Documented Characteristics of Labor Market-Responsive Community Colleges
and a Review of Supporting Literature

2003

Prepared for:

U.S. Department of Education

Office of Adult and Vocational Education

Washington, D.C.

Prepared by:

Westat

Rockville, MD

and

The Academy for Educational Development

Washington, DC

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**U.S. Department of Education \~ Office of Vocational and Adult
Education**

**U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult
Education**

Documented Characteristics of Labor Market-Responsive Community Colleges
and a Review of Supporting Literature

Robert Harmon, Westat, Rockville, MD

Keith MacAllum, Ph.D., Academy for Educational Development, Washington,
DC

Executive Summary

The mission of community colleges has evolved beyond their traditional
roles of open access, vocational education and as an entrée into 4-year
colleges, to include mid- and high-level workforce training. According
to the literature, those colleges that embrace this new mission seek to
meet rapidly changing local workforce development needs. The literature
also notes that these market-responsive community colleges share many
characteristics. These characteristics are interconnected and mutually
supporting. Market-responsive community colleges:

-   Have leadership committed to the market-responsive mission of the
    college. Elements include:

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-   Allocating resources to develop training programs.

-   Reaching out to local businesses and other organizations.

-   Identifying market-responsiveness as part of the college's mission.

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-   Have internal response mechanisms that allow for rapid development
    of training curriculum to meet changing workforce demands, which
    include:

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-   Responding rapidly to changes in local economic conditions and
    training needs.

-   Creating a division to address local employment demands.

-   Developing for-credit programs based on local workforce needs.

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-   Partner with local businesses and local workforce and educational
    organizations to develop appropriate training and academic curricula
    , which includes:

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-   Collaborating with local businesses on curriculum development and
    seeking employer input on curriculum development.

-   Recruiting faculty from among local experts in field.

-   Partnering with other local educational institutions to deliver
    comprehensive training.

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-   Have close ties to their local communities, including:

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-   Understanding local workforce needs.

-   Being able to detect shifts in local labor market needs.

-   Offering targeted and contract training.

Over 200 publications were reviewed for this report and the 25 articles
that contained the most relevant information were selected. Articles
were selected based on their relevance to this project and on how well
they illustrated or described some aspect of labor-market responsive
behavior. Four methodologies were used in preparing the articles that
were selected for this review; statistical analysis, less formal data
analysis, literature reviews, and anecdotal evidence, including surveys
and interviews of colleges, businesses and other stakeholders.

Among these works there was general consensus as to what constituted a
market-responsive community college, as well as which colleges have
exemplary market-responsive programs. Though articles addressed
different aspects of market-responsiveness, the works complemented each
other to provide a comprehensive definition of a market-responsive
college, and the attributes that make community colleges highly
responsive.

However, the analyses were not sufficiently rigorous for the conclusions
to be accepted as definitive. In particular, colleges that lack some of
the key attributes cited in the literature, nevertheless, may be highly
responsive, and the difference in market-responsiveness between the
colleges cited in the literature and other colleges could be small.
Thus, the conclusions of this review will be used as hypotheses to be
thoroughly tested in the next phase of this initiative.

Specifically, this initiative will assess market-responsiveness and the
attributes that make programs highly effective by: (1) collecting and
analyzing transcript and wage-record data from selected states to
determine which programs most closely addressed local employment needs,
and (2) conducting on-site interviews with local stakeholders to learn
more about the attributes that make college programs highly
market-responsive.

**1.0 Introduction**

Historically community colleges have pursued multiple missions. These
include providing opportunities for students to earn an associate's
degree or transfer to four-year colleges, for adult members of the
community to obtain continuing education, and for new and incumbent
workers to get vocational training in the form of certification and
specialized programs. While community colleges continue to serve these
three functions, there is increased interest in the role that they can
play in workforce and economic development. As local economies and
employment needs change, some community colleges appear better able to
respond than others. Some even anticipate these changes.

For a college to be labor market responsive, it must actively consider
the local and national economic environment and be able to deliver
educational and training programs that directly address labor market
needs, often in a very short time. Community colleges are well suited to
assume this role, as they generally are nimble at curricula development,
particularly with respect to non-credit programs. Community college
administrators are beginning to transform the processes of delivering
educational and training programs, allowing colleges to respond more
quickly to labor market changes. Partnerships with employers and
community organizations, a mission statement giving a high priority to
workforce development, and specialized contract training are all
examples of community college responses to workforce development needs.
The literature discusses the similarities that exist among those
community colleges that have been most successful in responding to the
economic and employment needs in their areas.

The literature cited in this review reached a general consensus as to
what constituted a market-responsive community college, as well as which
colleges have exemplary market-responsive programs. Though articles
addressed different aspects of market-responsiveness, the works
complemented each other to provide a comprehensive definition of a
market-responsive college, and the attributes that make community
colleges highly responsive.

