel and Manclark 1998 \[404\] empirically
        related duct leakage to outdoors (Q~50,ext~) to pressure-pan
        measurements via a "pressure-pan equation".

    12. []{#A645 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[453\] discussed REGCAP, a
        computer model that evaluates residential HVAC system component
        performance and whole house performance based on measured data
        (ducts, equipment, envelope, and climate) to provide an estimate
        of duct, equipment and envelope performance and net cooling
        delivered (tons at the register).

    Register Airflow & Thermal Capacity Flow

    1.  []{#A527 .anchor}Foltz 1984 \[160\] found from calibrations of
        six type of airflow measurement devices that a
        laboratory-developed correction coefficient ("K-factor") is
        needed for each combination of measurement device and register
        type. However, he found that a flow hood could use a single
        correction coefficient for diffusers.

    2.  []{#A45 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[449\] defined tons at the
        register (TAR), a measure of the enthalpy flow delivered to the
        register.

    3.  []{#A646 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[453\] discussed REGCAP, a
        computer model that evaluates residential HVAC system component
        performance and whole house performance based on measured data
        (ducts, equipment, envelope, and climate) to provide an estimate
        of duct, equipment and envelope performance and net cooling
        delivered (tons at the register).

    Thermal Distribution Glossary

    1.  []{#A119 .anchor}Home Energy 1993 \[213\] defined common terms
        associated with forced air distribution systems and their
        testing, and presented a schematic of a typical distribution
        system.

Diagnostic

42. Distribution System Efficiency

    1.  []{#A53 .anchor}Andrews 1996 \[5\] compared three ASHRAE 152P
        techniques for measuring duct efficiencies. Method A = directly
        measure heat input and output. Method B = use "Design Pathway"
        tool to estimate from measured fan flow and duct blaster +
        blower door duct leakage; Level 2 = replace duct-pressurization
        test of Method B with a faster technique based on P~space~ -
        P~attic~ and envelope leakage, and replace the fan flow
        measurement with an estimate based on the fan curve and the
        pressure difference across the fan.

    2.  []{#A170 .anchor}Andrews et al. 1998 \[7\] compared design and
        seasonal distribution efficiencies measured for the same house
        by five teams using ASHRAE 152P; included error analysis.

    3.  []{#A89 .anchor}ASHRAE 1999 \[32\] provided forms, procedure,
        and spreadsheet to compute forced-air duct-system efficiencies.

    4.  []{#A173 .anchor}Francisco and Palmiter 1998 \[168\] measured
        and modeled delivery efficiency of seven manufactured homes, and
        evaluated the effect of ASHRAE 152P default values compared to
        measured data. As more default variables were used, greater
        variation from the measured results was observed.

    5.  Jump et al. 1993 \[69\] measured duct leakage areas, house and
        duct static pressure differences under different system
        configurations, leakage flow rate, system airflows, duct
        conduction losses, and duct thermal delivery efficiencies.

    6.  []{#A42 .anchor}Jump et al. 1996 \[223\] monitored
        characteristic temperatures, weather, and HVAC power consumption
        for two weeks before and after duct retrofits of 24 Sacramento
        homes to measure the effect of retrofit on delivery efficiency
        and equipment efficiency.

    7.  []{#A606 .anchor}Modera and Jump 1995 \[274\] measured
        distribution system efficiency by monitoring plenum, register,
        attic, house, and outdoor temperatures, as well as heat-pump
        strip-heat electricity demand, for two weeks.

    8.  []{#A175 .anchor}Proctor 1998 \[339\] reported a verification
        test of ASHRAE 152P that found that the standard correctly
        predicted the change in cooling load induced by a supply leak,
        but underestimated by half that induced by a return leak.

    9.  []{#A513 .anchor}Saunders et al. 1994 \[363\] described the
        measured performance rating (MPR) method, an overnight co-heat
        test that predicts building load coefficient (BLC), heating
        system efficiency, and annual fuel consumption of single-family
        detached home.

    10. []{#A28 .anchor}Siegel and Davis 1998 \[403\] used co-heating to
        measure system efficiency before and after retrofits.

    Duct Leakage

    1.  []{#A54 .anchor}Andrews 1996 \[5\] briefly described the blower
        door + flow hood and duct blaster + blower door methods,
        discussing sources of error and comparing the methods.

    2.  []{#A420 .anchor}Andrews et al. 1996 \[6\] described an electric
        coheat test.

    3.  []{#A171 .anchor}Andrews et al. 1998 \[7\] summarized and
        illustrated the house pressure test (HPT).

    4.  []{#A90 .anchor}ASHRAE 1999 \[32\] specified procedures for duct
        leakage measurement (duct pressurization + blower door, house
        pressure test).

    5.  []{#A857 .anchor}ASTM 2000 \[36\] discussed duct leakage
        criteria and evaluation methods using ASTM E1554. Measured duct
        leakage, expressed as an airflow rate at 25 Pa, should be no
        more than 5% of the total system airflow rate. Alternatively,
        the effective leakage area associated with duct leakage should
        be no more than 5% of the effective leakage area of the whole
        house as measured using ASTM E779.

    6.  []{#A1009 .anchor}BII 1998 \[53\] briefly described Duct Blaster
        measurement of CFM~25~ and CFM~50~.

    7.  []{#A12 .anchor}Coito et al. 1998 \[83\] briefly described
        blower-door subtraction, blower door + flow hood, and duct
        blaster test methods for measuring duct leakage.

    8.  []{#A282 .anchor}Cummings 1998 \[94\] briefly described the
        duct-blaster test method.

    9.  []{#A490 .anchor}Cummings and Tooley 1989 \[97\] described
        duct-leakage tests, as well as tracer-gas and blower-door tests
        to measure the effect of forced-air system operation on
        infiltration.

    10. []{#A23 .anchor}Davis et al. 1998 \[103\] used a screening
        protocol to determine if a home's duct system was leaky enough
        to warrant retrofit. Criteria included external supply duct
        CFM~50~, fraction of ducts accessible, existence of
        safety/furnace problems, and the presence of duct and floor
        insulations.

    11. []{#A562 .anchor}EPA 1997 \[138\] discussed three duct-leakage
        measurement procedures: the house pressure test, the blower-door
        subtraction method, and the duct blaster test. Also listed four
        tests used to ensure that subcontractors are performing quality
        work: a blower-door test to detect excessive envelope leakage, a
        duct leakage test, an HVAC system inspection, and testing
        airflow across the inside coil to ensure proper airflow to the
        duct system.

    12. []{#A188 .anchor}Fugler 1989 \[170\] described the Duct Test
        Rig, a calibrated fan device for purposes including measurement
        of duct leakage (in the fashion of a duct blaster).

    13. []{#A756 .anchor}Gammage et al. 1986 \[173\] discussed tracer
        gas airflow measurements used to determine the effect of central
        fan operation and duct leakage on infiltration air change rates.

    14. []{#A396 .anchor}Jump and Modera 1993 \[222\] discussed
        distribution system tests, including register flow tests, duct
        leakage tests, and air-distribution-system performance tests.
        Also, measured duct leakage areas, house and duct static
        pressure differences under different system configurations,
        leakage flow rate, system airflows, duct conduction losses, and
        duct thermal delivery efficiencies.

    15. []{#A43 .anchor}Jump et al. 1996 \[223\] noted that the House
        Pressure Test used in their study was a slightly modified
        version of ASTM 779-91.

    16. []{#A125 .anchor}Kolb and Ternes 1995 \[240\] measured duct
        leakage in 96 homes via blower-door subtraction.

    17. []{#A754 .anchor}Modera 1993 \[278\] compared ASTM blower-door
        only and blower-door / capture-hood duct leakage measurement
        techniques.

    18. []{#A467 .anchor}Modera 1994 \[280\] described a 31-house field
        study of distribution system performance (including fan
        pressurization & flow-capture hood duct leakage measurements;
        duct pressure measurements; and pressure imbalance
        measurements). Also described a simulation tool designed to
        evaluate peak-load mitigation and overall energy conservation
        potential for improved distribution systems.

    19. []{#A102 .anchor}Modera and Byrne 1997 \[275\] presented a
        detailed and illustrated general-audience description of the
        House Pressure Test (HPT) duct leakage test.

    20. []{#A991 .anchor}NAHB 1997 \[293\] measured total and
        unconditioned duct leakage with the ASTM E-1554 duct
        pressurization tests.

    21. []{#A341 .anchor}National Association of State Energy Officials
        (NASEO) 1999 \[295\] briefly described the HERS procedure for
        visual inspection of duct system (i.e., looking for leaks).

    22. []{#A323 .anchor}Proctor 1997 \[338\] applied duct blaster and
        duct blaster + blower door test methods to determine duct
        leakage for 28 systems.

    23. []{#A343 .anchor}Proctor et al. 1993 \[337\] described a wide
        range of quantitative and qualitative duct leakage diagnostics,
        including (a) the blower door + flow hood, blower door
        subtraction, and duct blaster methods, comparing the methods and
        discussing their error sources; (b) the Blasnik method for
        calculating the ratio of duct leakage to outdoors versus leakage
        to indoors, and the "Half Nelson" method for estimating the
        ratio of supply leakage area to return leakage area; (c) the
        smoke stick method for determining which branches have major
        leaks; (d) the pressure-pan method for detecting duct leaks;
        and (e) a "blocked register pressure" extension of the
        pressure-pan technique that can be used while the registers are
        taped shut. This information is also presented in Downey and
        Proctor 1994 \[125\].

    24. []{#A146 .anchor}Retrotec 1998 \[346\] noted some issues to be
        aware of when sealing duct systems: (1) consider static pressure
        changes due to duct sealing (less airflow, increased noise at
        the registers due to higher velocities); (2) know how tight the
        house is (the duct leakage may be the primary driving force
        behind air infiltration, install a controlled ventilation system
        if the envelope is tight); (3) resolve existing health and
        safety issues; (4) address pressure imbalances caused by closed
        internal doors; (5) pursue comprehensive training (interactive
        effects between duct leakage, system static pressures, house
        tightness, interior door closure, moisture and combustion
        safety); (6) do pre- and post- testing to show leakage
        reduction; (7) address inaccessible duct leaks; (8) pay
        attention to the thermal envelope; (9) replace ductwork when
        appropriate; and (10) provide duct repair, not just duct
        sealing.

    25. []{#A733 .anchor}Robison and Lambert 1989 \[351\] measured duct
        leakage via (1) whole-house ELA measurement with ducts open and
        ducts sealed; (2) Q­~50~ airflow measured similarly by blower
        door; (3) duct contribution to ELA extrapolated from flow hood
        measurements; and (4) duct contribution to Q~50~ extrapolated
        similarly. Also, discussed fan pressurization, tracer gas, and
        flow hood measurement techniques to determine the relationships
        between duct leakage, envelope leakage, infiltration rates, and
        ventilation rates.

    26. []{#A95 .anchor}Siegel and Manclark 1998 \[404\] described in
        detail the pressure-pan duct-leakage detection method and its
        associated errors.

    27. []{#A811 .anchor}Ternes 1987 \[420\] described data parameters
        to collect in single-family retrofit research projects and
        described data analysis approaches and issues. Data parameters
        include (a) basic data (house characteristics, leakage
        measurements, metered performance of HVAC systems, and
        verification of retrofit installation quality); (b)
        time-sequential data (submetered space-conditioning energy
        consumption, weather station measurements \[dry bulb, horizontal
        solar radiation, humidity, wind speed and direction\], indoor
        temperature and humidity, total fuel consumptions \[billing
        meter data\], wood heating usage, and submetered water heating
        energy consumption); (c) optional occupant-behavior data
        (additional indoor temperature and humidity, hourly heating and
        cooling thermostat setpoints); (d) geographic characteristics
        (terrain and shielding); and (e) distribution system data (duct
        leakage area measured using fan pressurization).

    28. []{#A142 .anchor}The Energy Conservatory 1999 \[422\] answered
        FAQs related to using Energy-Conservatory's duct blaster, blower
        door, and Automated Performance Testing System (APT) to measure
        envelope leakage and duct leakage.

    29. []{#A39 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[448\] described in detail
        (and in most cases with extensive uncertainty analysis) various
        duct leakage measurement methods, including the Irvine Quality
        Plus (IQ+) Duct Pressurization, Duct and House Pressurization,
        House Pressure Test, and Nulling Pressure Test.

    30. []{#A647 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[453\] discussed REGCAP, a
        computer model that evaluates residential HVAC system component
        performance and whole house performance based on measured data
        (ducts, equipment, envelope, and climate) to provide an estimate
        of duct, equipment and envelope performance and net cooling
        delivered (tons at the register).

    31. []{#A50 .anchor}Walker et al. 1999 \[447\] described in detail
        the Delta Q duct leakage test.

    32. []{#A33 .anchor}West et al. 1998 \[461\] referred to (but does
        not detail) the Eugene (Oregon) Water & Electric Board program
        called "Comfort S.E.A.L." (Stop Expensive Air Leaks) that uses
        simplified field protocols to identify duct-seal opportunities
        quickly and inexpensively.

    System Airflow

    1.  []{#A206 .anchor}ASHRAE 1988 \[14\] described air balancing
        stations, airflow measurement techniques (pitot-tube traverse of
        ducts, vane-anemometer readings of register flows), and
        estimation of flow rates at volume/pressure control assemblies
        for HVAC airflow measurement.

    2.  []{#A71 .anchor}ASHRAE 1992 \[21\] described laboratory
        techniques for airflow measurement.

    3.  []{#A91 .anchor}ASHRAE 1999 \[32\] included a fan-flow
        measurement procedure for air handler total flow.

    4.  []{#A514 .anchor}Bevirt 1994 \[52\] listed nine
        airflow-measurement instruments, specifying recommended uses and
        limitations.

    5.  []{#A195 .anchor}Cheong and Riffat 1993 \[69\] described an
        active (pumped) tracer gas system for measuring duct airflow.

    6.  []{#A836 .anchor}Cohen 1995 \[82\] provided checklists and
        information to consider at all project phases (design,
        construction, start-up, final test and balance, final acceptance
        tests) to test performance of the HVAC system for air quality.

    7.  []{#A259 .anchor}Cummings and Withers 1997 \[96\] discussed (a)
        shortcomings of TAB practices that neglect air leakage (equating
        register flow to system flow); (b) airflow measurement methods
        (flow hood, pitot-tube traverse, capture tent, building as
        capture tent, calibrated fan attached to HVAC system, and tracer
        gas injection); and (c) choice of method for HVAC airflow
        measurement.

    8.  []{#A563 .anchor}EPA 1997 \[138\] listed four tests used to
        ensure that subcontractors are performing quality work: a
        blower-door test to detect excessive envelope leakage, a duct
        leakage test, an HVAC system inspection, and testing airflow
        across the inside coil to ensure proper airflow to the duct
        system.

    9.  []{#A545 .anchor}EPA 1998 \[139\] recommended a building TAB
        analysis that includes both a complete review of a building's
        design documentation, and investigation of (1) air system flow
        rates; (2) water system flow rates; (3) temperatures of heating
        and cooling delivery systems (air and water side); (4) positions
        and functioning of flow control devices (air and water); (5)
        control settings and operation; and (6) fan and pump speeds and
        pressures. It noted that heating and cooling savings can range
        up to 10%.

    10. []{#A397 .anchor}Jump and Modera 1993 \[222\] discussed
        distribution system tests, including register flow tests, duct
        leakage tests, and air-distribution-system performance tests.

    11. []{#A607 .anchor}Modera and Jump 1995 \[274\] measured
        residential system-fan airflow with a constant-injection
        tracer-gas technique (ASTM Standard E741).

    12. []{#A804 .anchor}Perry et al. 1999 \[320\] described a program
        to market the CheckMe! refrigerant-charge and airflow computer
        expert system (CES) to HVAC contractors, technicians, and
        customers. Described the CES inputs, outputs, and apparatus,
        including how the AC's temperature split (difference between
        supply and return plenums' dry bulb temperatures) can be
        compared to target values to determine if the airflow is
        correct.

    13. []{#A179 .anchor}Phillips 1998 \[325\] described a protocol for
        measuring the energy performance of residential forced-air
        heating systems installed in Canadian houses (occupant
        interview, collection of HVAC nameplate data, measurements of
        airflow, pressure, and power consumption). Also recommended that
        the minimum external static pressure rise used in furnace
        annualized fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE) tests be increased
        to at least 125 Pa, and that consumer-oriented furnace
        efficiency ratings include information on furnace electrical
        consumption.

    14. []{#A807 .anchor}Proctor and Downey 1999 \[336\] described a
        program to market the Check-Me! refrigerant-charge and airflow
        computer expert system (CES) to HVAC contractors, technicians,
        and customers. Briefly described the CES inputs, outputs, and
        apparatus. This material also covered in Proctor 1999 \[334\].

    15. []{#A734 .anchor}Robison and Lambert 1989 \[351\] measured
        fan-driven air exchange via SF~6~ tracer gas testing.

    16. []{#A677 .anchor}Sauer et al. 1996 \[362\] compared different
        methods to measure airflow through a short outside air duct
        (commercial application).

    17. []{#A92 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[449\] described register
        flow measurement with a fan-assisted flow hood, fan flow
        measurement using supply ducts as a flowmeter (as proposed in
        ASHRAE Standard 152P (ASHRAE 1999 \[32\]) and CEC ACM appendix
        F), and tracer gas measurement of fan flow.

    Register Airflow & Thermal Capacity Flow

    1.  []{#A786 .anchor}Berckmans et al. 1993 \[50\] discussed a method
        to visualize and quantify the airflow pattern in a ventilated
        room using smoke, a camera, and a computer.

    2.  []{#A1010 .anchor}BII 1998 \[53\] briefly described flow-hood
        measurement of register flow.

    3.  []{#A978 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[79\] described an inexpensive test
        to measure the flow out of heating registers using a wire coat
        hanger and a garbage bag.

    4.  []{#A564 .anchor}EPA 1997 \[138\] listed four tests used to
        ensure that subcontractors are performing quality work: a
        blower-door test to detect excessive envelope leakage, a duct
        leakage test, an HVAC system inspection, and testing airflow
        across the inside coil to ensure proper airflow to the duct
        system.

    5.  []{#A528 .anchor}Foltz 1984 \[160\] measured systematic and
        random errors of devices used to measure register flows (a
        rotating vane anemometer, three types of deflecting vane
        anemometer, a flow hood, and a hotwire anemometer).

    6.  []{#A773 .anchor}Karki and Karjalainen 1999 \[225\] discussed
        performance factors for life-cycle analysis of commercial air
        handlers and practical fault-detection methods.

    7.  []{#A608 .anchor}Modera and Jump 1995 \[274\] measured
        residential register airflows (low) with a calibrated fan + flow
        hood.

    8.  []{#A774 .anchor}Ngo and Dexter 1999 \[301\] discussed cooling
        coil automated fault detection for commercial building air
        handlers.

    9.  []{#A602 .anchor}Walker et al. 1996 \[446\] measured register
        flows in apartment buildings with a fan-assisted flow-capture
        hood.

    10. []{#A603 .anchor}Walker et al. 1996 \[446\] measured the system
        fan airflow in apartment buildings by blocking off the return
        from the system fan, attaching a flow hood + fan-assisted
        flowmeter to the air handler, and adjusting the flow through the
        fan-assisted flowmeter to recreate the operating-condition
        supply-plenum pressure.

    11. []{#A51 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[449\] used the REGCAP
        software package to simulate initial and final delivered
        capacity at the registers (TAR). Also described in Walker et al.
        1999 \[447\].

    Duct Pressure Drop

    1.  []{#A198 .anchor}de Salis et al. 1996 \[105\] discussed an
        acoustic technique used to measure duct pressure drop and detect
        duct obstructions.

    Thermal Distribution Glossary

    1.  []{#A120 .anchor}Home Energy 1993 \[213\] defined common terms
        associated with forced-air distribution systems and their
        testing, and included a schematic of a typical distribution
        system.

    Water Flow Measurement

    1.  []{#A515 .anchor}Bevirt 1994 \[52\] listed four instruments for
        measuring water flow and specified recommended uses and
        limitations.

    System Selection and Sizing

    1.  []{#A1032 .anchor}SMACNA 1993 \[407\] discussed air system
        basics, including duct systems and fluid dynamics, and ducted
        air system testing and balancing procedures, checklists and
        troubleshooting pointers.

Norm

50. Duct Leakage

    1.  []{#A55 .anchor}Andrews 1996 \[5\] mentioned that ASHRAE Draft
        Standard 152P specifies acceptable duct leakage flows.

    2.  []{#A848 .anchor}ASHRAE 1995 \[28\] specified that energy
        distribution system leaks should be repaired. Specified minimum
        duct and plenum insulation levels; specified performance and
        energy factors for replacement motors.

    3.  []{#A516 .anchor}Bevirt 1994 \[52\] presented a table of
        predicted leakage classes for sealed and unsealed ducts of
        various types.

    4.  []{#A1011 .anchor}BII 1998 \[53\] noted that several California
        utilities use 140 CFM~50~ as the maximum criterion leakage
        allowed for a tight duct system, and that CIEE's HVAC design
        states that acceptable CFM~25~ is 6-7% of fan flow.

    5.  []{#A283 .anchor}Cummings 1998 \[94\] stated the SMACNA standard
        for duct leakage in terms of CFM~25~ per 100 ft^2^ of duct
        surface area, and a HERS standard for duct leakage flow per
        floor area. He recommended 50 CFM~25~ per 1000 ft^2^ floor area
        for commercial buildings. Also recommended certain ducting
        practices.

    6.  []{#A491 .anchor}Cummings and Tooley 1989 \[97\] found that
        average infiltration rate increased from 0.14 ACH to 1.42 ACH
        with the forced-air system operating. After duct sealing, the
        average infiltration rate dropped to 0.31 ACH.

