**Answers to Frequently Asked Questions About:\
Asian Americans and Marriage**

**Research-based answers to important questions**

**related to forming and sustaining healthy marriages.**

Alan J. Hawkins, Ph.D.\
Professor of Family Life\
Brigham Young University

and

Rachael B. Shaw, BS

Brigham Young University

**Introduction:** In the year 2004, 14 million people in the United
States reported an Asian heritage, which makes up 3.4 percent of the
U.S. population. [^1] Asian American marriage is an important topic
because of this large and growing population of Asian Americans.

The term Asian American is used to refer to any individual living in
America with Asian heritage. Yet Asian Americans are a diverse group.
Asian Americans represent 25 different Asian ethnicities, and sometimes
Asian American individuals have more than one national heritage. The
five largest Asian groups in the United States are Asian Indian,
Chinese, Filipino, Korean, and Vietnamese. [^2]

There are a number of traditional, cultural beliefs about family
relationships among Asians Americans. However, it is important to
recognize that not all Asian Americans hold these views and that
different ethnic groups within the larger Asian American population will
hold these views in varying degrees. So while it is not appropriate to
assume that all Asian Americans adhere to these views, it is appropriate
to be aware that these cultural views may influence many Asian American
marriages, perhaps especially those are more recent immigrants.

Below are answers to some common questions about Asian Americans and
marriage, using findings from scientifically sound research. Research
doesn\'t have all the answers, and more research on this topic is
needed. Nonetheless, the research that has been done can shed a great
deal of light on many questions.

Questions:

[Q1. *What percentage of Asian Americans is married, divorced, etc.? How
do these figures compare to the national averages?*]{.underline}

[Q2*. Is the divorce rate among Asian Americans increasing?* *What are
some contributing factors to the growing Asian American divorce
rate?*]{.underline}

[Q3*. What percentage of Asian Americans marry outside of their ethnic
group?*]{.underline}

[Q4*. Do Asian Americans tend to marry later than other racial/ethnic
groups? If so, why?*]{.underline}

[Q5. *What traditional, cultural family beliefs affect Asian American
marriages?*]{.underline}

[Q7*. Are there some general ways in which Asian American marriages
differ from non-Asian American marriages?*]{.underline}

[Q8*. What is the risk of domestic violence in Asian American
marriages?*]{.underline}

[Q9. *What should marriage educators know to make their services more
inviting and effective for Asian Americans?\
*]{.underline}

Q1. *What percentage of Asian Americans is married, divorced, etc.? How
do these figures compare to the national averages?*

A1.

-   *Married.* Asian Americans are more likely to be married than the
    general population. In 2000, 60 percent of Asian American adults
    reported being currently married, compared to 54 percent of the U.S.
    population.[^3]

-   *Divorced.* Asian Americans are less likely to be divorced than the
    general population. In 2000, only 6 percent of Asian American adults
    were currently separated or divorced compared to 12 percent of the
    U.S population.[^4] A more recent study found slightly lower rates,
    but Asian Americans were still half as likely to be divorced (5% vs.
    10%). [^5] Another report found that after ten years, only 20
    percent of Asian marriages had ended in divorce, compared to 32
    percent of marriages among Whites. [^6] (Also see Q2 below.)

-   *Widowed.* Four percent of Asian American adults were widowed
    compared to 7 percent of the U.S. population.[^7]

-   *Never Married.* In 2000, 30 percent of Asian American adults have
    never married compared to 27 percent of the total population.[^8]
    Typically in Asian countries female marriage rates are very high due
    to arranged marriages and the centrality of family in their
    cultures. Thus, it is significant that despite this cultural norm,
    Asian American women have the second highest rate of never marrying.
    [^9]

\*\*\*\*\*

Q2. *Is the divorce rate among Asian Americans increasing?* *What are
some contributing factors to the growing Asian American divorce rate?*

A2.

