# Archived Information

# IV. Implementation and Impacts of Elementary School Centers

To study the implementation of elementary school centers, the evaluation
used the same procedures and instruments it used to study middle school
centers. It also analyzed a range of outcomes for elementary school
centers, including activities after school, grades, test scores,
behavior, and feelings of safety after school. Unlike the approach for
middle school centers, the evaluation used experimental designs to
estimate whether elementary school centers affected outcomes. Students
and their parents applied to participate in the centers in the fall of
the 2000-2001 school year, and applicants were randomly assigned either
to a treatment group that was offered the chance to enroll in a center
or to a control group that was not. (Dynarski et al. \[2001\] describe
the operational aspects of random assignment in more detail.) In the
first year, the experimental design was implemented in 18 centers
operated by seven grantees. As noted in Chapter I, another set of
elementary school grantees was included in the national evaluation in
its second year and a future analysis will examine findings from the
full set of grantees.

The first-year findings indicate that centers had improved grades in
social studies and had improved some aspects of involving parents with
their child's schooling, including attendance at after-school events.
However, treatment group students scored about the same as control
students on a standardized reading test and, according to student and
teacher reports, were as likely to complete their homework. Treatment
students were as confident as control students in reading and in
interpersonal skills, such as working with others in a team or as a
group. Treatment students also felt as safe as control students during
after-school hours and were as likely to engage in (and be disciplined
for) bad behavior.

## A. Implementation of Elementary School Centers

The seven grantees and 18 elementary school centers in the national
evaluation formed a select group, because oversubscription allowed them
to support an experimental evaluation design. Because high demand for
the after-school program was a major factor in their selection,
considerations about appealing to students and encouraging enrollment in
the after-school programs were generally secondary for program
designers. Poor academic performance was the primary consideration that
shaped the content and design of these elementary programs, as nearly
all the schools were performing below their states' average achievement
level (Table IV.1). Program designers did include enrichment and
recreation activities but mainly to keep students productive and
energized.

Table IV.1

Objectives of 21st-Century Elementary School Centers

in the National Evaluation

  --------------------------------------- ------------ ---------- ----------
                                          Percentage              

                                          Major        Minor      None

  Help Children to Improve Academic       83           17         0
  Performance                                                     

  Help Children to Develop Socially       39           33         28

  Provide a Safe Environment for Children 44           56         0
  After School                                                    

  Provide Recreational Opportunities for  28           56         17
  Children                                                        

  Provide Cultural Opportunities for      17           56         28
  Children                                                        

  Help Parents and/or Other Adults with   28           11         61
  Literacy or Other Skills (Such as                               
  Parenting)                                                      
  --------------------------------------- ------------ ---------- ----------

> [Source:]{.smallcaps} Site visitor assessments based on visits to 18
> centers.

### 

Most of the elementary centers followed a similar approach to
structuring after-school activities, but there were notable exceptions.
Some centers, for example, focused on building skills for state
assessment tests. A handful emphasized skills for parents and other
adults in the community. Four centers that were part of one district's
grant built their programs on a model of serving adults in the school's
community. Children attended the center only when they accompanied their
parent or grandparent. By using computer-oriented instruction and
requiring adult participants to volunteer in the schools for a specified
period, these centers expected to improve student performance and
improve the lives of students out of school.

The elementary centers tended to be open most of the after-school hours
(about 15 each week). A typical after-school schedule in an elementary
school center included time for a snack and homework, followed by one or
two sessions of academic activities or enrichment and recreation. In
general, students had 45 minutes to an hour to work on homework, an hour
of another academic activity, and one to two hours for other activities.
Several centers gave students little opportunity to select after-school
activities. At four grantees that focused on academic support, centers
required students to attend both the homework period and the cognitive
activity. In another two grantees, center staff members allowed students
more choice.

The elementary center schedules changed little during the school year.
The schedule for academic activities changed hardly at all, and the
schedule for nonacademic activities often followed cycles. For example,
students would rotate through 10 activities during a 10‑week period and
begin the rotation again at the beginning of the next 10-week cycle.

At eight centers, the purpose of the academic program was to help
students complete homework; at four, it was to help them master material
taught during the day; and at six, it was to help them perform better on
state or district tests. Some of the academic activities used
small-group tutoring, self-paced computer-aided instruction, and
purchased curricula. Students often were grouped by grade level during
academic activities.

Centers had different approaches to homework sessions. Some insisted
that students work on homework (or other cognitive activities if they
had no homework) during the session. Others did not emphasize completing
homework (for example, they combined the homework session with snack
time). Consistent with these differences, the quality of homework help
varied in its orderliness and supportiveness. Site visitors witnessed
several chaotic homework sessions in which few students focused on their
work and few staff members were engaged with students. Although some
other centers maintained better control, centers did not give students
much help with their homework. Homework help was particularly limited if
the after-school staff members were not regular day teachers and there
were no procedures for logging students' assignments or tracking their
progress on them.

Additional academic content provided by centers focused on reading and
writing. In some cases, the content was linked to areas that schools had
identified from achievement or assessment test scores as needing
improvement. Five centers used purchased curricular materials to help
students with their reading and writing. Another center used hands-on
activities designed to complement instruction during the regular school
day.

Students could work on computers, either as an elective or as a
component the center required. Four centers at one grantee required
second- through fifth-graders to use a computer-based instructional
program in reading and spelling. Centers at another grantee provided at
least 30 minutes a week of computer instruction. In other centers,
students could choose to spend time in the computer lab as part of their
nonacademic activity time.

Centers at three grantees had strong links with the regular school
program. The links arose from shared curricula or lessons that focused
on the same standardized tests, and natural links created when centers
hired staff members from the regular school to run or supervise
activities. A common element among grantees that did not have strong
links was that few teachers from the regular school worked in the
after-school centers.

All grantees placed some emphasis on activities beyond academic ones.
Center staff viewed providing recreation activities as a major objective
at 5 of the 18 elementary centers, and promoting social opportunities
was a major objective for 7. The nonacademic activities were often used
as incentives or rewards for the time students spent in the academic
activities. While some nonacademic activities had cognitive aspects,
most were recreational and designed to be fun (see box).

Other aspects of the implementation of these selected elementary school
centers were analogous to those of middle school centers. School
districts administered elementary school centers, and center staff had
characteristics similar to those of middle school centers. In general,
they enjoyed support from their host schools but were weakly linked with
community organizations and had not made much progress in planning for
sustainability.

## B. Student Participation Was Moderate

Analysis of data from records of elementary school centers shows that
attendance was moderate during the 2000-2001 school year (Table IV.2).
Students who were randomly assigned to the program and attended at least
one day attended an average of 58 days during the year. While about
one-quarter attended the program for fewer than 25 days, nearly 40
percent did so for more than 75 days.

Table IV.2

21st-Century Elementary School Center Attendance

(2000-2001 School Year)

+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Average Days Attended in School Year^a^                   | 58.3     |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Number of Days Attended (Percent of Participants)         |          |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| > 1 to 25 Days                                            | 27.0     |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| > 26 to 50 Days                                           | 19.8     |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| > 51 to 75 Days                                           | 14.6     |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| > 76 to 100 Days                                          | 21.7     |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| > 101 to 125 Days                                         | 14.8     |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| > More than 125 Days                                      | 2.1      |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| Attendance Rate^b^ (Percent of Participants)              |          |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| > 10 Percent or less                                      | 23.8     |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| > 11 to 25 Percent                                        | 15.7     |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| > 26 to 50 Percent                                        | 22.3     |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| > 51 to 70 Percent                                        | 22.3     |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| > 71 to 85 Percent                                        | 14.9     |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+
| > 86 to 100 Percent                                       | 1.0      |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+----------+

[Source:]{.smallcaps} Center Attendance Records. Sample size is 395
participants.

