**ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCIENTIFIC STUDIES**

**IN SUPPORT OF CONSERVATION ORGANIZATION COMMENTS IN SUPPORT OF A
404(C) VETO FOR THE YAZOO PUMPS**

**Prepared by American Rivers**

Studies are summarized by issue area for amphibians, birds,
cross-cutting ecological issues, fish, mammals, recreation, subsistence
fishing, and waterfowl. Hard copies or electronic copies of many of
these studies have been inserted into the administrative record for the
Clean Water Act 404(c) veto for the Yazoo Backwater Pumping plant.

**AMPHIBIANS**

Gibbons, J. Whitfield et al. "The Global Decline of Reptiles, Déjà Vu
Amphibians." *BioScience* 50.8 (2000): 653-666.

Available:
[http://www.uga.edu/srelherp/staff/Winne%20-%20gibbons%20et%20al%202000.pdf](http://www.uga.edu/srelherp/staff/Winne - gibbons et al 2000.pdf)

Summary: The authors survey a wide selection of literature on declining
amphibian populations around the world and find evidence for continued
annual losses. Habitat loss is the primary factor for population
declines.

Semlitsch, Raymond. "Principles for Management of Aquatic-Breeding
Amphibians." *The Journal of Wildlife Management* 64.3 (2000): 625-631.

Abstract: <http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=1440994>

Summary: This paper discusses the threats to local and regional
amphibian populations and proposes critical elements for an effective
management plan. Changes in hydrology are particularly damaging to
amphibian populations. Fragmentation of habitat by human activities
prevents dispersal of populations and decreases the probability of
wetland recolonization.

Snodgrass, Joel et al. "Influence of Hydroperiod, Isolation, and
Heterospecifics on the Distribution of Aquatic Salamanders (Siren and
Amphiuma) among Depression Wetlands." *Copeia* 1999.1 (1999): 107-113.

Abstract: <http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=9949305>

-   Summary: The study finds that occurrence of individual species is
    positively correlated with the amount of time a wetland holds water
    during a year.

Snodgrass et al. "Relationships among Isolated Wetland Size,
Hydroperiod, and Amphibian Species Richness: Implications for Wetland
Regulations." *Conservation Biology* 14.2 (2000): 414-419.

Abstract: <http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=1363837>

-   Summary: This study examines relationships between wetland size,
    wetland hydroperiod, and relative amphibian species richness. It
    finds that amphibian species richness and species types differ
    between different hydro-period wetlands. Wetlands with different
    hydroperiods will contain different species, and short-hydroperiod
    wetlands support a unique group of amphibian species. It concludes
    that "hydroperiod length should be included as a primary criterion
    for wetland regulations" and advocates conserving a diversity of
    wetlands that represent the entire hydroperiod gradient." Some
    specific findings include: "In wetlands that dry annually but
    contain water for a relatively long period each year, invertebrate
    predator populations have time to develop and eliminate rapidly
    developing, conspicuous feeding species. Slower growing, less
    conspicuous feeding species are selected for in medium-hydroperiod
    wetlands but are out-competed and do not have time to develop to
    drought-resistant stages in ephemeral wetlands. In permanent
    wetlands, vertebrate predators are present and eliminate all but the
    most slow-developing, cryptic-feeding species. Slow-developing,
    cryptic-feeding species are restricted to permanent wetlands by
    competition with faster developing species and by an inability to
    reach a drought-resistant stage before wetlands dry."

**BIRDS**

Burdick, David et al. "Faunal Changes and Bottomland Hardwood Forest
Loss in the Tensas Watershed, Louisiana." *Conservation Biology* 3.3
(1989): 282-292.

Abstract:
<http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1523-1739.1989.tb00088.x>

-   Summary: The study compares bird populations to assess the impacts
    of bottomland hardwood forest loss across the Tensas watershed. They
    find that the number of species and population densities decreased
    with losses of forested area. They recommend using a cumulative
    impact management plan to decrease future extinctions.

Burke, D.M. and E. Nol. "Landscape and Fragment Size Effects on
Reproductive Success of Forest-Breeding Birds in Ontario." *Ecological
Applications* 10.6 (2000): 1749-1761.

Abstract: <http://www.jstor.org/pss/2641236>

-   Summary: This study examines reproductive success of forest-breeding
    birds in multiple fragmented and continuous forest sites. They find
    that woodlot size is a key predictor of reproductive success and
    recommend preservation of large forest tracts to prevent further
    population declines in these species.

Gabbe, Aaron, Scott Robinson and Jeffrey Brawn. "Tree-Species Preference
of Foraging Insectivorous Birds: Implications for Floodplain Forest
Restoration." *Conservation Biology* 16.2 (2002): 462-470.

Abstract:
<http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00460.x>

-   Summary: The authors examine foraging behavior of 13 tree species,
    many (if not all) of which are present in the Mississippi Lowland
    Forest Ecoregion. They find that most of the birds foraged
    selectively in certain trees. Less common bird species were more
    selective than more common species. Less common trees were the most
    popular.

Graves, G.R. "Habitat Characteristics in the Core Breeding Range of the
Swainson's Warbler." *Wilson Bulletin* 114 (2002): 210-220.

Abstract: <http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=14420909>

-   Summary: This study investigates the physiognomic and floristic
    characteristics of Swainson's Warbler habitat in the southeast. The
    largest populations were found in floodplain forest with understory
    thickets and gaps in the canopy.

Guilfoyle, M.P. "Management of Bottomland Hardwood Forests for Non-game
Bird Communities on Corps of Engineers Projects." *EMRRP Technical Notes
Collection* (ERDC TN-EMRRP-SI21), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Research
and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS, 2001.

Available: <http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/elpubs/pdf/si21.pdf>

-   Summary: This paper discusses the distribution of non-game bird
    species throughout southeastern bottomland hardwood forests.