-   Asian Americans are less likely to divorce than other groups in the
    U.S., but their rate of divorce has recently increased.[^10]

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-   Although Chinese and Japanese Americans are the least likely of all
    ethnic groups in the United States to divorce, the percentage of
    divorces in this group has more than doubled since the 1970's.[^11]

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-   The divorce rate has been growing for Asians in their native
    countries, and some research suggests that the reasons for this
    increase also explain the increasing rate of divorce among Asian
    Americans. Below are some likely reasons. Note that many of these
    also are explanations for rising divorce rates among all
    Americans.[^12]

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-   *Rapid Economic Growth*: An increased focus on wealth and career
    advancement may increase divorce rates, perhaps because family
    relationships are given lower priority and work stress spills over
    into marriage.

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-   *Greater Educational and Employment Opportunities for Women:* Asian
    American women have become more educated and economically
    independent, which has given them greater freedom to leave unhealthy
    relationships. Traditionally, women were expected to accept their
    situation if their husbands' had affairs or if they were abused by
    their husbands or mothers-in-law.

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-   *Loosening of Community Control Over Marriage:* In the past,
    tight-knit communities within many Asian cultures kept struggling
    couples together by providing instruction and pressure to make peace
    when there was conflict in a marriage. Extended families are losing
    the influence they previously had over couples in other Asian
    countries. Perhaps this is due in part to a growing value of
    individualism.

-   *Growing individualism*: Traditionally, Asian marriage was the union
    of two families, not just two individuals. Today beliefs have moved
    away from that traditional view of marriage. Although Asians tend to
    value obedience, self-control, and family interests rather than the
    typical American values of independence, self-expression, and
    individual interests,[^13] Asian Americans may be less willing to
    sacrifice personal desires and ambitions for their families than
    they were in the past. This shift in values could possibly make them
    less committed to their spouse and less wary of shaming their family
    by divorcing.

-   *The Decline of Arranged Marriages and the Rise of "Romantic Love":*
    Traditionally, Asian marriages were arranged by the couples'
    parents. These marriages were seen as an extension of the parents'
    families and the joining of two families. Accompanying this type of
    marriage were the beliefs that husbands and wives should remain
    devoted to each other and maintain harmony no matter what. Today,
    most Asian Americans marry someone whom they fall in love with. Many
    have adopted the Western, media-enhanced idea that love is a feeling
    that brings two soul mates together in a perfect union. Like other
    American marriages, this notion can undermine marriages when
    troubles arise and people believe they made a bad choice in
    marriage.[^14]

\*\*\*\*\*

Q3. *What percentage of Asian Americans marry outside their ethnic
group?*

A3.

-   While about three-in-four Asian Americans marry someone of the same
    ethnic group, about a quarter marry an Asian American of a different
    ethnic group than their own or a non-Asian.[^15] This rate of
    intermarriage is 3-4 times higher than for the general U.S.
    population (about 7%). [^16]

-   Asian Americans who intermarry usually marry Whites. Of the
    approximately 25 percent of Asian Americans who intermarry, about 15
    percent of Asian American men and 19 percent of Asian American women
    are married to Whites; about 10 percent of men and 6 percent of
    women are married to Asian Americans of a different ethnic group
    than their own. [^17]

-   Researchers believe interracial marriage among Asian Americans will
    continue to grow as they further assimilate to mainstream American
    culture. [^18]

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-   Japanese Americans are the most likely of all Asian Americans to
    marry outside their ethnic group. About 1-in-3 (34%) of Japanese
    Americans intermarry compared to 15 percent of Chinese and Asian
    Indian Americans. [^19] Researchers suggest that this occurs because
    Chinese and Asian Indians are the two largest Asian groups in the
    United States, so there are larger pools of same-ethnic-group
    individuals to marry each other. In contrast, Japanese Americans are
    one of the smaller Asian ethnics groups in the United States,[^20]
    and they have not immigrated as often or as continuously as the
    Chinese nor do they tend to live in concentrated groups the way the
    Chinese do, so they are more assimilated into mainstream culture
    than other groups.[^21]

