**LEADERSHIP IN CINEMA**

***Apollo 13***

(Based on a true story)

**Submitted by:** Pam McDonald

**E-mail:** <Pam_McDonald@nifc.blm.gov>

**Phone:** 208-387-5318

**Audience** **Rating:** PG

> **Released:** 1995
>
> **Studio:** Universal City Studios
>
> **Genre:** Drama
>
> **Runtime:** 140 minutes

**Materials:** VCR or DVD, television or projection system, Wildland
Fire Leadership Values and Principles handouts (single-sided), notepad,
writing utensil

**Objective:** Students will identify Wildland Fire Leadership Values
and Principles illustrated within *Apollo 13* and discuss leadership
lessons learned with group members or mentors.

**Basic** **Plot:** The true story of the near-disastrous Apollo 13
mission. On April 11, 1970, gung-ho astronauts Jim Lovell, Fred Haise
and last-minute, less experienced replacement Jack Swigert blast-off
towards the moon. But while in space, an oxygen tank explodes, putting
the trio in peril: they quickly lose oxygen, run out of power, and get
exposed to dangerously high amounts of carbon dioxide. Unbeknownst to
them, there are more problems to come, including emotional friction when
Jack is (wrongly) blamed for the explosion. Intensifying the situation
is the fact that these mishaps catch the scientists and technicians at
Mission Control by surprise, and they\'re not sure how to remedy the
situation. Everyone must work together to come up with the right answer
\-- if the astronauts are to survive\... (Synopsis from
rottentomatoes.com)

**Cast of Main Characters:**

> Tom Hanks Jim Lovell
>
> Bill Paxton Fred Haise
>
> Kevin Bacon Jack Swigert
>
> Gary Sinise Ken Mattingly
>
> Ed Harris Gene Kranz
>
> Kathleen Quinlan Marilyn Lovell

**Facilitation Options:**

*Apollo 13* illustrates an abundance of leadership values and
principles---especially an emphasis on team cohesion. Students should
have few problems identifying those that correspond to the Wildland Fire
Leadership Values and Principles. The objective is not to identify every
leadership principle but to promote thought and discussion. Students
should be less concerned with how many principles they view within the
film and more concerned with how the principles they do recognize can be
used to develop themselves as a leader.

Due to the historical nature of the film, the facilitator/mentor has an
option of incorporating a reading program along with the viewing of the
film. Additional book and video references are provided below under
"Other Reference." An article by Diane Vaughan called *Targets for
Firefighting Safety: Lessons from the Challenger Case.* Vaughan
discusses the role that organizational culture can play in affecting
firefighter performance and safety.

The film can be viewed in its entirety or by clip selection, depending
on facilitator intent and time schedules. Another method is to have the
employee(s) view the film on his/her own and then hold the discussion
session.