Hoover, Jeffrey. "Water Depth Influences Nest Predation for a
Wetland-Dependent Bird in Fragmented Bottomland Forests." *Biological
Conservation* 127.1 (2006): 37-45.

Abstract: <http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=17269847>

-   Summary: The study examines nesting attempts by prothonotary
    warblers (present in the Yazoo River area) in fragmented bottomland
    forests. The study finds that nest predation has a strong, negative
    effect on annual reproductive output. Nest predation decreased as
    water depth increased, especially over 60 cm of water. Habitat
    fragmentation, wetland destruction and stream channelization
    increases nest predation levels.

Lyons, James. "Population Ecology and Foraging Behavior of Breeding
Birds in Bottomland Hardwood Forests of the Lower Roanoke River." Ph.D.
Thesis. Virginia State University, 2001.

Available:
<http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-03142001-184756/unrestricted/etd.pdf>

-   Summary: This thesis includes an extensive examination of breeding
    bird populations in bottomland hardwood forests. It includes a
    discussion of nesting and foraging behaviors.

Mancke, Ralph and Thomas Gavin. "Breeding Bird Density in Woodlots:
Effects of Depth and Buildings at the Edges." *Ecological Applications*
10.2 (2000): 598-611.

Abstract: <http://www.jstor.org/pss/2641118>

-   Summary: This study analyzes breeding bird populations in relation
    to the proximity of woodlot edges and buildings. A majority of the
    36 species examined had lower densities in closer proximity to
    woodlot edges and buildings. The authors conclude that it is
    important to preserve large forest areas in order to preserve bird
    populations.

Matthysen, Erik and David Currie. "Habitat Fragmentation Reduces
Disperser Success in Juvenile Nuthatches." *Ecography* 19.1 (1996):
67-72.

Abstract:
<http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0587.1996.tb00156.x?journalCode=eco>

-   Summary: This study shows that vacant territories in large forests
    were rapidly colonized by pairs of juvenile nuthatches while vacant
    territories in forest fragments were less likely to be occupied.

Pashely, David and Wylie Barrow. "Effects of Land Use Practices on
Neotropical Migratory Birds in Bottomland Hardwood Forests." In: Finch,
Deborah M.; Stangel, Peter W. (eds.). Status and management of
neotropical migratory birds: September 21-25, 1992, Estes Park,
Colorado. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-229. Fort Collins, Colo.: Rocky Mountain
Forest and Range Experiment Station, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest
Service: 315-320.

Available:
<http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_rm/rm_gtr229/rm_gtr229_315_320.pdf>

-   Summary: The article discusses southeastern bottomland hardwood
    forests, the history of land use and management recommendations. It
    includes a discussion of microhabitat features that influence the
    distribution and abundance of Neotropical migrants.

Robinson et al. "Regional Forest Fragmentation and the Nesting Success
of Migratory Birds." *Science* 267.5206 (1995): 1987-1990.

Abstract: <http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/267/5206/1987>

-   Summary: The authors find that forest fragmentation increased nest
    predation and parasitism among cowbirds. They recommend preservation
    of unfragmented core forest areas to protect migratory bird
    populations.

Sallabanks, Rex, Jeffrey Walters, and Jaime Collazo. "Breeding Bird
Abundance in Bottomland Hardwood Forests: Habitat, Edge, and Patch Size
Effects." *The Condor* 102.4 (2000): 748-754.

Abstract:
[http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-pdf&doi=10.1650%2F0010-5422%282000%29102%5B0748%3ABBAIBH%5D2.0.CO%3B2](http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-pdf&doi=10.1650%2F0010-5422(2000)102%5B0748%3ABBAIBH%5D2.0.CO%3B2)

-   Summary: The study examines breeding bird densities in bottomland
    hardwood forests in North Carolina. Patch size and edge did not have
    a large effect on abundance, but forest type did. A number of
    species also found in the Yazoo region are included in the analysis.

Snell-Rood, Emilie and Daniel Cristol. "Avian Communities of Created and
Natural Wetlands: Bottomland Forests in Virginia." *The Condor* 105.2
(2003): 303-315.

Abstract: <http://www.jstor.org/pss/1370549>

-   Summary: The study compares avian communities in a variety of
    natural and created wetlands. They find that created wetlands have a
    lower diversity of avian species and fewer species of conservation
    concern. The authors hypothesize that unnatural hydrology and
    retarded vegetation development account for the differences.

Twedt, Daniel et al. "Impact of Forest Type and Management Strategy on
Avian Densities in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley, USA." *Forest
Ecology and Management* 123 (1999): 261-274.

Abstract: <http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=1940806>

-   Summary: The authors examine avian territory densities in mature
    bottomland hardwood stands and young cottonwood plantations in the
    Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Species richness, diversity and density
    were higher in the bottomland hardwood stands. Timber harvest within
    hardwood forests, however, pushed a number of species towards
    cottonwood plantations. Bottomland hardwood forests are twice as
    valuable for bird conservation as cottonwood plantations.

Twedt, Daniel et al. "Nest Survival of Forest Birds in the Mississippi
Alluvial Valley." *Journal of Wildlife Management* 65.3 (2001): 450-460.

Abstract: <http://www.jstor.org/pss/3803097>

-   Summary: This study compares daily nest survival, nest predation and
    brood parasitism rates of forest birds in bottomland hardwood
    forests and intensively management cottonwood plantations. While
    nest success did not differ between the two habitats for some
    species, average daily survival for 19 species in hardwood forests
    exceeded that of 18 species in cottonwood plantations over the
    course of the study. Timber harvests reduced nest success for
    species that nest in the forest midstory and canopy.

Twedt, Daniel, and R. Randy Wilson. [Management of Bottomland Hardwood
Forests for Birds]{.underline}. Proceedings of 2007 Louisiana Natural
Resources Symposium, 13 Aug. 2007, Louisiana State University
Agricultural Center.

