Session No. 36

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**Course Title: Coastal Hazards Management**

**Session Title: Local Policy II**

**Author: Anna K. Schwab, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill**

**Time: 100 minutes**

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Objectives:

36.1 Describe the types of revenue generation that local governments are
authorized to pursue, and how these various forms of taxation and fees
can impact land use patterns in the local community.

36.2 Explain how local government spending policies and practices impact
local patterns of development, and how local governments can apply these
spending policies to coastal hazards management.

36.3 Describe the need for education in local coastal hazards
management, and methods whereby local communities can exercise this
power.

**Scope:**

This session continues the discussion of the role of local government
policy in managing coastal hazards. Topics to be raised today include
the powers of *taxation and fees* as a form of land use management (as
opposed to the mere collection of revenue); local government *spending*
and its impact on local land use patterns; and *education* of the public
to increase hazards awareness in the community.

**Readings:**

*Student and Instructor Readings:*

###### 

###### Beatley, Timothy, David J. Brower and Anna K. Schwab. 2002. *An Introduction to Coastal Zone Management*, 2^nd^ ed. Washington, DC: Island Press, pp.225-233; 241-243. 

Godschalk, David R., et al. 1989. *Catastrophic Coastal Storms*. Durham,
NC: Duke University Press, pp. 177-180.

Kelly, Eric D. 1993. *Managing Community Growth: Policies, Techniques,
and Impacts*. Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 77-95.

Olshansky, Robert B. and Jack D. Kartez. 1998. "Managing Land Use to
Build Resilience." In Raymond J. Burby, ed., *Cooperating with Nature:
Confronting Natural Hazards with Land Use Planning for Sustainable
Communities*. Pp. 170-174; 196-197.

*Additional Instructor Reading:*

So, Frank S. 1988. "Finance and Budgeting," in *The Practice of Local
Government Planning*, Frank S. So, ed. Washington, D.C.: International
City Management Association, pp. 437-471.

**General Requirements:**

The content should be presented as lecture supported by PowerPoint
slides with interactive discussion. Some suggested questions to be posed
to students are included.

The Instructor may wish to eliminate from the class presentation any
material that explains how specific policy tools can be used for hazard
mitigation purposes, and instead, lead a class discussion in which
students describe how *they* think local governments can apply these
tools to coastal hazards management, based on the assigned readings as
well as their own creativity.

**PowerPoint Slides:**

**PowerPoint 36.1** Taxation Impacts Development Patterns

**PowerPoint 36.2** Real Property Tax

**PowerPoint 36.3** Special Assessments

**PowerPoint 36.4** Impact Fees

**PowerPoint 36.5** Spending/Capital Improvements

**PowerPoint 36.6** Capital Improvement Programs/Capital Improvement
Budgets

**PowerPoint 36.7** Public Investment Affects Private Development

**PowerPoint 36.8** Spending for Government Buildings and Facilities

**PowerPoint 36.9** Not All Spending Decisions Made Locally

**PowerPoint 36.10** Education: Methods to Promote Community Awareness

**Objective 36.1 Describe the types of revenue generation that local
governments are authorized to pursue, and how these various forms of
taxation and fees can impact land use patterns in the local community.**

**Requirements:**

The content should be presented as lecture, supported by PowerPoint
slides and general class discussion.

The following PowerPoint slides will be used during this Objective:

**PowerPoint 36.1** Taxation Impacts Development Patterns

**PowerPoint 36.2** Real Property Tax

**PowerPoint 36.3** Special Assessments

**PowerPoint 36.4** Impact Fees

**Remarks:**

## I. Taxation and Fees

Like other government powers, the local government's authority to raise
revenue is dictated by state law.

> **\[PowerPoint 36.1 Taxation Impacts Development Patterns\]**

## 

> A. **Taxes,** especially property taxes, have traditionally been the
> largest single **source of revenue** for most local governments,
> sometimes providing more than half of all revenues.

1\. Local governments are also granted the **power** to charge user or
administrative **fees**, make **special assessments**, issue **bonds**,
and receive **grants-in-aid**.

B. It is important to note that the power of taxation, assessments and
fees extends beyond merely the collection of revenue, and can have a
**profound impact on the pattern of development** in the community.

