### STATE ORGANIZATION AND ROLE IN EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT

-   Background

-   Substantial State Involvement in Disasters (1997)

-   Overview of State Role in Emergency Management

-   Key State "Players"

-   Role of State Legislature

-   Emergency Management Funding

-   Role of Governor

-   Typical Gubernatorial Emergency Powers

-   Typical Key State Agencies

-   Role of State Offices of Emergency Management

-   State Emergency Management Office Staffing

-   How State Directors are Chosen

-   Who State Directors Report To

-   Organization of State Offices of Emergency Management

-   Components of a Successful State Emergency Management Agency

-   State Spending on Hazards, Disasters and Emergency Management

-   State Disaster Planning

-   Assessment of State Capability

-   State Role in Disaster

-   State Use of the National Guard

-   State Emergency Management Trends

\-- Florida's Disaster Trust Fund

\-- Interstate Mutual Aid Agreements

**Additional Sources for BWB to Consult Prior to Redraft:**

Beauchesne, Ann M. 2001. *Volume One: Natural Disasters -- A Governor's
Guide to Emergency Management*. Washington, DC: National Governors
Association. Downloadable from: www.nga.org/center

[Blue Ribbon Committee. 2001. *Texas Blue Ribbon Committee Study*.
Austin, TX: Texas Division of Emergency Management.]{.mark}

FEMA. 1997. Model State Emergency Management Trust Fund Legislation.

GAO. 1999. *Budgeting for Emergencies: State Practices and Federal
Implications*

Hwang, Seong Nam, William G. Sanderson, Jr., and Michael K. Lindell.
"State Emergency Management Agencies' Hazard Analysis Information on the
Internet." *International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters*,
Vol. 19, No. 1, March 2001, pp. 85-106.

Mittler. 1997. Case Study of Florida's Emergency Management Since
Hurricane Andrew.

Mittler. 1998. Case Study of Enactment of State Building Code in South
Carolina.

Mittler. 1998. Reestablishment of Utah Seismic Safety Commission.

NEMA. 2000. *Strategic Plan 2000-2001*. National Emergency Management
Association.

NEMA. 2000. *The Face of NEMA -- A Look at State Emergency Management
Directors and their Agencies.* National Emergency Management
Association, February.

National Emergency Management Association/Council of State Governments.
2001.

NEMA/CSG 2001 Report on State Emergency Management Funding and
Structures.

National Governors' Association. 2002. *A Governor's Guide to Emergency
Management, Volume Two: Homeland Security*. Washington, DC: National
Governors' Association. Downloaded from: <http://www.nga.org/center>.

National Governors' Association. 1978. *State Comprehensive Emergency
Management -- Final Report of the Emergency Preparedness Project.*
Washington, DC: Defense Civil Preparedness Agency.

Rossi, et al. 1982. Natural Hazards and Public Choice: State and Local
Politics of Hazards Mitigation.

**Objective**

Acquire an appreciation of the role of State government in emergency
management within the U.S.

**Scope**

This session will discuss the world of state government. It will explain
the central, pivotal role of State government in emergency management,
given their position between local governments and the federal
government. Discussed will be the role of State Legislatures, Governors
and State Offices of Emergency Management.

**Background:**

Prior to the beginning of the Cold War there were [no State Offices of
Emergency Management.]{.mark}

\...the role and responsibilities of the state emergency management
office have changed significantly, both in focus and scope, since
passage of the Federal Civil Defense Act of 1950. During the 1950s and
1960s, the state \`civil defense' office was primarily responsible for
coordination with its designated federal counterpart to disseminate
information on civil defense, to maintain civil defense communications,
and to provide for civil defense training programs. The increased
incidence of technological disasters in the 1970s and 1980s precipitated
the transition to an all-hazard approach to emergency management and the
emergence of state offices with a much broader scope of responsibility.
The state emergency management office\...has evolved from being a
relatively small and obscure line agency with limited planning,
training, and response capabilities to its present status as an integral
part of state government. (Durham and Suiter 1991, 104).