-   Summary: This study describes desired forest conditions for avian
    species in bottomland hardwood forests. Many species prefer large
    trees, gaps in the canopy and a diversity of other species.

Wakeley, JS and TH Roberts. "Bird Distributions and Forest Zonation in a
Bottomland Hardwood Wetland." *Wetlands* 16.3 (1996): 296-308.

Abstract:
[http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=3963910&q=author%3A%22Wakeley%22+intitle%3A%22Bird+distributions+and+forest+zonation+in+a+bottomland+\...%22+&uid=1225470&setcookie=yes](http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=3963910&q=author%3A"Wakeley"+intitle%3A"Bird+distributions+and+forest+zonation+in+a+bottomland+..."+&uid=1225470&setcookie=yes)

-   Summary: This study samples songbird population throughout the
    forested wetland of the Cache River in Arkansas. They investigate
    population distributions in relation to wetness gradient. They find
    that tupelo/bald cypress areas support a greater number of species
    than oak-dominated zones.

Weller, M. W. *Wetland Birds: Habitat Resources and Conservation
Implications.* Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

-   Summary: The book describes the behaviors of wetland birds, how
    they're impacted by a variety of factors including human activity
    and the implications for conservation efforts. Among other
    conclusions, the author notes that larger wetlands are more
    heterogeneous which may create a more diverse bird population.

Whited, D., S. Galatowitsch, J. R. Tester, K. Schik, R. Lehtinen, J.
Husveth. "The Importance of Local and Regional Factors in Predicting
Effective Conservation Planning Strategies for Wetland Bird Communities
in Agricultural and Urban Landscapes." *Landscape and Urban Planning* 49
(2000): 49-65.

Abstract: <http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=1446846>

-   Summary: The authors find that connectedness of wetlands and road
    density are important measures for predicting bird assemblages in
    agricultural areas. Maintaining wetland connections is important for
    preserving wetland avian diversity.

**CROSS-CUTTING ECOLOGY**

Ainslie, William B. 2002. Forested Wetlands *in* Wear, David N.; Greis,
John G., eds. 2002. Southern forest resource assessment. Gen. Tech. Rep.
SRS-53. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Southern Research Station. 635 p.

-   Summary: Summarizes the scientific knowledge regarding the
    ecological values and services provided by forested wetlands in the
    southern United States, and the historical losses and current status
    of these vital resources.

Andrén, H. "Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Birds and Mammals in
Landscapes with Different Proportions of Suitable Habitat: A Review."
*Oikos* 71 (1994): 355-366.

Abstract: <http://www.jstor.org/pss/3545823>

-   Summary: The study demonstrates that habitat loss has differing
    impacts on bird and mammal species depending on the degree of
    fragmentation throughout the area or region. In highly fragmented
    landscape, loss of habitat is compounded by patch size and
    isolation, and the impacts on a species are greater.

Constanza, R., et al., The value of the world's ecosystem services and
natural capital. 1997. Nature Vol. 387: 253-260.

-   Summary: Provides an estimate of the value of the ecosystem services
    provided by the world's natural resources. The study concludes that
    its estimates are very conservative. It places an average value on
    swamps/floodplains worldwide at \$19,580 per hectare per year.

Davis, J.A. and R. Froend. "Loss and Degradation of Wetlands in
Southwestern Australia: Underlying Causes, Consequences and Solutions."
*Wetlands Ecology and Management* 7.1-2 (1999): 13-23.

Abstract: <http://www.springerlink.com/content/w614h70n40rm9151/>

-   Summary: Wetland loss has been associated with the direct loss of
    species diversity due to destruction and lowered recruitment of
    infringing vegetation communities and displacement of fauna. The
    effects of the loss or lowered recruitment of these plants ripples
    throughout the trophic ladder: fauna that depend on wetland plants
    as a source of food or shelter perish or migrate, resulting in the
    loss of fauna that are predaceous, and so on.

DeWalt, E.R., C. Favret, D. Webb. *"Just How Imperiled Are Aquatic
Insects? A Case Study of Stoneflies (Plecoptera) in Illinois."*
Conservation Biology and Biodiversity. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 98(6):
941-950 (2005).

-   Summary: Nearly 5,000 historical and contemporary specimen records
    of stoneflies (Plecoptera) from Illinois demonstrated that this
    fauna is highly imperiled, and has suffered dramatic losses, boding
    poorly for aquatic insect communities in North America and
    elsewhere. Losses include extirpations of 77 total species, a rate
    of loss that is higher than for either mussels or fish in Illinois.
    Another 19 species are critically imperiled. Large river habitats
    and historically prairie regions have experienced the greatest
    proportional losses of species. "In most cases the losses can be
    attributed to hydrologic modifications such as levee, lock, and dam
    construction on the large rivers and channelization, coupled with
    tiling of fields, in agricultural areas." Stoneflies can be used as
    a surrogate for other aquatic insect, and this makes it clear that
    tremendous losses of aquatic insects have already occurred and which
    continue to occur. *Note*: Stoneflies and other aquatic insects are
    important food sources for fish, birds, and some mammals.

Gibbs, James. "Wetland Loss and Biodiversity Conservation."
*Conservation Biology.* 14.1 (2000): 314-317.

Available:
[http://ecology.botany.ufl.edu/adveco/downloads/Gibbs%202000.pdf](http://ecology.botany.ufl.edu/adveco/downloads/Gibbs 2000.pdf)

-   Summary: This study examines the extent to which wetland loss alters
    the metrics of wetland mosaics. It argues that preservation of all
    wetlands larger than 1 acre is required to retain wetland density
    sufficient to maintain wetland biota.

Haag, Wendell et al. "Occurrence of the Rayed Creekshell, Anodontoides
radiatus, in the Mississippi River basin: Implications for Conservation
and Biogeography." *Southeastern Naturalist* 1.2 (2002): 169-178.