However, the analyses were not sufficiently rigorous for the conclusions
to be accepted as definitive. In particular, colleges that lack some of
the key attributes cited in the literature, nevertheless, may be highly
responsive, and the difference in market-responsiveness between the
colleges cited in the literature and other colleges could be small.
Thus, the conclusions of this review will be used as hypotheses to be
thoroughly tested in the next phase of this initiative.

The hypothesis that the characteristics cited in the literature do in
fact increase the level of market-responsiveness of a college will be
tested through use of transcript and wage record data, and on-site
observations of college operations. The objective is to demonstrate to
what extent, if any, colleges that have most or all of the documented
market-responsive characteristics outperform those that have fewer or
none of these elements. Interviews with stakeholders in each community
-- college presidents, local business leaders, local officials and other
organizations, and graduates --will support the statistical analyses by
identifying which characteristics they consider key to the college's
success.

**2.0 Findings from the Literature**

A close reading of the literature reveals that over the past decade the
training needs of employers have expanded. More dollars are being spent
on training every year by high tech and other companies to upgrade the
skills of their workforce. Indeed, outsourced training expenditures for
U.S. companies nearly doubled between 1994 and 2000, growing from \$9.9
billion to \$19.3 billion annually (National Alliance of Business,
2001). This demand has created a market for contract training and
curriculum development that community colleges are highly qualified to
meet. However, competition for this market has expanded with the
increase in training budgets, both from private vendors and from within
the companies themselves. While many community colleges have been market
responsive and thus able to secure such training, others have been less
successful.

How community colleges respond to the growing demand for training
determines how effective they will be at securing training dollars from
employers and students. A particularly relevant example is the
development of internal divisions, often called "entrepreneurial"
colleges, to address these external training needs. An entrepreneurial
college, or what is sometimes referred to as a "shadow" college, is an
entity within the college itself that is tasked with developing and
delivering programs targeted at a specific population. In an
entrepreneurial college, the employer is considered the primary customer
rather than the student. These colleges deliver non-traditional
training, mostly contract training for employers. (Grubb, 2001). For
instance, in the North Carolina Community College System, several
programs conducted through entrepreneurial colleges have trained over
25,000 workers. Other functions of these entities include small business
development and attracting new employers and industries to their region.

Similarly, some community colleges like Bellevue in Washington State and
Montgomery College in Maryland are becoming more aggressive in their
approaches to curriculum development and delivery. They have designed a
marketing plan targeted at employers with the intent of securing
contract-training dollars. In order to do this, these colleges gather
detailed information about the needs of the local labor force based on
the types of industries that dominate the area, then develop programs
that address the skill demands of those industries and present them to
local employers.

The characteristics of market responsive community colleges are not
identical. They vary according to the local economy, the size of the
business community being served, the types of industries that dominate a
given area, and the level of demand for highly coveted skill sets.
Still, the literature on market responsive community colleges indicates
that they share several key elements:

-   A leadership committed to the goal of making the college
    market-responsive,

-   Internal response mechanisms;

-   Business and other partnerships; and

-   Connection to the local economy.

The literature suggests that these are the characteristics that
community colleges should be focusing on if they are serious about
becoming market responsive. Though each community college has some
unique features in its approach to and relationship with its local
market, many or all of the underlying characteristics of each element
are common across institutions. These elements are usually well
integrated in an institution's approach and so there is some overlap in
our discussion of their characteristics.

Most of the publications selected for this review highlight key elements
of a market responsive community college in detail, describe the
changing environments in which community colleges find themselves, and
the colleges' efforts to adapt to those environments. Each article
selected either described some aspect of market-responsiveness or
presented evidence of colleges that had employed market-responsive
practices with some degree of documented success. From these
publications it is possible to derive the market-responsive elements
that populate the list of characteristics. Other publications that were
reviewed referred to the evolution of worker training at community
colleges, but were more general in their discussion of market
responsiveness and did not identify specific characteristics associated
with market-responsiveness. Though some of this information was helpful
in understanding the circumstances that community colleges face with
respect to changing economic and workforce demands, detailed findings of
these publications were not reported.

While the identification and classification of these characteristics are
based on the supporting literature that describes how a characteristic
relates to market responsiveness, in some cases the literature does not
discuss the specific elements of market responsiveness. Rather, it
describes the overall results that came about because these elements
were in place. This is especially true of effective leadership. Few
articles address the subject of leadership directly, yet many imply that
strong leadership is necessary in order for the programs to exist,
expand, and have continued support. By examining how programs evolve and
operate, it is possible to gain an understanding of the role of the
college leadership in shaping the policies that led to a successful
market responsive program.