    7.  []{#A284 .anchor}Cummings et al. 1990 \[98\] discussed test
        procedures to determine the relationship between duct leakage
        and infiltration and leakage sites using tracer gas tests,
        blower door testing, smoke testing and visual inspections. Found
        that, on average, infiltration rates measured with tracer gas
        correlated to blower-door test results for air handler fan on
        and off conditions. Also, found that return duct leakage equaled
        10% of the air handler airflow and that repairing duct leakage
        reduced whole house infiltration.

    8.  []{#A24 .anchor}Davis et al. 1998 \[103\] reported pre- and
        post-retrofit values of envelope leakage (CFM~50~), supply duct
        leakage to outside (CFM~25~, CFM~50~) and average supply-side
        pressure-pan measurement (Pa) for 95 homes.

    9.  []{#A996 .anchor}Hammon et al. 1999 \[200\] discussed changes,
        based on their study, to the CEC Title 24 criteria for tight
        ducts from a ratio of leakage to floor area to a ratio of
        leakage to fan flow. The leakage in a finished home must be less
        than 6% of fan flow to be considered tight. Fan flow can either
        be determined by direct measurement or by substituting measured
        return airflow. Also discussed in Hammon and Modera 1996
        \[199\].

    10. []{#A398 .anchor}Jump and Modera 1993 \[222\] discussed duct
        leakage areas, house and duct static pressure differences under
        different system configurations, leakage flow rate, system
        airflows, duct conduction losses, and duct delivery
        efficiencies.

    11. []{#A869 .anchor}Katz 1997 \[226\] discussed Advanced Energy\'s
        target for duct leakage (in CFM~25~, less than 3% of conditioned
        floor area in ft^2^). Presented results of duct leakage tests in
        100 new homes; of 130 systems in 96 houses. The median leakage
        measured was 261 CFM~25~ per system and 360 CFM~25~ per house
        (or a median leakage of 19.5% as a percentage of floor area).

    12. []{#A468 .anchor}Modera 1994 \[280\] presented duct-leakage
        measurements performed in 31 California homes.

    13. []{#A739 .anchor}Parker 1989 \[313\] discussed the effect of
        distribution systems on air change rates and energy consumption
        in electrically heated homes. Found that forced air systems used
        17% to 22% more energy than non-forced-air electric resistance
        systems. Possible causes included duct air leakage and
        associated heat transfer, induced air leakage from combustion
        systems with chimneys, and differential pressures within the
        building envelope.

    14. []{#A147 .anchor}Retrotec 1998 \[345\] said that a new,
        well-installed supply and return residential duct system should
        have an ELA not exceeding 10 in^2^.

    15. []{#A766 .anchor}Rose 1999 \[353\] reviewed SMACNA leakage
        classes.

    16. []{#A648 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[453\] discussed REGCAP, a
        computer model that evaluates residential HVAC system component
        performance and whole house performance based on measured data
        (ducts, equipment, envelope, and climate) to provide an estimate
        of duct, equipment and envelope performance and net cooling
        delivered (tons at the register). Applied in a Sacramento field
        test (2,000 ft^2^ house), they found that almost a ton of
        cooling could be saved by with tight ducts.

    Register Airflow

    1.  []{#A1012 .anchor}BII 1998 \[53\] provided rule of thumb for
        airflow requirements (1 CFM per ft^2^ in living areas), and
        recommended use of CIEE HVAC design, installation, and test
        guidelines to prevent excess duct leakage.

    System Airflow

    1.  []{#A1013 .anchor}BII 1998 \[53\] noted that a typical air
        handler is designed to operate at 0.5 in. w.g.

    Duct Insulation

    1.  []{#A565 .anchor}EPA 1997 \[138\] listed typical and
        cost-effective insulation levels in moderate climates for
        attics, exterior walls, floors (over garage), basement walls
        (above grade), and ducts.

    2.  []{#A413 .anchor}Treidler et al. 1996 \[432\] said that ducts
        should be better insulated.

    System Sizing

    1.  []{#A450 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[27\] specified
        distribution-system sizing methods (1989 ASHRAE Handbook of
        Fundamentals or ACCA\'s Manual D), installation methods (SMACNA,
        NAIMA), and air balancing methods required for compliance with
        the prescriptive requirements of ASHRAE Standard 90.2-1993.

    2.  []{#A997 .anchor}Hammon et al. 1999 \[200\] discussed that,
        based on LBNL\'s longevity study of duct closure systems,
        cloth-backed rubber-adhesive tape would not to be permitted
        under Title 24. Also discussed in Hammon and Modera 1996
        \[199\].

    3.  []{#A414 .anchor}Treidler et al. 1996 \[432\] stated that when a
        duct system is sealed, resizing the HVAC system can reduce
        energy use by 20 to 30%.

2.4 Combustion Safety

Metric

55. Backdrafting & Spillage

    1.  []{#A360 .anchor}ASTM 1998 \[42\] noted that the house
        depressurization level can be compared to continuous and
        intermittent pressure differentials (house level
        depressurizations).

    2.  []{#A357 .anchor}CGSB 1995 \[67\] noted that House
        Depressurization Level can be compared to both continuous and
        intermittent pressure limits to predict backdrafting.

    3.  []{#A227 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1999 \[184\] noted that house
        depressurization level may be compared to preset limits to
        predict backdrafting.

    4.  []{#A111 .anchor}Keefe 1994 \[228\] noted that the draw from a
        combustion device's exhaust is what prevents backdrafting into
        the room.

    5.  []{#A215 .anchor}Persily 1999 \[322\] described an IAQ
        performance guide being developed by ASTM that may include
        venting of naturally-vented water- and space-heating appliances,
        house depressurization, unvented space heaters, downdrafting,
        appliance backdrafting and cold vent establishment.

    6.  []{#A659 .anchor}Wilson et al. 1986 \[462\] related flue gas
        spillage to depressurization conditions, indoor/outdoor
        temperature differences, and furnace conditions (standby, pilot
        light only). Provided depressurization limits for spaces with
        naturally-vented gas appliances.

Diagnostic

56. Backdrafting & Spillage

    1.  []{#A858 .anchor}ASTM 2000 \[36\] discussed visual inspection
        and ASTM E1998 house depressurization, downdrafting, appliance
        backdrafting and cold vent establishment pressure tests.

    2.  []{#A361 .anchor}ASTM 1998 \[42\] described (a) four tests
        conducted under induced conditions (house depressurization test
        with preset criteria, downdrafting test, appliance backdrafting
        test, and cold vent establishment pressure); (b) a continuous
        (natural condition) spillage test; and (c) a continuous
        backdrafting test.

    3.  []{#A358 .anchor}CGSB 1995 \[67\] described a spillage test
        procedure for vented, fuel-fired, space-heating appliances;
        water heaters; and fireplaces. Included a checklist and a report
        form.

    4.  []{#A979 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[79\] discussed the physics,
        mechanisms, and corrective measures relating to backdrafting and
        spillage of combustion appliances.

    5.  []{#A824 .anchor}Conibear et al. 1995 \[87\] discussed protocol
        and study to evaluate backdrafting, spillage, and CO levels in
        homes in Chicago. Protocols are based on CGSB 51.71-94
        (pressure-induced spillage / backdrafting from vented fuel-fired
        appliances) and ANSI Standard Z 21.1-1993 (carbon monoxide
        measurements and determination of free-air CO from ovens).

    6.  []{#A924 .anchor}deKieffer 1995 \[106\] discussed how to conduct
        combustion safety checks; included furnace and water heater
        inspection and performance specifications.

    7.  []{#A492 .anchor}Dumont and Snodgrass 1990 \[128\] presented and
        experimentally validated a simplified theory that quantitatively
        predicts the conditions under which backdrafting will occur.

    8.  []{#A967 .anchor}Dutton 1994 \[129\] described gas and
        combustion-related test procedures, including spillage,
        backdrafting, and gas line leaks.

    9.  []{#A493 .anchor}Fugler 1989 \[171\] listed a variety of tests
        (flame motion, flue temperature, smoke pencil, flue-to-house
        pressure) to determine whether building exhaust could induce
        chimney backdrafting. An inexpensive heat sensor was made of
        temperature-sensitive color-changing dots, and heat sensing was
        used as a proxy for combustion gas spillage. This paper also
        presented a table of house depressurization limits for various
        appliances and chimneys.

    10. []{#A917 .anchor}Greiner 1997 \[179\] discussed how to evaluate
        new furnaces for CO problems, including vent failures,
        over-firing and heat exchanger failures.

    11. []{#A96 .anchor}Greiner 1997 \[180\] discussed detecting the
        presence and source of high CO levels associated with
        downdrafting.

    12. []{#A362 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1999 \[184\] presented a table
        summarizing the tests in ASTM 1998 \[42\].

    13. []{#A112 .anchor}Keefe 1994 \[228\] briefly described the nature
        of a worst-case induced-condition backdrafting test.

    14. []{#A923 .anchor}Moffatt 1991 \[286\] discussed factors leading
        to furnace and fireplace spillage and backdrafting, and
        discussed possible solutions. Described chimney backdrafting
        tests.

    15. []{#A992 .anchor}NAHB 1997 \[293\] measured worst-case
        depressurization of the combustion zone by varying fan status
        and door positions. Also summarized backdrafting research.

    16. []{#A925 .anchor}Ponessa 1999 \[330\] discussed a moisture
        problem case study; the moisture was due to leaking furnace flue
        gas from a masonry chimney; included diagnostics specific to
        testing vented appliances.

    17. []{#A300 .anchor}Rajhans 1989 \[342\] presented a checklist to
        detect IAQ problems including problems related to combustion
        (CO), other pollutant sources, HVAC, maintenance, and design.

    18. []{#A660 .anchor}Wilson et al. 1986 \[462\] discussed
        depressurization conditions, indoor/outdoor temperature
        differences, and furnace conditions (standby, pilot light only)
        in relationship to flue gas spillage. Provided depressurization
        limits for spaces with naturally-vented gas appliances.

    Heat Exchanger Leakage

    1.  []{#A436 .anchor}DeWerth and Sobieski 1985 \[109\] described a
        three-step method for detecting unacceptable flue gas leakage
        from furnace heat exchangers (visual examination of heat
        exchanger, observation of burner flame pattern, and use of
        tracer gas). Method was field-tested by seven utility companies
        and found to be more reliable and accurate than their
        currently-used leak-detection methods (smoke bombs, odor
        tracing, and salt sprays).

    2.  []{#A918 .anchor}Greiner 1997 \[179\] discussed how to evaluate
        new furnaces for CO problems, including vent failures,
        over-firing and heat exchanger failures.

    Chimney Condition

    1.  []{#A666 .anchor}Oberholtzer 1993 \[304\] provided a
        step-by-step inspection protocol to diagnose chimney (flue)
        problems. Techniques included chim-scan tv monitoring check,
        combustion analyzer, rightsizing the vent, checking for
        pyrolysis problems, excess condensation development check,
        excess soot or creosote deposit check, downdraft problem
        diagnostics, CO testing for fume leakage, and pressure dynamics.

    Combustion Air Supply Sizing and Location

    1.  []{#A968 .anchor}Dutton 1994 \[129\] discussed combustion air
        supply sizing, supply locations, and design factors for gas
        appliances (furnaces, water heaters, boilers).

    Venting Sizing and Location

    1.  []{#A859 .anchor}ASTM 2000 \[36\] discussed the design and
        installation of venting systems in compliance with codes and
        standards.

    2.  []{#A969 .anchor}Dutton 1994 \[129\] discussed vent sizing,
        draft control equipment and installation requirements.

Norm

61. Backdrafting & Spillage

    1.  []{#A359 .anchor}CGSB 1995 \[67\] specified continuous and
        intermittent depressurization limits for various combustion
        appliances.

    2.  []{#A825 .anchor}Conibear et al. 1995 \[87\] discussed results
        of a study to evaluate backdrafting, spillage, and CO levels in
        homes in Chicago. Found that 10.7% of the single-family detached
        homes tested showed evidence of depressurization conditions that
        could lead to backdrafting. 7% of homes showed visual evidence
        of spillage or poor drafting; indoor CO levels equaled or
        exceeded 10 ppm in 11% of the homes tested; many ovens were not
        functioning within manufacturer\'s guidelines.

    3.  []{#A494 .anchor}Fugler 1989 \[171\] listed a variety of tests
        (flame motion, flue temperature, smoke pencil, flue-to-house
        pressure) to determine whether building exhaust could induce
        chimney backdrafting. An inexpensive heat sensor was made of
        temperature-sensitive color-changing dots, and heat sensing was
        used as a proxy for combustion gas spillage. This paper also
        presented a table of house depressurization limits for various
        appliances and chimneys.

    4.  []{#A113 .anchor}Keefe 1994 \[228\] warned that backdrafting
        will occur if the room air pressure is more negative than the
        draw of a combustion device's exhaust (typically only 3 to 5
        Pa).

    5.  []{#A661 .anchor}Wilson et al. 1986 \[462\] related flue gas
        spillage to depressurization conditions, indoor/outdoor
        temperature differences, and furnace conditions (standby, pilot
        light only). Provided depressurization limits for spaces with
        naturally-vented gas appliances.

    Combustion Air Supply Sizing

    1.  []{#A451 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[27\] specified combustion air and
        automatic vent dampers for combustion appliances and fireplace
        requirements (tight-fitting damper, doors and outside combustion
        air) required for compliance with the prescriptive requirements
        of ASHRAE Standard 90.2-1993.

    Chimney Condition

    1.  []{#A667 .anchor}Oberholtzer 1993 \[304\] discussed the
        accelerated deterioration of chimney (flue) materials due to
        lower venting temperatures and shorter furnace run cycles.

2.5 Ventilation

Metric

64. Ventilation Airflows and Air Exchange Rates

    1.  []{#A160 .anchor}Bearg 1999 \[46\] discussed the use of indoor
        CO~2~ levels as an indicator of ventilation rate.

    2.  []{#A727 .anchor}Dale and Ackerman 1993 \[101\] discussed the
        change in attic ventilation rate and effect on living space from
        attic turbine ventilators. Dale and Ackerman 1991 \[100\] also
        discussed this research.

    3.  []{#A720 .anchor}Forest and Walker 1991 \[161\] discussed
        measurement and model input variables to determine airflow and
        moisture content in attics. Forest and Walker 1992 \[162\], 1993
        \[163\], 1993 \[164\], and Walker and Forest 1995 \[452\] also
        discussed this research.

    4.  []{#A679 .anchor}Koles et al. 1996 \[241\] discussed
        ventilation-fan energy efficiency (kW/cfm).

    5.  []{#A541 .anchor}Li et al. 1996 \[251\] defined mean age of air,
        corrected mean age of air, and outdoor air exchange rate.

    6.  Mansson 1999 \[253\] discussed simplified tools for the
        evaluation of ventilation systems and their effects in new and
        existing residences.

    7.  []{#A540 .anchor}Mudarri 1997 \[290\] noted several sources of
        error in estimating outdoor-air ventilation rates from
        "steady-state" indoor CO~2~ levels, including (a) measurement
        before reaching steady-state state, which overestimates
        ventilation; (b) overestimation of CO~2~ generation by women,
        children, and the elderly, which overestimates ventilation;
        and (c) underestimation of outdoor CO~2~ levels, which
        underestimates ventilation. Presented a 10-step process and an
        assortment of tables to improve the accuracy of ventilation
        rates estimated from CO~2~ levels.

    8.  []{#A216 .anchor}Persily 1999 \[322\] described an IAQ
        performance guide being developed within ASTM, including a
        ventilation performance statement that includes whole-building
        air change rates, outdoor ventilation air distribution, and
        kitchen and bathroom exhaust rates, all based on ASHRAE Standard
        62-1989 \[18\].

    9.  []{#A301 .anchor}Rajhans 1989 \[342\] recommended using CO~2~
        level as a surrogate for fresh air supply.

    10. []{#A332 .anchor}Schell 1995 \[365\] noted that indoor CO~2~
        levels indicate ventilation rate, and provided tables of CO~2~
        level equilibrium setpoints for control of ventilation using
        CO~2~.

    11. []{#A380 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1981 \[399\] validated the LBL
        air infiltration model with leakage measurements made in a small
        trailer (Mobile Infiltration Testing Unit) and in an occupied
        house.

    12. []{#A381 .anchor}Sherman and Grimsrud 1982 \[393\] calculated a
        pressure coefficient (relating the wind pressure on the face of
        a building to the dynamic pressure of the wind) from pressure
        measurements made with the Mobile Infiltration Test Unit. This
        study also used a terrain parameter to represent primarily
        large-scale effects caused by the roughness of the boundary
        layer in the region surrounding the structure.

    13. []{#A662 .anchor}Yuill and Lovatt 1986 \[467\] discussed
        determination of effective ventilation rates using a set
        pollutant concentration (pre-cursor to ASHRAE Standard 136).

    Temporal and Spatial Ventilation Effectiveness and Efficiency

    1.  []{#A759 .anchor}ASHRAE 1988 \[26\] specified a calculation
        methodology to determine annual effective ventilation rates,
        based on the weather factor (W), normalized leakage area (NL),
        and hourly ventilation fan airflows and schedules.

    2.  []{#A76 .anchor}ASHRAE 1989 \[18\] defined spatial ventilation
        effectiveness (i.e., the effectiveness with which outside air is
        circulated to occupied space).

    3.  []{#A760 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[26\] defined air change rate,
        effective air change rate, infiltration, mechanical and natural
        ventilation, normalized leakage, outdoor air change rate, and
        weather factor.

    4.  []{#A438 .anchor}ASHRAE 1997 \[31\] defined air-change spatial
        and temporal effectiveness in terms of exhaust airflows and the
        tracer-gas-determined "age" of indoor air.

    5.  []{#A169 .anchor}Ohnishi et al. 1998 \[308\] defined existing
        indices (ventilation rate, air change rate, room mean age of
        air, air change efficiency) that deal with single spaces, and
        proposed new indices (supply rate fulfillment, exhaust rate
        fulfillment, overall ventilation rate fulfillment) that apply to
        an entire house with multiple rooms.

    6.  []{#A412 .anchor}Sherman and Wilson 1986 \[392\] defined
        temporal ventilation efficiency, which takes into account the
        time variation of the ventilation; turnover time, which is the
        reciprocal of the ventilation rate; and instantaneous effective
        ventilation rate, which is the ratio of source concentration to
        room concentration.

    Indoor-Outdoor and Interzonal Pressures

    1.  []{#A97 .anchor}Finley 1997 \[151\] evaluated airflow paths to
        determine their effect on indoor air problems (mold and
        moisture) and to determine mitigation strategies.

    2.  []{#A229 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1999 \[184\] discussed the use
        of building indoor-outdoor pressurization level as a metric.

    Air to Air Heat Exchanger Performance

    1.  []{#A536 .anchor}Ciepliski et al. 1998 \[75\] defined metrics
        for the performance efficiency of air-to-air heat exchangers,
        including sensible, latent, and total energy effectivenesses,
        sensible heat recovery efficiency, total heat recovery
        efficiency, temperature ratio, and humidity ratio. Also compared
        the performance factors used in 10 test standards from ASHRAE,
        CHA, ENV, and ASME.

    2.  []{#A538 .anchor}Johnson et al. 1998 \[221\] defined performance
        metrics for air-to-air heat exchangers, including sensible,
        latent, and total effectivenesses.

    3.  []{#A769 .anchor}Simonson et al. 1999 \[405\] discussed latent,
        sensible, and total energy recovery effectivenesses of energy
        wheels.

Diagnostic

68. Ventilation Airflows and Air Exchange Rates

    1.  []{#A294 .anchor}ASTM 1992 \[35\] described the ASTM
        E779-87 (1992) multi-point fan-pressurization measurement
        technique for envelope-leakage.

    2.  []{#A298 .anchor}ASTM 1995 \[40\] described the tracer-gas
        measurement of single-zone air change rates.

    3.  []{#A161 .anchor}Bearg 1999 \[46\] discussed the use of indoor
        CO~2~ levels as an indicator of ventilation rate.

    4.  []{#A1014 .anchor}BII 1998 \[53\] used the LBL Infiltration
        Model to convert ACH~50~ to ACH~natural~.

    5.  []{#A964 .anchor}CMHC 1996 \[77\] outlined builder
        responsibilities to make sure ventilation systems meet the
        National Building Code (NBC) prescriptive requirements or
        CAN/CSA-F326 \'Residential Mechanical Ventilation Systems\'.
        Provided design, installation, and inspection checklists and
        figures for each of the six recommended system types.

    6.  []{#A980 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[79\] described the physics and
        mechanisms of airflow in buildings.

    7.  []{#A713 .anchor}Fletcher and Johnson 1992 \[157\] described
        tracer-gas measurement of ventilation rates of several small
        factory units.

    8.  []{#A390 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1978 \[187\] measured a house's
        envelope leakiness via fan pressurization, and measured its
        infiltration rate using nitrous oxide as a tracer gas.

    9.  []{#A389 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1979 \[186\] compared building
        infiltration rates measured with various tracer gases
        (concentration decay method), and found that those measured with
        SF~6~ slightly exceeded those made with CH~4~ or N~2~O.

    10. []{#A627 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1979 \[189\] compared tracer
        gas and fan pressurization based infiltration measurements in
        energy-efficient and standard-construction homes. Grimsrud et
        al. 1979 \[191\] presented a subset of these results.

    11. []{#A480 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1980 \[190\] found that air
        exchange rates measured using SF~6~ as a tracer gas were
        slightly larger that those measured using CH~4~ or N~2~O.

    12. []{#A533 .anchor}Harrje 1981 \[203\] described a manual
        technique for tracer-gas sampling (squeeze bottles), for
        measuring building ventilation rate.

    13. []{#A523 .anchor}Harrje et al. 1979 \[204\] described a
        homeowner-performed tracer-gas technique for measuring the
        ventilation rate of a home (house is seeded with SF~6~, then
        samples are taken every 30 minutes by squeezing a plastic sample
        bottle.)

    14. []{#A748 .anchor}Harrje et al. 1990 \[206\] compared three
        techniques for tracer gas measurement.

    15. []{#A191 .anchor}Nguyen Thi et al. 1995 \[302\] described the
        use of a portable tracer gas analyzer to measure air change rate
        via tracer gas decay.