Available: <http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_haag002.pdf>

-   Summary: The study demonstrates the presence of this freshwater
    mussel in the upper Yazoo River drainage, arguing that the presence
    of this rare species demands conservation.

Heitmeyer, Mickey and Karen Westphall. "An Evaluation of Ecosystem
Restoration and Management Options for the Calhoun and Gilbert Lakes
Divisions of Two Rivers National Wildlife Refuges." Puxico, MO: Gaylord
Memorial Laboratory Special Publication No. 13, 2007.

Available:
<http://www.fws.gov/midwest/tworivers/documents/TwoRiversEvaluation.pdf>

-   Summary: This report discusses the Illinois-Mississippi River
    Confluence ecosystem and impacts from human activities throughout
    the 19^th^ and 20^th^ century and evaluates restoration options. It
    discuss how alteration of area hydrology decreased food resources
    and altered wildlife populations.

Meyer, Judy L. et al., Where Rivers Are Born: The Scientific Imperative
for Defending Small Streams and Wetlands (Feb. 2007).

Available:
<http://www.americanrivers.org/site/DocServer/WhereRiversAreBorn1.pdf?docID=182>

-   Summary: Discusses the ecological services provided by wetlands and
    small streams, and makes it clear that they are essential for
    maintaining the physical, chemical, and biological integrity of the
    nation's waters.

Robinson, C.T., K. Tockner, and J.V. Ward. "The Fauna of Dynamic
Riverine Landscapes." *Freshwater Biology* 47.4 (2002): 661-677.

Abstract:
<http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bsc/fwb/2002/00000047/00000004/art00010>

-   Summary: The article discusses the distribution of fauna in aquatic
    ecosystems, emphasizing their dependence on a dynamic and varying
    seasonal hydrology. It also discusses the relationship between
    diverse refugia within a riverine ecosystem and biodiversity.

Schramm, H.L., Jr. et al. *Nitrogen and Phosphorus Sequestration in the
Lower Mississippi River*

-   Summary: This study describes a nitrogen and phosphorus transport
    model for the lower Mississippi River floodplain that can be used to
    evaluate the potential benefits of different water management
    scenarios. The model is based on the fact that alterations to the
    Mississippi River that have restricted the original floodplain, and
    reduced the height and duration of the floodpulse and floodplain
    inundation have reduced the ability of the floodplain to sequester
    nitrogen and phosphorous. The study concludes that "longer retention
    of nitrogen- and phosphorus-rich flood water on the floodplain and
    in floodplain lakes, particularly during warmer seasons, should both
    accelerate and increase nitrogen and phosphorus removal from the
    water. Further, protracted inundation and warmer conditions would
    increase the diversity and abundance of aquatic biota and enhance
    reproduction and active feeding of fishes adapted to natural annual
    thermal and hydrological conditions." The study also concludes that
    "restoring the floodpulse to historic conditions may reduce the
    downstream transport of nitrogen and phosphorus."

**FISH**

Brown, A.V., K. B. Brown, D. C. Jackson and W. K. Pierson. 2005. Lower
Mississippi River and its tributaries. Pages 231-281 *in* A. C. Benke
and C. E. Cushing, editors. Rivers of North America. Elsevier Academic
Press, New York.

-   Summary: Describes the characteristics of the Lower Mississippi
    River and its tributaries, including the Yazoo River. It notes that
    human induced changes, including loss of bottomland hardwood forests
    and flood protection efforts, have had adverse impacts on fisheries
    in the region.

Flotemersch, J. E., D. C. Jackson. 2003. Seasonal foraging by channel
catfish on terrestrially burrowing crayfish in a floodplain-river
ecosystem. Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Ecology of
Fluvial Fishes. International Journal of Ecohydrology & Hydrolbiology
3(1):61-70.

-   Summary: This study, carried out on channelized and non-channelized
    sections of the Yockanookany River in Mississippi finds that
    "\[d\]ecoupling floodplains from the river by flood control
    activities such as channelization, dredging and levee construction
    can modify channel catfish stock interactions with terrestrially
    burrowing crayfish and reduce potential benefits from this foraging.
    Channel catfish stocks in decoupled sections of a partly decoupled
    floodplain-river ecosystem may exert more energy in search of
    resources made available by river inundation onto the floodplain;
    which may depress fish growth and reproduction rates. Therefore,
    maintaining, restoring, or enhancing the coupling of a river with
    its floodplain could promote conservation of riverine channel
    catfish stocks."

Flotemersch, J. E., D. C. Jackson and J. R. Jackson. 1999. Channel
catfish movements in relation to river channel-floodplain connections.
Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of
Fish and Wildlife Agencies 51(1997): 106-112.

-   Summary: Channel catfish (a generalist) in the Yockanookany River in
    Mississippi "will move along the continuum to locate foraging
    opportunities on or emanating from the floodplain and associated
    backwaters." The channel catfish studied actively sought reaches of
    the river that were connected to the floodplain, but the fish
    studied never swam from a stretch of the river connected to the
    backwater to a stretch of the river disconnected from the backwater.

Hand, G. R. and D. C. Jackson. 2003. Blue sucker stock characteristics
in the upper Yazoo River basin, Mississippi, U.S.A. Fisheries Management
and Ecology 10:147-153.

-   Summary: "Conservation of the blue sucker in the upper Yazoo River
    basin should include actions that ensure the functional integrity of
    this floodplain river ecosystem and elimination of channel dredging
    throughout the basin" because channel dredging reduces overbank
    flooding and alters other floodplain river ecosystem processes.
    "Blue suckers depend on the functional integrity of large river
    ecosystems. In Mississippi's upper Yazoo River basin, this
    functional integrity and subsequent fish production capability
    depend on seasonal flooding" and the incorporation of new
    land-derived organic material in to the river system, among other
    things. Readily decomposed materials originating from floodplains
    and riparian corridors contributes to fisheries dynamics by
    providing a direct source of food for fishes and by the processing
    of these materials by benthic macroinvertebrates that themselves
    become forage items for fishes both on the floodplain and within
    river channels. More durable organic materials provide attachment
    sites for invertebrates, and cover and refuge for fishes.