-   Women are more likely to intermarry than men in most Asian Americans
    ethnic groups. For example, Korean women are 30 percent more likely
    to intermarry than Korean men. A large proportion of Asian women
    married to White men were "war brides"; these women married White
    American service men stationed in their home countries.[^22]

-   Asian Americans are more likely to marry Whites if they were born in
    America,[^23] speak English well, and have a college education.[^24]

-   Although the divorce rates of Asian Americans who intermarry have
    not been examined we can look at research on interracial couples in
    general for some answers. Unfortunately, intermarried couples
    generally have higher divorce rates.[^25] The reasons why are not
    clearly defined as intermarried couples often have both
    characteristics that make them less likely to divorce such as: an
    older age when married, more education; and characteristics that
    make them more likely to divorce such as; childlessness and higher
    rates of premarital cohabitation. Research has shown that race does
    not contribute as much to the risk of divorce as other variables
    such as, low socioeconomic status, less education, a history of
    cohabitation, age at marriage and whether the couples came from two
    parent families or not.[^26] One researcher has also speculated that
    some interracial marriages may be stronger than other marriages
    because intercultural adaptation requires characteristics such as
    openness, flexibility, and the ability to regulate one's emotions,
    all of which are skills that facilitate a healthy marriage.[^27]

\*\*\*\*\*

Q4. *Do Asian Americans tend to marry later than other racial/ethnic
groups? If so, why?*

A4.

-   Only about 10 percent of Asian American women are married by the age
    of 20, compared to about 25 percent of women in general in the
    United States. The percent of Asian American women married does not
    reach the national average until the age of 30, when about
    three-quarters (76%) are married. [^28] Despite the traditional
    importance of family in Asian cultures, Asian American women have
    the second highest rate among racial/ethnic groups of never
    marrying.[^29]

-   Research has examined a number of reasons why Asian American women
    tend to marry later than women in the general population. The
    following findings are taken from studies with Japanese and Chinese
    American women:

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-   *Education.* Researchers have not found a consistent effect of
    education on the timing of marriage for Asian American women. Some
    Asian American women experience a delay in marriage because of their
    pursuit of college education, but others do not.[^30] In fact,
    pursuing advanced education seems to delay marriage more for Whites
    than for Asian Americans. Some researchers think that the delay in
    timing of first marriage for Asian Americans is not due simply to
    the pursuit of advanced education, but also reflects larger-scale
    historical changes, including changes in employment, as well as
    other trends. [^31]

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-   *Language.* Up to 40 percent of Asian Americans do not speak English
    well,[^32] which can delay the timing of marriage. One study found
    that even small decreases in English speaking ability may delay
    marriage by about two years. Speaking English well increases the
    likelihood that they go to school, and possibly this prolongs the
    time before marriage. [^33]

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-   *Oldest Daughter.* About half of the Asian American women who were
    still unmarried at the age of 33 or older were the oldest daughters
    in their families. This is meaningful because in traditional Asian
    homes, the oldest daughter often faces additional responsibilities
    and social roles, such as helping raise younger siblings and getting
    an education and a job to help support the family. It is not unusual
    for these oldest daughters to sacrifice personal goals in order to
    help with the family business or care for family members. For these
    women, these roles may result in a loss of independence, little time
    or energy to socialize, and less social freedom to date. [^34]

-   *Parents' Marriage.* In one study, more than two-thirds of
    respondents reported that their parents' marriages greatly
    influenced their desire to marry; more than three-quarters of
    unmarried women ages 33-80 reported that their parents had unhappy
    and conflictual marriages and that this affected their attitudes
    about marriage. Similarly, 40 percent of the women who chose to
    delay marriage had parents who had an arranged marriage or a
    traditional Asian marriage where the father was the patriarch and
    the mother was subservient to him. Many of these women stated that
    they did not want to have a marriage like their mothers'. [^35]

\*\*\*\*\*

Q5*. What traditional, cultural family beliefs affect Asian American
marriages?*

A5.