    16. []{#A157 .anchor}Ohba and Irie 1999 \[307\] presented a
        videographic method of measuring air change rate using smoke
        tracers.

    17. []{#A302 .anchor}Rajhans 1989 \[342\] recommended using CO~2~
        level as surrogate for fresh air supply.

    18. []{#A248 .anchor}Roulet et al. 1999 \[357\] discussed using
        tracer-gas measurements to measure envelope exfiltration.

    19. []{#A192 .anchor}Saffell 1995 \[359\] compared two technologies
        (non-dispersive infrared gas cells and electrochemical cells)
        for the measurement of equilibrium CO~2~ concentration, which in
        turn is used as an indicator of ventilation rate.

    20. []{#A407 .anchor}Sherman 1987 \[383\] reported that tracer gas
        methods underpredict ventilation rates.

    21. []{#A577 .anchor}Sherman 1989 \[371\] presented a highly
        mathematical analysis of the uncertainties associated with
        tracer-gas measurement of airflow calculations.

    22. []{#A405 .anchor}Sherman 1989 \[385\] described a multi-tracer
        measurement system (MTMS) for multizone ventilation measurement.

    23. []{#A384 .anchor}Sherman 1989 \[386\] noted that, although
        performing a tracer-gas decay test is straightforward, the
        analysis is more complicated. Methods discussed include (a)
        tracer gas constant injection; (b) tracer gas long constant
        concentration, which uses an active control system to control
        the gas release; (c) tracer gas long-term integral (a.k.a.
        long-term average method), which can be used with various
        injection patterns; and (d) tracer gas pulse technique, in which
        the measurement begins before the gas is injected.

    24. []{#A461 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1979 \[396\] evaluated the
        relationship between infiltration rates and surface pressures on
        a building.

    25. []{#A376 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1980 \[378\] surveyed various
        tracer-gas infiltration measurement techniques, including (a)
        decay - simple to conduct, uses minimum of equipment, is good
        for short term measurements; (b) constant flow - will run up to
        several days and give continuous infiltration measurements; (c)
        continuous flow - expensive to build apparatus; and (d)
        long-term average - yields average infiltration over a long
        period of time (e.g., a month).

    26. []{#A731 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1989 \[379\] described the
        MultiTracer Measurement System (MTMS), a tracer gas measurement
        system that uses multiple gases.

    27. []{#A387 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1989 \[398\] measured interzonal
        airflows with a multiple tracer-gas measurement system (MTMS).

    28. []{#A462 .anchor}Sherman 1990 \[388\] reviewed tracer gas
        literature (comparing the merits of various gases) and compared
        various tracer-gas techniques (decay, pulse, constant injection,
        long-term integral, constant concentration) for measurement of
        single-zone air change rate.

    29. []{#A486 .anchor}Sonderegger et al. 1980 \[411\] used the
        constant-injection tracer-gas technique to continuously monitor
        envelope infiltration.

    30. []{#A68 .anchor}Tseng et al. 1994 \[434\] recommended energy
        management system (EMS) monitoring stations for both supply and
        return airflows to ensure adequate outside airflow in VAV
        systems.

    31. []{#A712 .anchor}Walker et al. 1995 \[454\] presented the AVENT
        attic ventilation model and compared modeled results to measured
        data.

    Temporal and Spatial Ventilation Effectiveness and Efficiency

    1.  []{#A761 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[26\] described determining the
        effective air change rate in a detached dwelling by combining
        shell leakage with a local weather factor. Included weather
        factor tables.

    2.  []{#A439 .anchor}ASHRAE 1997 \[31\] described a method for the
        tracer-gas measurement of spatial and temporal air-change
        effectiveness.

    3.  []{#A860 .anchor}ASTM 2000 \[36\] discussed performance
        statements (objectives, criteria, evaluation methods, and
        commentary) for whole-building ventilation, based on ASHRAE
        Standard 62. Evaluation methods include tracer gas techniques,
        fan pressurization test, and single-zone or multi-zone airflow
        models. Discussed airflow distribution within the building along
        with the need for evaluation methods. In addition, discussed
        kitchen, bath, and toilet exhaust systems and occupant control
        of ventilation components.

    4.  []{#A620 .anchor}Condon et al. 1980 \[86\] described and
        compared tracer gas airflow measurement techniques using
        concentration decay, continuous flow in a single chamber, and
        continuous flow in multiple chambers.

    5.  []{#A728 .anchor}Dale and Ackerman 1993 \[101\] discussed the
        change in attic ventilation rate and effect on living space from
        attic turbine ventilators. Dale and Ackerman 1991 \[100\] also
        discussed this research.

    6.  []{#A795 .anchor}Federspiel and Wenger 1998 \[147\] described a
        methodology for modeling commercial multizone ventilation
        systems using flow rate standards such as ASHRAE 62-1989 \[18\]
        with the age-of-air concept. The model can be used to model
        ventilation effectiveness, translating outdoor air requirements
        to age-of-air requirements and vice versa, and to develop new
        ventilation strategies for multizone systems.

    7.  []{#A721 .anchor}Forest and Walker 1991 \[161\] discussed
        measuring and modeling airflow and moisture content in attics.
        Forest and Walker 1992 \[162\], 1993 \[163\], 1993 \[164\], and
        Walker and Forest 1995 \[452\] also discussed this research.

    8.  []{#A404 .anchor}Modera et al. 1981 \[284\] collected
        infiltration data to verify an envelope leakage model (described
        in Sherman and Grimsrud 1980 \[390\]).

    9.  []{#A430 .anchor}Pickering et al. 1987 \[326\] found that the
        videotaped motion of helium-filled, zero-net-buoyancy balloons
        was a useful indicator of indoor airflow (and worked better than
        smoke or bubbles).

    10. []{#A495 .anchor}Sandberg 1987 \[360\] discussed the accuracy of
        different tracer gas methods (constant concentration and decay
        methods) to predict mean airflow rates in naturally ventilated
        houses.

    11. []{#A406 .anchor}Sherman 1989 \[385\] described a portable
        MultiTracer Measurement System (MTMS) capable of measuring
        ventilation between different zones of a multiple zone building.

    12. []{#A385 .anchor}Sherman 1989 \[386\] discussed single and
        multi-zone tracer gas techniques for measuring airflow rates,
        including decay, pulse, constant injection, long-term integral,
        long-constant concentration; discussed analysis techniques and
        compared strategies.

    13. []{#A463 .anchor}Sherman 1989 \[387\] presented a method for
        estimating multizone ventilation rates from tracer-gas
        measurements.

    14. []{#A400 .anchor}Sherman 1994 \[389\] discussed how to determine
        ACH rates from blower door measurements.

    15. []{#A792 .anchor}Sherman and Dickerhoff 1989 \[391\] described
        the multi-tracer measurement system (MTMS) to measure
        time-varying interzonal flows and presented MTMS results for two
        houses.

    16. []{#A388 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1989 \[398\] described a
        portable MultiTracer Measurement System (MTMS) capable of
        measuring ventilation between different zones of a multiple zone
        building.

    17. []{#A716 .anchor}Tooley and Davis 1994 \[428\] discussed test
        methodology to diagnose problems with attic ventilators, zonal
        depressurization, moisture damage, and air barriers.

    18. []{#A674 .anchor}Turner and Bearg 1989 \[440\] discussed CO~2~
        and tracer gas determinations of outside air ventilation for an
        office building, including limitations, benefits, and
        appropriateness.

    Indoor-Outdoor and Interzonal Pressures

    1.  []{#A72 .anchor}ASHRAE 1989 \[16\] described pressure
        measurement.

    2.  []{#A285 .anchor}Cummings 1998 \[94\] described how to map
        building air pressures.

    3.  []{#A260 .anchor}Cummings and Withers 1997 \[96\] presented a
        brief overview of building pressure mapping.

    4.  []{#A11 .anchor}Lstiburek 1998 \[256\] extensively discussed
        building air-pressure distribution and its relation to building
        airflow, including envelope leakage. Also discussed measurement
        of air pressure fields and air pressure differentials, and
        induction of pressure differentials.

    5.  []{#A752 .anchor}Robison and Lambert 1989 \[351\] discussed fan
        pressurization, tracer gas, and flow hood measurement techniques
        to determine the relationships between duct leakage, envelope
        leakage, infiltration rates, and ventilation rates.

    Air to Air Heat Exchanger Performance

    1.  []{#A684 .anchor}Buchan Lawton Parent Ltd 1996 \[60\] discussed
        field-inspection and occupant-survey methodologies to determine
        heat recovery ventilator performance factor.

    2.  []{#A537 .anchor}Ciepliski et al. 1998 \[75\] compared 10
        performance-efficiency test standards from ASHRAE, CHA, ENV, and
        ASME, discussing required test facilities and instrumentation.
        Also discussed test uncertainty and proposed revisions to ASHRAE
        Standard 84-1991.

    3.  []{#A796 .anchor}Federspiel and Wenger 1998 \[147\] described a
        methodology for modeling commercial multizone ventilation
        systems using flow rate standards such as ASHRAE 62-1989 \[18\]
        with the age-of-air concept. The model can be used to model
        ventilation effectiveness, translating outdoor-air requirements
        to age-of-air requirements and vice versa, and to develop new
        ventilation strategies for multizone systems.

    4.  []{#A539 .anchor}Johnson et al. 1998 \[221\] analyzed
        uncertainty in the calculation of air-to-air heat exchanger
        effectiveness calculations due to bias and precision
        uncertainties in the measurements of air pressures and
        temperatures.

    5.  []{#A770 .anchor}Simonson et al. 1999 \[405\] described a
        computer model for predicting the performance (energy recovery
        effectiveness) of energy wheels, and a laboratory experiment for
        validating the model. Included extensive error analysis.

    Equipment Selection and Sizing

    1.  []{#A881 .anchor}Schalch and Fryer 1992 \[364\] discussed the
        Energy Crafted Home's ventilation requirements (systems must
        provide 60 cfm continuously in small homes and 100 cfm in larger
        homes).

Norm

73. Ventilation Airflows and Air Exchange Rates

    1.  []{#A79 .anchor}ASHRAE 1989 \[18\] specified outdoor air
        requirements for residential and commercial buildings.

    2.  []{#A452 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[27\] specified the attic and
        crawlspace ventilation (free area per unit floor area)
        requirements, minimum house ventilation requirements
        (supplemental ventilation via kitchen and bathroom exhaust fans,
        mechanical ventilation systems, or operable windows if summer
        design infiltration rate is below 0.35 air changes per hour),
        and ventilation equipment performance factors (rated airflow
        performance in accordance with HVI-916 and HVI-924) for
        compliance with the prescriptive requirements of ASHRAE Standard
        90.2-1993.

    3.  []{#A630 .anchor}Berk et al. 1981 \[51\] presented tracer gas
        measurements (SF~6~) of air change rates of two houses, with and
        without the central forced air systems running.

    4.  []{#A353 .anchor}CEC 1999 \[66\] presented the California
        building code Title 24 outdoor air requirements for
        nonresidential, high-rise residential, and hotel/motel
        buildings.

    5.  []{#A965 .anchor}CMHC 1996 \[77\] described ventilation
        requirements for residential buildings falling under Part 9 of
        Canada\'s 1995 National Building Code (NBC), including required
        system elements and required ventilation capacity based on
        number and types of rooms.

    6.  []{#A286 .anchor}Cummings 1998 \[94\] briefly discussed sizing
        of outside airflows, noting that ventilation airflows should be
        sized appropriately (minimizing exhaust airflow and using as
        much indoor air as possible).

    7.  []{#A729 .anchor}Dale and Ackerman 1993 \[101\] discussed the
        change in attic ventilation rate and effect on living space from
        attic turbine ventilators. Dale and Ackerman 1991 \[100\] also
        discussed this research.

    8.  []{#A249 .anchor}Dols et al. 1995 \[122\] specified recommended
        outdoor-airflow rates.

    9.  []{#A566 .anchor}EPA 1997 \[138\] mentioned that ASHRAE Standard
        62-1989 \[18\] required rate for residential ventilation. It
        also specified prescriptive and performance standards for
        continuous exhaust fan sizing.

    10. []{#A553 .anchor}EPA/DOE 1999 \[140\] specified that the
        standard for ventilation and control of indoor air pollutants is
        ANSI/ASHRAE 62-1989 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air
        Quality \[18\].

    11. []{#A790 .anchor}Feustel et al. 1986 \[149\] discussed TRNSYS
        modeling of the economic and ventilation performance (average
        and effective ventilation rates) of natural ventilation and
        several ventilation strategies (exhaust ventilation, heat
        recovery ventilation, exhaust ventilation with heat pump heat
        recovery, and exhaust air heat pump water heating).

    12. []{#A393 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1983 \[185\] gathered
        infiltration data for 300 houses; this data formed the basis of
        ASHRAE Standard 62 (ASHRAE 1989 \[18\]).

    13. []{#A817 .anchor}Matson and Feustel 1998 \[263\] presented
        effective annual air change rates for post-1980 construction
        homes (97 in New York and 66 in California) based on blower door
        tests. Also presented COMIS multi-zone airflow modeling results
        for ventilation strategies (single and multi-port exhaust fans
        with inlet louvers, single and multi-port exhaust fans with
        outside air ducts, balanced heat recovery) in one and two story
        houses in California and New York climates.

    14. []{#A619 .anchor}Modera and Jansky 1992 \[281\] discussed
        computer-simulated estimates of changes in building infiltration
        and interzonal airflow due to central ducted HVAC systems
        operating conditions (fan off, fan on, duct leakage).

    15. []{#A993 .anchor}NAHB 1997 \[293\] tabulated calculated monthly
        and seasonal air change rates for a range of house tightness in
        four U.S. cities.

    16. []{#A740 .anchor}Parker 1989 \[313\] discussed blower door and
        tracer gas air change rate measurements of 1980-construction
        conventional and Model Conservation Standards (MCS) construction
        homes in the Pacific Northwest. Estimated mean seasonal air
        change rates were 0.55 ach for the conventional and 0.28 ach for
        the MCS homes; using the tracer gas technique, average air
        change rates (December through March) were 0.31 ach (not
        corrected for non-uniform mixing) for the conventional homes and
        0.35 (including heat recovery ventilation airflow) for the MCS
        homes.

    17. []{#A200 .anchor}Dols et al. 1995 \[120\] specified an outdoor
        airflow rate for office buildings (source unknown).

    18. []{#A303 .anchor}Rajhans 1989 \[342\] specified recommended
        outdoor air rates for non-residential buildings.

    19. []{#A456 .anchor}Sherman 1986 \[374\] discussed the development
        of ASHRAE Standard 119: Air Leakage Performance for Detached
        Single-Family Residential Buildings (ASHRAE 1988 \[15\]).

    Indoor-Outdoor and Interzone Air Pressures

    1.  []{#A250 .anchor}Dols et al. 1995 \[122\] recommended various
        interzonal pressures.

    2.  []{#A554 .anchor}EPA/DOE 1999 \[140\] specified that certain
        spaces use (e.g. printing facilities, smoking lounges,
        restrooms) must be directly exhausted to the outdoors and be
        negatively pressurized relative to occupied spaces.

    Equipment Selection and Sizing

    1.  []{#A849 .anchor}ASHRAE 1995 \[28\] specified exterior joint
        sealing and optimizing ventilation openings.

    2.  []{#A1001 .anchor}ConSol 1999 \[89\] briefly specified
        procedures for sizing and installation of residential mechanical
        ventilation to provide an "intentional and controllable" intake
        of outside air into the conditioned space. Touched on energy
        efficiency, IAQ, and noise.

2.6 Controls

Metric

76. Energy Management Control System (EMCS)

    1.  []{#A329 .anchor}Keithly 1999 \[229\] discussed control
        installation, listing common deficiencies in control system
        specifications.

Diagnostic

77. Room Thermostats

    1.  []{#A546 .anchor}EPA 1998 \[139\] recommended that a tune-up of
        building controls include calibrating indoor and outdoor
        building sensors (e.g., thermostats, humidistats); inspection of
        damper and valve controls; review of building operating
        schedules; and review of utility rate schedule (to seek
        opportunities to use cheaper off-peak power). It noted that
        typical cooling and heating savings can range up to 30%.

    2.  []{#A487 .anchor}Madsen et al. 1990 \[260\] found in laboratory
        and field tests that temperature variation in a living space can
        be reduced when the room thermostat is moved from the wall to a
        location within the room.

    Thermal Expansion Devices

    1.  []{#A483 .anchor}Farzad and O'Neal 1993 \[146\] found that the
        TXV system performance variables showed a small variation with
        the refrigerant charge but a strong dependence on the outdoor
        temperature.

    EMCS Monitoring

    1.  []{#A65 .anchor}Brohard and Krieg 1994 \[59\] listed a series of
        steps for contractor commissioning of air, chilled-water,
        chiller, evaporative condenser, and DDC control systems.

    2.  []{#A496 .anchor}Cole and Holness 1989 \[84\] discussed the use
        of programmable logic controllers (PLCs) to control HVAC
        equipment in a manufacturing plant, and compared them to
        pneumatic and direct digital control (DDC) systems.

    3.  []{#A327 .anchor}Elovitz 1986 \[134\] discussed control
        installation, giving examples of EMCS sensor calibration and how
        it can go wrong.

    4.  []{#A519 .anchor}Koran 1994 \[242\] used a building's energy
        management control system (EMCS) to monitor over 200 building
        performance parameters (e.g., chiller flows, temperatures, and
        powers) for a year.

    5.  []{#A330 .anchor}Sabeff 1994 \[358\] described how an EMCS can
        be used for commissioning, but only the EMCS itself is
        commissioned first.

    6.  []{#A69 .anchor}Tseng et al. 1994 \[434\] listed EMCS monitoring
        points for an air handling unit, an electric hot water thermal
        storage system, an ice harvester thermal cool storage system,
        and a cooling tower for the ice harvester. Also discussed when
        to use hardware and software monitoring points.

    Ventilation Control

    1.  []{#A333 .anchor}Schell 1995 \[365\] noted that ventilation
        rates may be adjusted using CO~2~ controls to achieve a desired
        indoor CO~2~ level indicative of good air quality.

    Coils and Mixing Boxes

    1.  []{#A424 .anchor}Haves et al. 1996 \[208\] used automated
        techniques for fault detection in HVAC coils and mixing box
        controls.

    HVAC

    1.  []{#A497 .anchor}Cole and Holness 1989 \[84\] described the use
        of programmable logic controllers for HVAC control, comparing
        the relative merits of such devices vs. pneumatic or direct
        digital control systems.

    2.  []{#A1033 .anchor}SMACNA 1993 \[407\] discussed HVAC electrical
        and thermostatic control basics.

Norm

83. Room Thermostats

    1.  []{#A32 .anchor}Werling et al. 1998 \[460\] noted that an Energy
        Star Home must have a programmable thermostat.

2.7 HVAC Installation Process

Metric

84. 1.  []{#A683 .anchor}Allen Consultants 1996 \[1\] discussed
        potential changes in design and construction of forced-air duct
        systems.

    2.  []{#A470 .anchor}Gupton 1986 \[196\] listed HVAC installation
        details to verify, and gave instructions on how to specify HVAC
        commissioning.

    3.  []{#A654 .anchor}Hammon and Modera 1996 \[199\] discussed
        strategies and provided key action items to integrate tight duct
        construction parameters and factors into HERS, Title 24, and
        energy-efficient mortgages. Also provided material and
        performance metrics.

    4.  []{#A217 .anchor}Persily 1999 \[322\] described an IAQ
        performance guide being developed within ASTM that stated that
        condensate from air conditioning equipment should be able to
        drain freely and completely. Also stated that HVAC equipment
        design and installation should ensure accessibility for
        inspection, maintenance, and cleaning.

Diagnostic

85. 1.  []{#A66 .anchor}Brohard and Krieg 1994 \[59\] listed a series of
        steps for contractor commissioning of air, chilled-water,
        chiller, evaporative condenser, and DDC control systems.

    2.  []{#A567 .anchor}EPA 1997 \[138\] listed four tests used to
        ensure that subcontractors are performing quality work: a
        blower-door test to detect excessive envelope leakage, a duct
        leakage test, an HVAC system inspection, and testing airflow
        across the inside coil to ensure proper airflow to the duct
        system.

    3.  []{#A655 .anchor}Hammon and Modera 1996 \[199\] discussed
        strategies and provided key action items to integrate tight duct
        construction parameters and factors into HERS, Title 24, and
        energy-efficient mortgages. Also provided material and
        performance metrics.

    4.  []{#A764 .anchor}Han et al. 1999 \[201\] discussed automated
        diagnostic techniques for DDC VAV systems in commercial
        buildings.

    5.  []{#A316 .anchor}Meckler 1991 \[267\] detailed steps that
        contractors should take in the design, construction, and
        occupancy phases of HVAC installation to avoid IAQ problems.

Norm

86. 1.  []{#A656 .anchor}Hammon and Modera 1996 \[199\] discussed costs
        and energy savings attributable to tight duct construction in
        new construction.

    2.  []{#A218 .anchor}Persily 1999 \[322\] described an IAQ
        performance guide being developed within ASTM that stated that
        to prevent water vapor and dust from entering the building
        interior, exhaust from clothes dryers should be vented to the
        outdoors.

3\. INDOOR AIR QUALITY

3.1 Room Air Temperature and Velocity (Occupant Comfort)

Metric

87. Occupant Comfort

    1.  []{#A440 .anchor}ASHRAE 1992 \[23\] defined operative
        temperature range for thermal comfort (the temperature range in
        which no more than 10% of a building's occupants performing
        light activity will find the environment thermally
        unacceptable).

    2.  []{#A794 .anchor}Fanger 1992 \[143\] described indoor air and
        thermal comfort metrics (percent mean vote \[PMV\], percent
        people dissatisfied \[PPD\], olfs, draft risk).

    3.  []{#A525 .anchor}Fountain and Huizenga 1997 \[167\] discussed
        computer-predicted thermal comfort indices, including predicted
        mean vote (PMV), predicted percent dissatisfied (PPD), new
        effective temperature (ET), standard effective temperature
        (SET), and nine others.