**3.0 Characteristics**

This section deals with each of the four market-responsive
characteristics identified from the literature. Because the
market-responsive initiative is a coordinated effort by the college to
respond to training, education and employment needs of the local
workforce, many of the goals of these four overarching characteristics
overlap. However, each element will be discussed separately in the
context of the characteristic it supports.

*3.1 Leadership:*

According to the literature, for a market responsive community college
to be successful, the leadership of the college needs to be committed to
the development and growth of a market-responsive approach. The
president must have a clear plan for developing and maintaining
market-responsive initiatives within the college. Additionally, he or
she must have the full support of the board of trustees or the governing
body of the college. Presidents need to recognize the role that a
community college can play in the local economic area and develop a plan
to fill that role. He or she must also have an appreciation of the
national labor market and understand how his or her college can address
the needs of that market as well. Tony Zeiss, President of Central
Piedmont in North Carolina epitomizes this role when he states, "in my
view, the community colleges...are the economic engines that will keep
our state moving forward." Whether a college president takes an active
or supportive role in the development or oversight of the
market-responsive programs, their commitment to the idea of
market-responsiveness is essential for the success of the initiative.
Leadership goals include:

-   **Allocating resources to develop and deliver training programs for
    employers**. This can include both financial resources (revenue from
    tuition, state and local support, contract training and auxiliary
    income, as well as state, federal and private grants), materials
    (such as computers, text books, and other related equipment),
    personnel (faculty and administrators) and facilities. (Roberts
    2002, National Alliance of Business 2001, Dougherty 2000, Brand
    1997, Grubb 1997).

-   **Improving recruitment and retention of students, particularly in
    programs key to the local and national economy**. Those colleges
    that are able to demonstrate that they can successfully recruit and
    train students in highly sought-after skills will become more
    attractive as training resources to local businesses. Measuring
    success in this area is key. Colleges will be able to demonstrate
    increased efficiency through a reduction in the attrition rate of
    students in key programs and to identify which programs
    under-perform and/or may no longer be relevant to the workforce.
    (Salter 1999, Seppanen 1991).

-   **Instituting aggressive outreach programs targeted at bringing in
    contract training from local businesses**. As the demand for worker
    training expands, college presidents need to pursue training
    opportunities among local employers, either personally or through an
    internal division dedicated to pursuing and securing training. In
    order to be successful, the leadership must have an understanding of
    the evolving needs of employers to be able to anticipate and prepare
    for upcoming changes in workforce demand. (Drury 2000, Gruber 2000,
    Ohio Board of Regents 2000, Kisner 1997, Grubb et al 1997).

-   **Encouraging the expansion of curricula to include more
    employer-focused programs**. The leadership must move the college
    towards a more demand-oriented strategy of program development, and
    have programs in place to meet present demands and rapidly respond
    to future demands when they arise. This often involves hiring
    faculty willing to develop curriculum in collaboration with local
    employers, or bringing in local experts as adjunct faculty to teach.
    (Lebowitz et al 2001, Carnevale 2000, Bailey and Averianova 1998).

-   **Remaining current on effective practices of other
    market-responsive community colleges**. Gleaning information about
    what makes other community colleges successful in serving their
    local economic areas, and then integrating those practices, or
    portions of them that would apply to the local economic area, are a
    key part of the role of the college leadership. Sharing and
    integrating effective practices enables colleges across the country
    to upgrade their programs through proven methods. It also enables
    colleges in urban or rural areas to learn what programs and
    relationships succeeded around the country in their respective
    economic environments, since practices that succeed in a heavily
    populated area may not be as successful in rural areas with a much
    less diverse local economy. (Salter 1999).

-   **Identifying market responsiveness as part of the college's
    mission**. By expanding the college's mission the leadership is
    committing itself to providing support to the local and national
    workforce. It also signals its willingness to commit resources to
    develop and deliver training to local employers and employees. For
    example, vision statements like those of Central Piedmont Community
    College which reads: "CPCC intends to become the national leader in
    workforce development," stand in contrast to more traditional
    statements of mission focused on quality of instruction and
    student-centered services. (Warford & Flynn 2002, Carnevale 2000,
    Bailey and Averianova 1998).

*3.2 Internal Response Mechanisms:*

Another key factor highlighted in the literature is the need for
community colleges to have internal response mechanisms that develop and
deliver training based on the needs of the local economy. Since jobs and
the skills needed to perform them change quickly, these response
mechanisms must be able to evolve rapidly to accommodate the demands
generated by such changes. To do this effectively, community colleges
need to be connected to the local labor market; to know what sorts of
jobs employers need and what skills they look to upgrade. Often training
divisions operate independently of the college's other departments or
divisions, and utilize both internal and external guidance in
determining how best to develop and/or update curriculum.
Characteristics of internal response mechanisms include:

-   **Responding rapidly to changes in local economic conditions and
    training needs.** Because jobs are ever evolving, training providers
    need to be able to quickly develop and deliver training that
    addresses the needs of employers for both new and existing workers.
    In addition, economic growth is uneven, and can be unpredictable.
    Employers often need a quick infusion of workers trained in certain
    skills or possessing a particular combination of knowledge and
    skills. What's more, economic growth often occurs very rapidly,
    putting extreme pressure on local educational institutions to train
    sufficient numbers of qualified applicants fast enough to satisfy
    demand. Many community colleges have developed the capacity to
    modify or create curriculum in line with, or in some cases, in
    preparation for, employer needs. This is possible because the
    non-credit programs do not always fall under the regular for-credit
    governance of the college and are therefore not subject to the
    traditional curriculum approval process, which can take months or
    years to approve a new program. And while non-credit courses provide
    the most rapid response, community colleges taking the longer view
    will also begin to expand and evolve for-credit courses in key
    areas, focusing on longer-term economic trends. (Carnevale &
    Desroches 2001, Drury 2001, Gruber 2000, Thompson 1997, Payne &
    Williams-Foster 1997).

-   **Being adept at curricula development and modification.** Community
    colleges are generally more nimble at creating and modifying
    curricula to address employer needs than are four-year institutions.
    Those colleges that develop courses quickly are better able to
    respond to the needs of local workers and employers. This is
    particularly true of areas dominated by highly fluid and changeable
    industries, such as health care and high tech. Lengthy delays in
    developing or modifying curricula puts the college at risk of
    lagging behind the local workforce needs and rendering themselves
    ineffective as a training resource. In addition, it allows the
    colleges to cycle out of programs that have a diminished
    significance in the workforce and to reallocate resources into more
    immediate needs. (National Alliance of Business 2001, Ohio Board of
    Regents 2000, Dougherty & Bakia 2000, Gruber 2000).

-   **Having an internal division dedicated to responding to training
    needs of local economy and employers.** Separate divisions, or
    entrepreneurial colleges, within the community college tasked with
    developing and delivering training to meet local employment needs
    allow a college to become market responsive without undergoing
    fundamental changes in its traditional structure. Creating such a
    division, whether as part of the existing college structure or as a
    stand-alone entity, increases the visibility of the college as a
    training provider as well as enables the college to become more
    nimble in developing and delivering training to employers and others
    seeking to improve job skills. These divisions may look somewhat
    different from one institution to another. Examples include
    Springfield's Division of Economic and Business Development or
    Montgomery College's Workforce Development and Continuing Education
    Division. Some, like Mission College, created a Workforce and
    Economic Development Unit (see box), while others, such as Black
    Hawk College, have a Business and Industry Center that encompasses
    training, small business development, and some continuing education.
    In many cases these divisions are self-supporting and derive all
    operating revenue from income received through the delivery of
    training programs. Such programs need to become and remain closely
    connected and responsive to their clients' needs in order to remain
    in operation. They also are, in many cases, able to operate outside
    of the college's normal channels for creating new curricula,
    enabling faster program development. These divisions often
    collaborate with employers and vendors to create programs and rely
    heavily on adjunct faculty to help develop and deliver the
    curricula. (Drury 2001, Libowitz et al 2001, Grubb et al 1997).

-   **Integrating non-credit elements into for-credit programs.** Much
    of the curricula developed for non-credit courses can also benefit
    students in for-credit programs as well. Because non-credit programs
    directly address the needs of employers and students seeking
    employment, many of the elements developed for these courses have
    relevance for students seeking degrees or certificates in similar
    fields. Integrating these elements enables a college to update
    for-credit programs to more closely match what the local labor
    market requires. (Cantor 2002, Lebowitz et al 2001, Drury 2001,
    Brewer & Gray 1997).

-   **Using distance learning to deliver for-credit and non-credit
    programs.** Providing employees with the option of receiving
    instruction at work or at home reduces the amount of down time
    needed for training. Similarly, distance learning provides an
    attractive alternative to employees who lack sufficient time to
    travel to classes after work or on weekends. In addition, distance
    learning increases the capacity of the college to expand for-credit
    and non-credit course offerings beyond the immediate economic area.
    (National Alliance of Business 2001, Gruber 2000, Ohio Board of
    Regents 2000).