> **[Full-film Facilitation Suggestion]{.underline}:**
>
> When opting for the full-film method, the facilitator should determine
> a good breaking point near the middle of the film.
>
> 1\. Review the Wildland Fire Leadership Values and Principles with
> students.
>
> 2\. Advise students to document instances within the film that
> illustrate/violate the Wildland Fire Leadership Values and Principles
> on the handout provided.
>
> 3\. Break students into small discussion groups.
>
> 4\. Show students *Apollo 13*.
>
> 5\. Break. (Suggestion: After loss of radio contact as the ship rounds
> the moon and Lovell tells the crew, "Let's go home.")
>
> 6\. Begin the guided discussion.
>
> 7\. Provide a short synopsis with some "ticklers" to pay attention
> before beginning the rest of the film.
>
> 8\. Resume the film.
>
> 9\. Have students discuss their findings and how they will apply
> leadership lessons learned to their role in wildland fire suppression.
> Facilitate discussion in groups that have difficulty.
>
> 10\. Wrap up the session and encourage students to apply leadership
> lessons learned in their personal and work lives.
>
> **[Clip Facilitation Suggestion]{.underline}:**
>
> 1\. Review the Wildland Fire Leadership Value or Principle targeted
> for discussion. (May be given or ask students to identify the value or
> principle being illustrated after viewing the clip.)
>
> 2\. Show the clip.
>
> 3\. Facilitate discussion regarding the selected clip and
> corresponding value and/or principle.
>
> 4\. Break students into small discussion groups.
>
> 5\. Have students discuss their findings and how they will apply
> leadership lessons learned to their role in wildland fire suppression.
> Facilitate discussion in groups that may have difficulty.
>
> 6\. Wrap up the session and encourage students to apply leadership
> lessons learned in their personal and work lives.
>
> **[Mentor Suggestion]{.underline}:**
>
> Use either method presented above. The mentor should be available to
> the student to discuss lessons learned from the film as well as
> incorporating them to the student's leadership self-development plan.
>
> Encouraging individuals to keep a leadership journal is an excellent
> way to document leadership values and principles that are practiced.
>
> Suggest other wildland fire leadership toolbox items that will
> contribute to the overall leadership development of the student.
>
> **[Other References]{.underline}:**
>
> Clemens, John K. and Wolff, Melora. *Movies to Manage By.* Chapter 2
> -- "The Importance of Improvisation---Apollo 13," pp. 24-45. 1999.
>
> *Failure is Not an Option---The Untold Story of Mission Control,*
> History Channel,
> [www.historychannel.com/option](http://www.historychannel.com/option)
>
> Kouzes, James and Posner, Barry. *The Leadership Challenge*. Third
> Edition. 2002.
>
> [www.theleadershipchallenge.com](http://www.theleadershipchallenge.com/)
>
> Kranz, Gene. *Failure is Not an Option---Mission Control from Mercury
> to Apollo 13 and Beyond.* 2001.
>
> Lovell, James A. and Kluger, Jeffery. *Lost Moon---The Perilous Voyage
> of Apollo 13*. 1994.
>
> Vaughan, Diane. *Targets for Firefighting Safety: Lessons from the
> Challenger Case*. 1996.
> <http://www.fire.blm.gov/textdocuments/VaughanWildfire.pdf>

Hyperlinks have been included to facilitate the use of the Wildland Fire
Leadership Development Program website. Encourage students of leadership
to visit the website at

**[http://www.fireleadership.gov](http://www.fireleadership.gov/).**

+-----------+----------------------------------------------------------+
| *         |                                                          |
| *Wildland |                                                          |
| Fire      |                                                          |
| L         |                                                          |
| eadership |                                                          |
| Values    |                                                          |
| and       |                                                          |
| Pri       |                                                          |
| nciples** |                                                          |
+-----------+----------------------------------------------------------+
| **Duty**  | Be proficient in your job, both technically and as a     |
|           | leader.                                                  |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Take charge when in charge.                          |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Adhere to professional standard operating            |
|           |     procedures.                                          |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Develop a plan to accomplish given objectives.       |
+-----------+----------------------------------------------------------+
|           | Make sound and timely decisions.                         |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Maintain situation awareness in order to anticipate  |
|           |     needed actions.                                      |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Develop contingencies and consider consequences.     |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Improvise within the commander's intent to handle a  |
|           |     rapidly changing environment.                        |
+-----------+----------------------------------------------------------+
|           | Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised and         |
|           | accomplished.                                            |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Issue clear instructions.                            |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Observe and assess actions in progress without       |
|           |     micro-managing.                                      |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Use positive feedback to modify duties, tasks and    |
|           |     assignments when appropriate.                        |
+-----------+----------------------------------------------------------+
|           | Develop your subordinates for the future.                |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Clearly state expectations.                          |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Delegate those tasks that you are not required to do |
|           |     personally.                                          |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Consider individual skill levels and development     |
|           |     needs when assigning tasks.                          |
+-----------+----------------------------------------------------------+
| **        | Know your subordinates and look out for their well       |
| Respect** | being.                                                   |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Put the safety of your subordinates above all other  |
|           |     objectives.                                          |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Take care of your subordinate's needs.               |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Resolve conflicts between individuals on the team.   |
+-----------+----------------------------------------------------------+
|           | Keep your subordinates informed.                         |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Provide accurate and timely briefings.               |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Give the reason (intent) for assignments and tasks.  |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Make yourself available to answer questions at       |
|           |     appropriate times.                                   |
+-----------+----------------------------------------------------------+
|           | Build the team.                                          |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Conduct frequent debriefings with the team to        |
|           |     identify lessons learned.                            |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Recognize individual and team accomplishments and    |
|           |     reward them appropriately.                           |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Apply disciplinary measures equally.                 |
+-----------+----------------------------------------------------------+
|           | Employ your subordinates in accordance with their        |
|           | capabilities.                                            |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Observe human behavior as well as fire behavior.     |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Provide early warning to subordinates of tasks they  |
|           |     will be responsible for.                             |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Consider team experience, fatigue and physical       |
|           |     limitations when accepting assignments.              |
+-----------+----------------------------------------------------------+
| **In      | Know yourself and seek improvement.                      |
| tegrity** |                                                          |
|           | -   Know the strengths/weaknesses in your character and  |
|           |     skill level.                                         |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Ask questions of peers and superiors.                |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Actively listen to feedback from subordinates.       |
+-----------+----------------------------------------------------------+
|           | Seek responsibility and accept responsibility for your   |
|           | actions.                                                 |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Accept full responsibility for and correct poor team |
|           |     performance.                                         |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Credit subordinates for good performance.            |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Keep your superiors informed of your actions.        |
+-----------+----------------------------------------------------------+
|           | Set the example.                                         |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Share the hazards and hardships with your            |
|           |     subordinates.                                        |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Don't show discouragement when facing set backs.     |
|           |                                                          |
|           | -   Choose the difficult right over the easy wrong.      |
+-----------+----------------------------------------------------------+