    4.  []{#A680 .anchor}Koles et al. 1996 \[241\] discussed a thermal
        comfort metric (Predicted Percent Dissatisfied \[PPD\]).

    5.  []{#A153 .anchor}Levermore et al. 1999 \[250\] defined an
        Overall Liking Score that gages occupants' overall satisfaction
        with the building environment, and a Likeness Fingerprint that
        shows what in particular occupants like or dislike.

    6.  []{#A219 .anchor}Persily 1999 \[322\] described an IAQ
        performance guide being developed within ASTM, including thermal
        comfort parameters based on ASHRAE Standard 55 and ISO 7730.

    7.  []{#A304 .anchor}Rajhans 1989 \[342\] listed field measurements
        made with simple instruments (temperature, RH, CO~2~,
        formaldehyde, CO, air movement) and those made with complex
        instruments (microorganisms, respirable suspended particulates,
        organic vapor, ozone, NO~x~, asbestos).

    8.  []{#A305 .anchor}Rajhans 1989 \[342\] listed field measurements
        made with simple instruments (temperature, RH, CO2,
        formaldehyde, CO, air movement) and those made with complex
        instruments (microorganisms, respirable suspended particulates,
        organic vapor, ozone, NO~x~, asbestos.)

    9.  []{#A409 .anchor}Sherman 1984 \[372\] defined simplified
        expressions for thermal comfort, including predicted mean vote
        (PMV), effective temperatures, and comfort temperatures.
        Provided tables of comfort of effective temperature
        coefficients, and charts of comfort temperatures versus various
        factors.

    10. []{#A408 .anchor}Sherman and Ashley 1984 \[377\] defined LBL
        effective temperature (an environmental temperatures that
        depends on air temperature, mean radiant temperature, dew point,
        and wind speed), NCEL effective temperature, and comfort
        temperature.

    11. []{#A649 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[453\] discussed REGCAP, a
        computer model that evaluates residential HVAC system component
        performance and whole house performance based on measured data
        (ducts, equipment, envelope, and climate) to provide an estimate
        of duct, equipment and envelope performance and net cooling
        delivered (tons at the register).

Diagnostic

88. Occupant Comfort

    1.  []{#A524 .anchor}Arens et al. 1986 \[10\] updated a
        1950's-vintage "bioclimatic" human-comfort chart to reflect
        current (1986) ASHRAE comfort criteria, and to use a
        "rationally-derived" index for determining comfort. Parameters
        include dry bulb temperature, humidity, wind speed, and
        radiation intensity.

    2.  []{#A861 .anchor}ASTM 2000 \[36\] discussed performance
        statements (objectives, criteria, evaluation methods, and
        commentary) for thermal comfort, referencing ASHRAE Standard 55
        and mentioning the need to develop evaluation criteria suited
        for residential applications.

    3.  []{#A155 .anchor}Chan et al. 1999 \[68\] described a portable
        indoor environmental quality data logger that monitors the
        indoor environment and lets occupants register their comfort
        satisfaction with the environment on panel switches.

    4.  []{#A981 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[79\] discussed thermal comfort
        issues related to inefficient mechanical systems, poor quality
        or poorly installed materials, poor maintenance or faulty
        equipment, or building envelope problems. A thermal comfort
        checklist was included to help diagnose problem.

    5.  []{#A201 .anchor}Dols et al. 1995 \[120\] described a
        methodology to measure IAQ effectiveness in commercial building
        commissioning, including ventilation performance (outdoor
        airflow rate and pressure relationships between zones),
        pollutants (CO~2~, CO, formaldehyde, particulates, radon and
        VOCs), and thermal comfort (temperature, relative humidity, and
        operative temperature).

    6.  []{#A431 .anchor}Fountain and Huizenga 1996 \[166\] described a
        software tool for thermal comfort prediction that may be
        integrated into tools to model thermal comfort conditions for
        research, design, and system operation.

    7.  []{#A526 .anchor}Fountain and Huizenga 1997 \[167\] developed a
        user-friendly computer program that uses three heat-balance,
        three empirical, and two adaptive models to predict thermal
        comfort given input parameters including temperature, humidity,
        air speed, clothing, and metabolic rate.

    8.  []{#A478 .anchor}Hassani and Stetz 1994 \[207\] used a
        low-thermal- mass, porous, fiberglass screen in conjunction with
        an infrared camera to measure room air temperature.

    9.  []{#A668 .anchor}Lane et al. 1989 \[245\] discussed four main
        components of a procedure to diagnose a sick building or confirm
        a healthy building: knowledge of what to measure, availability
        of appropriate instrumentation, expertise in interpreting
        results of measurements, and capability of predicting building
        performance.

    10. []{#A154 .anchor}Levermore et al. 1999 \[250\] described an
        occupant comfort satisfaction feedback questionnaire that yields
        a "fingerprint" and score indicating their liking of their
        environment.

    11. []{#A225 .anchor}Mansson 1999 \[262\] described a tool that
        inputs parameters describing a building's ventilation system,
        envelope, and climate, and outputs ratings of IAQ (material,
        hours with too high CO~2~, tobacco smoke, cooking emission);
        level of condensation; energy required to heat indoor air;
        dryness feeling (low RH); high winter RH (leading to dust mite
        growth), and indoor-outdoor pressure difference.

    12. []{#A306 .anchor}Rajhans 1989 \[342\] listed field measurements
        made with simple instruments (temperature, RH, CO~2~,
        formaldehyde, CO, air movement) and those made with complex
        instruments (microorganisms, respirable suspended particulates,
        organic vapor, ozone, NO~x~, asbestos). Also provided an
        occupant IAQ survey.

    13. []{#A261 .anchor}Ross and Sterling 1997 \[354\] presented, for a
        commercial building, the results of pre- and post-occupancy
        measurements of TVOC, formaldehyde, respirable suspended
        particles (RSP), CO~2~, CO, temperature, and relative humidity.
        Testing apparatus included integrated sampling and direct
        reading (instantaneous) automated analyzers. Plans and materials
        specifications were reviewed prior to the on-site testing.

    14. []{#A650 .anchor}Walker et al. 1998 \[453\] discussed REGCAP, a
        computer model that evaluates residential HVAC system component
        performance and whole house performance based on measured data
        (ducts, equipment, envelope, and climate) to provide an estimate
        of duct, equipment and envelope performance and net cooling
        delivered (tons at the register).

    15. []{#A4 .anchor}Zmeureanu et al. 1998 \[469\] monitored room and
        register air temperatures with a data logger.

Norm

89. Occupant Comfort

    1.  []{#A441 .anchor}ASHRAE 1992 \[23\] specified the combinations
        of indoor space environment and personal factors that will
        produce thermal environmental conditions acceptable to 80% or
        more of the occupants within a space (temperature, thermal
        radiation, humidity and air speed; excludes IAQ, acoustics,
        illumination).

    2.  []{#A202 .anchor}Dols et al. 1995 \[120\] presented a table of
        existing IAQ criteria including outdoor airflow rate, pressure
        relationships between zones, CO~2~, CO, formaldehyde,
        particulates, radon, total VOCs and thermal comfort.

    3.  []{#A555 .anchor}Dols et al. 1994 \[121\] included, in an indoor
        air quality commissioning protocol, thermal comfort and
        ventilation norms based on the BOCA National Mechanical Code,
        ASHRAE Standard 62-1989 and ASHRAE Standard 55-1992. Dols et al.
        \[123\] discussed this protocol, subsequent commissioning
        results, and lessons learned.

    4.  EPA/DOE 1999 \[140\] specified that the standard for thermal
        comfort is ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-1992, Thermal Comfort
        Conditions for Human Occupancy \[23\].

    5.  []{#A264 .anchor}Odom 1997 \[306\] discussed the types of IAQ
        problems (high-frequency/low-consequence vs.
        low-frequency/high-consequence). Also discussed how IAQ problems
        are more apt to be seen in the first few years of occupancy in
        new buildings or in older buildings were usage patterns and
        occupancy has changed.

    6.  []{#A665 .anchor}Zhivov et al. 1994 \[468\] discussed the
        international differences in thermal comfort, ventilation and
        energy-efficient construction standards and codes.

3.2 Non-Biological Gaseous Pollutant Generation, Transport, and
Concentration

Metric

90. Pollutant Level or Index

    1.  []{#A83 .anchor}ASHRAE 1989 \[18\] specified CO exposure level
        limits in terms of average concentration and cumulative
        concentration over a particular measurement period.

    2.  []{#A162 .anchor}Bearg 1999 \[46\] noted that CO levels in
        occupied areas can indicate the extent to which the HVAC system
        is removing vehicle exhaust from building loading docks and
        parking areas. Also noted that CO~2~ concentrations are an
        indicator of ventilation performance.

    3.  []{#A982 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[79\] described soil gas transport
        and indoor air quality physics and mechanisms.

    4.  []{#A251 .anchor}Dols et al. 1995 \[122\] noted that CO levels
        can be monitored to detect the transport of garage fumes into a
        building.

    5.  []{#A772 .anchor}Karg 1999 \[224\] discussed metrics for CO
        levels.

    6.  []{#A238 .anchor}Moschandreas and Sofuoglu 1999 \[289\] defined
        an Indoor Air Pollution Index (IAPI), a metric for overall air
        quality that sums the effects of multiple pollutants.

    7.  []{#A245 .anchor}Su et al. 1999 \[417\] measured pollutant
        levels in units of PPM or μg m^-3^.

Diagnostic

91. Pollutant Level or Index

    1.  []{#A862 .anchor}ASTM 2000 \[36\] discussed performance
        statements (objectives, criteria, evaluation methods, and
        commentary) for radon control, referencing ASTM Standard E1465
        and testing to make sure indoor radon concentrations are less
        than 4 pCi/L. Discussed reducing pollutant transport from
        unconditioned spaces, garages, and outside the building, as well
        as reducing emissions within the building.

    2.  []{#A214 .anchor}Barbat et al. 1999 \[44\] measured CO~2~ levels
        with a B&K 1302 gas analyzer.

    3.  []{#A270 .anchor}Bearg 1998 \[45\] noted that CO level can be
        used to detect building infiltration by vehicle exhaust.

    4.  []{#A163 .anchor}Bearg 1999 \[46\] discussed CO~2~ level
        measurement techniques, including grab samples, one monitor at
        one location, several monitors at several locations, or a
        shared-sensor system with many sample lines; the author prefers
        the latter. Measured CO~2~, CO, and dew point to track
        commercial building HVAC performance during commissioning.

    5.  []{#A59 .anchor}Benton et al. 1996 \[49\] mentioned a particular
        CO~2~ monitor that costs \$450.

    6.  []{#A631 .anchor}Berk et al. 1981 \[51\] discussed gas
        measurements (formaldehyde, radon, CO, CO~2~, SO~2~, NO, NO~x~,
        O~3~) conducted in nine houses, pre- and post-retrofit.

    7.  []{#A196 .anchor}Cheong and Riffat 1993 \[69\] measured CO~2~,
        CO, and HCHO with a Miran Portable Ambient Analyzer (accuracy
        +/- 15%).

    8.  []{#A252 .anchor}Dols et al. 1995 \[122\] measured CO levels
        with an unspecified automated CO monitoring system.

    9.  []{#A669 .anchor}Lane et al. 1989 \[245\] discussed four main
        components of a procedure to diagnose a sick building or confirm
        a healthy building: knowledge of what to measure, availability
        of appropriate instrumentation, expertise in interpreting
        results of measurements, and capability of predicting building
        performance.

    10. []{#A307 .anchor}Rajhans 1989 \[342\] recommended
        instrumentation for simple field IAQ measurements (including
        pollutant levels), and specified when and where to measure
        pollutant levels.

    11. []{#A262 .anchor}Ross and Sterling 1997 \[354\] presented, for a
        commercial building, the results of pre- and post-occupancy
        measurements of TVOC, formaldehyde, respirable suspended
        particles (RSP), CO~2~, CO, temperature, and relative humidity.
        Testing apparatus included integrated sampling and direct
        reading (instantaneous) automated analyzers. Plans and materials
        specifications were reviewed prior to the on-site testing.

    12. []{#A882 .anchor}Schalch and Fryer 1992 \[364\] discussed the
        Energy Crafted Home's indoor air quality recommendations (avoid
        materials with high urea-formaldehyde content and provide a
        sub-slab layer of stone that permits the installation of a
        sub-slab depressurization system if necessary).

    13. []{#A334 .anchor}Schell 1995 \[365\] noted that indoor CO~2~
        levels indicate the ventilation rate, and that a controller can
        be used to control ventilation rates to maintain a CO~2~ level
        setpoint.

    14. []{#A244 .anchor}Stock et al. 1999 \[416\] compared the
        performance of 3M OVM diffusive (passive) VOC sampler with a
        reference VOC monitoring method (canister sampling). Found a
        good correlation for 8 of 12 target compounds; however, the
        passive sampler exhibited a statistically significant low bias
        for all but two of the VOCs.

    15. []{#A246 .anchor}Su et al. 1999 \[417\] specified techniques
        used to measure many pollutants.

    16. []{#A771 .anchor}Tsongas 1995 \[436\] recommended equipment for
        monitoring CO levels and specified an oven CO test protocol.
        Also stated the US EPA, WHO, and Health Canada recommended
        limits for CO exposure.

    Contaminant Sources

    1.  []{#A220 .anchor}Persily 1999 \[322\] described an IAQ
        performance guide being developed within ASTM, including
        radon-related construction requirements and measurement of
        indoor radon concentration after construction (not to exceed 4
        pCi/L). Also included emission rates from furnishings and
        materials using tests based on ASTM D5116.

    2.  []{#A308 .anchor}Rajhans 1989 \[342\] discussed indoor and
        outdoor sources of indoor air contaminants. Also presented a
        checklist to detect IAQ problems related to combustion (CO),
        other pollutant sources, HVAC, maintenance and design.

    3.  []{#A663 .anchor}Tsongas and Hager 1994 \[438\] discussed
        testing procedures to measure CO from gas ovens.

    Condensation Potential

    1.  []{#A983 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[79\] discussed window moisture
        problems, including a checklist of typical problems and
        solutions.

    2.  []{#A937 .anchor}Warner 1991 \[456\] discussed how to avoid
        window condensation by increasing window R-values, sealing
        cracks and joints around windows, or by increasing house
        ventilation rates.

Norm

94. Pollutant Level or Index

    1.  []{#A84 .anchor}ASHRAE 1989 \[18\] specified indoor, outdoor,
        and industrial-workplace CO exposure limits.

    2.  []{#A632 .anchor}Berk et al. 1981 \[51\] presented gas
        measurement results (formaldehyde, radon, CO, CO~2~, SO~2~, NO,
        NO~x~, O~3~) from nine houses, pre- and post-retrofit.

    3.  []{#A833 .anchor}Dols et al. 1994 \[121\] included, in an indoor
        air quality commissioning protocol, pollutant exposure levels
        and maximum concentration levels for carbon dioxide, carbon
        monoxide, formaldehyde, radon and volatile organic compounds.
        Dols et al. \[123\] discussed this protocol, subsequent
        commissioning results, and lessons learned.

    4.  []{#A253 .anchor}Dols et al. 1995 \[122\] presented recommended
        office-building pollutant levels (CO~2~, CO, formaldehyde,
        particulates, radon, TVOC) predicted to satisfy 90% of
        occupants.

    5.  []{#A180 .anchor}Nagda et al. 1987 \[292\] described an
        IAQ-monitoring guideline that lists exposure limits (from
        various organizations) to biological, non-biological, and
        particulate airborne pollutants.

    6.  []{#A265 .anchor}Odom 1997 \[306\] discussed the types of IAQ
        problems (high-frequency/low-consequence vs.
        low-frequency/high-consequence). Also discussed how IAQ problems
        are more apt to be seen in the first few years of occupancy in
        new buildings or in older buildings were usage patterns and
        occupancy has changed.

    7.  []{#A309 .anchor}Rajhans 1989 \[342\] provided indoor air
        quality guidelines prepared by the World Health Organization
        (1984).

    8.  []{#A230 .anchor}Seifert et al. 1999 \[366\] presented German
        government guidelines for Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level
        (LOAEL) of various pollutants (toluene, styrene,
        dichloromethane, penetachlorophenol, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
        dioxide), and also presented guidelines value for the indicator
        total volatile organic compounds (TVOC).

    9.  []{#A664 .anchor}Tsongas and Hager 1994 \[438\] presented EPA
        1-hour and 8-hour limits for CO exposure.

3.3 Moisture Generation, Storage, Transport, Concentration, and
Absorption

Metric

95. Humidity Level

    1.  []{#A271 .anchor}Bearg 1998 \[45\] noted that dew point
        (humidity level) can be monitored with a shared sensor (for
        comfort, to prevent fungal growth, and to check that the
        humidification systems are working properly).

    2.  []{#A722 .anchor}Forest and Walker 1991 \[161\] discussed
        measurement and model input variables to determine airflow and
        moisture content in attics. Forest and Walker 1992 \[162\], 1993
        \[163\], 1993 \[164\], and Walker and Forest 1995 \[452\] also
        discussed this research.

    3.  []{#A239 .anchor}Moschandreas and Sofuoglu 1999 \[289\] defined
        an Indoor Air Pollution Index (IAPI), a metric for overall air
        quality that sums the effects of multiple pollutants.

    4.  []{#A221 .anchor}Persily 1999 \[322\] described an IAQ
        performance guide being developed within ASTM, including issues
        related to excessive condensation within exterior wall
        construction. Criteria are based on the analysis of the design,
        followed by a lack of evidence of condensation after
        construction. Also included issues relating to moisture
        (foundation, crawl space, grade enclosures, roofs, exterior
        walls, windows, and doors) and minimization of water entry.
        Referenced ASTM E241 and the ASTM Moisture Control in Buildings
        Manual.

Diagnostic

96. Humidity Level

    1.  []{#A272 .anchor}Bearg 1998 \[45\] noted that dew point
        (humidity level) can be monitored with a shared sensor (for
        comfort, to prevent fungal growth, and to check that the
        humidification systems are working properly).

    2.  []{#A164 .anchor}Bearg 1999 \[46\] measured CO~2~, CO, and dew
        point to track commercial building HVAC performance during
        commissioning.

    3.  []{#A98 .anchor}Finley 1997 \[151\] evaluated airflow paths to
        determine their effect on indoor air problems (mold and
        moisture) and to determine mitigation strategies.

    4.  []{#A723 .anchor}Forest and Walker 1991 \[161\] discussed
        measuring and modeling airflow and moisture content in attics.
        Forest and Walker 1992 \[162\], 1993 \[163\], 1993 \[164\], and
        Walker and Forest 1995 \[452\] also discussed this research.

    5.  []{#A670 .anchor}Lane et al. 1989 \[245\] discussed four main
        components of a procedure to diagnose a sick building or confirm
        a healthy building: knowledge of what to measure, availability
        of appropriate instrumentation, expertise in interpreting
        results of measurements, and capability of predicting building
        performance.

    6.  []{#A717 .anchor}Tooley et al. 1994 \[428\] presented testing
        methodology to diagnose problems with attic ventilators, house
        or zone depressurization, moisture damage, and air barriers.

    7.  []{#A785 .anchor}Walker 1993 \[450\] discussed an attic
        simulation model (airflow and moisture) and measured data to
        evaluate attic ventilation and moisture problems.

Norm

97. Humidity Level

    1.  []{#A266 .anchor}Odom 1997 \[306\] discussed how buildings in
        hot and humid climates are more prone to failure due to problems
        with the building envelope and related barriers.

3.4 Bioaerosol (Fungi/Molds/Mites) Generation, Transport, and
Concentration

Metric

98. Pollutant Level or Index

    1.  []{#A235 .anchor}Deng et al. 1999 \[107\] measured dust mite
        concentration by counting the number of
        microscopically-observable dust mites per sticky sampling sheet.

    2.  []{#A232 .anchor}Fluckiger et al. 1999 \[158\] measured fungal
        concentration in terms of colony forming units (CFU) per m^-3^,
        and biological units (BU) per m^-3^.

    3.  []{#A240 .anchor}Moschandreas and Sofuoglu 1999 \[289\] defined
        an Indoor Air Pollution Index (IAPI), a metric for overall air
        quality that sums the effects of multiple pollutants.

    4.  []{#A310 .anchor}Rajhans 1989 \[342\] listed field measurements
        made with simple instruments (temperature, RH, CO~2~,
        formaldehyde, CO, air movement) and those made with complex
        instruments (microorganisms, respirable suspended particulates,
        organic vapor, ozone, NO~x~, asbestos).

    5.  []{#A247 .anchor}Su et al. 1999 \[417\] used CFU m^-3^ as a
        metric for fungal concentration, and μg allergen per g dust for
        allergens.

    6.  []{#A223 .anchor}Womble et al. 1999 \[464\] used CFU m^-3^ as a
        metric for fungal concentration.

Diagnostic

99. Pollutant Level or Index

    1.  []{#A984 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[79\] described the physics,
        mechanisms, health hazards of mold growth and transport,
        including a checklist of ways to reduce and control moisture and
        mold growth.

    2.  []{#A236 .anchor}Deng et al. 1999 \[107\] collected dust mites
        from air by deposition on sticky sampling tape.

    3.  []{#A99 .anchor}Finley 1997 \[151\] evaluated airflow paths to
        determine their effect on indoor air problems (mold and
        moisture) and to determine mitigation strategies.

    4.  []{#A233 .anchor}Fluckiger et al. 1999 \[158\] sampled mold
        using slit-samplers. Petri dishes filled with malt extract agar
        collected viable mold spores and allergens from air, and
        multistage liquid impingers with phosphate buffered saline were
        used for multi-stage sampling.

    5.  []{#A231 .anchor}Kemp et al. 1999 \[231\] compared three methods
        of extracting fungi from dust samples, and was satisfied only
        with sprinkling dust onto agar plates.