1\. By assessing certain areas of the community with **differential tax
rates** or assessments, the local government has wide powers to
**influence** which lands are **affordable to develop**.

a.) The community can then **direct development** to desirable, **safe
areas**, while providing **disincentives** for developers to build on
lands identified as **hazardous or environmentally sensitive.**

2\. **Tax abatements** may also be used by local governments to
encourage landowners and developers **to integrate mitigation measures**
into the process of building new developments and retrofitting existing
properties in floodplains, seismic zones, and other hazardous areas (as
well as energy conservation, historic preservation, and other activities
of value to the community).

a\) These tools can be especially effective at encouraging the
mitigation of **existing structures**. **Incentives** have been applied
for storm proofing, flood proofing, wind strengthening and seismic
retrofitting.

## II. Real Property Tax

**\[PowerPoint 36.2 Real Property Tax\]**

A. Real property tax is based on the **assessed value of property**.

Real property taxes are usually based on the **value of land** along
with any **improvements,** including structures, placed on the land.

B. **Differential assessment** is a technique for **reducing the tax
burden** on land facing development pressure by recognizing that
undeveloped properties require fewer public services.

1\. This technique can moderate the pressure to develop land at its
"highest and best use" in one of **several ways**:

-   by **reducing the tax rate** applied to land so that payments are
    equal to its essential services;

-   by **reducing the assessed value** of land to a percentage of urban
    land; or

-   by assessing the value of land based on its **income-producing
    capacity**, as opposed to its market value.

    2\. Preferential taxation has been used to **preserve land** that is
    valuable to the community in ways other than monetary, such as:

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-   Farmland

-   Forestland

-   Historical properties

-   Open space

-   Wildlife habitat

    3\. Although preferential taxation has not been used extensively for
    **mitigation purposes** per se, local governments could apply
    differential assessments **to reduce the development pressure** on
    hazard-prone or hazard-mitigating open space, especially in cases
    where hazard areas overlap other sensitive lands, effectively
    linking **multiple community goals**.

## III. Special Assessments

**\[PowerPoint 36.3 Special Assessments\]**

A.  Many counties and municipalities may **levy special assessments**
    against property owners who **directly benefit** from a specific
    **public improvement**.

    1\. The **amount** of each assessment must be **proportional** to
    the **benefit** that accrues to the assessed property.

    a). This technique **shifts the financial burden** for improvement
    from the general public to those directly benefiting.

    2\. Local governments often levy special assessments for a variety
    of **public improvements**, for **example**:

-   streets,

-   sidewalks,

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-   water and sewer systems,

-   storm sewer and drainage systems,

-   watershed improvement projects,

    B. There are a number of ways to **apply this technique to
    mitigation purposes**, from **temporary assessments** that raise
    revenue for a specific improvement to **indefinite assessments**
    that fund independent, special purpose governmental entities.

    1\. **Examples** of potential application of special assessments to
    coastal hazards management include:

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-   Funding **structural projects**, such as a seawalls, retention
    basins, etc.

-   Establish **a regional floodplain management organization**.

-   Creation of a "**special storm services" district**, where funds go
    toward mitigation, disaster recovery and response activities in that
    district, including replacement of infrastructure.

-   Maintaining **stormwater management systems**.

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-   Implementing **beach erosion** programs.

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-   **Floodproofing** water, sewer, or other public service systems.

    2\. These charges may or may not have **the effect of discouraging
    development** in the assessment district. However, they do
    **transfer some of the cost** of living or doing business in
    environmentally sensitive or hazard-prone areas to those who choose
    to do so.

## IV. Impact Fees 

**\[PowerPoint 36.4 Impact Fees\]**

A. Impact fees require **new developments** to share in the **financial
burden** that their arrival imposes on a community.

1\. Impact fees are typically **one-time up-front charges** (although
some jurisdictions allow payments over time) against new development to
**pay for off-site improvements**.

a\) The fees can also be set up to allow new development to **buy into
existing services** with excess capacity.

2\. Impact fees are typically **based on ratios** that show what
services the average new resident will require.

B. Impact fees can be linked to **environmental impact analyses** in
order to charge proportionate fees for projects that will have broader
or less impacts in the community.

1\. While there are several methods for analyzing impacts, most look
only at **individual project impacts.**

a.) An alternative is a **cumulative impact assessment**, which looks at
the **total effect of all development** in a particular environment.

For example, this approach might allow planners to estimate the
**combined effects** of several potential developments on **reducing the
flood storage capacity** of a single watershed.

The fee in this case would go toward mitigating increase flood heights,
perhaps by **creating flood storage elsewhere** in the floodplain.