*3.3 Business Partnerships and other Collaborations:*

Most community colleges have at least a general understanding of the
needs of the local workforce. In areas where economic growth has been
robust, demand for adequately prepared workers has outstripped supply.
Community colleges and other education institutions have had to adjust
their course offerings to the increased need for skilled workers.
According to the literature, selecting the right combination of programs
to offer, and determining the correct length of each program with
respect to the types of jobs available requires close communication
between the educational institutions that serve the region and the
businesses that hire their graduates. To succeed in providing workers
with the correct mix of skills, schools in general, and community
colleges in particular, need to foster institutional-business
relationships that include:

-   **Collaborating with local businesses on curricula development.**
    Developing training programs jointly between the community college
    and the customer, primarily the business or agency that is
    contracting the training, assures that the program will match the
    employment needs of the client. Collaboration may include joint
    creation of the curriculum or modification of an existing program,
    developing or modifying existing materials, and assigning personnel
    to the college for the purpose of developing and teaching the
    program. The Reynolds and Reynolds Company articulated its need for
    employees to develop the ability to work as team members in a team
    culture and learn problem-solving approaches to Sinclair Community
    College, who has since delivered training in these areas to over
    2,000 employees. (Cantor 2002, Roberts 2002, Ohio Board of Regents
    2000, Salter 1999, Kisner et al 1997, Payne & Williams-Foster 1997).

-   **Seeking employer input on curriculum.** In instances where a
    program may be designed for an industry rather than an individual
    client, or where the client has insufficient resources to
    collaborate on the development of the curriculum, community colleges
    seek employer feedback as to the accuracy and benefit of the
    program. Additionally, employers may be able to provide materials
    and information critical to the development of the training program,
    as well as staff for developmental assistance. It also provides
    employers an opportunity to begin developing a potential pool of
    employees prior to graduation, reducing the amount of introductory
    training necessary for newly hired employees and gives employers
    some control over what curriculum is taught. (National Alliance of
    Business 2001, Gruber 2000, Payne & Williams-Foster 1997).

-   **Recruiting adjunct faculty from among experts in local businesses
    to teach non-credit and for-credit courses.** Incorporating the
    knowledge of professionals from the local economy to teach either a
    for-credit or non-credit course can provide insight and a real-world
    perspective to the curriculum. It allows students to learn current
    information and practices of their prospective employers or of the
    industry for which they plan to work. (Gruber 2000, Schwager & Lee
    2000).

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-   **Partnering with other local educational institutions to provide
    comprehensive training opportunities to employers.** Some industries
    dominate regions that extend beyond the immediate economic area
    serviced by a community college. In such cases, community colleges
    may partner with each other to expand their training delivery area
    to better serve the companies that populate the industry. By
    collaborating with other educational institutions in the development
    and delivery of training programs, community colleges are able to
    maximize their resources while expanding their ability to deliver
    training. Partnerships may include jointly developing and delivering
    programs, adopting parallel curriculum, creating an independent
    training entity responsible for developing and coordinating
    non-credit and some for-credit training across all partners.
    Examples of regions where such programs have been effective in
    providing regional training coverage are in California's Silicon
    Valley and in and around North Carolina's Research Triangle. (Salter
    1999).

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-   **Developing and delivering appropriate training programs through
    internal collaboration between departments.** In order to meet
    employers' needs, community colleges may combine elements of
    for-credit and non-credit programs to develop a client-specific
    training course. This is particularly well suited to industries that
    require credentials or certificates of completion that carry
    academic credits, but do not desire a full one-year or two-year
    for-credit program. Such collaborative endeavors expand the
    capabilities of the community college to deliver for-credit courses
    without expanding their overall for-credit programs. (Drury 2001,
    Pindar 1999, Seppanen 1991).

*3.4 Connection to the Local Economy:*

Finally, the literature stresses that first-hand knowledge of the needs
of the local economy is essential for a community college to be able to
plan and execute effective training programs. Moreover, developing close
ties to area businesses, workforce investment boards, chambers of
commerce and other organizations increases the likelihood that community
colleges will pursue a collaborative approach when designing
employer-targeted curriculum. Characteristics include:

-   **Being up to date on local employer skill demands.** Technology has
    accelerated the rate at which skills become obsolete. Additionally,
    jobs and job descriptions are no longer static, meaning workers need
    to have a strong background in more than one discipline to be
    successful. A community college that is plugged into these changes
    and is able to deliver training appropriate for the local workforce
    is a valuable asset to businesses in the region. However, being
    current often means anticipating changes in the local economy based
    on national and regional trends, and acting on those trends to have
    the proper programs in place when employers need them. For example,
    after the attacks of 9/11, the leadership at Central Piedmont
    Community College anticipated a downturn in the airline industry and
    began to develop programs to train laid-off airline workers for jobs
    connected to the Department of Homeland Security (Cantor 2002,
    National Alliance of Business 2001).

-   **Being able to detect sudden shifts in local training needs.** How
    responsive a community college is to local employers and students
    depends on how quickly it is able to detect changes in employers'
    training needs and deliver appropriate programs. It is important
    therefore that those within the community colleges that run the
    training divisions have a strong working relationship with groups in
    the community that they are tasked to serve. For example, Milwaukee
    Area Technical College partnered with the Northeast Milwaukee
    Industrial Development Corporation in opening neighborhood learning
    centers and Pima Community College collaborated with the Pima County
    WIB to create a High-Tech High-Wage Program. In order to constantly
    develop or revise programs and courses based on the needs of the
    local workforce, there must be an ongoing working relationship
    between those in the college who actually put the programs together
    and those who will ultimately benefit from that training. (Lebowitz
    et al 2001, Warford & Flynn 2001, Gruber 2000).