***Apollo 13***

**1. Document film clips illustrating the Wildland Fire Leadership
Values and Principles.**

**2. Discuss leadership lessons learned from the film with group members
or mentor.**

**Duty**

-   Be proficient in your job, both technically and as a leader.

-   Make sound and timely decisions.

-   Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised and accomplished.

-   Develop your subordinates for the future.

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

**Respect**

-   Know your subordinates and look out for their well being.

-   Keep your subordinates informed.

-   Build the team.

-   Employ your subordinates in accordance with their capabilities.

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

**Integrity**

-   Know yourself and seek improvement.

-   Seek responsibility and accept responsibility for your actions.

-   Set the example.

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

***Apollo 13***

**Guided Discussion**

1\. The Apollo 13 mission was considered by the public to be a routine
mission. How does Jim Lovell respond to the comment and reason for this
being his last mission? What is the present public perception of the
wildland firefighter in your community?

2\. Lovell says, "The astronaut is only the most visible member of a
very large team. And all of us right down to the guy sweeping the floor
are honored to be a part of it." How does this statement compare to the
wildland fire community?

3\. When the politician comments that his constituents question why
Congress continues to fund the space program after the U.S. beat the
Russians to the moon, Lovell responds with "Imagine if Christopher
Columbus had come back from the new world and no one returned in his
foot steps." How can you apply this statement to the development of a
wildland fire leader and the fire program in general?

4\. Marilyn Lovell questions whether NASA and the crew are rushing into
the Apollo 13 mission. Are her concerns warranted? Does this occur in
the wildland fire community? What Wildland Fire Leadership Values and
Principles are compromised by rushing into a mission?

5\. Jim Lovell uses visual aids to teach his son about his mission. What
tools are available to the wildland fire leader to instruct/develop
his/her crew?

6\. Who takes control of the situation on the ground when Lovell makes
his famous statement, "Houston, we have a problem." What is his/her
first priority (which value/principle)?

7\. The astronauts are required to perform routine procedures under
extreme stress and tight schedules (powering up the *Odyssey* in 15
minutes). How is this situation similar to a shelter deployment? How can
you prepare yourself and the crew for this event?

8\. Why is Ken Mattingly chosen to develop the reentry strategy? Does
his being pulled from the crew affect his ability to lead the team on
developing a strategy? Have you experienced this in the wildland fire
community? How did you handle the situation?

9\. How effective is Gene Kranz as a leader? Give reasons for your
observation.