-   There are a number of traditional, cultural beliefs about family
    relationships among Asians Americans. However, it is important to
    recognize that not all Asian Americans hold these views and that
    different ethnic groups within the larger Asian American population
    will hold these views in varying degrees. So while it is not
    appropriate to assume that all Asian Americans adhere to these
    views, it is appropriate to be aware that these cultural views may
    influence many Asian American marriages. Below we examine the
    beliefs of collectivism and filial piety.

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-   *Collectivism vs. Individualism.* Many Asian American groups, such
    as Chinese and Japanese, value commitment to the needs of the group
    over individual needs and self-development. For example, these
    cultures tend to value obedience, self-control, and family interests
    rather than the typical American values of independence,
    self-expression, and individual interests.[^36]

    -   One study found that Chinese college students were more likely
        to exhibit concern for the feelings of others and to provide
        support for others.[^37]

    -   Another study found that Chinese culture placed high value on
        motivations to serve and connect with others in contrast to
        American culture that valued motivations focused on attaining
        personal goals.[^38]

    -   These findings suggest that Asian Americans may be more likely
        than other Americans to make personal sacrifices that foster
        harmony and promote the well-being of a relationship.[^39] Such
        behavior may increase the stability of Asian American marriages.
        However, these behaviors are not as prevalent as they used to be
        which may be contributing to increasing divorce rates.[^40]

    -   Of course, many studies suggest that American society in general
        is becoming increasingly individualistic; people are becoming
        less constrained by obligations to others. Researchers cite the
        rise of individualism as a contributor to the current U.S.
        divorce rate because it discourages people from making the
        commitment and sacrifice needed to sustain healthy
        marriages.[^41]

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-   *Filial piety*, or respect for parents, is a Confucian value that
    influences many, but not all, Asian cultures. It includes duty,
    obligation, the importance of the family name, and service and
    sacrifice to elders.[^42] This commitment to one's family can affect
    choices about whom to marry, when to marry, and whether to stay
    married, because the negative effects of personal choices bring
    honor or shame to the whole family.[^43]

    -   One researcher notes that, traditionally, Chinese view divorce
        as so shameful to a family's honor that most Chinese would
        prefer to endure an unhappy marriage than the shame of getting a
        divorce. [^44]

    -   Traditionally, the oldest daughter in Asian families is often
        expected to support the family financially and care for siblings
        and parents.[^45] This tradition is speculated to be one reason
        why some Asian American women delay marriage or never
        marry.[^46]

    -   Traditionally, Asian marriages were arranged by a couple's
        parents. These marriages were seen as an extension of the
        parents' families and the joining of two families.[^47]
        Accompanying this type of marriage were the beliefs that
        husbands and wives should remain devoted to each other and
        maintain harmony no matter what.[^48] Today, this belief is not
        nearly as prevalent as it used to be, but it still may influence
        couples to some degree.[^49]

\*\*\*\*\*

Q6*. Are there some general ways in which Asian American marriages
differ from non-Asian American marriages?*

A6.

-   With so many differences among Asian Americans groups, not to
    mention couples and individuals, it's risky to make broad
    comparisons and generalizations. But research has explored somewhat
    the question of differences between Asian American couples and
    non-Asian American couples. This research notes some possible
    general differences but much more research is needed to draw strong
    conclusions.

-   *Cultural Adaptation.* Nearly 70 percent of Asian Americans are
    foreign born immigrants.[^50] The changes associated with
    immigration are stressful, stresses that most American couples do
    not experience. Many immigrant families struggle with the balance
    between valuing their "old" culture and adapting to the "new"
    American culture.