C. Local governments have **made little use of hazard-related impact
fees**, even when public facilities are damaged by natural hazards.

1\. Communities have typically **preferred to insure against losses**
than to pass the cost of service along to developers.

**V. Federal Tax Code**

So far, we have focused solely on the taxation powers exercised by local
governments that impact the local community. There are also impacts on
local jurisdictions that emanate from the federal tax code.

A. As described in Beatley, et al (2002: 93):

1\. The **federal tax code** can have a significant influence on coastal
land use and development patterns. The code currently includes
**provisions that subsidize hazardous development patterns.**

For instance, the **casualty loss deduction** allows coastal property
owners to deduct the cost of uninsured damages resulting from hurricanes
and coastal storms.

2\. Other tax code provisions include the **interest and property tax
deductions** allowed for **second homes** and **accelerated
depreciation** for **seasonal rental properties.**

3\. Although these tax benefits tend to be more obscure, they
nevertheless influence development patterns.

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**Objective 36.2 Explain how local government spending policies and
practices impact local patterns of development, and how local
governments can apply these spending policies to coastal hazards
management.**

### 

**Requirements:**

The content should be presented as lecture, supported by PowerPoint
slides and general class discussion.

The following PowerPoint slides will be shown during this Objective:

**PowerPoint 36.5** Spending/Capital Improvements

**PowerPoint 36.6** Capital Improvement Programs/Capital Improvement
Budgets

**PowerPoint 36.7** Public Investment Affects Private Development

**PowerPoint 36.8** Spending for Government Buildings and Facilities

**PowerPoint 36.9** Not All Spending Decisions Made Locally

**Remarks:**

## I. Spending

In order to **provide the services** that the public needs, local
governments are empowered to **spend public funds for public purposes**.

> **\[PowerPoint 36.5 Spending/Capital Improvements\]**
>
> A. Local governments typically provide a **wide array of services**,
> including ongoing services, such as waste collection and fire and
> police protection, as well as major one-time capital improvement
> projects.
>
> 1\. The **definition of a capital improvement** may be different in
> different communities. The common definition of a capital improvement
> includes new or expanded physical facilities that are relatively
> **large in size, expensive, and permanent.** (So, 1988)
>
> a.) Some common **examples** include:

-   streets and expressways,

-   schools,

-   public libraries,

-   water and sewer lines,

-   park and recreation facilities

-   government offices

> b.) In smaller communities certain expenditures, such as the purchase
> of a fire engine, may also be considered a capital expenditure. (So,
> 1988)
>
> B. Much government spending today involves a consideration of
> **policy**, and is "**a key method of carrying out goals and
> objectives of the community"** (So, 1988).

1\. The power to spend also includes the **power to withhold spending**
for the public good.

## II. Capital Improvement Programs and Budgets

> **\[PowerPoint 36.6 Capital Improvement Programs/Capital Improvement
> Budgets\]**

##### A. "Capital improvements programming is the multiyear scheduling of public physical improvements. The scheduling is based on studies of fiscal resources available and the choice of specific improvements to be constructed for a period of five to six years into the future" (So, 1988).

1\. "The **capital improvements budget** refers to those facilities that
are programmed for the **next fiscal year**." (So, 1988).

2\. An important **distinction** between the capital budget and the
capital improvements program is that the **one-year budget** may become
a part of the **legally adopted annual operating budget**, whereas the
**longer-term program** does **not** necessarily have **legal
significance**, nor does it necessarily **commit** a local government to
a particular expenditure in a particular year." (So, 1988)

**III. Urban Service Boundary**

> A. Some communities make use of urban service boundaries, which
> **delineate** the area or areas within which the municipality commits
> to **providing services** to residents.

1\. The urban service area serves as a **spatial reference** for the
community's capital improvement program (Deyle, 2002)

> B. The urban service area "provides a **long-term perspective** on
> growth and development and permits developers, residents and the
> locality generally to visualize where and when such facilities will
> become available in the future and where they cannot be expected.
> This, in effect, modifies long-term expectations about where future
> development will and will not be acceptable to the community"
> (Beatley, 2002: 229)

**IV. Using public investment as a growth management tool for hazardous
areas**

**\[PowerPoint 36.7 Public Investment Affects Private Development\]**

A. Public capital investment **policies**, including capital improvement
programs and urban service boundaries, have long been known to act as a
**growth management tool**, since growth and **development tends to
follow the** **availability of public services**.