Thus, according to Drabek and Hoetmer, in today's environment:

The unpredictability of natural, technological, and civil hazards,
coupled with the potential for intense media scrutiny during an
emergency has spurred the nation's governors to give increasing
attention to the state emergency management function. The Three Mile
Island incident is a classic example of how a governor can suddenly be
thrust into the media spotlight under stressful conditions. And the
response and recovery efforts surrounding the Valdez, Alaska, oil spill
demonstrate that disasters are becoming extraordinarily complex and
costly. Legal issues, such as protection from liability in a disaster,
are yet another dimension of emergency management with which governors
(as well as administrators at the local level) must be conversant. (p.
102)

# Substantial State Disasters 1997

State government has **direct** and **coordinative** emergency
management responsibilities. For example, in 1997, according to NEMA/CSG
(1998, 10):

-   4,783 local disasters required "substantial" State assistance.

-   915 of these (19%) were declared State disasters

-   49 of these (1%) received Presidential Declarations

**Overview of State Role in Emergency Management**

-   Enact Emergency Management Legislation, Codes, Regulations

-   Fund Emergency Management Activities

-   Enforce National Laws

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-   Serve as Interface with Federal Agencies

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-   Develop Integrated and Comprehensive 4-Phased Programs

-   Coordinate State Agency Activities

-   Assist Local Governments

**Key State "Players":**

-   **Legislature**

-   **Governor and Aides**

-   **State Office of Emergency Management**

-   **Other State Agencies**

-   **Private Sector Organizations**

-   **Public Interest Groups**

**Role of State Legislature:**

-   **Shape Emergency Management Vision**

-   **Develop State Strategy and Policy**

-   **Provide Funding**

-   **Influence Program Development**

-   **Promote Good Land-Use Policies**

-   **Enact Statewide Building Codes**

-   **Enact Mutual Aid Compacts**

**Emergency Management Funding:**

-   **Regular Appropriations**

-   **Supplemental Appropriations**

-   **Multiple Funding Sources**

-   **Trust Funds, Fees and Surcharges**

**\--** Florida Surcharge on Residential and Commercial Property
Insurance

Premiums.

**Role of Governor:**

-   **Responsible for Emergency Management**

-   **Declares State Disaster**

-   **Directs State's Disaster Response**

-   **Commands State National Guard**

-   **Sole Authority to Request Federal Aid**

-   **Signs Interstate Mutual Aid Agreements**

**Typical Gubernatorial Emergency Powers:**

-   **Authority to Declare Disasters**

-   **Suspend State Laws**

-   **Mobilize National Guard**

-   **Seize Personal Property**

-   **Direct Evacuations**

-   **Authorize Emergency Funding**

**Typical Key State Agencies:**

-   **Planning Office**

-   **Departments of the Environment, Forestry**

-   **Budget Office**

-   **State Police, Fire Marshall, Attorney General, National Guard**

-   **Transportation, Public Works, Energy, HHS, Labor**

-   **State Emergency Response Commission**

**State Areas of Responsibility:**

**Direct responsibilities** include mitigation, preparedness, response &
recovery:

**Preparedness:**

-   State laws provide governors and State agencies with the authority
    to plan for and carry out the necessary actions to prepare for,
    respond to and recover from emergencies

**Response:**

-   States are responsible for the health, safety, and welfare of their
    citizens (Perry and Mushkatel 1986, 135).

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-   All States have laws that describe the responsibilities of the state
    government in emergencies and disasters.

> **Recovery:**

-   States are responsible to help local communities rebuild and recover
    from disaster.

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-   Some states have their own disaster assistance programs that
    complement federal programs (Perry and Mushkatel 1986, 135).

State emergency management legislation describes the duties and powers
of the governor, whose authority includes the power to declare a state
of emergency and to decide when to terminate this declaration.