> ^a^Average number of days is calculated for program participants who
> attended the program at least one day after being randomly assigned to
> the program. Participation data from one grantee could not be used.
>
> ^b^ The attendance rate is the number of days participants attended as
> a proportion of the number of days centers were open, which is
> obtained from grantee annual performance reports.

The pattern of attendance during the school year shows a slow but steady
decline in attendance, with sharper (and temporary) declines around
major holidays. Figure IV.1 plots average days attended a week for the
school year for elementary school students. The downward trend of
average attendance during the school year is evident, as is the sharp
decline around the Thanksgiving and Christmas holidays. Most of the
decline is due to students who no longer attend. Figure IV.2 plots the
decline in attendance throughout the school year. A sizable group of
elementary school students attended centers for long periods, although
they may not have attended often within the time period. Figure IV.2
shows the distribution of calendar days between the first day and last
day an elementary school participant attended a center. The relatively
straight aspect of the line indicates that students were not more likely
to stop attending

Figure IV.1

Average Days Attended Per Week

(Elementary School Centers, 2000-2001 School Year)

![](media/image3.wmf)

Figure IV.2\
Distribution of Length of Time Attending Centers

![](media/image4.wmf)

during any particular times of the year. About 25 percent of
participants had stopped attending after about two calendar months,
which suggests that a group of students may be trying out centers before
they stop attending. The median time period of attendance was about 160
days for participants, which suggests that students who continue to
attend beyond the first few months were likely to attend for a much
longer time. Twenty-five percent of elementary school students were
still attending centers more than 190 days after the first day they
attended.

## C. Centers Did Not Affect Most Outcomes

Centers could affect a wide range of outcomes, as noted in the
conceptual framework in Chapter I. Immediate effects might be observed
in student activities, location, and supervision after school. Effects
on some measures of academic performance also might be observed,
especially those that are not cumulative by nature, such as completing
homework and trying hard in class. Further, effects on personal
development may be observed because of the nature of many of the
enrichment activities the centers provided.

Because the groups were created through random assignment, the baseline
characteristics of students in the groups should in principle be
similar, and statistical tests indicate this generally to be the case.
No statistically significant differences were found for most
characteristics. When they were found, analyses revealed no pattern
indicating that one group was more or less disadvantaged than the other.

Table IV.3 shows baseline characteristics of the groups. Gender, race
and ethnicity, grade level (a proxy for student age), and parent age
distributions are similar, with treatment group students being somewhat
less likely to be white and more likely to be black. School absences,
tardy arrivals, and incidences of suspension are similar, as are
standardized test scores. Treatment students are somewhat less likely
than control students to feel safe walking in their neighborhoods, but
the views of their parents do not differ much in this area. However,
although

Table IV.3

Characteristics of Treatment and Control Group Students at Baseline:

Elementary School Centers

+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| Characteristic                       | Tr      | Control | p-V     |
|                                      | eatment | Group   | alue^a^ |
|                                      | Group   |         |         |
+======================================+=========+=========+=========+
| Gender                               |         |         |         |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| > Male                               | 46.4    | 50.6    | 0.24    |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| > Female                             | 53.6    | 49.4    | 0.24    |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| Race/Ethnicity                       |         |         |         |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| > White (non-Hispanic)               | 9.7     | 8.3     | 0.55    |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| > Black (non-Hispanic)               | 66.7    | 72.5    | 0.13    |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| > Hispanic                           | 18.9    | 14.1    | 0.13    |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| > Other                              | 1.6     | 2.3     | 0.57    |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| Grade Level (percentages)            |         |         |         |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| > Kindergarten                       | 10.5    | 12.9    | 0.25    |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| > 1^st^ grade                        | 18.1    | 17.1    | 0.68    |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| > 2^nd^ grade                        | 17.0    | 18.0    | 0.67    |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| > 3^rd^ grade                        | 13.4    | 10.5    | 0.17    |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| > 4^th^ grade                        | 17.4    | 18.5    | 0.67    |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| > 5^th^ grade                        | 19.5    | 16.5    | 0.24    |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| > 6^th^ grade                        | 4.0     | 6.5     | 0.08\*  |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| Mother's Average Age (Years)         | 36.4    | 35.5    | 0.21    |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| Father's Average Age (Years)         | 37.5    | 39.0    | 0.09\*  |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| Number of Tardy Arrivals During      | 3.4     | 3.6     | 0.78    |
| 1999-2000 School Year                |         |         |         |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| Number of Absences During 1999-2000  | 7.2     | 7.5     | 0.62    |
| School Year                          |         |         |         |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| Parent Feels It is Safe for Child to | 59.8    | 54.9    | 0.16    |
| Walk in Neighborhood                 |         |         |         |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| Student Feels It is Safe to Walk in  | 72.3    | 78.5    | 0.14    |
| Neighborhood                         |         |         |         |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| Mean Reading Test Score (Percentile) | 36.6    | 36.3    | 0.94    |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
| **Sample Size^b^**                   | **587** | **381** |         |
+--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+

[Source]{.smallcaps}: Student Survey, Parent Survey, School Records.

[Note]{.smallcaps}: The percentages and mean values of outcomes for
treatment and control students have been regression-adjusted for
baseline differences between the groups. The control variables in the
regression included 14 different student and household characteristics
such as indicators of students' demographic characteristics, household
socioeconomic status, and students' baseline test scores and attendance.

^a^The p-value is the smallest level of significance at which the null
hypothesis that the difference in means between program participants and
control group members equals zero can be rejected. If the p-value is
less than .01, the difference is significant at the 1 percent level. If
the p-value is less than .05, the difference is significant at the 5
percent level, and so on.

^b^Sample sizes differ depending on the data source.

\*Significantly different from zero at the .10 level, two-tailed test.

\*\*Significantly different from zero at the .05 level, two-tailed test.

\*\*\*Significantly different from zero at the .01 level, two-tailed
test.

random assignment appears to have done what it should in creating
similar groups, we estimated impacts using regression adjustment
techniques to remove remaining differences and to improve the precision
of the impact estimates.

### 1. Centers Affected Student Location and Supervision after School

Centers increased time spent at school or in another place outside the
home (Table IV.4).[^1] For example, 48 percent of treatment students and
37 percent of control students spent at least three days at school or in
a similar place after school (an effect size of 22 percent). Conversely,
centers reduced time spent at home after school, with 65 percent of
treatment students and 77 percent of control students being cared for in
their own homes after school at least three days a week (an effect size
of 27 percent). However, centers did not change the percentage of
students in other locations, such as someone else's home or somewhere to
"hang out."

Consistent with the changes in student locations, centers reduced time
that students were in parent or sibling care and increased time spent in
the care of non-parent adults by an offsetting amount (Table IV.4). For
example, parents cared for 63 percent of treatment students and 70
percent of control students at least three days a week after school
(effect size 16 percent). Centers reduced sibling care by more than
half, with 2 percent of treatment and 5 percent of control students
being cared for by siblings at least three days a week after school
(effect size 12

# Table IV.4

Impacts on Location, Supervision, and Activities after School,
Elementary School Centers