    6.  []{#A671 .anchor}Lane et al. 1989 \[245\] discussed four main
        components of a procedure to diagnose a sick building or confirm
        a healthy building: knowledge of what to measure, availability
        of appropriate instrumentation, expertise in interpreting
        results of measurements, and capability of predicting building
        performance.

    7.  []{#A311 .anchor}Rajhans 1989 \[342\] recommended
        instrumentation for simple field IAQ measurements (including
        pollutant levels), and specified when and where to measure
        pollutant levels.

    8.  []{#A224 .anchor}Womble et al. 1999 \[464\] collected airborne
        fungi on an inertial impactor and sent the samples to a lab for
        culture and analysis.

    Contaminant Sources

    1.  []{#A822 .anchor}Flannigan 1992 \[156\] discussed microbial
        sampling techniques, including pros and cons, potential
        problems; highlights need for simpler techniques that can be
        used in the field.

    2.  []{#A839 .anchor}Morey and Horner 1997 \[287\] discussed
        measurement and mitigation strategies for microbiological VOCs
        (MVOCs); included references to documents on diagnostic and
        mitigation.

    3.  []{#A312 .anchor}Rajhans 1989 \[342\] discussed indoor and
        outdoor sources of indoor air contaminants.

Norm

101. Pollutant level or Index

     1.  []{#A840 .anchor}Morey and Horner 1997 \[287\] presented
         microbiological VOC (MVOC) sampling results from buildings in
         all major geographical areas of the U.S.

     2.  []{#A181 .anchor}Nagda et al. 1987 \[292\] described an
         IAQ-monitoring guideline that lists exposure limits (from
         various organizations) to biological, non-biological, and
         particulate airborne pollutants.

     Contaminant Sources

     1.  []{#A4000 .anchor}EPA/DOE 1999 \[140\] specified that a
         building should be free of microbiological sources (e.g., no
         visible microbial growth on walls).

     2.  []{#A823 .anchor}Flannigan 1992 \[156\] discussed
         classifications of microbial species based on a~w~ ("water
         activity," a ratio of vapor pressures, which provides a truer
         indication of moisture availability for microbial growth).

     3.  []{#A267 .anchor}Odom 1997 \[306\] discussed how biological
         pollutants are often more expensive to mitigate as removal of
         building materials that have significant infestations of mold
         and mildew must be conducted very carefully to prevent
         contamination of additional surfaces and prevent exposure of
         workers or adjacent occupants.

3.5 Particulate Generation, Transport, and Concentration

Metric

103. Pollutant Level or Index

     1.  []{#A85 .anchor}ASHRAE 1989 \[18\] described pollutant level in
         terms of concentration averaged over a particular measurement
         period.

     2.  []{#A242 .anchor}Holopainen et al. 1999 \[212\] gaged the dust
         concentration in duct air in terms of dust deposition on the
         duct wall (g m^-2^).

     3.  []{#A241 .anchor}Moschandreas and Sofuoglu 1999 \[289\] defined
         an Indoor Air Pollution Index (IAPI), a metric for overall air
         quality that sums the effects of multiple pollutants.

     4.  []{#A313 .anchor}Rajhans 1989 \[342\] listed field measurements
         made with simple instruments (temperature, RH, CO~2~,
         formaldehyde, CO, air movement) and those made with complex
         instruments (microorganisms, respirable suspended particulates,
         organic vapor, ozone, NO~x~, asbestos). Also provided IAQ
         guidelines prepared by the World Health Organization (1984).

     5.  []{#A675 .anchor}Turner et al. 1996 \[441\] compared
         particle-sampling methodologies (PM-10, PM-2.5) to near
         real-time particle samplers (laser diode-based counter) in
         three commercial settings (pre- and post- IAQ remediation).

Diagnostic

104. Pollutant Level or Index

     1.  []{#A633 .anchor}Berk et al. 1981 \[51\] discussed particulate
         measurements conducted in nine houses, pre- and post-retrofit.

     2.  []{#A237 .anchor}Deng et al. 1999 \[107\] collected dust
         (settled particles and fibers) for a week on glass covered with
         a thin Vaseline layer, then examined the collection with a 150X
         optical microscope.

     3.  []{#A234 .anchor}Fluckiger et al. 1999 \[158\] collected dust
         samples with an allergen mouthpiece attached to a household
         vacuum cleaner.

     4.  []{#A243 .anchor}Holopainen et al. 1999 \[212\] compared three
         duct-air sampling methods: vacuum collection onto a pre-weighed
         filter, mass of dust deposited on a sampling tape, and optical
         transmission through a dust sampling tape.

     5.  []{#A672 .anchor}Lane et al. 1989 \[245\] discussed four main
         components of a procedure to diagnose a sick building or
         confirm a healthy building: knowledge of what to measure,
         availability of appropriate instrumentation, expertise in
         interpreting results of measurements, and capability of
         predicting building performance.

     6.  []{#A314 .anchor}Rajhans 1989 \[342\] recommended
         instrumentation for simple field IAQ measurements (including
         pollutant levels), and specified when and where to measure
         pollutant levels.

     7.  []{#A263 .anchor}Ross and Sterling 1997 \[354\] presented, for
         a commercial building, the results of pre- and post-occupancy
         measurements of TVOC, formaldehyde, respirable suspended
         particles (RSP), CO~2~, CO, temperature, and relative humidity.
         Testing apparatus included integrated sampling and direct
         reading (instantaneous) automated analyzers. Plans and
         materials specifications were reviewed prior to the on-site
         testing.

     8.  []{#A676 .anchor}Turner et al. 1996 \[441\] compared
         particle-sampling methodologies (PM-10, PM-2.5) to near
         real-time particle samplers (laser diode-based counter) in
         three commercial settings (pre- and post- IAQ remediation).

     Contaminant Sources

     1.  []{#A315 .anchor}Rajhans 1989 \[342\] discussed indoor and
         outdoor sources of indoor air contaminants.

Norm

106. Pollutant Level or Index

     1.  []{#A86 .anchor}ASHRAE 1989 \[18\] specified indoor, outdoor,
         and industrial workplace asbestos exposure limits.

     2.  []{#A634 .anchor}Berk et al. 1981 \[51\] presented particulate
         measurements from nine houses, pre- and post-retrofit.

     3.  []{#A834 .anchor}Dols et al. 1994 \[121\] included, in an
         indoor air quality commissioning protocol, pollutant exposure
         levels and maximum concentration levels for particulates. Dols
         et al. \[123\] discussed this protocol, subsequent
         commissioning results, and lessons learned.

     4.  []{#A254 .anchor}Dols et al. 1995 \[122\] presented recommended
         office-building pollutant levels (CO~2~, CO, formaldehyde,
         particulates, radon, TVOC) predicted to satisfy 90% of
         occupants.

     5.  []{#A182 .anchor}Nagda et al. 1987 \[292\] described an
         IAQ-monitoring guideline listing exposure limits (from various
         organizations) to biological, non-biological, and particulate
         airborne pollutants.

4\. Other

4.1 Domestic Hot Water

Metric

107. 1.  []{#A371 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1987 \[401\] discussed
         water-heater recovery efficiency (gas only), and water-heater
         standby losses (gas and electric).

Diagnostic

108. 1.  []{#A854 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[25\] specified the ASHRAE test
         procedure for rating the efficiency of residential water
         heaters. Test procedures include measuring water and ambient
         temperatures (nine thermocouples), water flow, energy supply
         (electric, gas, oil), and tank storage capacity; test results
         include an energy factor and the hot water delivery capability
         in terms of a first-hour rating.

     2.  []{#A372 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1987 \[401\] discussed
         water-heater recovery efficiency (gas only), and water-heater
         standby losses (gas and electric).

     3.  []{#A775 .anchor}Stewart et al. 1999 \[415\] discussed modeling
         techniques to determine system losses in residential and
         commercial hot water systems, using the transient convective
         energy equation and Fourier\'s conduction model along with
         system characteristics and usage patterns. Calculated system
         losses can be taken into account when sizing hot water heaters
         and boilers.

Norm

109. 1.  []{#A453 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[27\] specified domestic water
         heater selection (efficiency, performance) and installation
         requirements for compliance with the prescriptive requirements
         of ASHRAE Standard 90.2-1993.

     2.  []{#A850 .anchor}ASHRAE 1995 \[28\] described basic and
         prescriptive requirements for water heating systems, including
         sizing of systems, equipment efficiency, piping insulation, and
         controls. Also specified standard rating conditions, operating
         factors, applicable standards, and minimum performance factors
         for boilers and water-heating equipment; specified minimum
         pipe-insulation levels for distribution piping.

     3.  []{#A1015 .anchor}BII 1998 \[53\] briefly specified procedures
         for water heater jackets and pipe insulation.

     4.  []{#A354 .anchor}CEC 1999 \[66\] presented the California
         building code Title 24 requirements for insulation of and heat
         loss from water heater tanks.

     5.  []{#A133 .anchor}DOE 1995 \[116\] discussed background
         information on HERS heating, air-conditioning and water heating
         equipment for HERS policy options being discussed in DOE\'s
         1995 request for comments on fuel neutrality and adjustment
         factors, and standard efficiencies.

     6.  []{#A138 .anchor}DOE 1995 \[117\] discussed (in greater detail
         than DOE 1995 \[116\]) the analysis of heating,
         air-conditioning, and water heating equipment adjustment
         factors for the HERS guidelines.

     7.  []{#A883 .anchor}Schalch and Fryer 1992 \[364\] discussed the
         Energy Crafted Home's requirement that heating and water
         heating equipment must have sealed or closed combustion.

     8.  []{#A892 .anchor}Weingarten and Weingarten \[457\] discussed
         water heater types, maintenance tasks, and options and
         specifications related to installing and upgrading water
         heaters.

     9.  []{#A893 .anchor}Weingarten and Weingarten 1996 \[458\] in a
         response to a letter to the editor, discussed how to remove and
         replace water heater anodes.

4.2 Lighting

Metric

110. none

Diagnostic

111. 1.  []{#A547 .anchor}EPA 1998 \[139\] detailed a three-step process
         for a lighting system tune-up: (1) green lights (follow a
         strategic lighting maintenance plan of schedule groups
         relamping and fixture cleaning); (2) measure and ensure proper
         light levels; and (3) calibrate lighting controls. It noted
         that savings from cleaning fixtures can range from 10 to 60%,
         and that calibration of occupancy sensors and photocells can
         reduce energy use in served areas by 50% or more.

     2.  []{#A551 .anchor}UL 1999 \[442\] names U.S. and Canadian test
         standards for the energy efficiency of fluorescent lamp
         ballasts.

Norm

112. 1.  []{#A355 .anchor}CEC 1999 \[66\] presented the California
         building code Title 24 standards for lighting controls.

     2.  []{#A568 .anchor}EPA 1997 \[138\] listed both standard and
         energy-efficient choices for lighting living spaces, bathrooms,
         laundry areas, and garage/utility areas.

     3.  []{#A884 .anchor}Schalch and Fryer 1992 \[364\] discussed the
         Energy Crafted Home's lighting requirements, including
         hard-wired fluorescents and compact fluorescents in bare bulb
         and decorative fixtures.

4.3 Plug Loads

Metric

113. 1.  []{#A373 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1987 \[401\] discussed monthly
         refrigerator energy consumption. Long-term monitoring was
         needed due to large daily fluctuation in energy consumption.
         This included measuring fridge and freezer compartment
         temperatures, door openings/closings, and the ambient
         temperature.

Diagnostic

114. 1.  []{#A289 .anchor}Coyle 1999 \[91\] extended building
         commissioning to electric systems, listing representative
         electric integrity tests, representative functional performance
         tests, who should performs the tests, and specifications for
         said tests.

     2.  []{#A548 .anchor}EPA 1998 \[139\] noted opportunities for
         improving the efficiencies of a building's electric power
         systems, including evaluating and correcting voltage
         imbalances, voltage deviations, poor connections, undersized
         conductors, poor power factors, insulation leakage, and
         harmonics.

     3.  []{#A123 .anchor}Mixon and Meier 1990 \[273\] compared and
         listed sources for four different electric-load monitoring
         methods.

     4.  []{#A62 .anchor}Sharp 1994 \[369\] discussed the hardware,
         installation, capabilities, and application of non-intrusive
         (electric) load monitoring systems (NILMS).

     5.  []{#A374 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1987 \[401\] discussed
         refrigerator energy consumption, including measuring
         refrigerator and freezer compartment temperatures, openings and
         closing of compartment doors, ambient temperature, and electric
         energy use.

Norm

115. 1.  []{#A1028 .anchor}Meier 1993 \[268\] reported that the Energy
         Guide labels affixed to new refrigerators predict actual energy
         consumption fairly well, though they may under predict energy
         use in warm southern U.S. states.

     2.  []{#A1027 .anchor}Meier 1993 \[269\] listed typical month power
         consumption of many common household appliances.

     3.  []{#A1029 .anchor}Parker and Stedman 1993 \[312\] measured
         kitchen, refrigerator, and freezer temperatures, door openings,
         and plug loads to determine the refrigeration performance
         improvements and energy savings achieved by replacing an old
         refrigerator with a new, similarly-featured, energy efficient
         model.

     4.  []{#A21 .anchor}Parker et al. 1998 \[314\] measured
         miscellaneous energy loads (e.g. security system, portable
         phones, aquarium pump, computer), reporting watts, hours/day,
         and annual kWh.

     5.  []{#A4005 .anchor}Sherman et al. 1985 \[381\] examined the
         overall energy impacts of two energy-efficient refrigerators in
         four types of houses with and without space cooling equipment.
         The heating and cooling loads of each of the houses are
         determined with an hour-by-hour simulation program (TRNSYS) for
         three climates in the Pacific Northwest.

4.4 Air Filters and Cleaners

Metric

116. 1.  []{#A994 .anchor}ASHRAE 1992 \[22\] defined arrestance (ability
         of a device to remove dust from air), dust-holding capacity,
         dust-spot opacity (percentage decrease in light transmission
         due to dust buildup on target), opacity index.

     2.  []{#A222 .anchor}Persily 1999 \[322\] described an IAQ
         performance guide being developed within ASTM, including
         objectives related to filtration (particulate filtration should
         be provided in forced-air heating and cooling systems in order
         to control particulate levels in the indoor air and the
         maintain the cleanliness of HVAC components).

Diagnostic

117. 1.  []{#A995 .anchor}ASHRAE 1992 \[22\] described gravimetric and
         dust-spot procedures for measuring the efficiency with which
         air-cleaning devices arrest (remove) dust.

     2.  []{#A863 .anchor}ASTM 2000 \[36\] discussed HVAC-system
         air-filtration criteria and visual inspection requirements.

     3.  []{#A826 .anchor}Hanley et al. 1994 \[202\] described a
         laboratory test method to test fractional filtration efficiency
         of air cleaners used in general ventilation. The test method
         requires a test rig that pre-filters air, adds potassium
         chloride as a test particulate, and measures and differentiates
         penetration rates based on particulate size.

Norm

118. 1.  []{#A827 .anchor}Hanley et al. 1994 \[202\] presented
         fractional filtration efficiency test results, based on
         particulate size, using a laboratory test rig. Provided results
         for pleated-paper filters, electronic air cleaners
         (electrostatic precipitator type), and fiberglass furnace
         filters.

4.5 Noise

Metric

119. NONE

Diagnostic

120. 1.  []{#A985 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[79\] discussed noise transmission
         in houses and mitigation through house layout and installation
         of insulation.

Norm

121. NONE

4.6 Maintenance Ease and Necessity

Metric

122. NONE

Diagnostic

123. NONE

Norm

124. NONE

4.7 Instrumentation

Metric

125. NONE

Diagnostic

126. 1.  []{#A255 .anchor}Arney and Frey 1995 \[12\] explained why
         short-term monitoring is better than one-time functional
         performance tests when evaluating HVAC system temperatures,
         humidity levels, fan energy, and evaporative cooler pump
         energy.

     2.  []{#A74 .anchor}ASHRAE 1989 \[17\] presented the ASHRAE
         standard orifice-flowmeter method for measurement of liquid
         flow in pipes, for use with fluids associated with HVAC
         systems.

     3.  []{#A70 .anchor}ASHRAE 1991 \[19\] presented the ASHRAE
         standard method for measuring temperatures.

     4.  []{#A73 .anchor}ASHRAE 1991 \[20\] presented the ASHRAE
         standard method for measurement of gas flow.

     5.  []{#A60 .anchor}Benton et al. 1996 \[49\] described assorted
         data loggers and sensors for short-term monitoring.

     6.  []{#A517 .anchor}Bevirt 1994 \[52\] listed six
         temperature-measurement instruments, specifying recommended
         uses and limitations.

     7.  []{#A61 .anchor}Bowman and Goldberg 1994 \[58\] extensively
         discussed how to choose electric-load monitoring instruments
         suitable for a particular project.

     8.  []{#A287 .anchor}Cummings et al. 1990 \[98\] discussed tracer
         gas, blower door, smoke and visual inspection methods to study
         the effects of duct leakage on airflow, infiltration, heating
         and cooling.

     9.  []{#A953 .anchor}Davis 1995 \[104\] discussed the use of
         color-coded pressure tubing, rather than all clear tubing, to
         keep track of measurements and reduce errors.

     10. []{#A768 .anchor}Dodier and Kreider 1999 \[113\] described an
         Energy Consumption Index (ECI) that can be used with a neural
         net to track and detect energy usage problems in commercial
         buildings, based on usage patterns and weather factors.

     11. []{#A970 .anchor}Dutton 1994 \[129\] discussed gas and
         combustion-related testing and measuring device, including
         pressure gages, portable explosion meters, regulators, chemical
         or electronic flue gas analyzers, CO~2~ and O~2~ analyzer,
         stack thermometer, CO tester, draft gage, combustion efficiency
         calculators, and manometers.

     12. []{#A15 .anchor}Farrar et al. 1998 \[145\] used a data logger,
         weather tower, and indoor sensors to form a thermal performance
         monitoring system that measured outside weather, indoor
         climate, and electric power consumption over several weeks.

     13. []{#A535 .anchor}Griffith 1993 \[183\] discussed the use of an
         in-line gas meter to measure gas consumption over a set period
         of time.

     14. []{#A951 .anchor}Home Energy 1997 \[216\] presented a
         discussion about data loggers with Danny Parker (Florida Solar
         Energy Center), Frederic Goldner (Energy Management and
         Research Associates), Jonathon Beers (Madison Gas & Electric),
         and David Springer (Davis Energy Group).

     15. []{#A950 .anchor}Kelley and Keefe \[230\] described the
         telltale house, an interactive exhibit to demonstrate how
         pressure differences affect different parts of a house.

     16. []{#A954 .anchor}Kinney 1993 \[234\] discussed the use of
         elapsed time meters and/or thermostats with run-hour memory to
         evaluate the effectiveness of weatherization work.

     17. []{#A947 .anchor}Kinney 1995 \[233\] discussed the use of a
         wiring analyzer to check electric circuits before installing
         blown-in insulation.

     18. []{#A1031 .anchor}Knight et al. 1995 \[239\] discussed the
         development and testing of a hand-held device to for detecting
         air leakage sites on building surfaces. Soap is applied to a
         building surface and the PACT unit is used to apply a vacuum to
         the surface. Air leakage sites are identified by the appearance
         of soap bubbles, created by the vacuum. The unit is calibrated,
         relating pressure differences to leakage area. The PACT unit is
         able to detect smaller and more leaks than the use of smoke,
         however has trouble with larger leakage sites, most of which
         are better detected visually.

     19. []{#A681 .anchor}Koles et al. 1996 \[241\] listed various
         instruments for measuring temperature, airflow, air motion, and
         humidity. These included (a) for temperature, a liquid-in-glass
         thermometer, resistance thermometer, thermocouple or bimetallic
         thermometer; mean radiant temperature (MRT) measurement with a
         globe thermometer or a two-sphere radiometer; (b) for air
         motion, a hot-wire anemometer, heater sphere anemometer, heater
         resistance anemometer, vane anemometer or a cup anemometer; (c)
         for humidity, a psychrometer, dew-point hygrometer, electrical
         conductivity or capacity hygrometer, radiant temperature
         asymmetry measured with a net radiometer or a directional
         radiometer; and (d) for surface temperature, a contact
         thermometer or an infrared sensor.

     20. []{#A127 .anchor}Lawton 1992 \[247\] gave methods for and case
         examples of short-term monitoring (here, pressure gages,
         temperature sensors and humidity sensors used to characterize
         building-envelope heat flow).

     21. []{#A957 .anchor}Lutz 1991 \[258\] described and discussed
         tools for use in audits, including knowledge, senses, utility
         bills, heat loss calculations, thermometers, psychrometers,
         wood moisture meters, CO testers, pressure gages, duct flow
         measurement tools, combustion analyzers, blower door, infrared
         camera, short-term monitoring, mirrors and flashlights.

     22. []{#A609 .anchor}Modera and Jump 1995 \[274\] used a cellular
         modem to upload data acquired by an on-site data logger to
         laboratory computer each night, allowing remote monitoring of
         the experiment.

     23. []{#A955 .anchor}Reichmuth 1992 \[344\] discussed lighting
         audit tools and how to use them in residential settings.
         Lighting auditing tools discussed include portable wattmeters,
         watt loggers, CT loggers, current loggers, and occupancy
         analyzers.

     24. []{#A793 .anchor}Sherman and Dickerhoff 1989 \[391\] describe
         the multi-tracer measurement system (MTMS) to measure
         time-varying interzonal flows and presented MTMS results for
         two houses.

     25. []{#A1034 .anchor}SMACNA 1993 \[407\] described testing and
         balancing equipment, including: airflow measuring instruments
         (manometers, pitot tubes, pressure gages, anemometers, flow
         hoods, and smoke devices), hydronic measuring instruments
         (manometers and pressure gages), rotation measuring instruments
         (tachometers), temperature measuring devices (thermometers,
         thermocouples, electronic thermometers, psychrometers and
         electronic thermohygrometers), electrical measuring instruments
         (volt-ammeter), communication devices, and hydronic flow
         measuring devices (venturi tube and orifice plate, annular flow
         indicator, calibrated balancing valves and location of flow
         devices).