**Coordination:**

State government also has a pivotal coordination role in emergency
management, being the key linking pin between:

Federal resources and local governments, as well as

Linking local governments as when mutual aid agreements are encouraged

and facilitated by the state.

Most important among the responsibilities of state government, including
the governor's office, are the following:

-   Enacting emergency management legislation, codes, regulations.

-   Enforcing national laws (such as Title III of the Superfund
    Amendments and Reauthorization Act, dealing with preparing for and
    responding to hazardous materials incidents).

-   Applying public administration skills to state-wide planning.

-   Developing and maintaining programs addressing all four phases of
    the disaster life cycle.[^1]

-   Coordinating the activities of other State agencies in the
    development of the State emergency operations plan, and in response
    to disaster events.

-   Assuming any or all of the emergency powers of the governor.

-   Assisting local governments with their emergency management
    responsibilities, particularly disaster response.

-   Coordinating State recovery efforts, including obtaining Federal
    disaster assistance.

**Role of State Offices of Emergency Management**

The role of state government in emergency management in many ways
parallels the role of the federal sector.

-   Many of the responsibilities to perform and maintain the provisions
    of emergency management ***legislation*** are generally delegated to
    the State emergency management offices.

-   Each of the 50 states, the several territories and the District of
    Columbia has an emergency management ***agency*** of some type.
    These agencies, like their local counterparts, are expected to be
    organized effectively, and should possess well-maintained emergency
    plans, facilities and equipment.

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-   To become and remain eligible for federal financial assistance, each
    state must manage State emergency management ***programs*** that
    compliment and promote local emergency management and provide for
    comprehensive mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery
    activities.

-   Generally, the state role is to supplement, guide and facilitate
    local efforts before, during, and after emergencies.

-   In addition, states must be prepared to provide assistance to
    localities when overwhelmed by disaster.

State emergency managers are responsible for preparing for emergencies
and coordinating the activation and use of resources controlled by the
state government when they are needed to help local governments respond
to and recover from emergencies and disasters.

As noted above, each state maintains a state office of emergency
management. This office is responsible for developing and maintaining a
state disaster operations plan and a state emergency operations center
(EOC), from which civil government officials (state, federal, municipal,
and county) exercise centralized direction and control in an emergency.
The EOC serves as a resource center and coordination point for
additional field assistance. It provides executive directives and
liaison to state and federal governments, and considers and mandated
protective actions.

**Organization of State Offices of Emergency Management:**

State Offices of Emergency Management are organized in a number of ways
and have different names.

There is no single model for the placement and structure of the
emergency management responsibilities at the state level in the U.S. The
emergency management function, by whatever name it goes by, may be:

-   Attached to the governor's office.

-   Independent agency reporting directly to governor's office (17
    States) (*EPN,* 8 December 1998, 223).[^2]

-   In the Military Department,[^3]

-   Adjutant General's Office (16 States) (*EPN,* 8 December 1998, 223),
    [^4]

-   Department of Public Safety or State Police (13 States) (*EPN,* 8
    Dec 1998, 223),[^5]

-   In Local/Community Affairs Department, or other office[^6],

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-   Delegated to a council, which oversees departmental activities.
    (Brenner 1997, 5)

On this subject Drabek and Hoetmer write that:

The importance of the location of the state emergency management office
was the subject of a 1978 study undertaken by the National Governors'
Association. In examining the effectiveness of the\...\[major\] state
models in relation to the four phases of emergency management, the study
suggested that mitigation and recovery functions are better managed by
program and policy oriented offices of state government, whereas
preparedness and response are better managed by more tactically oriented
departments such as the state police or adjutant general. The study
concluded, however, that the overall effectiveness of the emergency
management function in state government is not determined by the
location of the governor's office. In analyzing the organizational
models, the authors note that \`some offices are strong and some are
weak for a variety of historical, turf, political, and conceptual
reasons. Clearly, there is not a state \`model' to follow; rather, it is
the governor's understanding, concern, and support, coupled with the
state director's coordination and strategy-building skills, that
determine the strength of the organizational framework. (pp. 103-104)