+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| Outcome                          | T    | C   | E    | p-V  | E    |
|                                  | reat | ont | stim | alue | stim |
|                                  | ment | rol | ated | ^a^  | ated |
|                                  | G    | Gr  | Im   |      | Im   |
|                                  | roup | oup | pact |      | pact |
|                                  |      |     |      |      | on   |
|                                  |      |     |      |      | Part |
|                                  |      |     |      |      | icip |
|                                  |      |     |      |      | ants |
+==================================+======+=====+======+======+======+
| Percentage of Students in the    |      |     |      |      |      |
| Following Locations after School |      |     |      |      |      |
| at Least Three Days in a Typical |      |     |      |      |      |
| Week according to Parent         |      |     |      |      |      |
| Reports:                         |      |     |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Self-care                      | 1.6  | 2.2 | -    | 0.62 | -    |
|                                  |      |     | -0.6 |      | -0.9 |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Parent care                    | 62.8 | 7   | --7  | 0.09 | -    |
|                                  |      | 0.2 | .4\* |      | -6.2 |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Non-parent adult care          | 31.2 | 2   | 10   | 0.01 | 11   |
|                                  |      | 0.7 | .5\* |      | .0\* |
|                                  |      |     | \*\* |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Sibling care                   | 2.0  | 4.6 | --2  | 0.09 | -    |
|                                  |      |     | .7\* |      | -4.0 |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Mixed care (not in any one     | 2.5  | 2.3 | 0.2  | 0.90 | 0.1  |
| > category for at least three    |      |     |      |      |      |
| > days)                          |      |     |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| Percentage of Students in the    |      |     |      |      |      |
| Following Types of Supervision   |      |     |      |      |      |
| at Least Three Days after School |      |     |      |      |      |
| in a Typical Week, according to  |      |     |      |      |      |
| Parent Reports:                  |      |     |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Own home                       | 65.4 | 7   | --11 | 0.01 | --   |
|                                  |      | 6.7 | .2\* |      | 13.4 |
|                                  |      |     | \*\* |      | \*\* |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Someone else's home            | 14.9 | 1   | -    | 0.70 | -    |
|                                  |      | 6.2 | -1.3 |      | -0.5 |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > School or other place for      | 47.7 | 3   | 10.4 | 0.02 | 12   |
| > activities                     |      | 7.3 | \*\* |      | .9\* |
|                                  |      |     |      |      | \*\* |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Somewhere to "hang out"        | 4.2  | 4.2 | 0.1  | 0.96 | 0.7  |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Mixed location (not in one     | 1.6  | 2.2 | -    | 0.62 | -    |
| > location for at least three    |      |     | -0.6 |      | -0.2 |
| > days)                          |      |     |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| Mean Number of Days Stayed after | 1.8  | 0.9 | 0    | 0.00 | 1    |
| School for Activities in Typical |      |     | .9\* |      | .1\* |
| Week, according to Parent        |      |     | \*\* |      | \*\* |
| Reports                          |      |     |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| Percentage of Students Who       |      |     |      |      |      |
| Reported Participating in the    |      |     |      |      |      |
| Following Activities Yesterday   |      |     |      |      |      |
| after School:                    |      |     |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Homework                       | 80.6 | 7   | 4.7  | 0.36 | 7.6  |
|                                  |      | 6.0 |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Tutoring                       | 8.2  | 1   | -    | 0.42 | -    |
|                                  |      | 0.9 | -2.7 |      | -3.0 |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Non-homework reading, writing, | 34.3 | 3   | 3.8  | 0.50 | 5.6  |
| > or science activities          |      | 0.5 |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > School activities (band,       | 28.9 | 2   | 6.3  | 0.24 | 7.9  |
| > drama, etc.)                   |      | 2.7 |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Lessons (music, art, dance,    | 30.2 | 2   | 8.4  | 0.11 | 11.3 |
| > etc.)                          |      | 1.9 |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Organized sports               | 28.7 | 2   | 1.4  | 0.80 | 0.9  |
|                                  |      | 7.3 |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Clubs (Boy and Girl Scouts,    | 18.2 | 2   | -    | 0.05 | --13 |
| > Boys and Girls Club, etc.)     |      | 7.8 | -9.6 |      | .0\* |
|                                  |      |     | \*\* |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Activities at church, temple,  | 21.8 | 2   | -    | 0.97 | 0.8  |
| > or mosque                      |      | 2.1 | -0.2 |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Watched TV or videos           | 76.5 | 6   | 7.9  | 0.13 | 10.7 |
|                                  |      | 8.5 |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Surfed the Internet or did     | 37.6 | 3   | 2.4  | 0.69 | 0.0  |
| > other things on the computer   |      | 5.2 |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > "Hung out" with friends        | 55.3 | 4   | 9.1  | 0.14 | 12.9 |
|                                  |      | 6.2 |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Did chores around the house    | 56.3 | 5   | 4.8  | 0.43 | 6.8  |
|                                  |      | 1.5 |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Took care of a brother or      | 44.8 | 2   | 16   | 0.01 | 25   |
| > sister                         |      | 8.1 | .7\* |      | .6\* |
|                                  |      |     | \*\* |      | \*\* |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| > Played                         | 8.5  | 8.9 | -    | 0.90 | -    |
|                                  |      |     | -0.5 |      | -1.4 |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| Mean Time Students Reported      | 2.0  | 1.9 | 0.1  | 0.63 | 0.2  |
| Watching Television in the Past  |      |     |      |      |      |
| Day                              |      |     |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| Mean Time Students Reported      | 0.4  | 0.4 | 0.0  | 0.93 | -    |
| Reading for Fun in the Past Day  |      |     |      |      | -0.1 |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+
| **Sample Size**^b^               | **4  | *   |      |      |      |
|                                  | 03** | *22 |      |      |      |
|                                  |      | 6** |      |      |      |
+----------------------------------+------+-----+------+------+------+

[Source:]{.smallcaps} Parent Survey, Student Survey.

[Note]{.smallcaps}: The percentages and mean values of outcomes for
treatment and control students have been regression-adjusted for
baseline differences between the groups. The control variables in the
regression included 14 different student and household characteristics
such as indicators of students' demographic characteristics, household
socioeconomic status, and students' baseline test scores and attendance.

^a^The p-value is the smallest level of significance at which the null
hypothesis that the impact equals zero can be rejected. If the p-value
is less than .01, an impact is significant at the 1 percent level; if
the p-value is less than .05, the impact is significant at the 5 percent
level, and so on.

^b^Sample sizes differ for some outcomes due to nonresponse. Sample
sizes for student-reported outcomes are 285 for the treatment group and
156 for the control group. Only students in third grade and above
completed a student survey.

\*Significantly different from zero at the .10 level, two-tailed test.

\*\*Significantly different from zero at the .05 level, two-tailed test.

\*\*\*Significantly different from zero at the .01 level, two-tailed
test.

percent). Centers increased non-parent adult care, with 31 percent of
treatment students and 21 percent of control students being cared for by
non-parent adults at least three days a week after school (effect size
26 percent). Centers did not affect self-care, with 2 percent of both
treatment and control students in self-care at least three days a week
after school. Centers also had mostly insignificant effects on student
activities after school.[^2]

### 2. Centers Did Not Improve Most Grades and Did Not Affect Behavior in School

Centers increased grades in social studies significantly (the effect
size is 30 percent), but while grades in other subjects generally
appeared higher for treatment students, the differences were not
significant.[^3] Centers did not have significant effects on reading
test scores (Table IV.5). For example, treatment students had a
percentile average reading score of 34.3, and control students had an
average score of 34.2.