     26. []{#A812 .anchor}Ternes 1987 \[420\] described data parameters
         to collect in single-family retrofit research projects and
         described data analysis approaches and issues. Data parameters
         included (a) basic data (house characteristics, leakage
         measurements, metered performance of HVAC systems, and
         verification of retrofit installation quality); (b)
         time-sequential data (sub-metered space-conditioning energy
         consumption, weather station measurements \[dry bulb,
         horizontal solar radiation, humidity, wind speed and
         direction\], indoor temperature and humidity, total fuel
         consumptions \[billing meter data\], wood heating usage, and
         sub-metered water heating energy consumption); (c) optional
         occupant behavior data (additional indoor temperature and
         humidity, hourly heating and cooling thermostat
         set-points); (d) geographic characteristics (terrain and
         shielding); and (e) distribution system data (duct leakage area
         measured using fan pressurization).

     27. []{#A143 .anchor}The Energy Conservatory 1999 \[422\] presented
         specifications of its Automated Performance Testing System
         (APT), an eight pressure channel data logger.

     28. []{#A956 .anchor}Trombly 1991 \[433\] discussed a hand-held
         low-E window coating detector device.

Norm

127. 1.  []{#A853 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[24\] specified test apparatus
         tolerance requirements for temperature, pressure, draft,
         weight, time, energy consumption and energy flow rate, heating
         value, combustion products, and smoke measuring devices and
         instruments to be used with the ASHRAE test procedure for
         rating the efficiency of residential central furnaces and
         boilers.

     2.  []{#A855 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[25\] specified test apparatus
         tolerance requirements for temperature, pressure, draft,
         weight, time, energy consumption and energy flow rate, heating
         value, water flow, combustion products, and smoke measuring
         devices and instruments to be used with the ASHRAE test
         procedure for rating the efficiency of residential water
         heaters.

     3.  []{#A952 .anchor}Snell 1993 \[408\] discussed infrared imaging
         system pros and cons, and how to select a system.

5\. Non-Technical

5.1 Commissioning Process

Metric

128. 1.  []{#A472 .anchor}Tseng et al. 1994 \[435\] specified 10
         criteria to assess the effectiveness of a commissioning program
         (e.g., number & severity of defects, quality of maintenance
         training).

Diagnostic

129. 1.  []{#A962 .anchor}Allen 1999 \[2\] discussed Canada's rating
         system, based on a site evaluation and HOT2XP analysis, which
         provides homeowners with an energy-efficiency rating label and
         provided energy-efficiency improvements suggestions for their
         house.

     2.  []{#A273 .anchor}Arney 1998 \[11\] discussed using calibrated
         models and short-term monitoring to reduce risk and increase
         the confidence of energy savings estimates for complex retrofit
         projects by ESCos in non-residential buildings.

     3.  []{#A291 .anchor}Arney and Frey 1999 \[13\] discussed tune-ups
         (retro-commissioning) as a way to increase energy savings,
         including short-term diagnostic testing, measurement and
         verification, and performance service system (maintenance
         tracking system).

     4.  []{#A851 .anchor}ASHRAE 1995 \[28\] specified requirements and
         procedures to survey total energy use in existing buildings,
         including building type classification, building area, energy
         use and electric demand data, data requirements, and data
         analysis. Energy survey results include electric index (EI,
         total electricity used annually per unit floor area), fuel
         usage, Energy Utilization Index (EUI, total energy used
         annually for all fuels \[in kBtu/yr or kWh/yr\] per unit floor
         area), and the Cost Index (CI, total cost for all fuels used
         annually per unit floor area).

     5.  []{#A204 .anchor}ASHRAE 1996 \[30\] specified a recommended
         process to use when commissioning HVAC equipment. Procedures,
         methods, and document requirements described cover each phase
         of the commissioning process, from pre-design through final
         acceptance and post-occupancy, including changes in building
         and occupancy requirements after initial occupancy.
         Documentation procedures include owner's assumptions and
         requirements; design intent, Basis of Design, and expected
         performance; verification and functional performance testing;
         and operation and maintenance criteria. Process-related details
         include conducting verification and functional performance
         testing and maintaining system performance to meet the current
         design intent after initial occupancy. Outlined a training
         program for operation and maintenance personnel.

     6.  []{#A197 .anchor}Benner and Stum 1993 \[48\] discussed
         commissioning and re-commissioning opportunities in buildings,
         giving examples of the needs for commissioning (e.g., duct
         leakage, improper refrigerant charge levels). Also listed costs
         and benefits to builders, contractors, and utilities. Provided
         guidelines to buildings and utilities for incorporating
         commissioning and re-commissioning into their programs.

     7.  []{#A518 .anchor}Bevirt 1994 \[52\] described the services of
         TAB professionals and their role in the commissioning process,
         with an emphasis on very large buildings.

     8.  []{#A1016 .anchor}BII 1998 \[53\] described a classroom and
         on-site program to train builders to comply with building
         energy codes.

     9.  []{#A269 .anchor}Boner and Dasher 1997 \[57\] briefly described
         a Oregon Office of Energy commissioning toolkit developed to
         help state agencies commission their buildings, including
         boilerplate pre-functional and functional tests.

     10. []{#A67 .anchor}Brohard and Krieg 1994 \[59\] listed a
         four-part commissioning plan for EEMs (static installation
         test, functional performance test, site environmental quality
         test, recommissioning test) that enumerates the tests needed to
         determine whether EEMs are properly installed and operating
         correctly.

     11. []{#A961 .anchor}Cavallo 1999 \[64\] compared side-by-side HERS
         ratings on two houses (one new and one old). For the older
         house, ratings varied based on the raters' interpretation of
         what defined conditioned space. However, the spread of rating
         values did not affect the suggested energy-efficiency
         improvements.

     12. []{#A986 .anchor}CMHC 1998 \[79\] provided a checklist of
         potential problems and retrofit activities relating to
         different parts of a house (for example: foundation problems
         and construction techniques, structural considerations, water
         damage, air leakage).

     13. []{#A888 .anchor}Cohen and Goldman 1991 \[81\] discussed
         technical recommendations that have been included in various
         weatherization programs: blower-door guided infiltration
         reduction and infrared scanning, high-density blown cellulose
         wall insulation, high-efficiency condensing furnaces,
         additional attic insulation, low-cost water heater retrofits,
         and duct sealing.

     14. []{#A686 .anchor}Cooper et al. 1997 \[90\] discussed
         opportunities for performance contracting in the Canadian
         residential sector, primarily in multi-family buildings.

     15. []{#A63 .anchor}Dodds et al. 1994 \[111\] described a procedure
         for evaluating the commissioning process in commercial
         buildings (objectives, scope, steps, responsibilities).

     16. []{#A34 .anchor}Dodds et al. 1998 \[110\] gave flowcharts for
         the new-construction commissioning and retro-commissioning
         processes. Also identified commissioning providers and
         providers of technical, information, and training services.

     17. []{#A788 .anchor}Dodge 1996 \[112\] described the outlook for
         U.S. residential construction, including forecasts of single
         family, multi family, attached, low-rise, and high-rise homes
         in various regions of the country.

     18. []{#A135 .anchor}DOE 1995 \[116\] discussed background
         information and request for comments regarding DOE's 1995
         proposed phased-in compliance period for the HERS program.
         DOE's 1995 proposal included one year to come into "basic
         compliance" by meeting a specific set of guideline provisions,
         and two years to come into "full accreditation" by meeting all
         the guideline provisions.

     19. []{#A336 .anchor}DOE 1997 \[118\] presented the components of
         the International Performance Measurement and Verification
         Protocol (IPMVP), which is used to measure and verify energy
         and water efficiency savings related to energy efficiency
         retrofits and energy savings performance contracts (ESPCs).

     20. []{#A778 .anchor}DOE 1998 \[119\] discussed commissioning
         practices, protocols, and techniques for existing buildings and
         retrofit activities. Provided examples, cost analyses,
         checklists, and project-phase specific information.

     21. []{#A149 .anchor}DOE 1999 \[114\] presented DOE's summary of
         building energy software tools, including energy simulations,
         load calculation, renewable energy, retrofit analysis, and
         sustainability/green buildings.

     22. []{#A150 .anchor}DOE 1999 \[115\] discussed model energy code,
         the MECcheck program, state-by-state information on buildings,
         links to other building codes, and standards-related web sites.

     23. []{#A835 .anchor}Dols et al. 1994 \[121\] described an indoor
         air quality commissioning protocol, including specific testing
         protocols and instrumentation requirements. The protocol
         included comparing ventilation system design with codes and
         standards, determining reference indoor environment parameter
         values and measuring the indoor environment parameters at three
         construction phases. Indoor environment parameters relate to
         ventilation performance (outdoor airflow rate and relative
         pressurization between zones), pollutants (carbon dioxide,
         carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, particulates, radon and volatile
         organic compounds), and thermal comfort (temperature, relative
         humidity and operative temperature). Dols et al. 1995 \[123\]
         discussed this protocol, subsequent commissioning results, and
         lessons learned.

     24. []{#A203 .anchor}Dols et al. 1995 \[120\] described a
         methodology to measure IAQ effectiveness in commercial building
         commissioning, including ventilation performance (outdoor
         airflow rate and pressure relationships between zones),
         pollutants (CO~2~, CO, formaldehyde, particulates, radon and
         VOCs), and thermal comfort (temperature, relative humidity, and
         operative temperature).

     25. []{#A13 .anchor}Elberling et al. 1998 \[132\] presented lessons
         learned in a retrofit process, including choice of building
         design team, design constraints, equipment selection,
         contractors and sub-contractors, and commissioning errors.

     26. []{#A328 .anchor}Elovitz 1986 \[134\] described a series of
         commissioning case studies of problems found with system
         design, combined design/installation, installation, balancing
         and controls, equipment, and calibration and monitoring.
         Discussed how commissioning requires a systems approach and
         viewing the building as a whole.

     27. []{#A317 .anchor}Elovitz 1992 \[135\] discussed the why and how
         of the HVAC commissioning process and procedures, including
         preparing for commissioning, developing a commissioning plan,
         who commissions mechanical systems, and commissioning and
         Design/Build. Also gave examples from actual HVAC commissioning
         experiences (e.g. with heat exchangers, thermostats, pumps, and
         fans) to illustrate the processes of investigation and
         analysis.

     28. []{#A549 .anchor}EPA 1998 \[139\] recommended that a building
         tune-up should be implemented in the following order: (1)
         lighting; (2) building envelope; (3) controls; (4) testing
         adjusting, and balancing; (5) heat exchange equipment; and (6)
         heating and cooling system.

     29. []{#A557 .anchor}EPA/DOE 1999 \[140\] described the Energy Star
         Benchmarking Tool, a computer program that rates a building
         based on physical attribute, operating characteristic, and
         energy consumption data.

     30. []{#A685 .anchor}FEMP 1999 \[148\] discussed the measurement
         and verification procedures and options for FEMP's Super Energy
         Savings Performance Contract program.

     31. []{#A417 .anchor}Gardiner and Piette 1985 \[174\] discussed the
         benefits and limitations of using whole-building energy data.
         Also discussed the additional benefits of sub-metered data to
         assess the impacts of energy efficiency retrofits in commercial
         buildings.

     32. []{#A864 .anchor}Gerardi and Sweeney 1994 \[175\] summarized
         the instrumented audit technique (software tool) developed for
         use in weatherization procedures. The protocol included health
         and safety, blower door measurements, and heating systems
         problem diagnostics; the software leads the auditor through a
         decision tree to determine most important issues to address.

     33. []{#A886 .anchor}Greely et al. 1992 \[176\] discussed
         recommended installation standards and checklists for
         weatherization programs (heating, insulation, water heating,
         air tightness and repairs).

     34. []{#A623 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1981 \[192\] described utility
         bill and weather data analyses to predict building energy
         performance.

     35. []{#A508 .anchor}Guven and Spaeth 1994 \[197\] described the
         process of large building commissioning through a detailed
         example of the commissioning of a thermal energy storage unit.
         Included a glossary of commissioning-related terms.

     36. []{#A657 .anchor}Hammon and Modera 1996 \[199\] discussed
         strategies and provided key action items to integrate tight
         duct construction parameters and factors into HERS, Title 24,
         and energy-efficient mortgages. Provided material and
         performance metrics.

     37. []{#A17 .anchor}Haberl et al. 1998 \[198\] presented a general
         diagnostic for discovery of problem areas affecting energy
         savings, and states that an occupant training program is
         necessary to obtain and maintain energy savings.

     38. []{#A1017 .anchor}Heinz and McCray 1996 \[210\] discussed the
         commissioning of four new teaching and research science
         buildings at the University of Washington, with attention to
         problems encountered.

     39. []{#A268 .anchor}Hitchcock et al. 1997 \[211\] discussed the
         conceptual development of tools for use in commissioning and
         life-cycle tracking of commercial building performance,
         including a tool for capturing design intent, a chiller
         commissioning tool kit to assist in verifying and documenting
         installed chiller performance, building design advisor, and a
         performance evaluation and tracking tool (chiller emulator and
         data visualization module). Also discussed interoperability
         (concurrent access to project/building information relating to
         building design, construction, commissioning and use) via BLISS
         (Building Life-cycle Information Support System).

     40. []{#A421 .anchor}Kjellman et al. 1996 \[237\] assessed building
         commissioning practices by reviewing the literature of 72
         organizations that have or plan to publish commissioning
         guidelines, standards, or data; found that 42 organizations had
         published approximately 44 guidelines, standards, manuals, and
         codes. Also conducted a phone survey of 16
         building-commissioning firms, 75% of whom had commissioned
         primarily office buildings; found that all but one described
         their activities as systems commissioning, rather than
         whole-building commissioning. Found that performance testing
         occupied 40 to 80% of the time required for the commissioning
         project. Presented table showing the construction phases in
         which the various commissioning firms were involved.

     41. []{#A682 .anchor}Koles et al. 1996 \[241\] discussed an
         energy-use index as a metric to determine if a given building
         is performing within reason for its climate and size.

     42. []{#A520 .anchor}Koran 1994 \[242\] presented a case study of a
         large building energy conservation measure (ECM) verification
         project, noting the unintended benefits of finding (and
         solving) problems not anticipated.

     43. []{#A673 .anchor}Lane et al. 1989 \[245\] discussed four main
         components of a procedure to diagnose a sick building or
         confirm a healthy building: knowledge of what to measure,
         availability of appropriate instrumentation, expertise in
         interpreting results of measurements, and capability of
         predicting building performance.

     44. []{#A159 .anchor}Linder et al. 1999 \[253\] discussed standards
         of performance for commercial HVAC&R equipment, plumbing
         systems, and building envelope systems, and described the
         components of the standards of performance (general
         information, standards of performance, information to be
         recorded, calculations, interpretation, other information, and
         corrective action).

     45. []{#A335 .anchor}Meyers et al. 1995 \[270\] presented the use
         of building data visualization (the acquisition and graphical
         and statistical analysis and presentation of building
         operational data) to evaluate and serve as a feedback loop to
         building operators in commercial buildings.

     46. []{#A578 .anchor}Mill et al. 1985 \[271\] described the need
         for trans-disciplinary efforts (i.e., cooperation among various
         professional design and measurement disciplines) to ensure
         total building performance (i.e., meeting the functional and
         comfort needs of the occupants, and maintaining building
         integrity over time). Listed a five-level plan for building
         envelope analysis: (1) plan/archive; (2) expert
         walkthrough; (3) occupancy and use; (4) simple instrumentation;
         and (5) complex instrumentation.

     47. []{#A688 .anchor}Morrison Hershfield Ltd 1996 \[288\] discussed
         a procedure for commissioning the building envelope, from
         design intent to post-installation.

     48. []{#A4002 .anchor}National Institute of Building Sciences and
         the Florida State University Energy Center 1999 \[296\]
         provided a detailed overview of the general principles and
         procedures of total building commissioning, including a
         description of the processes, plans, specifications, validation
         reports related to commissioning. They also provided a
         discussion of the responsibilities of commissioning
         participants, a model request for commissioning services, and a
         set of model building-system guidelines. Also provided a
         glossary of terms.

     49. []{#A787 .anchor}NEBB 1999 \[300\] presented a guide for
         development and implementation of commercial HVAC system
         commissioning plans. Included a model specification, HVAC
         systems commissioning procedures and sample reporting forms.
         Also provided procedural standards for building system
         commissioning (i.e. guidance for organizing, planning,
         verifying, and documenting building performance). Included
         model reporting forms, check sheets, and functional performance
         checklists.

     50. []{#A875 .anchor}Peach 1992 \[315\] discussed contractual and
         other factors to take into account when doing residential
         performance contracting.

     51. []{#A797 .anchor}PECI 1992 \[316\] presented building
         commissioning guidelines, including procedures, forms,
         protocols, performance tests, minimum test plan requirements,
         monitoring requirements, report outline, design intent
         document, commissioning specification, O&M specification, and
         commissioning agent qualifications. Included a detailed manual
         with specifications, guidelines, and test procedures for the
         commissioning of commercial buildings. Chapters include
         Commissioning (Cx) Overview, Integrating Cx into the Building
         Project, Roles of the Cx Team Members, The Cx Process, Cx Plan,
         Cx Test Plans. Appendices include Sample Cx Specification,
         Sample List of Cx Agent Qualifications, Operation and
         Maintenance Manuals, Sample Design Intent Documentation, Sample
         Cx Final Report Outline, Sample Forms, Sample Cx Plan, Sample
         Pump Pre-functional Performance Test Checklist, Sample Minimum
         Test Plan Requirements Outline, Sample Cooling Tower Test Plan
         Packet, and The Thought Process of Cx.

     52. []{#A4003 .anchor}PECI 1997 \[317\] provided a detailed manual
         with specifications, guidelines, and test procedures for
         commissioning of commercial buildings. It covers the design,
         specification, and construction phases of a project.

     53. []{#A762 .anchor}PECI 1999 \[318\] overviewed procedures for
         commissioning of commercial buildings.

     54. []{#A415 .anchor}Piette and Nordman 1996 \[327\] discussed
         commissioning benefits, procedures, examples of non-energy
         benefits, cost-effectiveness, and commissioning techniques
         considered in a 16 commercial building study.

     55. []{#A963 .anchor}Richalet and Henderson 1999 \[348\] discussed
         the progress of European home energy rating systems.

     56. []{#A872 .anchor}Rieger 1993 \[349\] described the CHEERS
         program, procedures, and implementation plans.

     57. []{#A290 .anchor}Robison and Reichmuth 1999 \[350\] discussed a
         spreadsheet tool that allows quick adjustment of a simplified
         engineering model to match utility bills. The tool can be used
         to diagnose energy patterns and end use consumption, calibrate
         savings estimates to agree with actual usage; verify vendor
         claims regarding performance factors; and generate performance
         targets and compare against actual bills.

     58. []{#A767 .anchor}Rose 1999 \[353\] reviewed potential problems
         related to testing and balancing of commercial HVAC system.

     59. []{#A885 .anchor}Schalch and Fryer 1992 \[364\] discussed the
         Energy Crafted Home's program design, which allows for design
         flexibility along with prescriptive measures.

     60. []{#A168 .anchor}Sonderegger 1998 \[410\] analyzed utility
         bills for non-residential facilities by correlating past
         utility bills to observable variables, then projecting that
         correlation into the future. Techniques included variable-base
         degree days synchronized to utility bills, incorporating other
         independent variables, tuning the baseline equation, accounting
         for the degree-day threshold, and regression analysis.

     61. []{#A318 .anchor}Sterling et al. 1992 \[414\] presented, for
         each commissioning phase, a checklist of tests, issues and
         questions to consider to help avoid IAQ problems.

     62. []{#A779 .anchor}Sterling and Collett 1994 \[413\] discussed
         the role of commissioning as quality assurance; commissioning
         activities at the various project phases (program, design,
         construction, acceptance, post-acceptance); the commissioning
         team; and commissioning costs (0.25% to 2% of construction
         budget).

     63. []{#A813 .anchor}Ternes 1987 \[420\] described data parameters
         to collect in single-family retrofit research projects and
         described data analysis approaches and issues. Data parameters
         included (a) basic data (house characteristics, leakage
         measurements, metered performance of HVAC systems, and
         verification of retrofit installation quality); (b)
         time-sequential data (sub-metered space-conditioning energy
         consumption, weather station measurements \[dry bulb,
         horizontal solar radiation, humidity, wind speed and
         direction\], indoor temperature and humidity, total fuel
         consumptions \[billing meter data\], wood heating usage, and
         sub-metered water heating energy consumption); (c) optional
         occupant behavior data (additional indoor temperature and
         humidity, hourly heating and cooling thermostat
         set-points); (d) geographic characteristics (terrain and
         shielding); and (e) distribution system data (duct leakage area
         measured using fan pressurization).

     64. []{#A876 .anchor}Thomas 1992 \[423\] discussed
         performance-contracting guidelines, including standard
         contracts, evaluation of bids, comprehensive programs, and
         guarantees.

     65. []{#A870 .anchor}Thomas 1999 \[424\] discussed the state of the
         U.S. home energy rating systems, the number of houses tested
         under the Energy Star program, financing tie-ins and marketing
         efforts.

     66. []{#A126 .anchor}Uniacke 1992 \[443\] discussed how important
         it is to use field-based hands-on training to educate builders.
         Discussed how the effectiveness of building education should be
         based on the builders' willingness to integrate new strategies
         into their work. Also discussed how the building science
         perspective can be used to synthesize efficiency, comfort,
         indoor air quality, health, safety, affordability, and
         durability and show builders how a home should perform. N.B.:
         this reference consists only of an abstract.

     67. []{#A689 .anchor}Weir 1996 \[459\] discussed the results of a
         survey and assessment of current Canadian commissioning
         procedures.