In other words, public investment can affect private development.

1\. In particular, **highways** and **water and sewer** utilities have
been called "**growth shapers.**" (Kelly, 1993).

a.) For **example**, public-sector **highway** projects can make
**remote areas more accessible**, and thus more attractive for
development.

i.) This is particularly obvious in the case of **islands**, where the
construction of **bridge and road systems** can open up areas that were
hitherto inaccessible except by boat.

B. The conscientious **withholding of public spending** can also
**impact patterns of development** in the community.

1\. By establishing certain areas where the local government will
***not* extend essential services**, such as water and sewer systems,
**growth is limited** in those areas to the extent that development is
dependent on those services.

2\. In the case of coastal hazards, local governments can use policies
about where (and where not) to provide public infrastructure to
**discourage development** in delineated **hazardous areas**.
(Godschalk, et al, 1989).

a.) For **example**, **Dade County**, Florida's 1988 Comprehensive
Development Master Plan **prohibited** "**public expenditures** that
subsidize additional development in **Coastal High Hazard Areas,**" and
prohibited all public facilities in such areas, with the exception of
beach access and evacuation enhancements (Beatley and Brower, 1997).

3\. This is **less effective** in areas that have already **reached
build-out**, or where **private developers** are able to provide the
**expensive infrastructure** necessary to support new construction.

a.) In localities where soils and other conditions can support **on-site
sewer and water** services, the refusal to extend public infrastructure
is also **limited** in its effect as a hazard **management tool**.

i.) **Public health laws** may restrict the use of septic systems or
private wells in some areas, but these laws are rarely tied to natural
hazard considerations.

> 4\. Some communities have made use of the **"window of opportunity"**
> following a disaster to revamp their public investment policies.
>
> a.) For **example**, **Nags Head, NC** has implemented a **policy not
> to expend public funds** to **repair any private road** that is
> damaged or destroyed as a result of a **severe storm**, except in
> conjunction with the repair of the town's water system (Brower, et al
> 1990).
>
> C. **Ideally**, **capital improvement programs** should be integrally
> **linked** to other community land use and hazard **management
> policies**, including land use and comprehensive plans, taxation and
> financing policies, as well as zoning and subdivision ordinances
> (Deyle, 2000).

1\. "In addition to formulating a timetable for the provision of
services, a municipality can regulate the extension of and access to
municipal services... By coordinating its utility extension policy with
its comprehensive plan, therefore, a community can control the location
of development." (Brower, et al, 1984).

2\. In this way, a sensitivity and awareness of coastal hazards can be
**incorporated into the decision-making processes** of all development
policies in the jurisdiction.

**V. Spending for Government Buildings and Facilities**

So far, we have discussed how local governments can use public spending
decisions to influence private development of land within the
jurisdiction. It is also **important** that local governments make
**careful decisions** regarding **where and how to build** structures
and facilities that are used by the **public sector**.

> **\[PowerPoint 36.8 Spending for Government Buildings and
> Facilities\]**
>
> A. When local governments build new structures and facilities, or
> renovate old ones, such as schools, fire and police stations,
> government offices and other necessary public structures, they have
> the **opportunity** to build them to **standards** that **incorporate
> resilience** to coastal hazards.

1\. At a minimum, buildings should conform to the standards set for
private development; ideally, government structures should be built to
even **higher standards** if the need is warranted by the degree of risk
posed.

> B. The decision of where to build public facilities is also critical.
> By locating public facilities **outside of hazardous areas**, local
> governments can **reduce the costs** of repair and replacement
> following a disaster.
>
> 1\. **Locating emergency and life-line services outside of hazard
> areas**, such as fire, police, hospitals and rescue stations, is
> especially important to ensure that **response capability** of the
> local government is not impaired during a disaster.

C. Building to high standards and in non-hazard areas also allows the
local government to be a **good leader** in mitigation practices,
**setting the example** for private property owners (Schwab, et al,
2002).

1\. For **example**, **Dade County**, Florida's 1988 Comprehensive
Development Master Plan prohibited the construction of critical
facilities (such as hospitals, emergency services and emergency command
centers) in Coastal High Hazard Areas (Beatley and Brower, 1997).

**VI. How effective have capital improvement programs been for hazard
management?**

> A. As described by Burby, et al (1998) despite the theoretical
> potential, research has shown that in practice, capital improvement
> programs are **not widely used for hazard mitigation**. Furthermore,
> jurisdictions often ignore their capital improvement programs.
>
> 1\. Studies have shown similar **ineffectualness** for policies that
> **locate public facilities** to discourage development.