-   **Offering targeted and contract training.** Almost every community
    college offers some form of targeted or contract training. Contracts
    can be for short-term remedial or ESL classes, or for more
    sophisticated high tech or managerial training. Those colleges that
    are market responsive will likely have both a high proportion of
    contract training enrollments relative to all non-credit and
    for-credit enrollments, and that training will be in areas that
    address the most critical needs of local employers. These colleges
    will often have a growing number of training courses with growing
    enrollments. (Ohio Board of Regents 2000, Dougherty & Bakia 2000).

**4.0 Conclusion**

This review suggests that economic growth and labor market change puts
pressure on employers to hire adequately prepared workers. As the
economy and employment needs change rapidly, being labor market
responsive requires a proactive approach on the part of community
colleges. Administrators must anticipate change, and have structures,
processes, partnerships, and leadership to respond to the unpredictable.
The most responsive colleges will not only continue to respond to change
but will develop new strategies to do so.

There is general agreement throughout the literature that
market-responsive community colleges possess certain elements that
facilitate their efforts to address local workforce needs. These
include, among other things, developing an internal division to address
non-credit curriculum, interacting with and seeking input from local
employers regarding curriculum development, drawing on the expertise of
local professionals and rapidly responding to training needs. It is
clear that these elements are not unique to one aspect of market
responsiveness but are an integral part of many different aspects of
being labor-market responsive. While different authors sometimes
emphasize the importance of different specific elements, the picture
that emerges is that four general characteristics dominate the
discussion: leadership, having an internal response mechanism,
collaborating with businesses and other stakeholders, and connecting to
local economy.

Examples of community colleges that have adopted some or all of these
principals suggest that they have been successful in addressing the
needs of their immediate economic area. However, the literature does not
provide statistical evidence that these characteristics or actions do
affect outcomes, nor does it provide examples of colleges that failed to
adopt some or all of these characteristics and thus struggled to become
market-responsive. In order to confirm the theories put forth in the
literature, transcript and wage record data will be used to test the
extent to which the four dominant characteristics and their underlying
elements do in fact affect a community college's ability to respond
effectively to local employment demands.

######## Appendix: Abstracts of Selected Publications

A thorough search of the available literature concerning the growth and
evolution of community colleges was conducted for this review.
Publications were selected based on the expertise of the author, the
rigor of the study, and the article's relevance to this project. Well
over a thousand citations were obtained, and more than 200 of the most
promising publications reviewed. Of this group, the following 25 were
found to contain the most relevant information for this review. Each
article addresses a particular aspect of market-responsiveness or
profiles a college or colleges that have implemented market-responsive
initiatives. Other literature was informative in providing background
information and historical context, including statutory and legislative
issues that may affect a college's ability to adopt some
market-responsive practices. However, if the author did not address the
issue of market-responsiveness directly the article was not cited in
this review.

Four basic methodologies were used in preparing the reports and articles
that were selected for this review; statistical analysis, less formal
data analysis, literature reviews, and anecdotal evidence, including
surveys and interviews of community colleges presidents and key
personnel, businesses and other stakeholders. Of the 25 articles, 12
were primarily based on reviewing existing literature, 13 were based on
original data collection, either surveys or interviews, but only 8
articles used data obtained from more than 5 schools. Several of the
articles were based on case studies of a few colleges, and one discussed
findings from a survey of local businesses.

Among the works reviewed there was general consensus as to what
constituted a market-responsive community college, as well as which
colleges exemplify this initiative. Indeed, several colleges are
mentioned throughout the literature, as are several best practices
employed by colleges and districts to address the issue of
market-responsiveness. Though articles addressed different aspects of
market-responsiveness, the works themselves complemented each other to
provide a comprehensive definition of a market-responsive college.

1\. Bailey, Thomas R. and Averianova, Irena E. Multiple Missions of
Community Colleges: Conflicting or Complementary[?]{.underline}
Community College Research Center, Teachers College, Columbia
University, New York, NY, October 1998.

> **Abstract:** This report discusses new directions community colleges
> will need to follow to modify their traditional roles. Section
> highlights contract training and economic development activities of
> community colleges, pointing to the "new economic role" of community
> colleges and the new functions of entrepreneurial community colleges.
> Issues include contract revenue, integration of contract training and
> vocational training, and the potential effect of the new economic role
> of the community college on its traditional mission. This report was
> developed from analyses of existing literature and preliminary
> findings from a survey of 10 community colleges and five 4-year
> colleges.

2\. Brand, Betsy. Community Colleges and Economic Development. The
Center for Occupational Research and Development, Waco, TX, April 1997.