-   *Role Reversal.* The immigration process also can erode parental
    authority because children are more likely to learn English than
    their parents, and then children often fill the role of translator
    for their parents. This can put a strain on the parent-child
    relationship, which, in turn, tends to increase conflict between
    spouses.[^51]

-   *Changing Marital Roles.* Many Asian American couples, whether they
    are immigrants, second generation, or interracial, struggle to
    balance Asian and American cultural norms. One study found that
    Chinese and Japanese women still do most of the housework and child
    rearing even if they work outside of the home. This can be
    problematic for Asian Americans because another study found that an
    equal partnership in marriage is just as important to Chinese wives
    as it is to White wives. In this study satisfaction increased for
    both Chinese and White wives when husbands participated more in
    housework, when wives had an equal share in decision-making, when
    they and their husbands had more flexible gender roles, and when the
    wives felt their marriage was progressing toward an equal
    partnership.[^52]

#### *Communication Styles.* Asian Americans also may have communication styles in marriage that differ from the American cultural norm. For many American couples, the ability to talk over issues and disagreements is considered one of the most important aspects of marital satisfaction. (See [Frequently Asked Questions About: Communication and Conflict]{.underline} for more information on communication.) Yet, many Asians do not put the same emphasis on verbal communication in their marriages:

-   *Non-verbal communication* was valued more highly by Taiwanese
    couples than by American couples. In one study, Taiwanese couples'
    good verbal and non-verbal communication was associated with higher
    satisfaction in marriage. In contrast, for American couples, only
    verbal communication was associated with satisfaction in
    marriage.[^53] Another study suggested that Chinese couples were
    more likely to express love and support non-verbally through doing
    tasks for each other.[^54]

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-   *Not expressing emotions.* Chinese norms discourage the expression
    of feelings, especially very strong positive or negative emotions
    such as anger and joy,[^55] which differs from the value many
    Americans place on open, emotional self-expression.[^56]

-   *Avoiding the issue.* One study found that many Chinese couples deal
    with conflicts simply by not bringing the issue up again. [^57]

\*\*\*\*\*

Q8. *What is the risk of domestic violence in Asian American marriages?*

A8.

-   Although Asian American marriages are less likely to end in divorce
    than marriages in the general U.S. population, researches warn
    against the "model minority myth" that assumes that Asian American
    marriages are "model marriages" that are happy and problem
    free.[^58] Several studies have estimated that domestic violence
    among Asian Americans occurs at least as often, if not more often,
    than it does in the general U.S. population. However, the many
    different languages and cultures among Asian Americans make it
    difficult for researchers to measure accurately the amount of
    domestic abuse.[^59] Also note that although there has been research
    reporting on wives committing violence against their husbands,
    researchers have concluded that women more often experience severe
    abuse and the majority of the research is on violence against women.
    [^60]

-   *Higher Rates of Domestic Violence.* A number of studies have found
    the rate of domestic violence to be higher for Asian Americans than
    for Whites in the United States. For example, one study found that
    61 percent of Japanese American women in Los Angeles experienced
    some form of spousal abuse during their lifetime compared to 22-31
    percent of the U.S. population. [^61] Studies of Korean and Japanese
    communities report similar numbers, around 60 percent. [^62]
    However, studies of Chinese and Chinese Americans reported a much
    lower rate (10-30%) of domestic violence. [^63]

-   *Top reason for divorce.* One study that focused specifically on
    divorce among Korean immigrant women found that the most common
    reason for divorce was the ex-husband's abuse of spouse or children.
    [^64]

-   *Obstacles to Leaving Abusive Relationships.* Asian Americans may
    face more obstacles to leaving abusive relationships than other
    Americans do:

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-   *Language barriers* or *fear of involvement* with immigration
    officials or other legal agencies discourage many from seeking
    help.[^65] Many Asian American women may not make use of domestic
    abuse hotlines. To help with this, community outreach workers should
    speak the relevant language and provide culturally hospitable
    shelters with Asian foods and furnishings. [^66]