According to teacher and student reports, treatment students were as
likely as control students to complete their homework (Table IV.5).
Eighty-five percent of the treatment group and 87 percent of the control
group reported doing the homework their teachers assigned. Teachers
reported that treatment students were as likely as control students to
complete their homework often and to be prepared and ready to learn in
class. According to teachers, treatment students were more likely than
control students to try hard in reading. However, according to

# Table IV.5

Impacts on Academic and Other In-School Outcomes, Elementary School
Centers

+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| Outcome                      | Trea  | Co    | Esti  | p   | Esti  |
|                              | tment | ntrol | mated | -Va | mated |
|                              | Group | Group | I     | lue | I     |
|                              |       |       | mpact | ^a^ | mpact |
|                              |       |       |       |     | on    |
|                              |       |       |       |     | Pa    |
|                              |       |       |       |     | rtici |
|                              |       |       |       |     | pants |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| Mean Grade:                  |       |       |       |     |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| > Math                       | 81.0  | 79.6  | 1.3   | 0   | 1.7   |
|                              |       |       |       | .23 |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| > English/language arts      | 82.6  | 81.7  | 0.9   | 0   | 1.3   |
|                              |       |       |       | .29 |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| > Science                    | 84.0  | 83.5  | 0.5   | 0   | 0.5   |
|                              |       |       |       | .61 |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| > Social studies/history     | 83.0  | 80.3  | 2.    | 0   | 3.    |
|                              |       |       | 7\*\* | .01 | 3\*\* |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| Mean Reading Test Score      | 34.3  | 34.2  | 0.1   | 0   | 0.4   |
|                              |       |       |       | .96 |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| Percentage of Students Who   | 85.0  | 86.6  | --1.6 | 0   | --2.5 |
| Report That They "Often" or  |       |       |       | .72 |       |
| "Always" Do the Homework     |       |       |       |     |       |
| Teachers Assign              |       |       |       |     |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| Percentage of Students Whose | 55.3  | 60.9  | --5.5 | 0   | --8.1 |
| Teachers Report That They    |       |       |       | .20 |       |
| "Often" Complete Their       |       |       |       |     |       |
| Homework                     |       |       |       |     |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| Percentage of Students Whose | 56.1  | 59.3  | --3.2 | 0   | --5.9 |
| Teachers "Agree" or          |       |       |       | .44 |       |
| "Strongly Agree" That They   |       |       |       |     |       |
| Complete Assignments to the  |       |       |       |     |       |
| Teacher's Satisfaction       |       |       |       |     |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| Percentage of Students Whose | 57.8  | 63.3  | --5.5 | 0   | --8.8 |
| Teachers "Agree" or          |       |       |       | .18 |       |
| "Strongly Agree" That the    |       |       |       |     |       |
| Student Comes to School      |       |       |       |     |       |
| Prepared and Ready to Learn  |       |       |       |     |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| Percentage of Students Whose | 57.0  | 49.5  | 7.5\* | 0   | 9.7   |
| Teachers Report That They    |       |       |       | .08 |       |
| "Usually Try Hard" in        |       |       |       |     |       |
| Reading or English           |       |       |       |     |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| Percentage of Students Whose | 80.7  | 87.4  | --    | 0   | --11. |
| Parents "Agree" or "Strongly |       |       | 6.7\* | .06 | 0\*\* |
| Agree" That Their Child      |       |       |       |     |       |
| Works Hard at School         |       |       |       |     |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| Level of Effort Composite^b^ | 3.6   | 3.6   | 0.0   | 0   | 0.0   |
| (Mean)                       |       |       |       | .72 |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| Percentage of Students Whose |       |       |       |     |       |
| Teachers Report Doing the    |       |       |       |     |       |
| Following "Two or More       |       |       |       |     |       |
| Times":                      |       |       |       |     |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| > Disciplining the child for | 48.0  | 42.7  | 5.3   | 0   | 8.2   |
| > misbehaving                |       |       |       | .23 |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| > Sending child to the       | 12.5  | 10.7  | 1.7   | 0   | 2.4   |
| > office for misbehaving     |       |       |       | .55 |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| > Giving child detention     | 18.9  | 14.3  | 4.6   | 0   | 7.2   |
|                              |       |       |       | .16 |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| > Calling parents about      | 29.8  | 23.6  | 6.2   | 0   | 8.2   |
| > child's behavior           |       |       |       | .12 |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| Percentage of Students Who   | 7.1   | 5.2   | 1.9   | 0   | 2.3   |
| Were Suspended During        |       |       |       | .41 |       |
| 2000-2001 School Year        |       |       |       |     |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| Mean Number of Days          |       |       |       |     |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| > Absent from class          | 8.2   | 8.2   | 0.1   | 0   | 0.0   |
|                              |       |       |       | .91 |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| > Late for class             | 5.0   | 4.4   | 0.5   | 0   | 0.6   |
|                              |       |       |       | .42 |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| Reading Confidence           | 3.1   | 3.0   | 0.1   | 0   | 0.1   |
| Composite^c^ (Mean)          |       |       |       | .24 |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+
| **Sample Size^d^**           | **    | **    |       |     |       |
|                              | 403** | 226** |       |     |       |
+------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+

[Source:]{.smallcaps} Student Survey, Parent Survey, School Records,
Teacher Survey.

[Note]{.smallcaps}: The percentages and mean values of outcomes for
treatment and control students have been regression-adjusted for
baseline differences between the groups. The control variables in the
regression included 14 different student and household characteristics
such as indicators of students' demographic characteristics, household
socioeconomic status, and students' baseline test scores and attendance.

^a^The p-value is the smallest level of significance at which the null
hypothesis that the impact equals zero can be rejected. If the p-value
is less than .01, an impact is significant at the 1 percent level; if
the p-value is less than .05, the impact is significant at the 5 percent
level, and so on.

^b^The level of effort composite is based on five teacher-reported items
regarding student (1) effort, (2) performance at ability level, (3)
attentiveness, (4) participation, and (5) volunteering. Values on these
items range from 1 to 5; a value of 1 on the composite indicates a low
level, and a value of 5 indicates a high level.

^c^The reading confidence composite is based on students' reports on
three items: (1) reading is hard to learn, (2) they are a good reader,
and (3) they would read better if they had more help. Values on these
items range from 1 to 4; a value of 1 on the composite indicates a low
level, and a value of 4 indicates a high level.

^d^Sample sizes differ for some outcomes. For teacher-reported outcomes,
the sample sizes are 409 treatment group members and 253 control group
members; for student-reported outcomes, the sample sizes are 285
treatment group members and 156 control group members; for records
outcomes, the sample sizes are 537 treatment group members and 317
control group members.

\*Significantly different from zero at the .10 level, two-tailed test.

\*\*Significantly different from zero at the .05 level, two-tailed test.

\*\*\*Significantly different from zero at the .01 level, two-tailed
test.

parents, treatment students were less likely than control students to
work hard in school (Table IV.5). Treatment students also had the same
value as control students on a composite variable combining various
measures of effort such as performing at the student's ability level,
attentiveness, participation, and volunteering in class (Table IV.5).

Suspensions, absences, tardy arrivals, and teacher reports of discipline
problems showed no significant differences for treatment and control
students (Table IV.5). For example, treatment and control students were
both absent 8.2 days a year on average, and treatment and control
students were late for class 5.0 and 4.4 times a year, respectively. In
addition, 7 percent of treatment and 5 percent of control students were
suspended during the school year, an insignificant difference.

### 3. Center Had Few Effects on Other Outcomes

Centers had no effects on student interpersonal skills (Table IV.6).
Treatment students were as likely as control students to report getting
along with others their age, as likely to report feeling left out of
things, and as likely to rate themselves highly on working with others
on a team, using a computer to look up information, or setting a goal
and working to achieve it (Table IV.6). For example, 76 percent of both
treatment and control students rated themselves as "good" or "excellent"
on working with others on a team. Treatment students also were as likely
as control students to rate themselves highly on sticking to what they
believe in even if their friends do not agree.

Centers did not affect how safe or unsafe students felt after school.
For example, 74 percent of treatment group students and 76 percent of
control students reported feeling "very safe" after school (Table IV.6).
Two percent of treatment students and 5 percent of control students did
not feel safe at all after school, but the difference between the groups
was not significant (Table IV.6).