"Such policies tend **not to alter the basic spatial pattern** of
private development in hazardous areas"

####### They are "**rarely used** for hazard mitigation purposes."

> 2\. Most researchers would agree that these policies are much "**more
> effective when linked** with complementary **land use regulations and
> tax policies**." (Burby, et al, 1998)

**VII. Not all spending decisions are made locally**

Note, also, that many **spending decisions** are **not within the
control of local governments**.

**\[PowerPoint 36.9 Not all spending decisions are locally made\]**

A. **Federal** and **state** agencies, as well as many **regional**
entities often enact legislation or carry out programs and policies that
**trump local government** authority.

1\. For **example**, most major **highway projects** are funded with
federal and/or state funds, with little local influence on capacity,
location, or even maintenance and repair.

"Numerous examples demonstrate the **impact of highway construction** on
\[coastal area\] growth, including Interstate 40 **linking central North
Carolina** with Wilmington and the **beach communities**" (Heinz,
2002:41)

2\. For **example**, **water resource** development in many parts of the
country is controlled by state and regional agencies, with relatively
little local input.

3\. For **example**, "Capital improvement programs such as **beach
nourishment**, undertaken by the US Army Corps of Engineers, provide
additional stimulation for growth in coastal areas" (Heinz, 2002:41)

> B. **State law** can also dictate that local governments **provide
> necessary infrastructure** to developed land within their
> jurisdiction.
>
> This can make it **difficult** for local governments to **control
> growth** by withholding spending.

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Objective 36.3 Describe the need for education in local coastal hazards
management, and methods whereby local communities can exercise this
power.

**Requirements:**

The content should be presented as lecture, supported by PowerPoint
slides and general class discussion. Suggested questions to spark
classroom discussion are included in this Objective.

The following PowerPoint slide will be used during this Objective:

**PowerPoint 36.10** Education: Methods to Promote Community Awareness

**Remarks:**

**I. Education**

> A. An **informed and educated citizenry** is an integral part of
> managing coastal hazards at the local level.

Making the **public aware of the hazards** it faces is the first step
towards making the community **safer**.

> "Many **residents assume** that current building codes, zoning
> regulations, subdivision review processes, and/or permitting will
> adequately protect them, but this is not always the case. Education is
> a key part of the \[management\] process, and **overcoming a lack of
> awareness** should be an **integral part of** \[management\]" (FEMA
> 386-1, 2002)

"...educating the coastal public must be given **high priority** at the
local level (as well as at state and national levels)" (Beatley, et al.,
2002: 298).

1\. Many local governments have carried out **programs** to alert
residents about natural hazards -- the **dangers** as well as the
**opportunities** **to lessen the risks** associated with living near
those dangers.

Other communities have focused on **educating visitors about fragile
ecosystems**, sensitive natural areas, endangered wildlife and plant
species, or other **natural wonders** that need to be protected and
conserved.

2.  Residents play various roles in the community with regards to
    hazards education.

    a.) Each group represents a different **"target audience"** for
    hazards information:

-   Homeowners/Business owners

-   Lenders/Investors

-   Employers

-   Tourists

-   Builders/Developers

-   New residents/prospective housing consumers

-   Voters

-   Taxpayers

-   Vulnerable populations

-   Elderly

-   Non-English speakers

Suggested Question for classroom discussion:

WHAT TYPES OF INFORMATION DO EACH OF THE DIFFERENT GROUPS ABOVE NEED
ABOUT HAZARDS IN THEIR COMMUNITY?

> b.) Local **elected and appointed officials**, as well as **local
> government employees** are also in need of hazards information:

-   Local policy makers

-   governing board members

-   mayor

-   City or county manager

-   Building inspectors

-   Zoning officials

-   Floodplain management coordinators

-   Planners

-   Department heads

-   Public Works

-   Parks and Recreation

-   Budget and Management

-   Emergency Management personnel

Suggested question for classroom discussion:

HOW CAN ELECTED AND APPOINTED OFFICIALS USE HAZARD INFORMATION IN
CARRYING OUT THEIR DUTIES? WHY SHOULD THEY?