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-   *Traditional cultural beliefs* may discourage women from reporting
    violence or encourage them to tolerate it. [^67] For example, the
    Confucian principle of "Three Obedience's" states that a women must
    be obedient first to her father, then to her husband, and then to
    her son.[^68] This belief may also make husbands more likely to
    abuse their wives because studies have reported that husbands who
    believed that men should dominate women were more likely to abuse
    their wives.[^69] These beliefs may put pressure on women to
    maintain harmony and remain devoted to family at all costs.[^70]
    These beliefs also may encourage both men and women to believe that
    abuse is a normal and acceptable part of relationships.[^71]

\*\*\*\*\*

Q9. *What should marriage educators know to make their services more
inviting and effective for Asian Americans?*

A9.

-   *Child-focused Marriage Education.* Because Asian Americans
    traditionally focus more on the parent-child relationship than the
    spouse relationship, they tend to be more interested in parenting
    education than marriage education. Family life educators should
    consider making the importance of a healthy marital relationship
    part of a parenting program and discuss the importance of a healthy
    marriage to raising happy children.[^72]

-   *Attend to Extended Family Issues:* Most marriage education programs
    tend to focus on issues related to participants' family-of-origin
    and how these issues may impact their marital relationship. Dealing
    with issues from the family that participants grew up can be
    valuable, but ongoing relationships with parents and in-laws may be
    particularly important for Asian American couples.[^73]

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-   *Learning vs. Counseling.* Many Asian Americans place a high value
    on learning and education. Frame marriage education programs as a
    learning opportunity rather than something similar to counseling.
    For instance, marriage educators might emphasize that their courses
    teach emotional intelligence and people management skills. Concepts
    such as emotional intelligence may be especially helpful for
    teaching the importance of understanding one's own and one's
    spouse's feelings because emotional intelligence sounds more
    appealing and less foreign than talking about personal feelings.
    [^74]

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-   *Don't Hide the Research.* Perhaps because of a strong value placed
    on learning and education, many Asian Americans appreciate it when
    research and theory are evident in what is taught in the
    program.[^75]

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-   *Attending to Cultural Differences and Assimilation.* Be aware of
    cultural differences in healthy relationships and family boundaries.
    For instance, what may appear as an intrusive family relationship to
    some Americans, such as in-laws' involvement in couple
    decision-making, may be acceptable to Asian Americans. Be aware of
    the level of traditional beliefs of the participants and the degree
    to which they have accepted or rejected Western culture. [^76]

-   *Read More.* Marriage educators interested in learning more about
    adapting their services to Asian Americans may want to read in
    detail an article by Wei-Jen Huang cited here.[^77]

[^1]: Robert Bernstein. (2005). U.S. Census Bureau News retrieved July
    13, 2006 from
    http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/population/005164.html

[^2]: Terrance J. Reeves & Claudette Bennett. (2004). We the people:
    Asians in the United States. *Census 2000 Special Reports,
    December*, 1-24.

[^3]: Terrance J. Reeves & Claudette Bennett. (2004). We the people:
    Asians in the United States. *Census 2000 Special Reports,
    December*, 1-24.

[^4]: Terrance J. Reeves & Claudette Bennett. (2004). We the people:
    Asians in the United States. *Census 2000 Special Reports,
    December*, 1-24.

[^5]: United States Bureau of the Census. (2005). America's Families and
    Living Arrangements: 2005, retrieved July 13, 2006 from
    http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam/cps2005.html.

[^6]: National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control
    and Prevention, Department of Health and Human Services. (2002).
    Cohabitation, marriage, divorce, and remarriage in the United
    States. *Vital and Health Services, 23*(22).

[^7]: Terrance J. Reeves & Claudette Bennett. (2004). We the people:
    Asians in the United States. *Census 2000 Special Reports,
    December*, 1-24.

[^8]: Terrance J. Reeves & Claudette Bennett. (2004). We the people:
    Asians in the United States. *Census 2000 Special Reports,
    December*, 1-24.