# Table IV.6

Impacts on Other Outcomes, Elementary School Centers

+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| Outcome                         | T    | C   | Esti  | p   | Esti  |
|                                 | reat | ont | mated | -Va | mated |
|                                 | ment | rol | I     | lue | I     |
|                                 | G    | Gr  | mpact | ^a^ | mpact |
|                                 | roup | oup |       |     | on    |
|                                 |      |     |       |     | Pa    |
|                                 |      |     |       |     | rtici |
|                                 |      |     |       |     | pants |
+=================================+======+=====+=======+=====+=======+
| Percentage of Students Who      |      |     |       |     |       |
| Report the Following Are        |      |     |       |     |       |
| "Somewhat True" or "Very True": |      |     |       |     |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > They get along with others    | 81.2 | 8   | --3.1 | 0   | --6.4 |
| > their age                     |      | 4.2 |       | .54 |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > They feel left out of things  | 32.4 | 2   | 3.2   | 0   | 2.8   |
|                                 |      | 9.2 |       | .58 |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| Percentage of Students Who Do   |      |     |       |     |       |
| the Following "Some" or "A      |      |     |       |     |       |
| Lot":                           |      |     |       |     |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Help another student in       | 78.0 | 7   | --1.1 | 0   | --2.8 |
| > school                        |      | 9.2 |       | .84 |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Help another student after    | 60.8 | 4   | 1     | 0   | 15.0  |
| > school                        |      | 9.5 | 1.3\* | .07 |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| Percentage of Students Who Rate |      |     |       |     |       |
| Themselves as "Good" or         |      |     |       |     |       |
| "Excellent" on the Following:   |      |     |       |     |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Working with others on a team | 76.0 | 7   | --0.3 | 0   | --0.8 |
| > or group                      |      | 6.2 |       | .96 |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Feeling bad for other people  | 71.4 | 7   | --4.0 | 0   | --7.7 |
| > who are having difficulties   |      | 5.4 |       | .47 |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Believing the best about      | 80.4 | 7   | 2.7   | 0   | 4.0   |
| > other people                  |      | 7.6 |       | .61 |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| Percentage of Students Who Rate |      |     |       |     |       |
| Themselves as "Excellent" on    |      |     |       |     |       |
| the Following:                  |      |     |       |     |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Using a computer to look up   | 51.9 | 4   | 9.6   | 0   | 13.9  |
| > information                   |      | 2.3 |       | .12 |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Setting a goal and working to | 56.6 | 6   | --4.6 | 0   | --7.5 |
| > achieve it                    |      | 1.2 |       | .46 |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| Percentage of Students Who Rate | 60.0 | 5   | 7.7   | 0   | 10.2  |
| Themselves as "Excellent" on    |      | 2.4 |       | .21 |       |
| Sticking to What They Believe   |      |     |       |     |       |
| in, Even if Their Friends Don't |      |     |       |     |       |
| Agree                           |      |     |       |     |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| Percentage of Students Who      |      |     |       |     |       |
| Report Feeling the Following    |      |     |       |     |       |
| Levels of Safety after School   |      |     |       |     |       |
| up until 6 p.m[.]{.smallcaps}:  |      |     |       |     |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Very safe                     | 74.3 | 7   | --1.1 | 0   | --2.0 |
|                                 |      | 5.5 |       | .83 |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Somewhat safe                 | 24.0 | 1   | 4.6   | 0   | 6.9   |
|                                 |      | 9.3 |       | .37 |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Not at all safe               | 1.7  | 5.2 | --3.5 | 0   | --4.9 |
|                                 |      |     |       | .14 |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| Negative Behavior Composite^b^  | 1.6  | 1.6 | 0.0   | 0   | 0.0   |
|                                 |      |     |       | .77 |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| Percentage of Students Whose    |      |     |       |     |       |
| Parents Report Doing the        |      |     |       |     |       |
| Following:                      |      |     |       |     |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Helped their child with       | 68.4 | 5   | 10.   | 0   | 12.   |
| > homework at least three times |      | 8.3 | 1\*\* | .02 | 9\*\* |
| > last week                     |      |     |       |     |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Checked on their child's      | 91.7 | 9   | --0.2 | 0   | --0.4 |
| > homework completion at least  |      | 1.9 |       | .93 |       |
| > three times last week         |      |     |       |     |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Asked their child about       | 73.1 | 6   | 7.7\* | 0   | 1     |
| > things they were doing in     |      | 5.4 |       | .07 | 0.1\* |
| > class at least seven times    |      |     |       |     |       |
| > last month                    |      |     |       |     |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| Percentage of Students Whose    |      |     |       |     |       |
| Parents Did the Following at    |      |     |       |     |       |
| Least Three Times Last Year:    |      |     |       |     |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Attended an open house at the | 37.2 | 3   | --1.9 | 0   | --3.6 |
| > school                        |      | 9.1 |       | .68 |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Attended parent-teacher       | 53.3 | 5   | 2.7   | 0   | 3.8   |
| > organization meetings         |      | 0.5 |       | .55 |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Attended an after-school      | 51.5 | 4   | 9.    | 0   | 1     |
| > event                         |      | 2.2 | 2\*\* | .04 | 1.5\* |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| > Volunteered to help out at    | 31.5 | 3   | --5.7 | 0   | --8.4 |
| > school                        |      | 7.2 |       | .19 |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| **Sample Size**                 | **4  | *   |       |     |       |
|                                 | 03** | *22 |       |     |       |
|                                 |      | 6** |       |     |       |
+---------------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-------+

[Source:]{.smallcaps} Student Survey, Parent Survey.

[Note]{.smallcaps}: The percentages and mean values of outcomes for
treatment and control students have been regression-adjusted for
baseline differences between the groups. The control variables in the
regression included 14 different student and household characteristics
such as indicators of students' demographic characteristics, household
socioeconomic status, and students' baseline test scores and attendance.

^a^The p-value is the smallest level of significance at which the null
hypothesis that the impact equals zero can be rejected. If the p-value
is less than .01, an impact is significant at the 1 percent level, if
the p-value is less than .05, the impact is significant at the 5 percent
level, and so on.

^b^The negative behavior composite is based on student responses to five
questions regarding how often they do the following: (1) break something
on purpose, (2) punch or hit someone, (3) argue with their parents, (4)
lie to their parents, and (5) give a teacher a "hard time." Values on
these items range from 1 to 4; a value of 1 on the composite indicates a
low level while a value of 4 indicates a high level.

^c^Sample sizes differ for outcomes depending on the source. For
teacher-reported outcomes, the sample sizes are 409 treatment group
members and 253 control group members; for student-reported outcomes,
the sample sizes are 285 treatment group members and 156 control group
members; for records outcomes, the sample sizes are 537 treatment group
members and 317 control group members.

\*Significantly different from zero at the .10 level, two-tailed test.

\*\*Significantly different from zero at the .05 level, two-tailed test.

\*\*\*Significantly different from zero at the .01 level, two-tailed
test.

Centers did not affect student behavior outside school. A composite
variable measuring delinquent behavior---and the items upon which the
composite are based---did not differ significantly (Table IV.6).

Centers increased the percentage of parents helping their child with
homework at least three times in the last week, with 68 percent of
parents of treatment students and 58 percent of parents of control
students doing so, an effect size of 21 percent (Table IV.6). Centers
also increased the percentage of parents asking their child about
classwork: 73 percent of parents of treatment students and 65 percent of
parents of control students asked about classwork at least seven times
in the past month (effect size 16 percent). Centers also increased
parent attendance at after-school events: 52 percent of parents of
treatment students and 42 percent of parents of control students
attended at least three after-school events in the past year (effect
size 19 percent). Centers did not affect several other indicators of
parent involvement, such as whether parents checked that their child had
completed homework, attended school events such as open houses and
parent-teacher organization meetings, or volunteered in the school.

## D. No Effects Were Evident for Student Subgroups 

We estimated effects for four subgroups based on characteristics that
programs might use to target services: (1) gender, (2) grade level, (3)
high versus low reading test scores, and (4) a high versus a low number
of discipline problems. For example, centers could focus on serving
particular grade levels, students with low test scores, students with
high discipline problems, or a combination of these characteristics. The
findings indicate few subgroup impacts (Table IV.7 and IV.8). Some
differences appear large but statistical tests of the differences are
not significant. Small sample sizes may be a factor in the lack of
significance.