> **Abstract:** This piece uses surveys of 18 community college
> presidents and other college officials to profile one mechanism being
> employed by community colleges to provide targeted training, Advanced
> Technology Centers (ATCs). Though the report mainly discusses these
> programs, it does provide insight into the leadership role of
> community college presidents in developing and supporting
> market-responsive programs. The report notes that college presidents
> had a very personal commitment to involving his or her college in
> economic development, and they worked hard to ensure that their staffs
> and their communities understood that commitment." Presidents also
> viewed the success of these programs as "a major source of success of
> their colleges.\" The report goes on to say that, \"over and over, the
> college presidents stressed how important it is for a college to have
> economic development as a clearly stated and prominent part of its
> mission.\" It helps to have the Board of Trustees on board and
> strongly supporting the effort to have the community college serve the
> community\'s workforce and economic development needs.

3\. Brewer, Dominic and Gray, Maryann. Connecting Colleges and Community
in the New Economy. The National Center for Research in Vocational
Education, Berkeley, CA, and The U.S. Department of Education,
Washington, DC, 1997.

> **Abstract:** This work provides an overview of linkages between
> community-college faculty and labor markets, although it acknowledges
> that linkages also occur between labor markets and the institutions
> themselves and with departments and programs. Previous work has argued
> that schools are usually less likely to offer courses based on
> changing demands from the labor market and more likely to offer
> courses based on interest and knowledge of faculty. A major source of
> information about the business world\'s needs, the reading claims,
> comes from business representatives who sit on the college\'s advisory
> boards.
>
> The authors categorize faculty activities into four domains:
> *curriculum and pedagogy*, *career assistance,* *institutional
> service,* and *professional and community service activities*. They
> then outline two individual and institutional characteristics that
> underlie faculty-labor market linkages. The first is whether the
> faculty member is full or part time and in what field the faculty
> member teaches. Second, the extent to which the faculty member is
> linked to and influenced by the college is important. This study is
> based on results from a survey of 1,725 community college faculty at
> over 100 institutions nationwide.

4\. Cantor, Jeffrey A. Skills Certification and Workforce Development:
Partnering with Industry and Ourselves. *Leadership Abstract*, World
Wide Web edition, The League for Innovation, January 2002.

> **Abstract:** This article discusses certification programs developed
> between community colleges and industry as a way to, among other
> things, \"maintain program relevance.\" The article says that
> \"industry worker certification ... serves as a resource and benchmark
> for state-of-the-art curriculum and program development, a tool for
> marketing program effectiveness and portability to students as well as
> employers, and a competency-based bridge between noncredit continuing
> education and degree programs.\" The article also points out the
> complimentary nature of skill certification and other college programs
> and profiles programs at Norwalk Community College as an example of an
> effective program. This study draws on existing data and publications.

5\. Carnevale, Anthony P. and Desroches, Donna M. Help Wanted...
Credentials Required. Community Colleges in the Knowledge Economy.
Educational Testing Services, Princeton, NJ, 2001.

> **Abstract:** This report mainly examines the expanding role of
> community colleges in serving as a resource for providing
> credentialing. Included in the report is a discussion on the
> relationship between employers and community colleges and the need for
> a continuous cycle of education and training, especially in the face
> of increasing skill demands. In addition, aligning curricula to local
> business and economic needs, collaborating with other training
> providers, IT vendors, and local industries, and some challenges to
> institutional change that move colleges more towards market
> responsiveness, are discussed. This report is a synthesis of existing
> literature and data.

6\. Carnevale, Anthony P. Community Colleges and Career Qualifications.
New Expeditions: Charting the Second Century of Community Colleges.
Issues Paper No. 11. American Association of Community Colleges,
Washington, DC; Association of Community College Trustees, Annandale,
VA, 2000.

> **Abstract:** Community colleges have new challenges in responding to
> new economic demands. First, they will need to educate and train the
> workforce in response to employers' needs in order to stay
> competitive. Second, community colleges will need to meet these same
> new requirements themselves. Because of their unique flexibility and
> responsiveness, community colleges are well positioned to meet these
> new standards. The new mission of community colleges includes
> workforce preparation and training. In addition, colleges serve as a
> low-cost alternative to more costly training methods used by
> businesses to train workers, and have demonstrated an ability to
> address both job-specific needs of employers and career needs of
> students. The article also notes that collaboration between employers
> and community colleges has benefits that extend to all parties
> involved. This is an analysis of existing literature and data.

7\. Dougherty, Kevin J. and Bakia, Marianne F. Community Colleges and
Contract Training: Content, Origins, and Impact. Teachers College,
Columbia University, *Teachers College Record*, V.102, No.1, pp.
197-243: New York, NY, 2000.