[^9]: Susan J. Ferguson. (1995). Marriage timing of Chinese American
    women and Japanese American women. *Journal of Family Issues,
    16*(3), 314-343. National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for
    Disease Control and Prevention, Department of Health and Human
    Services. (2002). Cohabitation, marriage, divorce, and remarriage in
    the United States. *Vital and Health Services, 23*(22).

[^10]: Masako Ishii-Kuntz. (2004). Racial and ethnic diversity in
    marriage: Asian American perspective. *Vision 2004; What is in the
    future of marriage?,* 36-40. United States Bureau of the Census.
    (2005). America's Families and Living Arrangements: 2005, retrieved
    July 13, 2006 from
    http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam/cps2005.html.

[^11]: Masako Ishii-Kuntz. (2004). Racial and ethnic diversity in
    marriage: Asian American perspective. *Vision 2004; What is in the
    future of marriage?,* 36-40.

[^12]: Wei-Jen Huang. (2005). An Asian perspective on relationship and
    marriage education. *Family Process, 44*(2), 161-173.

[^13]: Kimberly A. Huisman. (1996). Wife battering in Asian American
    communities identifying the service needs of an overlooked segment
    of the U.S. population. *Violence Against Women, 2*(3), 260-283.

[^14]: Norman B. Epstein, Fuguo Chen and Irina Beyder-Kamjou. (2005).
    Relationship standards and marital satisfaction in Chinese and
    American couples. *Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 31*(1),
    59.

[^15]: Sharon M. Lee & Keiko Yamanaka. (1990). Patterns of Asian
    American intermarriage and marital assimilation. *Journal of
    Comparative Family Studies, 21*(2), 287-305.

[^16]: U.S. Census Bureau. (2006). *Statistical Abstract of the United
    States: 2006. Section 1: Population*. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
    Government Printing Office.

[^17]: Jerry A. Jacobs, & Teresa G. Labov. (2004). Gender differentials
    in intermarriage among sixteen race and ethnic groups. *Sociological
    Forum, 17*, 621-646; Zhenchao Qian, Sampson Lee Blair and Stacey D.
    Ruf. (2001). Asian American interracial and interethnic marriages:
    Differences by education and nativity. *The International Migration*
    Review*, 35*(2), 557.

    Sharon M. Lee & Keiko Yamanaka. (1990). Patterns of Asian American
    intermarriage and marital assimilation. *Journal of Comparative
    Family Studies, 21*(2), 287-305.

[^18]: Masako Ishii-Kuntz. (2004). Racial and ethnic diversity in
    marriage: Asian American perspective. *Vision 2004; What is in the
    future of marriage?* 36-40.

[^19]: Sharon M. Lee & Keiko Yamanaka. (1990). Patterns of Asian
    American intermarriage and marital assimilation. *Journal of
    Comparative Family Studies, 21*(2), 287-305.

[^20]: Terrance J. Reeves & Claudette Bennett. (2004). We the people:
    Asians in the United States. *Census 2000 Special Reports,
    December*, 1-24.

[^21]: Zai Liang & Naomi Ito. (1999). Intermarriage of Asian Americans
    in the New York City region: Contemporary patterns and future
    prospects. *International Migration Review, 33*(4), 876-900. Susan
    J. Ferguson. (1995). Marriage timing of Chinese American women and
    Japanese American women. *Journal of Family Issues, 16*(3), 314-343.
    Zhenchao Qian,, Sampson Lee Blair, & Stacey D.Ruf. (2001). Asian
    American interracial and interethnic marriages: Differences by
    education and nativity. *The International Migration Review, 35*(2),
    557-586

[^22]: Jerry A. Jacobs, & Teresa G. Labov, (2004). Gender differentials
    in intermarriage among sixteen race and ethnic groups. *Sociological
    Forum*, 2004, *17*, 621-646.

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