# Table IV.7

Impacts on Academic Outcomes by Subgroup,

Elementary School Centers

<table style="width:100%;">
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 27%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 8%" />
<col style="width: 6%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 8%" />
<col style="width: 8%" />
<col style="width: 9%" />
</colgroup>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th></th>
<th colspan="9">Estimated Impact</th>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<th></th>
<th colspan="2">Gender</th>
<th colspan="3">Grade Level</th>
<th colspan="2">Baseline Reading Test Scores <sup>a</sup></th>
<th colspan="2">Baseline Disciplinary Problems Composite
<sup>b</sup></th>
</tr>
<tr class="header">
<th>Outcome</th>
<th>Male</th>
<th>Female</th>
<th>K-2</th>
<th>3-4</th>
<th>5-6</th>
<th>Low</th>
<th>High</th>
<th>Low</th>
<th>High</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Mean Class Grade</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><blockquote>
<p>Math</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>0.3</td>
<td>0.7</td>
<td>–0.5</td>
<td>3.1</td>
<td>0.2</td>
<td>1.4</td>
<td>–0.4</td>
<td>0.1</td>
<td>2.5</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><blockquote>
<p>English</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>0.5</td>
<td>–0.4</td>
<td>1.0</td>
<td>1.3</td>
<td>0.3</td>
<td>2.5</td>
<td>–0.1</td>
<td>–1.3</td>
<td>1.0</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><blockquote>
<p>Science</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>0.5</td>
<td>–0.4</td>
<td>0.6</td>
<td>0.1</td>
<td>–0.2</td>
<td>0.9</td>
<td>–0.3</td>
<td>–0.1</td>
<td>–0.3</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><blockquote>
<p>Social studies</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>2.4</td>
<td>2.0</td>
<td>2.7**</td>
<td>9.6***</td>
<td>0.7</td>
<td>3.0</td>
<td>0.3</td>
<td>5.0*</td>
<td>2.0</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Reading Test Score</td>
<td>0.2</td>
<td>0.2</td>
<td>–1.7</td>
<td>–0.3</td>
<td>2.3</td>
<td>–1.3</td>
<td>–0.4</td>
<td>–1.9</td>
<td>–2.5</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Percentage of Students Whose Teachers “Agree” or “Strongly Agree”
That:</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><blockquote>
<p>Student completes assignments to my satisfaction</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>–4.2</td>
<td>–0.3</td>
<td>1.1</td>
<td>–2.7</td>
<td>–18.5</td>
<td>14.6</td>
<td>–10.1</td>
<td>–21.9***</td>
<td>15.6</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><blockquote>
<p>Student comes prepared and ready to learn</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>0.8</td>
<td>–8.4</td>
<td>–3.4</td>
<td>–14.9*</td>
<td>–3.9</td>
<td>9.0</td>
<td>–12.8*</td>
<td>–7.9</td>
<td>0.8</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Percentage of Students Whose Teachers Report That They “Usually Try
Hard” in Reading or English</td>
<td>13.1**</td>
<td>–0.9</td>
<td>10.1</td>
<td>–0.5</td>
<td>–2.4</td>
<td>24.3**</td>
<td>–1.1</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>–0.4</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Percentage of Students Whose Teachers “Agree” or “Strongly Agree”
That:</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><blockquote>
<p>The student is attentive in class</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>0.6</td>
<td>–1.1</td>
<td>2.2</td>
<td>–7.1</td>
<td>–7.8</td>
<td>19.5**</td>
<td>–13.8**</td>
<td>–11.8</td>
<td>4.0</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><blockquote>
<p>The student participates in class</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>4.1</td>
<td>–3.0</td>
<td>2.7</td>
<td>–5.8</td>
<td>4.7</td>
<td>5.7</td>
<td>1.9</td>
<td>–5.4</td>
<td>15.3</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Percentage of Students Whose Parents “Agree” or “Strongly Agree”
That Child Works Hard at School</td>
<td>–8.0</td>
<td>–2.0</td>
<td>–0.8</td>
<td>–12.5*</td>
<td>–7.7</td>
<td>4.7</td>
<td>–8.7</td>
<td>–11.0</td>
<td>–31.6**</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Percentage of Students Whose Teachers Report Disciplining for
Misbehaving “Two or More Times”</td>
<td>0.7</td>
<td>6.2</td>
<td>1.8</td>
<td>5.3</td>
<td>13.1</td>
<td>3.5</td>
<td>6.4</td>
<td>13.2</td>
<td>2.3</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Teacher-Reported Disciplinary Problems Composite (Mean)</td>
<td>.02</td>
<td>.07</td>
<td>–.01</td>
<td>.15</td>
<td>.28</td>
<td>–.01</td>
<td>.13</td>
<td>.17</td>
<td>.16</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Percentage of Students Whose Teachers Report That They Are “Often”
Disruptive</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>0.2</td>
<td>1.2</td>
<td>1.6</td>
<td>4.9</td>
<td>–4.7</td>
<td>–1.3</td>
<td>8.2</td>
<td>–9.8</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Percentage of Students Who Were Suspended During the 2000-2001
School Year (School Records)</td>
<td>3.7</td>
<td>3.3</td>
<td>–0.9</td>
<td>5.8</td>
<td>1.5</td>
<td>5.5</td>
<td>1.7</td>
<td>–0.2</td>
<td>8.3</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Percentage of Students Whose Teachers “Agree” or “Strongly Agree”
That Student Is a Proficient Reader</td>
<td>–6.5</td>
<td>–1.9</td>
<td>0.1</td>
<td>–13.5*</td>
<td>8.3</td>
<td>–1.2</td>
<td>–4.1</td>
<td>–1.7</td>
<td>–1.1</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Sample Size</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><blockquote>
<p>Parent-reported outcomes</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>191</td>
<td>228</td>
<td>290</td>
<td>187</td>
<td>150</td>
<td>219</td>
<td>194</td>
<td>203</td>
<td>98</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><blockquote>
<p>Teacher-reported outcomes</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>304</td>
<td>337</td>
<td>311</td>
<td>201</td>
<td>139</td>
<td>211</td>
<td>194</td>
<td>208</td>
<td>104</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><blockquote>
<p>School records outcomes (suspensions)</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>384</td>
<td>397</td>
<td>330</td>
<td>229</td>
<td>155</td>
<td>266</td>
<td>227</td>
<td>223</td>
<td>135</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><blockquote>
<p>School records outcomes (grades)</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>234</td>
<td>261</td>
<td>203</td>
<td>154</td>
<td>132</td>
<td>221</td>
<td>204</td>
<td>195</td>
<td>96</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><blockquote>
<p>School records outcomes (reading scores)</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>296</td>
<td>302</td>
<td>300</td>
<td>156</td>
<td>136</td>
<td>236</td>
<td>220</td>
<td>178</td>
<td>82</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

[Source:]{.smallcaps} Parent Survey, Teacher Survey, School Records.

[Note]{.smallcaps}: The percentages and mean values of outcomes for
treatment and control students have been regression-adjusted for
baseline differences between the groups. The control variables in the
regression included 14 different student and household characteristics
such as indicators of students' demographic characteristics, household
socioeconomic status, and students' baseline test scores and attendance.

^a^Students were classified into the "low baseline test scores" subgroup
if their baseline test scores were less than the median baseline test
score among all sample members with valid test scores. Those whose
baseline test scores were above the median were classified into the
"high baseline test scores" subgroup. Students with missing baseline
test scores were not included in either of these subgroups.

^b^Students were classified into the "low number of disciplinary
problems" subgroup if their baseline disciplinary problems composite
score was less than the median composite score among all sample members.
Those whose baseline disciplinary problems composite scores was above
the median were classified into the "high number of disciplinary
problems" subgroup. Students with missing baseline disciplinary problems
composite scores (including all kindergarten through second grade
students) were not included in either of these subgroups.

\*Significantly different from zero at the .10 level, two-tailed test.

\*\*Significantly different from zero at the .05 level, two-tailed test.

\*\*\*Significantly different from zero at the .01 level, two-tailed
test.