Jackson, D. C. 2005. Fisheries dynamics in temperate floodplain rivers.
Pages 201-212 *in* L. H. Fredrickson, S. L. King, and R. M. Kaminski,
editors. Ecology and Management of Bottomland Hardwood Systems: The
State of Our Understanding. University of Missouri-Columbia. Gaylord
Memorial Laboratory Special Publication No. 10. Puxico, Missouri.

-   Summary: "Floodplain river ecosystems are some of the most
    productive inland fishers in the world." Life history and production
    dynamics of fishes in river floodplain ecosystems are linked
    primarily to hydrologic regimes and heterotrophic processes. For
    fishes, flooding increases aquatic habitat as well as the amount of
    inundated organic materials from terrestrial areas (including
    seasonally inundated lands) that form the foundation for the
    biological dynamics of most rivers. Hydrologic factors influenced
    floodplain river fish stocks in the Yazoo River basin more than
    climatic factors did. The warmer waters found in flooded backwater
    locations stimulate biological activity of aquatic invertebrates and
    fishes in these systems. The presence of aquatic invertebrates in
    the relatively warmer backwater areas encourages spawning of fishes
    in the inundated floodplain, and the earlier that spawning can take
    place the longer the fish can remain on the floodplain and the
    higher the recruitment potential for the rivers' fish stocks.
    Flooding also introduces snags which provide important instream
    habitat for fish and attachment substrates for invertebrates.
    Studies suggest that reproductive success of early spring spawners
    will be poorer when there is reduced spring flooding. A 10 year data
    set for the Yalabousha River showed that channel catfish abundance
    was positively influenced by flooding and negatively influenced by
    drought and channel dredging. "In both tropical and temperate
    rivers, fish yields per unit surface area are considerably greater
    in rivers with flood pulses and floodplains than in nearby
    impoundments where flood pulses are reduced or absent."

Jackson, Donald. Fisheries Dynamics in the Yazoo River Basin. Sustaining
Livelihoods and Biodiversity in the New Millennium. Vol. II. Ed.
Welcomme, L. and T. Petr. Bangkok: Food and Agricultural Organization,
2004.

Available: <http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ad526e/ad526e0b.htm#bm11>

-   Summary: Summarizes the characteristics of fisheries and human
    populations of the Yazoo River Basin and discusses how human
    activities have influenced the ecosystem. It concludes that
    fisheries are negatively impacted by activities that alter stream
    hydrology, convert riparian zones to cropland and disconnect rivers
    from floodplains. It cites studies that conclude that the regions'
    "backwater fisheries were primarily the domains of
    African-Americans" while the river channel fishery was primarily the
    domain of European Americans (page 108).

Jackson, D. C. 2004. Natural history and fisheries. Pages 15-35 *in* C.
Tucker and J. Hargreaves, editors. Biology and Culture of Channel
Catfish. Elsevier Publishers. Amsterdam.

-   Summary: This study summarizes the natural history of channel
    catfish. It finds that stream channel dredging that causes both
    in-channel habitat modification and "modifications to hydrological
    regimes through reduced later exchanges of flood waters onto the
    floodplain" (i.e., flood-pulses) "can result in significant negative
    impacts to channel catfish stocks." Ecosystem and stock recovery
    times after dredging can vary, but it is estimated to take 20-25
    years in the lower Mississippi River Valley. High discharges are
    "known to enhance fisheries associated with flood-plain river
    ecosystems." In the upper Yazoo River basin, lag times of 1-2 years
    have been documented between flooding and increased channel catfish
    abundances. These lag times reflect the time for recruitment of
    channel catfish into the fishery.

Jackson, D. C. and Q. Ye. 2000. Riverine fish stock and regional
agronomic responses to hydrologic and climatic regimes in the upper
Yazoo River basin. Pages 242-257 *in* I. G. Cowx, Editor. Management and
Ecology of River Fisheries. Fishing News Books. Blackwell Science.
London.

-   Summary: The study demonstrates that flooding does not significantly
    influence cotton or soybean production in the Yazoo River basin and
    might actually benefit this production in the long term. The study
    also shows that flooding benefits fisheries in the area. The study
    looks at the riverine hydrological and regional climatic regime
    relationships to agriculture (cotton, soybeans) and the principal
    riverine fish stocks in the upper Yazoo River basin. Hydrologic
    factors were found to have a greater influence on fish stocks than
    climatic factors. There was a positive relationship between flooding
    and fish stock characteristics (i.e., more and bigger fish) for
    bigmouth buffalo, smallmouth buffalo and channel catfish, though
    there was a lag period of 1-2 years between flooding and stock
    response due to recruitment requirements. Much of the productive
    potential for fisheries in floodplain river ecosystems is determined
    by the dynamics overbank flooding and riparian vegetation. "Floods
    resulted in reduced areas planted (primarily in cotton), but had
    little influence on crop yield and total annual production." During
    the 31 year period from 1964 to 1994, "no factor associated with
    flood events adversely influence production of cotton and soybeans.
    However, with regard to soybeans, the amount of area flooded two
    years prior to a crop was positively related to soybean yield. From
    a long-term perspective therefore, the data suggest that flooding
    may benefit agricultural enterprises associated with soybean
    production." Over shorter time periods, however, a different pattern
    appeared to emerge, which may explain the public perception that
    flooding adversely impacts agriculture in the area. During the 5
    year period from 1990-1994, high precipitation was negatively
    related to area planted in cotton and the percent of the area
    planted in soybeans that was actually harvested. However, flooding
    during this period did not significantly affect overall yield of
    cotton and soybeans. Indeed, cotton yield was positively correlated
    with maximum area flooded during the same year, likely due to
    increased soil moisture which is a positive for cotton.