10\. A NASA official states that, "This could be the worst disaster NASA
has ever experienced." Kranz responds, "With all due respect, Sir. I
believe this will be our finest hour." Which values and/or principles is
Kranz exhibiting?

11\. Jack Swigert is the rookie on the mission. Crew cohesion was
compromised. How is he perceived by Haise and Lovell? Identify instances
in the film that support your answer. What, if anything, could have been
done to maintain or build crew cohesion?

12\. Team cohesion was critical to the success of the Apollo 13 mission.
In your opinion, how cohesive is your team? Assess your crew using the
[Crew Cohesion Assessment
Tool](http://www.fireleadership.gov/toolbox/documents/Crew_Cohesion_Assessment.pdf)
developed by Mission-Centered Solutions (available in the [Leadership
Toolbox](http://www.fireleadership.gov/toolbox/toolbox.html)).

13\. Identify a situation where teamwork was used to successfully
complete a task or mission in the film and in your work environment.

14\. The astronauts use flight manuals and checklists to conduct their
missions. What reference tool(s) is available to aid the wildland fire
leader in decision making during routine and critical stress times?

15\. Although an electrical arc caused the actual explosion in the
oxygen tank, what human factors may have contributed to a compromised
mission?

***Apollo 13***

**The following clips illustrate the Wildland Leadership Values and
Principles. These are only guidelines and may be interpreted differently
by other views; they are presented as a guide for facilitation.**

**Duty**

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
  Kranz holds a meeting with the flight controllers and engineers to
  develop the initial plan of getting the crew home---around the moon.
  (Develop a plan to accomplish given objectives.)

  Lovell gives Swigert the task of docking the command module to the
  lunar module even though all astronauts have the ability to dock.
  (Consider individual skill levels and development needs when assigning
  tasks.)

  Kranz maintains order when the problem occurs. Tells his subordinates
  to "work the problem." (Be proficient in your job, both technically and
  as a leader.)

  Lovell gives the pilot seat to Swigert for reentry after occupying the
  seat by habit. (Delegate those tasks that you are not required to do
  personally.)

  Engineers determine that the weight distribution of the ship is
  incorrect since they expected moon rocks to be part of the returning
  cargo. The crew must quickly redistribute cargo. (Make sound and timely
  decisions.)
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

**Respect**

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
  The flight physician voices his medical opinion on two
  instances---grounding Mattingly and telling Kranz the astronauts need
  sleep. (Observe human behavior as well as fire behavior. Consider team
  experience, fatigue and physical limitations when accepting
  assignments.)

  Kranz conducts many briefings with flight controllers throughout the
  film. (Provide accurate and timely briefings.)

  Engineers develop a carbon dioxide filter. (Take care of your
  subordinate's needs.)

  Kranz listens to the plans developed by his subordinates. (Employ your
  subordinates in accordance with their capabilities.)

  Jack Swigert places a "NO" note on the limb jettison switch as not to
  jettison with the crew is in the *Aquarius*. (Put the safety of your
  subordinates above all other objectives.)
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

**Integrity**

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
  Lovell chooses to scrub Mattingly from the mission. (Choose the
  difficult right over the easy wrong.)

  Lovell asks Mission Control to double-check his computations. (Ask
  questions of peers and superiors.)

  During the blind burn, Lovell makes an error and apologizes to Haise
  and Swigert. (Accept full responsibility for and correct poor team
  performance.)

  Jack Swigert admits that he cannot read his own writing for the reentry
  plan. Mattingly tells him he will walk him through it. (Know the
  strengths/weaknesses in your character and skill level.)

  Upon reentry, Lovell tells Mission Control and the crew, "Gentlemen,
  It's been a privilege flying with you." (Credit subordinates for good
  performance.)
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

***Apollo 13***

**Guided Discussion -- Possible Answers**

1\. The Apollo 13 mission was considered by the public to be a routine
mission. How does Jim Lovell respond to the comment and reason for this
being his last mission? What is the present public perception of the
wildland firefighter in your community?