# Table IV.8

Impacts on Other Outcomes by Subgroup,

Elementary School Centers

<table>
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 33%" />
<col style="width: 8%" />
<col style="width: 8%" />
<col style="width: 8%" />
<col style="width: 6%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 8%" />
<col style="width: 6%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
</colgroup>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th></th>
<th colspan="9">Estimated Impact</th>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<th></th>
<th colspan="2">Gender</th>
<th colspan="3">Grade Level</th>
<th colspan="2">Baseline Test Scores <sup>a</sup></th>
<th colspan="2">Baseline Disciplinary Problems Composite
<sup>b</sup></th>
</tr>
<tr class="header">
<th>Outcome</th>
<th>Male</th>
<th>Female</th>
<th>K-2</th>
<th>3-4</th>
<th>5-6</th>
<th>Low</th>
<th>High</th>
<th>Low</th>
<th>High</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Student-Reported Social Engagement Composite (Mean)</td>
<td>.05</td>
<td>.07</td>
<td>n.a.</td>
<td>-.04</td>
<td>-.00</td>
<td>.17</td>
<td>-.23</td>
<td>-.01</td>
<td>.04</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Student-Reported Negative Behavior Composite (Mean)</td>
<td>.13</td>
<td>–.14</td>
<td>n.a.</td>
<td>.01</td>
<td>–.01</td>
<td>.05</td>
<td>.08</td>
<td>–.04</td>
<td>.03</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Percentage of Students Whose Parents Report That They Break
Something on Purpose “Some” or “A Lot”</td>
<td>–3.9</td>
<td>–0.2</td>
<td>–5.1*</td>
<td>–0.6</td>
<td>5.7*</td>
<td>–1.2</td>
<td>2.3</td>
<td>2.7</td>
<td>2.9</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Percentage of Students Whose Parents Report Helping Them with
Homework at Least Three Times Last Week</td>
<td>11.2*</td>
<td>12.0**</td>
<td>12.1**</td>
<td>6.8</td>
<td>4.3</td>
<td>–9.3</td>
<td>1.4</td>
<td>6.2</td>
<td>3.0</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Percentage of Students Whose Parents Did the Following at Least
Three Times Last Year:</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><blockquote>
<p>Attended an open house at school</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>10.9*</td>
<td>–7.7</td>
<td>–4.3</td>
<td>–9.5</td>
<td>20.4*</td>
<td>12.4</td>
<td>13.4</td>
<td>2.1</td>
<td>9.8</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><blockquote>
<p>Attended a PTO meeting</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>1.2</td>
<td>6.2</td>
<td>–0.5</td>
<td>3.0</td>
<td>10.2</td>
<td>21.6</td>
<td>1.9</td>
<td>–3.7</td>
<td>12.3*</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><blockquote>
<p>Attended an after–school event</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>15.7**</td>
<td>0.5</td>
<td>6.1</td>
<td>–0.6</td>
<td>10.0</td>
<td>13.6</td>
<td>19.1**</td>
<td>4.9</td>
<td>16.5</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><blockquote>
<p>Volunteered to help out at school</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>0.2</td>
<td>–5.5</td>
<td>–5.3</td>
<td>–8.3</td>
<td>–3.4</td>
<td>–0.0</td>
<td>4.0</td>
<td>–10.4</td>
<td>12.7</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Sample Size</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><blockquote>
<p>Student–reported outcomes</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>195</td>
<td>229</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>241</td>
<td>199</td>
<td>189</td>
<td>135</td>
<td>264</td>
<td>146</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><blockquote>
<p>Parent–reported outcomes</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>285</td>
<td>322</td>
<td>290</td>
<td>187</td>
<td>150</td>
<td>216</td>
<td>194</td>
<td>203</td>
<td>98</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

[Source:]{.smallcaps} Parent Survey, Student Followup Survey.

[Note]{.smallcaps}: The percentages and mean values of outcomes for
treatment and control students have been regression-adjusted for
baseline differences between the groups. The control variables in the
regression included 14 different student and household characteristics
such as indicators of students' demographic characteristics, household
socioeconomic status, and students' baseline test scores and attendance.

^a^Students were classified into the "low number of baseline test
scores" subgroup if their baseline test scores were less than the median
baseline test score among all sample members with valid test scores.
Those whose baseline test scores were above the median were classified
into the "high number of baseline test scores" subgroup. Students with
missing baseline test scores were not included in either of these
subgroups.

^b^Students were classified into the "low number of disciplinary
problems" subgroup if their baseline disciplinary problems composite
score was less than the median composite score among all sample members.
Those whose baseline disciplinary problems composite scores was above
the median were classified into the "high number of disciplinary
problems" subgroup. Students with missing baseline disciplinary problems
composite scores (including all kindergarten through second grade
students) were not included in either of these subgroups.

\*Significantly different from zero at the .10 level, two--tailed test.

\*\*Significantly different from zero at the .05 level, two--tailed
test.

\*\*\*Significantly different from zero at the .01 level, two--tailed
test.

## E. Greater Attendance Was Not Related to Higher Outcomes

Treatment students may have experienced larger impacts if they attended
centers more frequently. As noted in Chapter III, frequent attenders may
differ from infrequent attenders in ways that affect outcomes but are
not controlled for by the experimental design. For example, if
more-motivated students attend centers more often and also have higher
outcomes because of their motivation, comparing their outcomes with
those of less-motivated students may create an incorrect perception of
the impacts of greater attendance. Under the assumption that
more-motivated students attend centers more often, positive outcome
differences may arise because of the assumed motivation difference and
are not interpreted here as causal evidence that frequent attendance
improves outcomes.[^4]

Frequent participants in after-school programs spent more time in a
variety of activities at school (Table IV.9). Parents of frequent
participants reported that their children spent less time with them and
more time in the care of other adults: 66 percent of children who
attended moderately were in parent care for at least three days a week,
versus 57 percent of frequent participants, and non-parent care was
higher by about 12 percentage points for frequent participants. Parents
of frequent attenders also reported that their children spent more time
in organized activities such as tutoring, band, music lessons, and
clubs. The additional time spent in these activities came at the expense
of activities that participants could have done while at home, such as
household chores, volunteer work, and taking care of siblings.