> 3\. There is a whole host of **reasons** that these various groups
> **need information** regarding hazards in the community:

-   Household emergency readiness

-   Structural mitigation and retrofitting techniques for property
    owners

-   Building long-term support for resiliency measures and policies

-   Informed land use decisions (both public and private)

-   Emergency preparedness, response and recovery capabilities

> a.) Often, the prevailing **perception of risk is skewed**, even in
> areas where natural hazards have occurred in the past.

i.) Information regarding **hazard frequency** is often
**misunderstood**.

> For example, the common understanding of the **"100-year floodplain"**
> is that this area will only be flooded **once in a century**.
>
> Residents also often fail to grasp the **extent of past hazard
> events**, such as flood heights.

ii.) Such misperceptions highlight the need for **publicizing accurate
information.**

> 4\. There are several **different methods** that local communities can
> use to promote community awareness that we will discuss today.
>
> **\[PowerPoint 36.10 Education: Methods to promote community
> awareness\]**

-   **Real estate disclosure**

-   **Community awareness campaigns**

-   **Hazard maps**

-   **Disaster warnings**

    B. Real Estate Disclosure

> Real estate disclosure laws require that the **buyer and lender be
> notified** if property is located in a **hazard-prone area**.

1.  The idea behind disclosure laws is that a **better-informed
    marketplace** will result in better decision-making:

-   Lenders will be **hesitant to extend credit** in hazard areas;

-   Well-informed consumers will choose **to avoid a purchase** in
    hazard areas, demand a **lower price**, or **pursue mitigation**
    actions after purchase (NC Division of Emergency Management, 1998).

> 2\. Only a **handful of states** have **mandated** real estate
> disclosure about natural hazards.

3\. Currently, **federally-regulated lending institutions** must advise
applicants for a mortgage that a building is **located in a floodplain**
as shown on current Flood Insurance Rate Maps.

a.) However, this requirement is typically met **only a few days before
closing**, usually an insufficient amount of time to effect the purchase
decision.

b.) Furthermore, the **notification** is often **vague** or given
**little emphasis**, and frequently does not factor into negotiations at
all.

> 4\. **Local real estate boards** in some communities have instituted
> policies that **advise** **potential homebuyers** about hazard risks
> in the area.

a.) However, **sellers** in many communities retain the option to **make
"no representation"** about the hazard risks, or about past hazard
events, including floods, erosion, or coastal storms that have affected
the property.

**C. Community Awareness Programs**

> Community awareness programs may be used to directly **educate** the
> general **public** about **hazard risks** and **mitigation
> strategies**.

####### 1. Information can be presented in a number of ways, including

-   Outreach projects

-   Hazard information centers and kiosks

-   School-age education programs

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-   Booths at county and state fairs

-   Brochures

-   Media releases

-   Workshops

    Some communities have made **permanent high-water marks** in
    prominent places to highlight historical flood levels.

    2\. General awareness campaigns can include a **wide variety of
    topics**, such as:

    a.) **Practical information** specific to the community and
    individual households:

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-   Location of hazard areas

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-   Items to pack in hurricane kit

-   Evacuation routes

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-   Ways to limit exposure

-   Building and retrofitting techniques to reduce property damage

-   Suitable coastal landscaping with indigenous plants

    ***For example**:*

    The city of **Wilmington**, in conjunction with New Hanover County
    in **North Carolina** held a **Hurricane Preparedness Expo** at the
    beginning of hurricane season, 2000. Held on the campus of the
    University of North Carolina at Wilmington, the expo hosted over
    10,000 attendees, with over 90 exhibitors, including local
    representatives from national home improvement store chains, and
    dozens of how-to workshops. Its purpose was to educate the community
    on preventive measures and damage reduction actions to be taken
    before a hurricane, improving the level of disaster awareness among
    residents and increasing their knowledge of disaster mitigation
    techniques. The expo raised over \$20,000 that was distributed to
    local non-profit agencies for disaster preparedness and mitigation
    activities. (NC Division of Emergency Management, 2001).

######## b.) Awareness campaigns can also cover information that the public should know about how their community fits into a **larger coastal environment**, such as:

-   How uncontrolled floodplain use impacts downstream neighbors

-   How wetlands naturally absorb and filter flood waters

-   How barrier islands naturally migrate

-   How dunes protect inland areas from wave action and storm surge

> c.). General awareness programs have a **"mixed" record** of building
> public support for mitigation of coastal hazards. More successful are
> self-help programs with a narrow scope, such as residential
> floodproofing (Olshansky and Kartez, 1998).