     68. []{#A1018 .anchor}Yoder and Kaplan 1992 \[465\] described a
         utility-sponsored program (Energy FinAnswer) that provides
         financing and engineering services for new large commercial
         buildings and for major remodels that include energy efficiency
         improvements. The utility works with the owner to commission
         the building to ensure that the funded measures are properly
         implemented. Details commissioning (Cx) protocol (scoping
         meeting, design intent documentation, Cx outline, pre-Cx tests,
         functional performance testing, end-use monitoring and seasonal
         testing, operations and maintenance summary and training,
         documentation) and attributes of the Cx agents. Also,
         discussed, based on knowledge gained in Bonneville Power\'s
         Energy Edge program, the role of building commissioning in the
         application of demand-side technologies; commissioning
         strategies and protocols; liability, and payment and
         commissioning schedules.

Norm

130. 1.  []{#A874 .anchor}Eash 1998 \[130\] discussed the Irvine IQ+
         program, a voluntary program to improve energy-efficiency of
         new homes; presented 1998 results (53 homes certified by third
         party inspector).

     2.  []{#A569 .anchor}EPA 1997 \[138\] recommended that one person,
         rather than multiple subcontractors, take responsibility for
         all air sealing in a building.

     3.  []{#A418 .anchor}Gardiner and Piette 1985 \[174\] discussed the
         commissioning process and the evaluation of whole-building
         energy savings.

     4.  []{#A422 .anchor}Kjellman et al. 1996 \[237\] discussed some
         problems encountered in commercial buildings. Also discussed
         the necessity for re-commissioning to keep energy savings.

     5.  []{#A469 .anchor}Prince 1986 \[331\], as an experienced
         contractor, identified common commissioning problems and the
         parties responsible. Recommended specific personnel and
         procedures needed for successful HVAC system startup and final
         building commissioning.

     6.  []{#A780 .anchor}Sterling and Collett \[413\] described the
         phases of the building commissioning process (program, design,
         construction, acceptance, post-acceptance), the composition of
         the commissioning team, and the costs and benefits of
         commissioning.

5.2 Economics

Metric

131. 1.  []{#A595 .anchor}Eley and Wilcox 1992 \[133\] detailed the
         cost-effectiveness analysis used to develop energy efficiency
         levels required by the 1992 California low-rise residential
         building energy-efficiency standards (Title 24). Charted the
         cost-effectiveness of attic, ceiling, wall, and floor, and
         slab-edge insulation.

     2.  []{#A25 .anchor}Lerman 1998 \[248\] found little correlation
         between the cost of duct sealing and the energy savings yielded
         (and the same for change in energy use vs. change in duct
         leakage).

     3.  []{#A93 .anchor}Piette et al. 1995 \[328\] discussed
         simple-payback time metrics (years, ratio of first costs to
         annual energy savings) and average present value of energy
         saving measures estimates (\$/ft^2^), and commissioning cost
         (\$/ft^2^).

     4.  []{#A35 .anchor}Vieira et al. 1998 \[445\] defined several
         cost-benefit indicators (e.g. simple payback, NPV) useful for
         ranking energy conservation measures.

Diagnostic

132. 1.  []{#A454 .anchor}ASHRAE 1993 \[27\] specified how the annual
         energy cost method is used to show compliance with ASHRAE
         Standard 90.2-1993. The annual cost method compares the annual
         energy cost of the proposed design to the annual energy cost of
         a prescriptive design (same floor plan and design) whose
         characteristics meet the prescriptive requirements of the
         Standard.

     2.  []{#A106 .anchor}Byrne 1995 \[62\] proposed HERS guidelines (as
         of 1995) and discussed California-related issues.

     3.  []{#A782 .anchor}CEC 1995 \[65\] detailed California historical
         energy statistics, including supply, demand, and prices of
         petroleum, petroleum products, natural gas, and electricity.
         Demand was subdivided by sectors, including residential vs.
         commercial.

     4.  []{#A887 .anchor}Greely et al. 1992 \[176\] compared program
         costs and energy savings for the existing and pilot
         weatherization programs in Virginia.

     5.  []{#A213 .anchor}Greely et al. 1992 \[177\] described the
         evaluation of various weatherization techniques and materials
         considered for mild-climate weatherization activities.
         Evaluation included PRISM savings and cost-effectiveness
         evaluation, literature reviews, engineering and economic
         calculations, and short-term monitoring of furnace performance.

     6.  []{#A394 .anchor}Grimsrud et al. 1983 \[185\] presented a
         computer program for evaluating the cost-effectiveness of
         energy efficiency measures for a particular house, for use at
         an energy audit.

     7.  []{#A104 .anchor}Home Energy 1999 \[214\] provided a resource
         list of North American trainers, training opportunities, and
         conferences related to home performance.

     8.  []{#A105 .anchor}Home Energy 1999 \[215\] listed education,
         government, and organizational resources related to home energy
         issues.

     9.  []{#A763 .anchor}PECI 1999 \[318\] presented examples of costs
         and benefits of commissioning in commercial buildings.

     10. []{#A64 .anchor}Peterson and Haasl 1994 \[324\] used a tuned
         DOE2.1 building simulation model to estimate the additional
         energy and monetary saving that would have been possible had a
         building retrofitted with ECMs been commissioned at the design
         phase, rather than after the retrofit.

     11. []{#A873 .anchor}Sharp 1995 \[368\] discussed North Carolina's
         weatherization programs. Measure costs and related savings were
         broken down by measure (insulation, repairs, air sealing, storm
         windows, labor, other).

     12. []{#A100 .anchor}Stein 1997 \[412\] evaluated the accuracy of
         four states' HERS programs, and suggested ways to improves
         HERS, including training, fool proofing the process, and
         educating homeowners about HERS results.

     13. []{#A36 .anchor}Vieira et al. 1998 \[445\] described a Florida
         computer program (Energy Gauge/Optimization) that measures and
         reports the economic and financial impacts of home energy
         technology decisions.

     14. []{#A103 .anchor}Walter and Lewis 1996 \[455\] described a
         "whole-house" service provider and the provider's work plan,
         including house diagnostics, tune-ups, installation,
         trouble-shooting, and duct sealing.

     15. []{#A1019 .anchor}Yoder and Kaplan 1992 \[465\] described a
         utility-sponsored program (Energy FinAnswer) that provides
         financing and engineering services for new large commercial
         buildings and for major remodels that include energy efficiency
         improvements. The building owner receives 50% of the ECM cost
         upon presentation of process billings from contractors, 20%
         after passing pre-commissioning tests, and 30% upon passing
         functional performance tests.

Norm

133. 1.  []{#A871 .anchor}Bodzin 1999 \[56\] discussed energy and cost
         savings of specific Building America components and
         energy-efficient measures.

     2.  []{#A815 .anchor}CA State 1999 \[63\] provided estimates of
         California population and housing.

     3.  []{#A356 .anchor}CEC 1999 \[66\] presented historical
         California energy statistics including supply, demand, and
         price of energy resources by sector.

     4.  Claridge et al. 1998 \[76\] found that in almost all older
         commercial buildings, and even in many new buildings, use of
         the building is quite different from the original plan.
         Consequently, they developed a process of "continuous
         commissioning" that tunes the systems of the building for
         optimal comfort and peak efficiency based on the current use.
         Implementing that process has saved an average of over 20% of
         the total energy cost (over 30% of the heating and cooling
         cost) in more than 80 buildings in which it has been applied.
         Simple payback times under two years were achieved in nearly
         all of the 80 buildings.

     5.  []{#A889 .anchor}Cohen and Goldman 1991 \[81\] discussed the
         energy and cost savings performance of several weatherization
         programs.

     6.  []{#A288 .anchor}Cummings et al. 1990 \[98\] discussed repair
         costs and energy savings (consumption and peak demand) related
         to duct leakage repair.

     7.  []{#A789 .anchor}Dodge 1996 \[112\] presented a quarterly
         housing forecast, by state and dwelling type, for 1994 to 2000.

     8.  []{#A730 .anchor}Energy Information Administration 1999 \[137\]
         presented statistics on the types of air conditioners, heating
         units, water heaters, and lighting equipment found in U.S.
         homes.

     9.  []{#A791 .anchor}Feustel et al. 1986 \[149\] discussed TRNSYS
         modeling of the economic and ventilation performance (average
         and effective ventilation rates) of natural ventilation and
         several ventilation strategies (exhaust ventilation, heat
         recovery ventilation, exhaust ventilation with heat pump heat
         recovery, and exhaust air heat pump water heating).

     10. []{#A658 .anchor}Hammon and Modera 1996 \[199\] discussed costs
         and energy savings attributable to tight duct construction in
         new construction.

     11. []{#A920 .anchor}Hayden 1992 \[209\] discussed energy savings
         due to oil-furnace retrofit options.

     12. []{#A891 .anchor}Jenkins 1991 \[220\] discussed economic impact
         of heat pump system retrofits (percent heating savings, repair
         cost, life cycle benefits to the homeowner and utility).

     13. []{#A423 .anchor}Kjellman et al. 1996 \[237\] discussed the
         cost effectiveness of commissioning a building, presenting a
         table of commissioning cost data (\$0.10 to \$2.50 per ft^2^)
         for 12 buildings supplied by surveyed commissioning
         practitioners. In addition, tabulated energy savings results
         from deficiency repairs in seven buildings, including annual
         savings (kWh, \$, kWh/ft^2^), % energy savings, and simple
         payback time.

     14. []{#A818 .anchor}Matson and Feustel 1998 \[263\] presented
         equipment costs, installation costs, annual operating costs and
         life cycle costs, based on RESVENT airflow modeling, for
         ventilation strategies (single and multi-port exhaust fans with
         inlet louvers, single and multi-port exhaust fans with outside
         air ducts, balanced heat recovery) in one and two story houses
         in California and New York climates.

     15. []{#A594 .anchor}McBride 1992 \[264\] discussed the energy
         conservation measure cost/savings analysis used to form the
         residential building performance prescriptive criteria in
         ASHRAE 90.2P (ASHRAE 1993 \[27\]).

     16. []{#A932 .anchor}Parker 1991 \[311\] discussed cost savings
         possible by coupling whole house fan operation with air
         conditioning systems.

     17. []{#A22 .anchor}Parker et al. 1998 \[314\] discussed the
         economics of various installed measures, including installed
         cost, estimated annual savings (kWh, \$), and simple payback
         time (years) of radiant barrier systems, high-SEER AC, solar
         water heaters, efficient pool pumps, high-efficiency
         refrigerators, high-efficiency lighting, and attic ventilation.

     18. []{#A783 .anchor}Piette et al. 1995 \[329\] discussed the
         energy savings found in the Energy Edge project (commercial)
         buildings; savings would be higher with commissioning and
         feedback to the building owners.

     19. []{#A416 .anchor}Piette and Nordman 1996 \[327\] presented
         commissioning results for a 16 commercial building sample.
         Results included average present value of energy saving
         measures (\$0.21/ft^2^); average commissioning cost
         (\$0.23/ft^2^); and median simple payback (6.5 years for
         Pacific Northwest energy prices, 3 years for national average
         energy prices).

     20. []{#A935 .anchor}Proctor 1991 \[333\] discussed project program
         savings and costs for improving the efficiency of existing
         cooling systems in Fresno, California.

     21. []{#A753 .anchor}Robison and Lambert 1989 \[351\] discussed
         annual energy savings estimates, retrofit costs, simple
         paybacks, and benefit cost ratio for duct sealing in 20
         Residential Standards Demonstration Program (RSDP) homes.

6\. Not Annotated

134. 1.  []{#A186 .anchor}Edwards and Irwin 1994 \[131\] is just an
         abstract.

     2.  []{#A1 .anchor}Farhar and Coburn 1999 \[144\] discussed
         homeowner attitudes toward electricity providers.

     3.  []{#A419 .anchor}Meal et al. 1985 \[266\] is relevant only to
         commercial buildings.

# 

# Appendix B: ALPHABETICAL LIST OF REFERENCES[^2]

  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                    Links                           
  --------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------- --------------- --------------- ---------------
  Ref. \#   Bibliography                                                                    Tag \#  M               D               N

  \[1\]     Allen Consultants. 1996. "Optimizing Residential Forced-Air HVAC Systems".      {397}   [2.7](#A683)                    
            Ottawa, ON, Canada; Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation Technical Series                                          
            96-218.                                                                                                                 

  \[2\]     Allen, D.R. 1999. "Canadian Ratings Warm Up". Home Energy Magazine, Vol. 16,    {592}                   [5.1](#A962)    
            No. 5, September/October, pp. 19-20. Berkeley, CA; Energy Auditor &                                                     
            Retrofitter, Inc.                                                                                                       

  \[3\]     Anderson, A. 1995. "The History of the Blower Door". Home Energy Magazine, Vol. {62}                    [1.4](#A107)    
            12, No. 6. Berkeley, CA; Energy Auditor & Retrofitter, Inc.                                                             

  \[4\]     Anderson, G.D. 1995. Letter to the Editor: "More on Ventilating Attics". Home   {537}                   [1.4](#A896)    
            Energy Magazine, Vol. 12, No. 4, July/August, pp. 3-4. Berkeley, CA; Energy                                             
            Auditor & Retrofitter, Inc.                                                                                             

  \[5\]     Andrews, J.W. 1996. "Field Comparison of Design and Diagnostic Pathways for     {35}    [2.3](#A52)     [2.3](#A53)     [2.3](#A55)
            Duct Efficiency Evaluation". Proceedings of the 1996 ACEEE Summer Study on                              [2.3](#A54)     
            Energy Efficient Buildings, 1.21. Washington, D.C.; American Council for an                                             
            Energy-Efficient Economy.                                                                                               

  \[6\]     Andrews, J.W., R.F. Krajewski, and J.J. Strasser. 1996. "Electric coheating in  {235}                   [2.3](#A420)    
            the ASHRAE standard method of test for thermal distribution efficiency---Test                                           
            results on two New York State homes". ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 102, Part 1,                                            
            pp. 870-880.                                                                                                            

  \[7\]     Andrews, J.W., R.L. Hedrick, M.R. Lubliner, B.P. Reid, B.L. Pierce, and D.W.    {98}                    [2.3](#A170)    
            Saum. 1998. "Reproducibility of ASHRAE Standard 152P: Results of a Round-Robin                          [2.3](#A171)    
            Test". ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 104, Part 1B, pp.1376-1388.                                                            

  \[8\]     Arasteh, D.K., F.A. Beck, B.T. Griffith, N. Byars, and M. Acevedo-Ruiz. 1992.   {324}                   [1.2](#A529)    
            "Using infrared thermography for the study of heat transfer through building                                            
            envelope components". ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 98, Part 1, pp. 819-824.                                                

  \[9\]     Arasteh, D.K., F.A. Beck, B.T. Griffith, N. Byars, and M. Acevedo-Ruiz. 1992.   {336}                   [1.2](#A530)    
            "Using infrared thermography to study building heat transfer". ASHRAE Journal,                                          
            October, Vol. 34, No. 10, pp. 34-36.                                                                                    

  \[10\]    Arens, E., R. Gonzalez, and L. Berglund. 1986. "Thermal comfort under an ext    {333}                   [3.1](#A524)    
            ended range of environmental conditions". ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 92, Part                                            
            1B, pp. 18-26.                                                                                                          

  \[11\]    Arney, W.M. 1998. "Utilizing Calibrated Computer Models to Reduce Risk in       {145}                   [5.1](#A273)    
            Performance Contracting". Proceedings of the 6th National Conference on                                                 
            Building Commissioning, Lake Buena Vista, Florida, Lake Buena Vista, Florida.                                           
            Portland, OR; Portland, OR; Portland Energy Conservation Institute.                                                     

  \[12\]    Arney, W.M. and D.J. Frey. 1995. "Short-Term Diagnostic Testing to Streamline   {138}                   [4.7](#A255)    
            Commissioning". Proceedings of the 3^rd^ National Conference on Building                                                
            Commissioning, Sacramento, CA. Portland, OR; Portland Energy Conservation                                               
            Institute.                                                                                                              

  \[13\]    Arney, W.M. and D.J. Frey. 1999. "Long-Term Energy Efficiency Strategy:         {149}                   [5.1](#A291)    
            Building Tune-ups and Performance-based Maintenance". Proceedings of the 7th                                            
            National Conference on Building Commissioning, Portland, OR. Portland, OR;                                              
            Portland Energy Conservation Institute.                                                                                 

  \[14\]    ASHRAE. 1988. "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 111-1988 Practices for Measurement,         {117}   [2.3](#A205)    [2.3](#A206)    
            Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing of Building Heating, Ventilation,                                                     
            Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Systems". Atlanta, GA; American Society of                                           
            Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.                                                            

  \[15\]    ASHRAE. 1988. "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 119-1988 (RA 94), Air Leakage Performance   {252}                                   [1.4](#A455)
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            Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.                                                 

  \[16\]    ASHRAE. 1989. "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 41.3-1989 Standard Method for Pressure      {47}                    [2.5](#A72)     
            Measurement". Atlanta, GA; American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and                                              
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  \[17\]    ASHRAE. 1989. "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 41.8-1989, Standard Methods of Measurement  {49}                    [4.7](#A74)     
            of Flow of Liquids in Pipes Using Orifice Flowmeters". Atlanta, GA; American                                            
            Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.                                                 

  \[18\]    ASHRAE. 1989. "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-1989, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor  {50}    [2.5](#A216)    [2.5](#A795)    [2.5](#A79)
            Air Quality". Atlanta, GA; American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and              [2.5](#A76)     [2.5](#A796)    [2.5](#A566)
            Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.                                                        [3.2](#A83)                     [2.5](#A553)
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                                                                                                                                    [3.5](#A86)

  \[19\]    ASHRAE. 1991. "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 41.1-1986 (RA 91), Standard Method for      {45}                    [4.7](#A70)     
            Temperature Measurement". Atlanta, GA; American Society of Heating,                                                     
            Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.                                                                     

  \[20\]    ASHRAE. 1991. "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 41.7-1984 (RA 91), Standard Method for      {48}                    [4.7](#A73)     
            Measurement of Flow of Gas". Atlanta, GA; American Society of Heating,                                                  
            Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.                                                                     

  \[21\]    ASHRAE. 1992. "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 41.2-1987 (RA 92), Standard Methods for     {46}                    [2.3](#A71)     
            Laboratory Airflow Measurement". Atlanta, GA; American Society of Heating,                                              
            Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.                                                                     

  \[22\]    ASHRAE. 1992. "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 52.1-1992, Gravimetric and Dust-Spot        {601}   [4.4](#A994)    [4.4](#A995)    
            Procedures for Testing Air-Cleaning Devices Used in General Ventilation for                                             
            Removing Particulate Matter". Atlanta, GA; American Society of Heating,                                                 
            Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.                                                                     

  \[23\]    ASHRAE. 1992. "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-1992, Thermal Environmental Conditions   {250}   [3.1](#A440)                    [3.1](#A441)
            for Human Occupancy". Atlanta, GA; American Society of Heating, Refrigerating,                                          [3.1](#A555)
            and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.                                                                                    

  \[24\]    ASHRAE. 1993. "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 103-1993, Method of Testing for Annual Fuel {513}                   [2.2](#A852)    [4.7](#A853)
            Utilization Efficiency of Residential Central Furnaces and Boilers". Atlanta,                                           
            GA; American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers,                                         
            Inc.                                                                                                                    

  \[25\]    ASHRAE. 1993. "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 118.2-1993, Method of Testing for Rating    {514}                   [4.1](#A854)    [4.7](#A855)
            Residential Water Heaters". Atlanta, GA; American Society of Heating,                                                   
            Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.                                                                     

  \[26\]    ASHRAE. 1993. "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 136-1993, A method of determining air       {429}   [1.4](#A757)    [1.4](#A758)    
            change rates in detached dwellings". Atlanta, GA; American Society of Heating,          [2.5](#A759)    [2.5](#A761)    
            Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.                                     [2.5](#A760)                    

  \[27\]    ASHRAE. 1993. "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 90.2-1993, Energy-Efficient Design of New   {251}                   [5.2](#A454)    [1.1](#A443)
            Low-Rise Residential Buildings". Atlanta, GA; American Society of Heating,                                              [1.1](#A590)
            Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.                                                                     [1.2](#A444)
                                                                                                                                    [1.2](#A592)
                                                                                                                                    [1.4](#A445)
                                                                                                                                    [1.5](#A446)
                                                                                                                                    [2.1](#A447)
                                                                                                                                    [2.2](#A448)
                                                                                                                                    [2.2](#A449)
                                                                                                                                    [2.3](#A450)
                                                                                                                                    [2.4](#A451)
                                                                                                                                    [2.5](#A452)
                                                                                                                                    [4.1](#A453)
                                                                                                                                    [5.2](#A594)

  \[28\]    ASHRAE. 1995. "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 100-1995, Energy Conservation in Existing   {512}                   [2.1](#A845)    [1.1](#A843)
            Buildings". Atlanta, GA; American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and                                [5.1](#A851)    [1.4](#A844)
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                                                                                                                                    [2.2](#A847)
                                                                                                                                    [2.3](#A848)
                                                                                                                                    [2.5](#A849)
                                                                                                                                    [4.1](#A850)

  \[29\]    ASHRAE. 1995. "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 116-1995, Methods of Testing for Rating     {118}   [2.1](#A207)    [2.1](#A208)    
            Seasonal Efficiency of Unitary Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps". Atlanta, GA;                                           
            American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers,                                             
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  \[30\]    ASHRAE. 1996. "ASHRAE Guideline 1-1996, The HVAC Commissioning Process".        {116}                   [5.1](#A204)    
            Atlanta, GA; American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning                                           
            Engineers, Inc.                                                                                                         

  \[31\]    ASHRAE. 1997 "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 129-1997, Measuring Air-Change               {249}   [2.5](#A438)    [2.5](#A439)    
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  \[32\]    ASHRAE. 1999. "BSR/ASHRAE Draft Standard 152P-1999, Method of Test for          {51}    [2.3](#A87)     [2.3](#A89)     
            Determining the Design and Seasonal Efficiencies of Residential Thermal                 [2.3](#A172)    [2.3](#A90)     
            Distribution Systems". Atlanta, GA; American Society of Heating, Refrigerating,                         [2.3](#A91)     
            and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.                                                                    [2.3](#A92)     

  \[33\]    ASTM. 1988. "Standard Test Method for Airflow Calibration of Fan Pressurization {261}                   [1.4](#A465)    
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  \[34\]    ASTM. 1990. "ASTM Standard C1060-90, Standard Practice for Thermographic        {168}                   [1.1](#A344)    
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  \[35\]    ASTM. 1992. "ASTM Standard E779-87, Standard Test Method for Determining Air    {150}   [1.4](#A292)    [1.4](#A293)    
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  \[36\]    ASTM. 2000. "ASTM Draft Standard Guide for Specifying and Evaluating            {515}                   [2.3](#A857)    [1.5](#A856)
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            Quality". Philadelphia, PA; American Society for Testing and Materials.                                 [2.4](#A859)    
                                                                                                                    [2.5](#A860)    
                                                                                                                    [3.1](#A861)    
                                                                                                                    [3.2](#A862)    
                                                                                                                    [4.4](#A863)    