-   **He responds in a very positive manner. "I'm in command of the best
    ship with the best crew that anybody would ask for." He also informs
    them that no mission to space is routine. He doesn't exhibit a
    complacent attitude.**

-   **Answers will vary.**

2\. Lovell says, "The astronaut is only the most visible member of a
very large team. And all of us right down to the guy sweeping the floor
are honored to be a part of it." How does this statement compare to the
wildland fire community?

-   **Crew cohesion is a critical element of the wildland fire community
    and success in wildland fire suppression. Every person within the
    organization must work together to complete a safe and efficient
    mission. Without teamwork, safety may be compromised.**

3\. When the politician comments that his constituents question why
Congress continues to fund the space program after the U.S. beat the
Russians to the moon, Lovell responds with "Imagine if Christopher
Columbus had come back from the new world and no one returned in his
foot steps." How can you apply this statement to the development of a
wildland fire leader and the fire program in general?

-   **Answers may vary. The Wildland Fire Leadership Development Program
    has been established by fire leaders from the past and present.
    Leaders at all levels should use the program to advance their
    knowledge, skills and abilities as a leader. Use of, and exposure
    to, the program will ensure that leaders continue to be molded for
    the continued success of the wildland fire service. The wildland
    fire service needs leaders with strong vision and purpose as well as
    the "courage and spirit to make a significant difference." (Kouzes
    and Posner---*The Leadership Challenge.)***

4\. Marilyn Lovell questions whether NASA and the crew are rushing into
the Apollo 13 mission. Are her concerns warranted? Does this occur in
the wildland fire community? What Wildland Fire Leadership Values and
Principles are compromised by rushing into a mission?

-   **Marilyn's concerns are warranted. The new crew had less training
    in the simulators that the other crew would have had. Safety
    concerns may have been compromised---however, this accident may have
    happened to the other crew as well.**

-   **This event does happen within the wildland fire community.**

-   **Answers may vary. Consider individual skill levels and development
    needs when assigning tasks. Know your subordinates and look out for
    their well being. Build the team. Employ your subordinates in
    accordance with their capabilities.**

5\. Jim Lovell uses visual aids to teach his son about his mission. What
tools are available to the wildland fire leader to instruct/develop
his/her crew?

-   **Refer students to the [Leadership
    Toolbox](http://www.fireleadership.gov/toolbox/toolbox.html).**

    -   **[Tactical Decision Games and Sand Table
        Exercises](http://www.fireleadership.gov/toolbox/documents/TDGS_STEX_Workbook.pdf).**

    -   **[Wildland Fire Staff
        Rides](http://www.fireleadership.gov/toolbox/documents/Staff_Ride_Workbook.pdf).**

    -   **[Professional Reading
        Program](http://www.fireleadership.gov/toolbox/documents/pro_reading_room.htm).**

6\. Who takes control of the situation on the ground when Lovell makes
his famous statement, "Houston, we have a problem." What is his/her
first priority (which value/principle)?

-   **Gene Kranz, Flight Director.**

-   **Putting the safety of his subordinates above all other objectives.
    "We've never lost an American in space. We're sure as hell not going
    to lose one on my watch. Failure is not an option!"**

7\. The astronauts are required to perform routine procedures under
extreme stress and tight schedules (powering up the *Odyssey* in 15
minutes). How is this situation similar to a shelter deployment? How can
you prepare yourself and the crew for this event?

-   **Wildland firefighters practice shelter deployment in less than
    stressful situations. Shelter deployments are not a routine
    procedure. The "routine" practice can never prepare a wildland
    firefighter for the actual deployment experience. Stress and urgency
    will present similar anxiety when an actual deployment occurs.**

-   **Follow Standard Firefighting Orders, Watch Out Situations, and
    LCES to avoid the need for a shelter deployment. Perform regular
    shelter deployment simulations so the procedure becomes second
    nature should you need to deploy.**

-   **Refer to the [Wildland Fire Safety Training---Annual
    Fresher](http://www.nifc.gov/safety_study/annual-refresh/index.htm)
    (WFSTAR) website for additional fire shelter and safety
    information.**

8\. Why is Ken Mattingly chosen to develop the reentry strategy? Does
his being pulled from the crew affect his ability to lead the team on
developing a strategy? Have you experienced this in the wildland fire
community? How did you handle the situation?