**D. Hazard Maps**

> 1\. Some communities choose to relay **information** regarding local
> coastal hazards by **publishing maps**.
>
> a.) Hazard maps can **range in sophistication** from simple, **paper**
> maps that show the outlines of hazardous areas (storm surge inundation
> zones, for example), **to** multi-layered computerized maps created
> through a **Geographic Information System** (GIS).
>
> b.) Hazard maps are often **made available** to the public for viewing
> in local **government offices**. Other communities make their maps
> **accessible over the Internet** through links from a municipal or
> county website.
>
> 2\. Maps that clearly portray the **extent of hazard exposure** a
> community faces can create an awareness and understanding among local
> officials, as well as the general public, that often is more **vivid**
> than other methods of information dissemination.
>
> a.) These **graphic depictions of community vulnerability** can be
> worth a thousand words, and can serve to notify residents of where the
> dangers lie in relation to both public and private property.
>
> b.) A map of the town's property **tax base overlayed with hazard
> maps** of storm surge or flood zones, for example, can be a real
> **eye-opener**.
>
> i.) When the **intersection** of the **built environment** with the
> **potential hazard** area is illustrated in a map, it can truly bring
> home **the need for management** practices that will reduce the
> community's level of vulnerability.
>
> ***For example*:**
>
> The **North Carolina Division of Coastal Management** makes
> **interactive shoreline maps** available over the **Internet**,
> allowing individuals to zoom in on portions of the coast to find out
> the latest long-term average annual erosion rate. While these maps are
> not considered technically accurate because of their small size,
> nevertheless they give users a general picture of long-term shoreline
> changes. Property owners can **use the information to make decisions**
> regarding parcel use and development.

**E. Disaster Warning**

> The **first step** in responding to a potential disaster is to know
> that one is coming.
>
> 1\. Disaster warning refers to both the **monitoring of local
> conditions** and the **broadcasting of pre-event alerts.**
>
> a.) Disaster warnings are issued through the **National Weather
> Service** and can be **administered** in a number of ways, including
> via:

-   sirens,

-   radio,

-   television, cable TV,

-   mobile public-address systems,

-   telephone trees, and

-   door-to-door contact.

> i.) In areas with a large immigrant or migrant population,
> **non-English speakers** must be alerted in ways that get the message
> across.
>
> ii.) **Posted signs** can be used to identify risks at a particular
> site (rip tide danger, for example).
>
> b.) **Multiple or redundant warning systems** are most **effective**,
> as they ensure that a message will be received even if one part of the
> warning system is not heard.
>
> i.) Unfortunately, people tend to **ignore warnings** for a variety of
> reasons:

-   They **misperceive the probability** of a disaster;

-   They **underestimate the effectiveness** of mitigation measures;

-   They have a **fatalistic belief** that it is impossible to control
    their fate.

-   They have been **warned multiple times**, with no actual emergency
    occurring.

> ii.) On the other hand, people may **rely too heavily on warnings**,
> leading them to unnecessarily expose themselves to risk.
>
> c.) The practice of **hazard prediction** and warnings is **not an
> exact science**. This is particularly obvious in the case of
> hurricanes.

i.) As noted in Beatley, et al,. (2002: 67-68)

> "... \[M\]ost **hurricane experts** admit that we have **reached a
> plateau** in the **ability to predict the future direction of a
> hurricane** and to warn coastal communities of an oncoming storm.
>
> The **National Hurricane Center** in Coral Gables, Florida, is very
> **good at tracking hurricanes**, but the **unpredictable nature** of
> these events means that they often do not go where they are expected
> to go....
>
> Thus, although the National Hurricane Center says it can provide
> **approximately a 12-hour warning** before a strike, **evacuation
> times** in many communities are **much longer**.
>
> This often presents **a dilemma for coastal officials**, who must
> decide to call for an evacuation many hours before they know whether
> the storm will actually strike their location."

**II. "Living with the Shore"**

A. Perhaps the most important type of education that coastal area
residents can receive involves the **nature of the coastal
environment**, and its inherent dangers.

> 1\. If communities do not believe that they are at risk from potential
> hazards, efforts to initiate management schemes may be for naught.
>
> 2\. An **understanding and acceptance** of the volatile,
> unpredictable, and dynamic systems that make up the coastal zone can
> help people learn to **"live with the shore,"** as opposed to
> attempting the human domination and conquering of natural forces.