Jackson, J. R. and D. C. Jackson. 1999. Macrohabitat use by catfishes in
a southeastern United States floodplain-river ecosystem. Pages 215-222
*in* E. R. Irwin, W. A. Hubert, C. R. Rabeni, H. L. Schramm, Jr. and T.
Coon, editors. Catfish 2000: proceedings of the international ictalurid
symposium. American Fisheries Society Symposium 24, Bethesda, Maryland.

-   Summary: Relative abundance of yellow bullhead catfish was greater
    in the oxbow lake than in the main channel of the Yackanookany River
    in Mississippi. Yellow bullhead tend to be found in pools and
    backwaters of lotic habitats and in lakes and reservoirs. Catch
    rates of yellow bullhead were also greatest during the winter when
    water levels were typically high and the river and backwater areas
    were connected. "Floodplain-river backwater areas provide habitat
    for a diverse assemblage of fish species" and can provide quality
    fishing opportunities that are sometimes overlooked. In efforts to
    enhance alternative fishing experiences, "fisheries resources in
    remote backwater habitats of floodplain-river ecosystems should not
    be overlooked"

[]{.mark}

Jackson, D. C. 1997. Processes and linkages in southeastern U. S.
streams. Proceedings of the Mississippi Water Resources Conference
27:11-13.

-   Summary: Describes interactions between rivers and their floodplains
    that are essential for river and fisheries health. It makes clear,
    among other things, that floodplain rivers must be allowed to flood
    because the connection with the floodplain is vital for fisheries
    and other resources.

Jackson, D. C. 1993. Floodplain river fish stock responses to elevated
hydrological regimes in unimpacted stream reaches and stream reaches
impacted by clearing, dredging and snagging. Proceedings of the Third
International Symposium on the Ecology of Fluvial Fishes. Polish
Archives of Hydrobiology 40 (1):73-81.

-   Summary: Fish stocks throughout the floodplain reaches of the
    Yalobusha River in Mississippi "generally responded favorably to
    high flow regimes and associated overbank flooding. However, in
    stream reaches impacted by clearing, dredging and snagging, the
    response was less than that associated with unimpacted reaches,
    especially for catfishes (Ictaluridae)." Positive relationships have
    been demonstrated between the area of bottomland hardwood forests
    susceptible to flooding and fish abundance in the Mississippi River
    and its tributaries (e.g. the Yazoo River System." "Fish production
    in floodplain rivers is strongly influenced by the extent and
    duration of flooding. Productive potentials for stream reaches in
    floodplain rivers depend on the lateral exchange of water and
    nutrients between the floodplain and the main channel rather than
    the inefficient processing of organic materials upstream. Flood
    pulses generate a moving littoral in the aquatic-terrestrial
    transition zone which prevents stagnation and allows rapid recycling
    of organic matter and nutrients. Detrital processing and primary
    production are subsequently stimulated and in turn establish the
    energetic foundation supporting the respective fishery." (internal
    citations omitted).

Jackson, D. C., N. J. Brown-Peterson and T. D. Rhine. 1993. Perspectives
for rivers and their fisheries resources in the upper Yazoo River Basin,
Mississippi. Pages 255 - 265 [in]{.underline} L. W. Hesse, C. B.
Stalnaker, N. G. Benson and J. R. Zuboy, editors. Proceedings of the
Symposium on Restoration Planning for Rivers of the Mississippi River
Ecosystem. Biological Report 19. U.S. Department of the Interior.
National Biological Survey.

-   Summary: The entire upper Yazoo River basin system in the Delta
    region of western Mississippi is "an integrated floodplain river
    ecosystem" that has been modified for flood control purposes,
    primarily to protect and expand agricultural lands. . . . Flood
    events, however, still occur, primarily during winter and early
    spring" and in conjunction with mild climate and soft alluvial soils
    "this flooding encourages natural restoration of stream habitat
    features . . . and promotes nutrient exchange dynamics conducive for
    development and maintenance of exploitable fish stocks." The study
    summarizes the significant values of overbank flooding for fisheries
    including the introduction of allochthonous organic materials and
    snag substrate; and the stimulation of detrital processing and
    primary production, which in turn establishes the energetic
    foundation supporting secondary production and fisheries. "Fish
    production in floodplain rivers is strongly influenced by the extent
    and duration of flooding. Flooding stimulates fish production
    because fish use the floodplain as a spawning ground, food source,
    and refuge."

Jackson, D. C., R. V. Kilambi, and P. J. Polechla. 1982. The impact on
drought on Lake Elmdale largemouth bass. Proceedings of the Annual
Conference of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies
36:272-279.

-   Summary: Low water levels, sustained high temperatures, and
    potential increases in predatory pressure adversely affected
    largemouth bass in an small, shallow, euthrophic impoundment in
    Arkansas. The study notes that small impoundments provide excellent
    opportunities to observe the effects of naturally occurring and
    artificially managed parameters on a fishery.

O'Connell, Martin. "Direct Exploitation of Prey on an Inundated
Floodplain by Cherryfin Shiners (*Lythrurus roseipinnis*) in a Low
Order, Backwater Stream." *Copeia* 2003.3 (2003): 635-645.

Abstract: <http://www.jstor.org/pss/1448715>

-   Summary: The study finds that prey items for the Cherryfin Shiner
    are found at significantly higher densities in floodplains than in
    stream channels. Fishes in small streams can exploit food resources
    in briefly-inundated floodplains. However, if connectivity between
    the channel and floodplain is removed, access to food will be
    reduced.

Schorr, M. S. and D. C. Jackson. 1997. Floodplain fisheries resources
under tribal jurisdiction of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians.
Proceedings of the Mississippi Water Resources Conference 27:56-62.