-   **Mattingly was a member of the crew until bumped because of health
    concerns. He knows the crew and the ship.**

-   **Mattingly puts his issues aside and works with his ground team to
    think through different procedures. His ability to bring his team to
    a conclusion with few conflicts was commendable.**

-   **Answers will vary.**

9\. How effective is Gene Kranz as a leader? Give reasons for your
observation.

-   **Kranz was a highly effective leader. He ensured that everything
    possible was done to bring the crew home safely. He exerted his
    authority when needed and listened to subordinates when they
    contributed to the successful completion of the mission. He promoted
    the concept of team effort and cohesion to bring the astronauts home
    safely. He used leadership as a relationship and not as a position
    of power.**

10\. A NASA official states that, "This could be the worst disaster NASA
has ever experienced." Kranz responds, "With all due respect, Sir. I
believe this will be our finest hour." Which values and/or principles is
Kranz exhibiting?

-   **Answers will vary. Duty, Respect and Integrity are all exhibited.
    Above all he set the example for all members of the team to follow.
    Kranz stated, "Failure was not an option." He set the tone that all
    others followed. He allowed his subordinates, in accordance with
    their capabilities, to develop contingencies and while considering
    consequences.**

11\. Jack Swigert is the rookie on the mission. Crew cohesion was
compromised. How is he perceived by Haise and Lovell? Identify instances
in the film that support your answer. What, if anything, could have been
done to maintain or build crew cohesion?

-   **Swigert is treated as the rookie, is blamed for failures, and is
    often not heard.**

-   **Haise blames Swigert for the explosion in the oxygen tank. Lovell,
    although a good leader, doesn't always listen to Swigert. Swigert
    has "done the math" and determined that NASA is not telling the crew
    the whole story. At one point, Lovell sits in the pilot seat; he
    realizes his error and turns over the controls to Swigert.**

-   **Answers will vary. Postpone the mission until Mattingly is healthy
    (Haise's health problem may have surfaced on the ground instead of
    in space.). Allow Mattingly to serve on the mission. Cancel the
    mission.**

12\. Team cohesion was critical to the success of the Apollo 13 mission.
In your opinion, how cohesive is your team? Assess your crew using the
[Crew Cohesion Assessment
Tool](http://www.fireleadership.gov/toolbox/documents/Crew_Cohesion_Assessment.pdf)
developed by Mission-Centered Solutions (available in the [Leadership
Toolbox](http://www.fireleadership.gov/toolbox/toolbox.html)).

-   **Answers will vary.**

13\. Identify a situation where teamwork was used to successfully
complete a task or mission in the film and in your work environment.

-   **Answers will vary. Developing the reentry procedure. Performing
    the math to double-check Lovell's computations. Building the carbon
    dioxide filter.**

14\. The astronauts use flight manuals and checklists to conduct their
missions. What reference tool(s) is available to aid the wildland fire
leader in decision making during routine and critical stress times?

-   **[Incident Response Pocket
    Guide](http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/pubs/IRPG_Jan2004.pdf).**

15\. Although an electrical arc caused the actual explosion in the
oxygen tank, what human factors may have contributed to a compromised
mission?

-   **Answers will vary.**

    -   **Situation Awareness: NASA does not provide information to the
        crew concerning the reentry plan or lack thereof. Kranz opts not
        to tell the crew they are coming in shallow.**

    -   **Basic Communication Responsibilities: Lack of communication
        about a potential problem years before Lovell was named as
        commander of the mission.**

    -   **Attitude and Stress Barriers: Public perception of and
        interest in the space mission. Limited time to power down the
        *Odyssey.* Bag is torn in space while making the carbon dioxide
        filter. Lovell and crew remove the bio-med sensors. Haise's
        blaming Swigert for the explosion.**

    -   **Decision-making Process: Decision to use of the *Aquarius* as
        the command module and power source. Possibility that the
        makeshift carbon dioxide filter and reentry procedure would
        fail.**

    -   **Teamwork Principles: Bumping the original Apollo 13 crew.
        Bumping Mattingly from the mission due to potential measles.
        Haise's illness while in space. Compromised team cohesion.**