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            Distribution Systems by Fan Pressurization". Philadelphia, PA; American Society                                         
            for Testing and Materials.                                                                                              

  \[38\]    ASTM. 1995. "ASTM Standard E1186-87, Standard Practices for Air Leakage Site    {153}                   [1.4](#A299)    
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            Testing and Materials.                                                                                                  

  \[39\]    ASTM. 1995. "ASTM Standard E1677-95, Standard specification for an air retarder {355}   [1.4](#A573)    [1.4](#A574)    [1.4](#A575)
            (AR) material or system for low-rise framed building walls". Philadelphia, PA;          [1.5](#A576)                    
            American Society for Testing and Materials.                                                                             

  \[40\]    ASTM. 1995. "ASTM Standard E71-95, Standard Test Method for Determining Air     {152}                   [1.4](#A297)    
            Change in a Single Zone By Means of a Tracer Gas Dilution". Philadelphia, PA;                           [2.5](#A298)    
            American Society for Testing and Materials.                                                                             

  \[41\]    ASTM. 1997. "ASTM Standard E1827-96, Standard Test Methods for Determining      {151}   [1.4](#A295)    [1.4](#A296)    
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            American Society for Testing and Materials.                                                                             

  \[42\]    ASTM. 1998. "Guide For Assessing Depressurization-Induced Backdrafting and      {172}   [2.4](#A360)    [2.4](#A361)    
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            for Testing and Materials.                                                                                              

  \[43\]    Bahnfleth, W.P., G.K. Yuill, and B. Lee. 1999. "Protocol for Field Testing of   {88}    [1.4](#A151)    [1.4](#A152)    
            Tall Buildings to Determine Envelope Air Leakage Rate". ASHRAE Transactions,                                            
            Vol. 105, Part. 2, 4275 (RP-935). Atlanta, GA; American Society of Heating,                                             
            Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.                                                                     

  \[44\]    Barbat, M., V. Richalet, and G. Guarracino. 1999. "Experimental Studies of the  {122}                   [3.2](#A214)    
            Air Quality Evaluation". Proceedings of the 8^th^ International Conference on                                           
            Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Edinburgh, Scotland.                                                                    

  \[45\]    Bearg, D.W. 1998. "Commissioning and Indoor Air Quality". Proceedings of the    {144}   [3.3](#A271)    [3.2](#A270)    
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            Proceedings of Thermal Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of Buildings III,                                          
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            International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Edinburgh,                                                  
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            1381-1393.                                                                                                              

  \[361\]   Sandberg, P.I. and S. Jahnsson. 1995. "Development of a method for the          {367}                   [1.1](#A596)    
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            Thermal Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of Buildings VI, Clearwater                                               
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  \[362\]   Sauer, H.J., R. George, and E.G. Utterson. 1996. "Airflow sensing---toward      {395}                   [2.3](#A677)    
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            Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.                                                            

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            September/October, pp. 26-31. Berkeley, CA; Energy Auditor & Retrofitter, Inc.                          [3.2](#A882)    [1.5](#A879)
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            3rd National Conference on Building Commissioning, Sacramento, CA. Portland,                                            
            OR; Portland Energy Conservation Institute.                                                                             

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            Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Edinburgh, Scotland.                                                                    

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            13-18. Berkeley, CA; Energy Auditor & Retrofitter, Inc.                                                                 

  \[368\]   Sharp, T. 1995. "Measuring the Performance of the National Energy Audit". Home  {524}                   [5.2](#A873)    
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  \[369\]   Sharp, T.R. 1994. "Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring Systems: Considerations for    {40}                    [4.3](#A62)     
            Use and Potential Applications". Proceedings of the 1994 ACEEE Summer Study on                                          
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            Energy-Efficient Economy.                                                                                               

  \[370\]   Shen, L.S. 1991. "Mousing Through the Basement". Home Energy Magazine, Vol. 8,  {556}                   [2.2](#A921)    
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  \[371\]   Sherman M. 1989. "Uncertainty in Airflow Calculations Using Tracer Gas          {356}                   [2.5](#A577)    
            Measurements". Building and Environment, Vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 347-354.                                                   

  \[372\]   Sherman, M. 1984. "A Simplified Model of Thermal Comfort". Berkeley, CA;        {226}   [3.1](#A409)                    
            Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-15923.                                                                          

  \[373\]   Sherman, M. 1986. "Description of ASHRAE's proposed air tightness standard".    {372}   [1.4](#A610)                    [1.4](#A611)
            Proceedings of the 5^th^ Air Infiltration Centre Conference on the                                                      
            Implementation and Effectiveness of Air Infiltration Standards in Buildings                                             
            (1984), Reno, NV. Also Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report                                                
            LBL-17585.                                                                                                              

  \[374\]   Sherman, M. 1986. "Exegesis of Proposed ASHRAE Standard 119: Air Leakage        {207}   [1.4](#A382)                    [2.5](#A456)
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            Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-21040.                                                                          

  \[375\]   Sherman, M. and M. Modera. 1986. "Low-Frequency Measurement of Leakage in       {228}                   [1.4](#A411)    
            Enclosures". Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-20121.                                               

  \[376\]   Sherman, M. and M. Modera. 1988. "Signal attenuation due to cavity leakage".    {370}                   [1.4](#A604)    
            LBL-24289. Submitted to Journal of Acoustical Society of America, 84:6, 1988.                                           

  \[377\]   Sherman, M. and S. Ashley. 1984. "The Calculation of Natural Ventilation and    {225}   [3.1](#A408)                    
            Comfort". Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-16036.                                                  

  \[378\]   Sherman, M. H., D.T. Grimsrud, P.E. Condon and B.V. Smith. 1980. "Air           {203}                   [1.4](#A375)    
            Infiltration Measurement Techniques". Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley                                   [2.5](#A376)    
            Laboratory report LBL-10705.                                                                                            

  \[379\]   Sherman, M., H. Feustel, and D. Dickerhoff. 1989. "Description of a System for  {417}                   [2.5](#A731)    
            Measuring Interzonal Airflows Using Multiple Tracer Gases". Berkeley, CA;                                               
            Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-26538. Also Berkeley, CA; University of                                         
            California Report UC-350. Also published as a chapter in "Heat and Mass                                                 
            Transfer in Building Materials and Structures". J.B. Chadock and B. Todorovic,                                          
            Eds., Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington, D.C., 1990.                                                        

  \[380\]   Sherman, M., J. Adams, and R. Sonderegger. 1983. "Simplified thermal            {354}   [1.1](#A570)    [1.1](#A571)    
            parameters: a model of dynamic performance of walls". ASTM Special Technical            [1.3](#A572)                    
            Publication 789. Also Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report                                                 
            LBL-13503.                                                                                                              

  \[381\]   Sherman, M., M. Modera, and D. Hekmat. 1985. "Energy Impacts of Efficient       {201}                                   [4.3](#A4005)
            Refrigerators in the Pacific Northwest". Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley                                                
            Laboratory report LBL-19571.                                                                                            

  \[382\]   Sherman, M.H. 1986. "Infiltration Degree-Days: A Statistic for Quantifying      {254}   [1.4](#A459)                    
            Infiltration-Related Climate". ASHRAE Transactions Vol. 92, Part. 2A, pp.                                               
            161-181. Also Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-19237.                                              

  \[383\]   Sherman, M.H. 1987. "Analysis of Errors Associated with Passive Ventilation     {224}                   [2.5](#A407)    
            Measurement Techniques" Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report                                               
            LBL-23088.                                                                                                              

  \[384\]   Sherman, M.H. 1987. "Estimation of infiltration from leakage and climate        {260}                   [1.4](#A464)    
            indicators". Energy and Buildings, Vol. 10, pp. 81-86. Also Berkeley, CA;                                               
            Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-21463.                                                                          

  \[385\]   Sherman, M.H. 1989. "A Multitracer System for Multizone Ventilation             {223}                   [2.5](#A405)    
            Measurement". Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-29010                               [2.5](#A406)    

  \[386\]   Sherman, M.H. 1989. "Air Infiltration Measurement Techniques". Berkeley, CA;    {208}                   [2.5](#A384)    
            Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-27656.                                                          [2.5](#A385)    

  \[387\]   Sherman, M.H. 1989. "On the Estimation of Multizone Ventilation Rates from      {259}                   [2.5](#A463)    
            Tracer Gas Measurements". Building and Environment, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp.                                                 
            355-362. Also Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-25772.                                              

  \[388\]   Sherman, M.H. 1990. "Tracer-Gas Techniques for Measuring Ventilation in a       {258}                   [2.5](#A462)    
            Single Zone". Building and Environment, 25(4), pp. 365-374. Also Berkeley, CA;                                          
            Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-29328.                                                                          

  \[389\]   Sherman, M.H. 1994. "The Use of Blower Door Data". Berkeley, CA; Lawrence       {217}                   [2.5](#A400)    
            Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-35173.                                                                                   

  \[390\]   Sherman, M.H. and D. T. Grimsrud. 1980. "Measurement of Infiltration Using Fan  {204}   [1.4](#A377)    [1.4](#A378)    
            Pressurization and Weather Data". Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory                            [2.5](#A404)    
            report LBL-10852.                                                                                                       

  \[391\]   Sherman, M.H. and D.J. Dickerhoff. 1989. "A multi-gas tracer system for         {462}                   [2.5](#A792)    
            multi-zone airflow measurements". Proceedings of the Thermal Performance of the                         [4.7](#A793)    
            Exterior Envelopes of Buildings IV, Orlando, FL, pp. 417-432. Atlanta, GA;                                              
            American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers,                                             
            Inc. Also Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL-26087.                                                  

  \[392\]   Sherman, M.H. and D.J. Wilson. 1986. "Relating Actual and Effective Ventilation {229}   [2.5](#A412)                    
            in Determining Indoor Air Quality". Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory                                          
            report LBL-20424.                                                                                                       

  \[393\]   Sherman, M.H. and D.T. Grimsrud. 1982. "Wind and Infiltration for Small         {206}   [2.5](#A381)                    
            Buildings". Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-13949.                                                

  \[394\]   Sherman, M.H. and L. Palmiter. 1994. "Uncertainties in Fan Pressurization       {376}                   [1.4](#A618)    
            Measurements". In Airflow Performance of Envelopes, Components and Systems,                                             
            Philadelphia, American Society for Testing and Materials (STP 1255), Modera &                                           
            Persily Eds., pp. 262-283, 1994. Also Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley                                                   
            Laboratory report LBL- 32115.                                                                                           

  \[395\]   Sherman, M.H., D. J. Wilson, and D. E. Kiel. 1984 "Variability in Residential   {227}                                   [1.4](#A410)
            Air Leakage". Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-17587                                               

  \[396\]   Sherman, M.H., D.T. Grimsrud, and R.C. Diamond. 1979.                           {256}                   [2.5](#A461)    
            "Infiltration-Pressurization Correlations: Surface Pressures and Terrain                                                
            Effects". ASHRAE Transactions Vol. 85, Part 2, pp. 458-479. Also Berkeley, CA;                                          
            Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-8785.                                                                           

  \[397\]   Sherman, M.H., D.T. Grimsrud, and R.C. Sonderegger. 1989. "The Low Pressure     {209}                   [1.4](#A386)    
            Leakage Function of a Building". Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory                                             
            report LBL-9162.                                                                                                        

  \[398\]   Sherman, M.H., H. Feustel, and D. Dickerhoff. 1989. "Description of a System    {210}                   [2.5](#A387)    
            for Measuring Interzonal Airflows Using Multiple Tracer Gases". Berkeley, CA;                           [2.5](#A388)    
            Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-26538                                                                           

  \[399\]   Sherman, M.H., M.P. Modera, and D.T. Grimsrud. 1981. "A Predictive Air          {205}   [2.5](#A380)                    
            Infiltration Model---Field Validation and Sensitivity Analysis". Berkeley, CA;                                          
            Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-13520.                                                                          

  \[400\]   Sherman, M.H., R.C. Sonderegger, and J.W. Adams. 1982. "The Determination of    {255}                   [1.1](#A460)    
            the Dynamic Performance of Walls". ASHRAE Transactions Vol. 88, Part. 1, pp.                                            
            689-712. Also Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report LBL-13510.                                              

  \[401\]   Sherman, M.H., R.F. Szydlowski, P.G. Cleary, M.P. Modera, and M.D. Levine.      {202}   [2.1](#A367)    [1.1](#A1022)   
            1987. "Development and Implementation of Survey Techniques for Assessing                [2.2](#A369)    [2.1](#A368)    
            In-Situ Appliance Efficiencies". Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory             [4.1](#A371)    [2.2](#A370)    
            report LBL-23455.                                                                       [4.3](#A373)    [4.1](#A372)    
                                                                                                                    [4.3](#A374)    

  \[402\]   Sherman. M and N. Matson. 1997. "Residential ventilation and energy             {253}   [1.4](#A457)                    
            characteristics". ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 103, Part 1, pp. 717-730. Also                                              
            Berkeley, CA; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory report LBNL-39036.                                                  

  \[403\]   Siegel, J. and B. Davis. 1998. "Measured Heating System Efficiency Retrofits in {18}    [2.3](#A27)     [1.4](#A26)     
            Eight Manufactured (HUD-Code) Homes". Proceedings of the 1998 ACEEE Summer                              [2.3](#A28)     
            Study on Energy Efficient Buildings, 2.189. Washington, D.C.; American Council                                          
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  \[404\]   Siegel, J. and B. Manclark. 1998. "Pressure Pans: New Uses and Old              {53}    [2.3](#A94)     [2.3](#A95)     
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            37-42. Berkeley, CA; Energy Auditor & Retrofitter, Inc.                                                                 

  \[405\]   Simonson, C.J., D.L. Ciepliski, and R.W. Besant. 1999. "Determining the         {439}   [2.5](#A769)    [2.5](#A770)    
            performance of energy wheels: part I - experimental and numerical methods".                                             
            ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 105, Part 1, pp. 174-187.                                                                     

  \[406\]   Skopek, J. 1999. "BREEAM Strategy for Reducing Buildings' Environmental         {91}                                    [2.1](#A156)
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  \[408\]   Snell, J. 1993. "Selecting an Infrared Imaging System". Home Energy Magazine,   {579}                   [1.1](#A116)    [4.7](#A952)
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  \[409\]   Sonderegger, R. C., M. H. Sherman, and J. W. Adams. 1981. "The Envelope Thermal {200}   [1.1](#A363)    [1.1](#A1022)   
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  \[410\]   Sonderegger, R.C. 1998. "A Baseline Model for Utility Bill Analysis Using Both  {96}                    [5.1](#A168)    
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  \[411\]   Sonderegger, R.C., P.E. Condon, and M.P. Modera. 1980. "In-situ measurements of {313}                   [2.1](#A485)    
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            Vol. 86, Part 1, pp. 394-407.                                                                                           

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  \[413\]   Sterling, E. and C. Collett. 1994. "The Building Commissioning/Quality          {453}                   [5.1](#A779)    [5.1](#A780)
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  \[414\]   Sterling, E.M., C.W. Collett, S. Turner, and C.C. Downing. 1992. "Commissioning {157}                   [5.1](#A318)    
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  \[419\]   Subbarao, K., J. Burch, E. Hancock, and H. Jeon. 1985. "Measurement of          {358}   [1.3](#A579)    [1.3](#A580)    
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  \[420\]   Ternes, M.P. 1987. "A data specification guideline for DOE's single-family      {469}                   [1.4](#A808)    [2.2](#A810)
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  \[431\]   Treidler, B. and M. Modera. 1994. "Peak Demand Impacts of Residential           {385}                                   [2.1](#A651)
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  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

# Appendix C: LITERATURE CATEGORIZATION GUIDELINE

1\. Building Envelope

> 1.1 opaque building assemblies
>
> 1.1.1 assembly thermal conductance
>
> 1.1.2 insulation level and location
>
> 1.1.3 design-condition interior surface temperature (comfort)
>
> 1.2 windows and skylights
>
> 1.2.1 assembly thermal conductance
>
> 1.2.2 radiative behavior
>
> 1.2.3 design-condition interior surface temperature (comfort)
>
> 1.2.4 design-condition condensation potential
>
> 1.3 thermal mass
>
> 1.3.1 amount and location
>
> 1.3.2 time constant
>
> 1.4 airtightness
>
> 1.4.1 envelope and interzone leakage
>
> 1.4.2 air barrier type and location
>
> 1.5 moisture-damage susceptibility
>
> 1.5.1 vapor barrier type and location
>
> 1.5.2 design-condition dew-point temperature location
>
> 1.5.3 assembly moisture content (plus permeability and drying
> potential)

2\. HVAC

> 2.1 cooling equipment - air conditioners and heat pumps
>
> 2.1.1 room cooling loads (sensible and latent)
>
> 2.1.2 equipment selection and sizing
>
> 2.1.3 refrigerant charge
>
> 2.1.4 coil total airflow
>
> 2.1.5 supply air temperature drop
>
> 2.1.6 steady-state capacity and efficiency
>
> 2.2 heating equipment - furnaces, boilers, and heat pumps
>
> 2.2.1 room heating loads (sensible)
>
> 2.2.2 equipment selection and sizing
>
> 2.2.3 refrigerant charge
>
> 2.2.4 coil total airflow
>
> 2.2.5 supply air and/or water temperature rise
>
> 2.2.6 steady-state capacity and efficiency
>
> 2.3 thermal distribution systems - air and/or water flow
>
> 2.3.1 system selection and sizing
>
> 2.3.2 air handler total flow
>
> 2.3.3 pump total flow
>
> 2.3.4 water supply line location and insulation
>
> 2.3.5 zone coil water flow, temperature, and air fraction
>
> 2.3.6 duct location, support, and insulation
>
> 2.3.7 duct leakage
>
> 2.3.8 register flow and outlet temperature
>
> 2.3.9 register location and jet distribution
>
> 2.3.10 distribution system efficiency
>
> 2.3.11 system operating external static pressure
>
> 2.4 combustion safety
>
> 2.4.1 combustion air supply sizing and location
>
> 2.4.2 vent sizing and location
>
> 2.4.3 house depressurization level
>
> 2.4.4 backdrafting and spillage (combustion gas flow and
> concentration)
>
> 2.4.5 heat exchanger leakage
>
> 2.5 ventilation
>
> 2.5.1 requirements
>
> 2.5.2 equipment selection and sizing
>
> 2.5.3 device airflows and room air exchange rates
>
> 2.5.4 device operating external static pressures
>
> 2.5.5 indoor-outdoor and interzonal pressures
>
> 2.5.6 ventilation spatial and temporal effectiveness
>
> 2.6 controls
>
> 2.6.1 room thermostats
>
> 2.6.1.1 calibration
>
> 2.6.1.2 setup/setback strategy
>
> 2.6.1.3 anticipator
>
> 2.6.2 burner
>
> 2.6.2.1 fuel pressure
>
> 2.6.2.2 orifice sizing
>
> 2.6.2.3 primary air supply
>
> 2.6.3 thermal expansion devices
>
> 2.6.2.1 orifice sizing
>
> 2.6.2.2 TXV sizing and adjustment
>
> 2.6.2.3 superheat sensing bulb location and line connection
>
> 2.6.4 heat pump outdoor thermostat and defrost timer
>
> 2.6.5 hydronic air vents, check valves, and balance valves
>
> 2.6.6 blower and burner thermal limit switches
>
> 2.6.7 blower motor speed and duct dampers
>
> 2.6.8 ventilation switches (e.g. humidistats) and timers (fan cycling
> and defrost)
>
> 2.6.9 EMCS
>
> 2.7 HVAC installation process

3\. Indoor Air Quality

> 3.1 comfort (e.g. room air temperature and velocity)
>
> 3.2 non-biological gaseous generation, transportation, concentration,
> and absorption
>
> 3.3 moisture generation, transport, concentration, and absorption
>
> 3.4 bioaerosol (fungi/mold/mites) generation, transport, and
> concentration\
> 3.5 particulate generation, transport, and concentration

4\. Other

> 4.1 water heaters
>
> 4.2 lighting controls
>
> 4.3 plug loads
>
> 4.4 air filters and cleaners
>
> 4.5 noise (from equipment or attenuation by envelope)
>
> 4.6 maintenance ease and necessity
>
> 4.7 instrumentation (e.g. sensors and data loggers)

5\. Non-technical

> 5.1 Commissioning process
>
> 5.2 Economics

6\. Irrelevant

[^1]: ^^ Each bracketed paper reference number in Appendix A (Annotated
    Bibliography) is hyperlinked to the paper's bibliographic reference
    in Appendix B (Alphabetized List of References). For example,
    \[283\] is a link to the bibliographic reference for paper 283
    (Modera et al. 1986).

[^2]: ^^ Section numbers in columns labeled M, D, and N are hyperlinks
    to [M]{.underline}etrics, [D]{.underline}iagnostics, and
    [N]{.underline}orms in Appendix A (Annotated Bibliography). For
    example, the entry "[3.1](#A524)" in the column "D" is a link to a
    diagnostic in Section 3.1 \[Room Air Temperature and Velocity
    (Occupant Comfort)\].