William Waugh notes the following in addressing the issue of where
emergency management ought to be located at the state level:

> To illustrate some of the problems that might arise in an emergency,
> we can examine the response to Hurricane Hugo in South Carolina in the
> fall of 1989. One of the major criticisms of the Federal Emergency
> Management Agency (FEMA) following the Hurricane Hugo and Loma Prieta
> earthquake disasters was the agency's failure to take a lead role in
> the response phase of the disaster operation. FEMA, instead, insisted
> that its responsibility was to provide support for state and local
> agencies, the first responders and the responsible jurisdictions in
> the US federal system. As a result, FEMA waited for state officials,
> more specifically the governor, in South Carolina to request federal
> assistance rather than assuming a more proactive role in responding to
> the victims of Hurricane Hugo. South Carolina officials, on the other
> hand, were having to deal with the confusion arising from the state
> emergency management agency being housed in the adjutant general's
> (the National Guard) office rather than in the governor's office and
> the failure of the former to have adequate communication with local
> emergency management agencies in the path of the storm. Quite apart
> from the issues of administrative and technical capacity in state and
> local emergency management agencies, the political and organizational
> confusion that became apparent in South Carolina demonstrated the need
> for more attention to the structure of the emergency management
> network, including where it is housed in the government, how the
> agencies are empowered...and the design of the agencies
> themselves.....
>
> In the South Carolina case, the state response to Hurricane Hugo was
> made more complicated...because emergency management was not a
> principal emphasis for the response agency, i.e. it was only a
> secondary mission for the Adjutant General's Office and one that
> competed for resources with the military mission. (Waugh 1993, 19 &
> 24)

Just as organizational arrangements vary from State to State, there are
wide ranges of resources and staff devoted to emergency
management---from a low of \$116,085 to \$25,321,000 (California) annual
State budgeting for emergency management, as reported in this 1996
document (Pawlowski and Neal 1996, 2). A 1998 report put together
jointly by the National Emergency Association and the Council of State
Governments, notes a far higher expenditure, with the States spending
\$2.77 billion in fiscal 1997 on emergency management, an average of
\$62 million per State, nearly double the amount spent five years
earlier and up from \$2.09 billion spent in fiscal year 1996 (*EPN,* 8
December 1998, 223).

This is a significant improvement over the 1950 to 1990 time frame.
Writing in 1979, the National Governors' Association noted that State
emergency services agencies were highly dependent upon Federal funding
for staffing, administrative and programmatic needs (Perry and Mushkatel
1986, 135). Indeed, no State emergency budget was higher than \$3
million and the average was between \$400,000 and \$600,000, with the
Federal contribution amounting to roughly two-thirds on average (Perry
and Mushkatel 1986, 136). In the words of Perry and Mushkatel (1986,
136):

...many states lacked the necessary communications, staffing, funding,
and operating procedures to respond effectively to a major disaster.
Additionally, state planning, training, and implementation capabilities
were all evaluated as being too weak (National Governors' Association,
1979). In short, the states, despite their occupying an important
strategic position, have not had the capacity (or the funds and
inclination to increase their capacity) to be a fully responsible
partner in emergency management.

Staffing, as well, ranges quite significantly---from a couple dozen
employees in some States to about 300 in the case of California (Brenner
1997, 5). The average size of a State Office of Emergency Management is
38 (Healey and Burke 1997).

**State Spending on Hazards, Disasters and Emergency Management:**

A 1998 joint report of the National Emergency Management Association and
the Council of State Governments notes that:

> "State spending on emergency management has been steadily increasing
> during the 1990's. Total spending by states amounted to \$2.77 billion
> in fiscal 1997, which is almost double the amount spent only five
> years ago. On average, states spent \$61.56 million on emergency
> management during fiscal 1997

**State Disaster Planning**

The State Disaster Operations Plan is an all-hazards document specifying
actions to be taken in the event of natural disasters, technological
disasters, or conflict. It identifies authorities, relationships, and
the actions to be taken by whom, what, when, and where, based on
pre-determined assumptions, objectives, and existing capabilities.