-   Summary: The study finds that fish stocks exploited by the Choctaw
    Indians in the Pear River channel and its oxbow lakes in southeast
    Mississippi are "dependent upon the integrity of an intact
    floodplain river ecosystem. Flooding recharges shallow aquifers,
    distributes nutrient-rich materials throughout the floodplain, and
    stimulates fish production (via spawning and growth)." The study
    concludes that the sustained abundance and diversity of these
    fisheries resources "are dependent on seasonal flooding from the
    Pearl River." In floodplain river ecosystems, the "duration and
    magnitude of flooding and associated river-floodplain exchanges of
    water, nutrients, and fishes can significantly influence fish
    production. . . . Fish catches from floodplain river systems are
    positively correlated with water levels for the current and previous
    years." It also finds that data supports the "postulate that most
    biological activity and the physical storage or retention of
    nutrients and organic matter may occur in lateral backwater areas."

Schramm, H.L., Michael A. Eggleton. "Applicability of the flood-pulse
concept in a temperate floodplain river ecosystem: Thermal and temporal
components." *River Research and Application* 22: 543-553 (2006).

-   Summary: This study discusses the importance to fisheries of
    overbank flooding occurring for long enough periods of time during
    the right time of the year so that the floodplain waters reach the
    optimum temperatures required for sufficient fish growth and
    feeding. The study shows that protracted flooding when the water
    temperature is warmer (15 degrees C) results in significant growth
    increases for blue catfish (a floodplain species). The study
    concludes that restoration of ecological function should include
    "strategies designed to detain and warm floodplain waters" in order
    to recouple the thermal and flood cycles. "Such strategies should
    include maintaining or re-establishing connectivity of exiting
    waterbodies within the leveed floodplain. Some detailed information
    from the study include the following: "The consequences of an
    earlier and abbreviated flood pulse may be exacerbated in temperate
    rivers, which show distinct warm-cold cycles." Cutoffs and levees in
    the lower Mississippi River "may function to reduce fishery
    productivity benefits from a more prolonged and thermally desirable
    flood pulse." River stage data from Vicksburg, Mississippi shows
    that the average period of floodplain inundation prior to
    construction of bendway cutoffs from 1933-1942 (which reduced
    connectivity to the floodplain), was 4-5 months (early February
    through early July), compared to 2 months (mid-March to mid-May)
    following cut off construction. Under current hydrograph conditions
    in the lower Mississippi River, the duration of floodplain
    inundation when water temperature exceeds 15 degrees C is only about
    1 month per year on average. "The abbreviated period of warm,
    flooded conditions also would be expected to adversely affect
    recruitment of numerous warmwater fishes." Levees along the lower
    Mississippi River compound this problem by constraining floodwaters
    and reducing and impeding water warming.

Schramm, H.L., Jr. "Status and Management of Mississippi River
Fisheries" U.S. Geological Survey, Mississippi Cooperative Fish and
Wildlife Research Unit Mississippi State, Mississippi.

-   Summary: Describes the alterations carried out on the Mississippi
    River for navigation and flood protection and the status of
    fisheries in both the upper and lower reaches of the river. The
    study concludes that future fisheries production "may be threatened
    by loss of aquatic habitat, altered spatial and temporal aspects of
    floodplain inundation and nuisance species invasions." It also
    concludes that conservation and management of fisheries and aquatic
    resources in the Mississippi River will require substantial
    investments in effective programs that would address the management
    issues outlined in the study.

Shephard, S. and D. C. Jackson. 2005. Channel catfish maturation in
Mississippi streams. North American Journal of Fisheries Management
25:1467-1475.

-   Summary: Biological productivity in floodplain rivers is directly
    related to soil fertility because soil fertility is a determinant of
    the existence of extra-channel organic materials that are
    transported into the river with flooding. Sexual maturity in catfish
    is reached sooner in systems that have greater fertility or a longer
    growing season, but this effect is modified by annual climatic
    variability. For example, "a year of diminished rainfall may
    restrict floodplain access and associated foraging opportunity and
    hence limits energy for growth and sexual maturation."

Turner, Thomas et al. "Temporal and Spatial Dynamics of Larval and
Juvenile Fish Abundance in a Temperate Floodplain River." *Copeia*
1994.1 (1994): 174-183.

Abstract: <http://www.jstor.org/pss/1446683>

-   Summary: The study describes the seasonal variance in fish species
    populations in the floodplain and channel of the Tallahatchie River.

Winemiller, K.O. "Floodplain River Food Webs: Generalizations and
Implications for Fisheries Management." *Sustaining Livelihoods and
Biodiversity in the New Millennium. Vol. II*[.]{.underline} Ed.
Welcomme, L. and T. Petr. Bangkok: Food and Agricultural Organization,
2004.

Available: <http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ad526e/ad526e0l.htm>

-   Summary: Discusses food webs in various types of floodplain river
    systems and finds that loss of habitat can "have unpredictable
    effects on food web dynamics and community structure" and that
    "maintenance of natural flood regimes is important for biodiversity
    conservation and sustainable harvest of fishes."

**MAMMALS**

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Louisiana Black Bear Recovery Plan.
Jackson, Mississippi, 1995.

Available:
<http://www.bbcc.org/web/images/stories/information/pdf/Recovery_plan.pdf>

-   Summary: This document describes the habitat needs of black bears
    and recommends a plan for recovery of the population. Remoteness is
    an important feature of black bear habitat, and it requires
    preservation of intact bottomland hardwood forests. The study also
    describes the impacts of human activities on the species.

Van Why, Kyle. "Feasibility of Restoring the Louisiana Black Bear
(*Ursus americanus luteolus*) to Portions of Their Historic Range."
M.Sc. Thesis. Louisiana State University, 2003.