# Table IV.9

> Relationship between Attendance and Outcomes
>
> Elementary School Centers

+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Outcome                                 | Mo     | Fr     | p      |
|                                         | derate | equent | -Value |
|                                         | P      | P      | ^a^    |
|                                         | artici | artici |        |
|                                         | pation | pation |        |
|                                         | (49    | (105   |        |
|                                         | Days)  | Days)  |        |
+=========================================+========+========+========+
| Mean Grade:                             |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Math                                  | 81.4   | 80.8   | 0.50   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > English                               | 82.3   | 82.0   | 0.65   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Science                               | 84.3   | 83.8   | 0.50   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Social studies/history                | 83.6   | 82.8   | 0.31   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Reading Test Score (Percentile)         | 31.4   | 30.9   | 0.80   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Percentage of Students in the Following |        |        |        |
| Locations after School at Least Three   |        |        |        |
| Days in a Typical Week:                 |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Own home                              | 66.7   | 52.2   | 0.00   |
|                                         |        |        | \*\*\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Someone else's home                   | 14.0   | 4.0    | 0.00   |
|                                         |        |        | \*\*\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > School or other place for activities  | 44.5   | 59.5   | 0.00   |
|                                         |        |        | \*\*\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Somewhere to "hang out"               | 3.0    | 0.0    | 0.01   |
|                                         |        |        | \*\*\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Mixed location (not in one location   | 1.5    | 0.9    | 0.54   |
| > for at least three days)              |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Percentage of Students in The Following |        |        |        |
| Types of Supervision at Least Three     |        |        |        |
| Days after School in a Typical Week     |        |        |        |
| (According to Parents):                 |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Self-care                             | 1.8    | 1.4    | 0.76   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Parent care                           | 66.1   | 57.4   | 0.     |
|                                         |        |        | 01\*\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Non-parent adult care                 | 26.8   | 38.6   | 0.00   |
|                                         |        |        | \*\*\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Mean Number of Days Stayed after School | 1.7    | 2.8    | 0.00   |
| for Activities in Typical Week          |        |        | \*\*\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Percentage of Students Participating in |        |        |        |
| Each Activity for at Least One Day      |        |        |        |
| After School (According to Parents):    |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Homework                              | 87.6   | 86.8   | 0.75   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Tutoring                              | 24.1   | 31.8   | 0.     |
|                                         |        |        | 02\*\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > School activities (band, drama, etc.) | 26.9   | 34.1   | 0.     |
|                                         |        |        | 03\*\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Lessons (music, art, dance, etc.)     | 25.8   | 35.2   | 0.00   |
|                                         |        |        | \*\*\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Volunteered or did community service  | 6.4    | 3.3    | 0.11   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Did chores around the house           | 74.2   | 68.6   | 0.10\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Took care of a brother or sister      | 19.3   | 11.6   | 0.     |
|                                         |        |        | 01\*\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Percentage of Students Who Report That  |        |        |        |
| They "Often" or "Always":               |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Do the homework teachers assign       | 85.8   | 86.1   | 0.91   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Do homework in same place each day    | 54.7   | 54.3   | 0.92   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Do homework at same time each day     | 38.3   | 34.5   | 0.41   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Write down homework assignments       | 65.0   | 67.1   | 0.64   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Percentage of Students Who Receive      |        |        |        |
| Homework Help from:                     |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > An adult besides their mother or      | 31.6   | 39.6   | 0.05\* |
| > father                                |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Their mother or father                | 61.2   | 58.2   | 0.50   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Another child                         | 15.2   | 9.0    | 0.08\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Percentage of Students Who Report the   |        |        |        |
| Following Are "Somewhat True" or "Very  |        |        |        |
| True":                                  |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > They have friends to play with        | 91.2   | 94.6   | 0.18   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > They are lonely                       | 21.6   | 14.7   | 0.07\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > They get along with others their age  | 82.9   | 87.9   | 0.16   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Percentage of Students Who Do the       |        |        |        |
| Following "Some" or "A Lot":            |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Help another student in school        | 77.2   | 74.3   | 0.46   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Help another student after school     | 55.5   | 65.3   | 0.     |
|                                         |        |        | 03\*\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Percentage of Students Who Rate         | 73.7   | 84.4   | 0.01   |
| Themselves as Good or Excellent at      |        |        | \*\*\* |
| Working with Others on a Team or in a   |        |        |        |
| Group                                   |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Percentage of Students Who Rate         |        |        |        |
| Themselves as "Excellent" on the        |        |        |        |
| Following:                              |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Using a computer to look up           | 48.7   | 52.2   | 0.44   |
| > information                           |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Setting a goal and working to achieve | 50.4   | 55.5   | 0.26   |
| > it                                    |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Planning for things in the future     | 51.3   | 55.8   | 0.33   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Planning/Problem Solving Composite      | 3.2    | 3.3    | 0.     |
| (Mean)                                  |        |        | 02\*\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Percentage of Students Whose Parents    |        |        |        |
| Report They Do the following "Some" or  |        |        |        |
| "A Lot:"                                |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Break something on purpose            | 3.5    | 0.8    | 0.08\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Punch or hit someone                  | 14.2   | 11.1   | 0.23   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Percentage of Students Whose Parents    |        |        |        |
| Report Doing the Following:             |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Helped their child with homework at   | 70.2   | 72.8   | 0.48   |
| > least three times last week           |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Checked on their child's homework     | 92.9   | 96.3   | 0.10\* |
| > completion at least three times last  |        |        |        |
| > week                                  |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Asked their child about things they   | 70.4   | 72.6   | 0.54   |
| > were doing in class at least seven    |        |        |        |
| > times last month                      |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Percentage of Students Whose Parents    |        |        |        |
| Did the Following at Least Three Times  |        |        |        |
| Last Year:                              |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Attended an open house at the school  | 37.3   | 37.9   | 0.87   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Attended parent-teacher organization  | 52.8   | 57.8   | 0.19   |
| > meetings                              |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Attended an after-school event        | 46.5   | 53.2   | 0.08\* |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > Volunteered to help out at school     | 28.4   | 29.7   | 0.73   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Percentage of Students Whose Parents    |        |        |        |
| "Agree" or "Strongly Agree" with the    |        |        |        |
| Following:                              |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > My child's school is academically     | 73.7   | 72.3   | 0.68   |
| > challenging                           |        |        |        |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > I am satisfied with class sizes       | 77.4   | 74.9   | 0.41   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > I am satisfied with teacher quality   | 75.9   | 74.1   | 0.57   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
| > I feel welcome at my child's school   | 87.6   | 89.2   | 0.54   |
+-----------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+

[Note]{.smallcaps}: The percentages and mean values of outcomes for
treatment and control students have been regression-adjusted for
baseline differences between the groups. The control variables in the
regression included 14 different student and household characteristics
such as indicators of students' demographic characteristics, household
socioeconomic status, and students' baseline test scores and attendance.

^a^The p-value is for the significance of the attendance coefficient in
the regression model. The p-value is the smallest level of significance
at which the null hypothesis that the impact equals zero can be
rejected. If the p-value is less than .01, an impact is significant at
the 1 percent level; if the p-value is less than .05, the impact is
significant at the 5 percent level, and so on.

\*Significantly different from zero at the .10 level, two-tailed test.

\*\*Significantly different from zero at the .05 level, two-tailed test.

\*\*\*Significantly different from zero at the .01 level, two-tailed
test.

Frequent participants were not significantly different from infrequent
participants on most academic outcomes. Homework habits, grades, test
scores, and regular school attendance were similar for frequent and less
frequent attenders. The one difference between frequent and infrequent
attenders was that frequent attenders received more help on their
homework from a non-parent adult and less help from another child, which
possibly is related to homework assistance the centers provided.

Frequent attenders reported feeling better about themselves and
interacting better with others (Table IV.9). They were less likely than
infrequent participants to report feeling lonely and more likely to
believe they got along well with others their age. Frequent participants
also were more likely to feel that they worked well in a group, more
likely to help other students after school, and more likely to say they
had good problem-solving skills.

[^1]: Two impacts are estimated for elementary school students. The
    first and most formal is the impact for the full treatment and
    control groups, known as the "intent to treat" estimate. The second,
    shown in the following tables in the column titled "impacts on
    participants," is the impact adjusting for the proportion of
    treatment group members that did not participate in the program
    ("no-shows") after being randomly assigned to the treatment group.
    Across grantees, the proportion of no-shows ranged from 5 percent to
    30 percent of the treatment group. To estimate impacts adjusted for
    no-shows, the estimated impact for the full group was divided by the
    proportion of treatment students that participated. This adjustment
    assumes that no-show students receive no benefits from the program,
    which seems reasonable in this context. However, the text focuses on
    the intent-to-treat estimator, which relies on fewer assumptions.

[^2]: We used parent-reported data on location and care arrangements, as
    students in grades K-2 did not complete questionnaires. We used
    student-reported data on after-school activities, for students in
    grades 3 to 5.

[^3]: We estimated impacts on reading test scores using two samples: (1)
    the set of students who had a follow-up test score (regardless of
    whether they had a baseline score), and (2) the set of students who
    had both follow-up and baseline test scores. The results were not
    affected by the method used. We also collected baseline and
    follow-up math test scores for small number of students when the
    scores were available from school records but samples were too small
    (only 170 students) to support reliable impact estimates.

[^4]: To ensure that only unobserved characteristics affect outcome
    differences between frequent and infrequent attenders, we used
    regression models to adjust for observed characteristics. The
    adjustment variables are the same as those in the regression models
    used elsewhere in the chapter.