In order to take advantage of Federal financial contributions to the
States for the purpose of supporting "necessary and essential State and
local emergency preparedness personnel and administrative expenses\...,"
States must have approved plans "consistent with the Federal emergency
response plans for emergency preparedness." As specified by the Stafford
Act, a State plan shall:

1.  Provide, pursuant to State law, that the plan shall be in effect in
    all political subdivisions of the State and me mandatory on them and
    be administered or supervised by a single State agency;

2.  Provide that the State shall share the financial assistance with
    that provided by the Federal government under this section from any
    source determined by it to be consistent with State law;

3.  Provide for the development of State and local emergency
    preparedness operational plans, pursuant to standards approved by
    the Director;

4.  Provide for the employment of a full-time emergency preparedness
    director, or deputy director, by the State;

5.  Provide that the State shall make such reports in such form and
    content as the Director may require; and

6.  Make available to duly authorized representatives of the Director
    and the Comptroller General, books, records, and papers necessary to
    conduct audits for the purposes of this section. (*Stafford Act,*
    34-35)

**Assessment of State Capabilities**

According to a 1998 FEMA assessment of national emergency management
capabilities as well as State levels of preparedness, conducted jointly
with the National Emergency Management Association, States do have the
basic capabilities in place to respond to disasters. Nationwide there
were found to be strengths and areas for improvement:

> [State Strengths]{.underline}: Overall, the emergency management
> functions that demonstrated the greatest strengths were:

-   *Laws and Authorities---*the legal authorities for the development
    and maintenance of an emergency management program, including
    definition of emergency management powers, authorities, and
    responsibilities.

#### Exercises

-   *Operations and procedures*

-   *Finance and Administration*

> Areas that scored particularly well related to radiological and
> chemical stockpile emergency preparedness, military support planning
> between States and military installations, and State implementation of
> Federal public assistance and hazard mitigation grants.
>
> [Areas Needing Improvement]{.underline}: The functions needing greater
> attention included:

-   *Resource Management* --- the prompt and effective use of personnel
    and equipment for essential emergency functions.

#### Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment

-   *Logistics and Facilities*---the essential facilities and services
    to support response and recovery operations. (FEMA 1998, 10)

**State Role in Disaster**

When a disaster strikes:

-   Local authorities and individuals request help from private relief
    organizations and the state government, which, if warranted,
    activates its disaster response plan.

-   Generally, governors have, or are granted, the power to use all
    available State resources needed to respond effectively and
    efficiently (*EPN,* 8 December 1998, 223).[^7]

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-   In many states, governors can suspend state laws or local ordinances
    if it is determined that the law in question will restrict or
    prohibit efforts to relieve human suffering caused by the disaster.

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-   In some States, after a State emergency declaration, the Governor
    may establish economic controls over such resources and services as
    food, wages, clothing, and shelter in affected areas.

-   Under a State emergency declaration, Governors are empowered to
    mobilize the National Guard and direct its efforts. Most are also
    empowered to direct citizen evacuation, to order the control of
    movement into or out of disaster areas, to release emergency funds,
    and to reallocate State agency budgets for emergency work.

-   If assistance is beyond their capability, the Governor requests a
    Presidential Declaration of Major Disaster or Emergency. According
    to the Stafford Act:

Such a request shall be based on a finding that the disaster is of such
severity and magnitude that effective response is beyond the
capabilities of the State and the affected local governments and that
Federal assistance is necessary. As part of such request, and as a
prerequisite to major disaster assistance under this Act, the Governor
shall take appropriate response action under State law and direct
execution of the State's emergency plan. The Governor shall furnish
information on the nature and amount of State and local resources which
have been or will be committed to alleviating the results of the
disaster, and shall certify that, for the current disaster, State and
local government obligations and expenditures (of which State
commitments must be a significant proportion) will comply with all
applicable cost-sharing arrangements of this Act. (*Stafford Act* Title
IV, Section 401)

The Governor submits an official request to the President through the
FEMA Regional Director asking for Federal assistance under the Stafford
Act. If granted, the Governor then appoints a state coordinating officer
(SCO) to interact with the federal coordinating officer (FCO) assigned
to the disaster operation as the President's representative.