Available:
<http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-0526103-151738/unrestricted/Van_Why_thesis.pdf>

-   Summary: This thesis examines the movement and habitat of Louisiana
    black bears and makes management recommendations.

Weaver, Keith and Michael Pelton. "Denning Ecology of Black Bears in the
Tensas River Basin of Louisiana." *Bears: Their Biology and Management*
9.1 (1994): 427-433.

Abstract: <http://www.jstor.org/pss/3872729>

-   Summary: The paper describes denning habits of the Louisiana Black
    Bear over several years. Based on the results, the authors argue for
    conservation of forested wetlands and den trees.

**RECREATION**

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Economics. 2007. Banking on
Nature 2006: The economic benefits to local communities of national
wildlife refuge visitation.

-   Summary: This report highlights the recreational opportunities
    provided by National Wildlife Refuges across the country and
    analyzes the national and local community economic benefits derived
    from visitation to 80 National Wildlife Refuges.

Grado S.C., et al. 2001. Economic Impacts of Waterfowl Hunting on Public
Lands and at Private Lodges in the Mississippi Delta. Wildlife Society
Bulletin. Vol. 29, No. 3, (Autumn, 2001), pp. 846-855

-   Summary: The study documents expenditures by waterfowl hunters in
    the Delta of Mississippi during the 1998-1999 waterfowl hunting
    season. Hunters were surveyed at wildlife management areas, national
    wildlife refuges, and private lodges within the 6-county study
    region, and provide us with a 97% response rate. Economic impacts
    generated from waterfowl hunting expenditures totaled \$71 9,016 for
    the 1998-99 waterfowl hunting season. This is a conservative
    estimate as it does not include not include expenditures related to
    private-land hunting for waterfowl (e.g., lease fees). Extrapolating
    these expenditures statewide would give a statewide conservative
    estimate of a total economic impact of waterfowl hunting of \$27.4
    million.

Jones, D.W., J.K. Ring, et al. 2006. Land valuation increases from
recreational opportunity: a study of Mississippi rural land sales.
Proc.Annu.Southeast.Assoc.Fish and Wildl.Agencies 60:49-53.

-   Summary: The study documents surveyed sales values of private rural
    lands that were purchased for recreational uses in Mississippi from
    2002 to 2005. The majority of land parcels surveyed were located
    near or in the Mississippi River Delta region and had a dominant
    cover type of either forest or agricultural crops. The study finds
    that recreational uses contributed an average increase of 36%
    (US\$808.73/ha) in property value. Characteristics that influenced
    sales prices were hectares of bottomland hardwood forests,
    pine-hardwood forests, and wildlife supplemental food plots. The
    study concludes that "wildlife and fish recreation contributes to
    sales values of Mississippi properties" and that "conservation and
    management of wildlife and fish resources can produce quantifiable
    increases in land values and that consideration of value added by
    outdoor recreation is part of a cost-effective approach to
    sustainable economic development in Mississippi."

**SUBSISTENCE FISHING**

Brown, Ralph B. and John F. Toth, Jr. 2001. Natural Resource Access and
Interracial Associations: Black and White Subsistence Fishing in the
Mississippi Delta, Southern Rural Sociology Vol. 12. pp. 81-110.

-   Summary: This study uses qualitative to examine "how racial
    divisions between black and white fishers factor into access,
    harvesting strategies, and use of natural resources in subsistence
    fishing activities in the Mississippi Delta." The study finds that
    while both races engage in subsistence fishing for many of the same
    reasons (autonomy and economic independence) that clear differences
    appear in their access and harvesting strategies and their
    utilization of fish caught.

**WATERFOWL**

Delnicki, Don and Kenneth Reinecke. "Mid-Winter Food Use and Body
Weights of Mallards and Wood Ducks in Mississippi." *The Journal of
Wildlife Management* 50.1 (1986): 43-51.

Abstract: <http://www.jstor.org/pss/3801486>

-   Summary: The study examines the diet and weight of mallards and wood
    ducks across habitat and seasons. It finds that diets changed with
    water conditions and conclude that continued drainage of the
    Mississippi Delta will negatively impact waterfowl foraging.

Heitmeyer, M.E. "The Importance of Winter Floods to Mallards in the
Mississippi Alluvial Valley. *Journal of Wildlife Management* 70 (2006):
101-110.

Abstract: <http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=17724341>

-   Summary: This study finds that winter floods of bottomland hardwood
    forests in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley are beneficial to
    wintering mallards. The author urges protection of rivers and
    floodplain habitats as a strategy to conserve continental
    populations.

Kaminski, Richard, Robert Alexander and Bruce Leopold. "Wood Duck and
Mallard Winter Microhabitats in Mississippi Hardwood Bottomlands." *The
Journal of Wildlife Management* 57.3 (1993): 562-570.

Abstract: <http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=3767319>

-   Summary: The study looks at the difference in microhabitat wood duck
    and mallard populations use in Mississippi bottomland hardwoods. The
    study quantifies aspects of forest structure, relative availability
    of potential foods (e.g,, acorns and invertebrates), and water depth
    at microhabitats of wood ducks and mallards in greentree reservoirs
    in Mississippi during the winters 1988-90 The study found that
    species\' microhabitats did differ. Compared with wood ducks,
    mallards used microhabitats with greater openness (i.e., less canopy
    closure, tree density, and understory cover), lower tree species
    diversity, and shallower water. The study concludes that its
    "results provide additional support for the continued need to
    conserve southern forested wetlands."

Reinecke, K.J. et al. "Mississippi Alluvial Valley." L.M. Smith, R.L.
Pederson, and R.M. Kaminski, editors. *Habitat Management for Migrating
and Wintering Waterfowl in North America.* Lubbock, Texas: Texas Tech
University Press, 1989.

-   Summary: This chapter discusses migrating waterfowl use of
    landscapes in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. It details their
    biological needs and habitat as well as past management approaches.