3\. According to Orrin Pilkey, renowned geologist, author and vocal
critic of inappropriate coastal development, we should learn to "live by
the rules of the sea."

a.) To learn about the **natural dynamics** of an environment which is
not well suited to intensive human intervention means we accept **that
beaches will erode**, that **hurricanes** will knock down buildings, and
that **inlets will open and close** during storms.

> B. Advocates of **strategic retreat** are aware that barrier islands
> are rolling, shifting, migrating land forms, and that no amount of
> human intervention can change that dynamic.
>
> 1\. Yet, we can learn to live within the physical and environmental
> limitations of the coast.
>
> As demonstrated by a study conducted by Edward J. Kaiser, even the
> **economies of barrier island communities**, which are highly
> dependent on their recreational beaches, can be enhanced, not
> threatened, through **careful redevelopment** that leaves sensitive
> environmental and high hazard areas intact (Kaiser, 2001).

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**Course Developer References**:

Beatley, Tim and David J. Brower. 1997. "Florida After Hurricane
Andrew." In David R. Godschalk, ed. *Making Mitigation Work: Recasting
Natural Hazards Planning and Implementation*. Chapel Hill: University of
North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Center for Urban and Regional Studies

###### Beatley, Timothy, David J. Brower and Anna K. Schwab. 2002. *An Introduction to Coastal Zone Management*, 2^nd^ ed. Washington, DC: Island Press. 

###### 

###### Brower, David J., Candace Carroway, Thomas Pollard, and C. Luther Propst. 1984. *Managing Development in Small Towns*. Chicago: American Planning Association Planners Press.

Brower, David J., Anna K. Schwab and Bruce M. Bortz. 1990. *A Plan to
Make Nags Head, North Carolina Less Vulnerable to the Impacts of Natural
Hazards*. Nags Head, North Carolina: Town of Nags Head.

Bush, David M., Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr., and William J. Neal. 1996. *Living
by the Rules of the Sea*. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Deyle, Robert E. 2002. "Investing in Public Capital Improvements
session" in Raymond J. Burby, ed. *Emergency Management Institute
Instructor Guide: Building Disaster Resilient Communities* Federal
Emergency Management Agency: Emergency Management Institute.

FEMA. 2002. *Bringing the Plan to Life: Implementing the Hazard
Mitigation Plan*. Washington, D.C.: FEMA: 386-4.

FEMA. 2002. *Developing the Mitigation Plan: Identifying Mitigation
Actions and Implementation Strategies*. Washington, D.C.: FEMA: 386-3.

FEMA. 2002. Getting Started: Building Support for Mitigation Planning.
Washington, D.C.: FEMA: 386-1.

FEMA. 1987. Reducing Losses in High Risk Flood Hazard Areas: A Guidebook
for Local Officials. Washington, D.C.: FEMA: 116.

Godschalk, David R. 2002. "Collaborative and Participatory Processes" in
Raymond J. Burby, ed. *Emergency Management Institute Instructor Guide:
Building Disaster Resilient Communities* Federal Emergency Management
Agency: Emergency Management Institute.

The Heinz Center. 2002. *Human Links to Coastal Disasters*. Washington,
D.C.: The H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the
Environment.

Kaiser, Edward J. 2001. *Steering Barrier Island Communities Toward a
More Sustainable Future*. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina Division of
Emergency Management.

Kartez, Jack. 2002. "Communicating with the Public" in Raymond J. Burby,
ed. *Emergency Management Institute Instructor Guide: Building Disaster
Resilient Communities* Federal Emergency Management Agency: Emergency
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North Carolina Coastal Federation. 1990. *A Citizen's Guide to Coastal
Resource Management Through Local Government*. Swansboro, NC: NC Coastal
Federation.

North Carolina Division of Emergency Management. 1998. *Tools and
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North Carolina Division of Emergency Management. 2001. *North Carolina
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Olshansky, Robert B. and Jack D. Kartez. 1998. "Managing Land Use to
Build Resilience." In Raymond J. Burby, ed., *Cooperating with Nature:
Confronting Natural Hazards with Land Use Planning for Sustainable
Communities*. Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press.

Schwab, et al "Local Government Structure, Powers and Limitations" in
*Emergency Management Institute Instructor Guide: Building Hazard
Resilient Communities*

So, Frank S. 1988. "Finance and Budgeting," in *The Practice of Local
Government Planning*, Frank S. So, ed. Washington, D.C.: International
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