-   A few States, such as Virginia, are also developing State Reservists
    Programs. The intent behind such programs is "to develop a cadre of
    trained people who can be called upon during a disaster to support
    agency response and recovery efforts." (VDES 1997)

**State Use of the National Guard**

The National Guard has constitutional and statutory roles as both the
militia of the several states and as a federal military reserve force.
As the state militia, each state's National Guard is commanded by the
governor. Each member of the National Guard has dual status as a member
of the National Guard of his or her state and of the Army or Air
National Guard of the United States, the latter being a reserve
component of the Army or the Air Force, respectively.

The National Guard may be activated under state law to deal with civil
disturbances or natural disasters, maintain vital services (such as
hospitals or prisons), conduct drug enforcement operations, and respond
to other threats to the security of the state's citizens or violations
of state laws. In addition, the President is authorized to activate the
National Guard into federal service to deal with a wide range of
domestic emergencies or disasters. These include suppressing
insurrections if requested to do so by the state's governor or
legislature; enforcing federal laws\....

Governors frequently activate portions of their states' National Guard.
In fiscal year 1993, for example, 34,052 members of the Army National
Guard (out of a total\...of 422,720) were called to state active duty in
47 states. They dealt with 148 natural disasters, 40 search and rescue
operations, 48 provisions of potable water to communities hit by natural
disasters, 13 fires, and 10 law enforcement assistance missions. In
recent years, large numbers of National Guard personnel have been called
to state active duty to cope with Hurricanes Andrew in Florida and
Louisiana and Iniki in Hawaii (1992), the Los Angeles riots (1992), and
the Midwest Floods (1993)." (U.S. Senate 1995, 44--45)

Normally a request to use the National Guard at the local level is made
by local authorities through the State Office of Emergency Management to
the Governor or his or her executive agency.

National Guard forces have been used locally for:

-   Search and rescue

-   Hazardous materials decontamination

-   Communications equipment and personnel

-   Transportation equipment and personnel

-   Security and maintenance of order

-   Mass feeding

-   Provision of potable water

-   Housing (typically tents)

-   Health and medical care

-   Sanitation

-   Temporary restoration of essential facilities

-   Engineering services

-   Debris clearance. (FEMA 1984)

**REFERENCES**

Brenner, Eric. 1997. *Reducing the Impact of Natural Disasters:
Governors' Advisors Talk About Mitigation*. Council of Governors' Policy
Advisors, September.

Drabek, Thomas, and Gerard Hoetmer (eds). 1996. *Emergency Management
Principles and Practice for Local Government.* Washington, DC:
International City Management Association.

Durham, Tom, and Lacy Suiter. 1991. Perspectives and Roles of the State
and Federal Governments. In *Emergency Management: Principles and
Practice for Local Government*, edited by Thomas Drabek and Gerard
Hoetmer. Washington, DC: International City Management Association.

*Emergency Preparedness News*. (Silver Spring, MD: Business Publishers,
Inc.)

FEMA. 1984. *Objectives for Local Emergency Management.* CPG 1-5.
Washington, DC: FEMA (July). This publication has been discontinued.

FEMA. 1998. *The State Capability Assessment for Readiness Under the
Federal/State Performance Partnership Agreement.* Washington, DC: FEMA.
Summary in FEMA Announces Results of Evaluation of State Disaster
Readiness, *The Natural Hazards Observer* 22, no. 5 (May 1998): 10.

FEMA. Disaster Field Training Organization. No date. *Disaster
Operations Self-Study Guide*. Washington, DC: FEMA.

FEMA. EMI. 1998. *The Political and Policy Basis of Emergency
Management*. Written by Richard Sylves for the Higher Education Project.
Emmitsburg, MD: EMI.

Healey, M. and P. Burke. 1997. Institutional Relationships: State Hazard
Mitigation Officers' Perspectives. In *Making Mitigation Work: Recasting
Natural Hazards Planning and Implementation.* Chapel Hill, NC:
University of North Carolina, the Center for Urban and Regional Studies.

National Emergency Management Association (NEMA)/Council of State
Governments (CSG). 1998. *1998 Report on State Emergency Management
Funding and Structures.* Washington, DC. Cited in *EPN,* 8 December
1998.

National Governors' Association. 1979. *Comprehensive Emergency
Management: A Governor's Guide*. Washington, DC: Center for Policy
Research.

Perry, Ronald, and Alvin Mushkatel. 1986. *Minority Citizens in
Disasters*. Athens and London: University of Georgia Press.

Pawlowski, Michel S., and Richard L. Neal, Jr. 1996. *Research on
Possible State Emergency Management Trust Fund Legislation*. Paper
presented at Pan Pacific Hazards '96 Conference, Vancouver, British
Columbia, Canada (31 July).

*Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act of
1974,* P.L. 93-288, as amended by P.L. 100-707 in 1988. \[*U.S. Code*,
Vol. 42, sections 5121--5204c\]. Reprint, Washington, DC: FEMA (May
1995).

Sylves, Richard. 1998. *See* FEMA. EMI. 1998.

U.S. Senate. Bipartisan Task Force on Funding Disaster Relief. *Federal
Disaster Assistance: Report of the Senate Task Force on Funding Disaster
Relief.* 104th Cong., 1st sess., Doc. 104-4.

Virginia Department of Emergency Services (VDES). 1997. VDES Designs
Reservist Program As Resource. *Emergency Management Update*. December.

Waugh, William L., Jr., 1993. Co-ordination or Control: Organizational
Design and the Emergency Management Function. *Disaster Prevention and
Management, An International Journal* 2, no. 4: 19 and 24.

[^1]: Of the \$2.77 billion spent on emergency management in FY 1997,
    according to the National Emergency Management Association/Council
    of State Governments *1998 Report on State Emergency Management
    Funding & Structures*, \$1.71 billion was for pre-disaster
    activities, suggesting, according to the report that "states are now
    placing a greater emphasis on proactive, pre-disaster initiatives
    and less emphasis on reacting to disasters." \[This report is cited
    in\] *Emergency Preparation News (EPN).* 8 December 1998, \[p. 223\]
    "States Spend \$2.77B on Emergency Management: Emphasize
    Mitigation." The article is a report on the *1998 Report on State
    Emergency Management Funding & Structures,* published jointly by the
    National Emergency Management Association and the Council of State
    Governments.

[^2]: An example would be the Governor's Office of Emergency Services in
    California.

[^3]: An example would be Hawaiian Civil Defense, organized within the
    state department of defense.

[^4]: An example would be the Kansas Division of Emergency Management,
    located within the adjutant general's department. Twenty-two State
    Emergency Management Agencies "are under the command of their
    adjutant general" ("Task Force to Lay Out Possibilities, Challenges
    for Information Network," *EPN*, 1 Oct 1997, 155)

[^5]: Examples would be the Minnesota Division of Emergency Services in
    the Department of Public Safety, and the Michigan Emergency
    Management Division of the state police.

[^6]: An example would be the Florida Division of Emergency Management,
    which is in the Department of Community Affairs.

[^7]: According to the *1998 Report on State Emergency Management
    Funding and Structures* (NEMA/CSG), in fiscal year 1997 states were
    involved in nearly 4,800 emergency events, only 40 of which, or 1
    percent, were declared federal disasters, while 915, or 119 percent,
    were declared state emergencies. (*EPN,* 8 Dec 1998, 223)