> **Abstract:** Most community colleges now provide contract training
> for employers. This work explains community colleges\' involvement in
> this training, explains how this role arose, and describes its impact
> on the colleges. Community colleges are appealing to employers because
> of their low cost, greater responsiveness than four-year colleges, and
> greater reliability and academic focus than vocational schools.
> Community colleges also market themselves to local employers as viable
> training resources. The authors used existing literature to support
> findings of a survey of at least four community colleges conducted in
> each of five states: New York, Florida, Texas, Michigan and California

8\. Dougherty, Kevin, J., and Bakia, Marianne, F. The New Economic
Development Role of the Community College. Community College Research
Center, Columbia University, New York, NY, 1999.

> **Abstract:** The report studies how community colleges have broadened
> their role in workforce and economic development over the past 20
> years. The study examines contract training, small business
> development and incubation, and local economic planning. The report
> draws extensively from existing literature and data.

9\. Drury, Richard L. The Entrepreneurial Community College: Bringing
Workforce, Economic and Community Development to Virginia Communities.
*Inquiry*, Spring 2001. Virginia Community College System.

> **Abstract:** Some community colleges in Virginia are developing
> internal entities to address the training needs of their local
> workforce. These "entrepreneurial" colleges within the existing
> community colleges are dedicated to non-traditional activities
> designed to be market-driven and customer oriented, with the employer,
> not the student, identified as the customer. These "colleges" create
> demand for their services by offering non-traditional, non-credit
> courses and by collaborating with local businesses. Courses are
> developed and delivered through partnerships with community colleges
> and local businesses. This report draws on existing literature.

10\. Grubb, W. N., et al. Workforce, Economic, and Community
Development; The Changing Landscape of the Entrepreneurial Community
College. National Center for Research in Vocational Education,
University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 1997.

> **Abstract:** The work uses existing literature to examine the role of
> community colleges in workforce development, economic development, and
> community development. The research argues that some community
> colleges engage in these activities because they have been influenced
> by: 1) an emphasis on an occupational (not academic) mission, 2)
> aggressive administrators, 3) faculty that are connected to employers,
> 4) stable support for these activities, 5) the effects of faculty
> groups on the rigidity of the curriculum, and 6) demographics.
>
> The degree to which community colleges affect workforce, economic, and
> community development is also affected by state funding, local
> economic conditions, district policies concerning community colleges,
> developments within local firms, and pressure for economic and
> community development.

11\. Gruber, David. We're Education... You're Semiconductors. *Working
Ventures*, Public/Private Ventures, New York, NY, 2000.

> **Abstract:** This report profiles four business-community college
> partnership and notes that among community colleges, corporate
> training has not been universally accepted as part of the college
> mission, but that some have developed effective training partnerships
> with businesses. The report cites training partnerships between
> several major corporations and local community colleges: Sequins
> International and LaGuardia Community College in New York,
> Daimler-Chrysler and Macomb Community College in Michigan, Intel and
> Mission College in California, and Boeing and Shoreline Community
> College in Washington. Reasons for choosing community colleges for
> training include cost, faculty and capacity, flexibility in delivering
> training, prior experience, academic credit, and other services. The
> report also surveys key personnel at the colleges and details specific
> roles each partner plays in developing a training program.

12\. Kisner, Mary J., Mazza, Maralyn J., and Liggit, David R. Building
Partnerships. *New Directions for Community Colleges* Vol. 25, No.1
Spring 1997.

> **Abstract:** This article draws on existing literature to describe
> how the role of partnerships has changed from that of an advisory
> relationship on the part of the employer to one that is more
> collaborative with respect to curriculum development. The article
> describes specific partnership building steps and discusses the
> importance of selecting the right partner from both the perspectives
> of the employer and the community college. Keys to success include
> setting clearly defined, realistic goals and continued evaluation of
> the partnership's success.

13\. Liebowitz, Marty, Haynes, Leslie and Milley, Jane. Driving Change
in Community Colleges, Volume 1: Building Systems for Advancement to
Self Sufficiency, and Volume 2: An Analysis of Changes in Two Community
Colleges. Jobs for the Future, Boston, MA, July 2001.

> **Abstract:** Both volumes primarily address how community colleges
> can better serve low-income youth and adults but identify exemplary
> practices that colleges can use to become more market responsive.
> Volume 1 notes that "policy, partnership and leadership are key levers
> that external players and internal community college leadership can
> use to drive change," and that "the likelihood of success is greatest
> when external stakeholders and internal leadership work together
> toward a common vision." The report also emphasizes the importance of
> partnering with employers and business organizations to align
> curriculum towards labor market skills and describes common barriers
> to chance and some promising practices to overcome them. Practices
> include a clear focus on economic development, partnerships with local
> business leaders, creating internal "shadow" colleges to address
> non-credit training needs, streamlined decision-making, closer ties
> between for-credit and non-credit divisions, and tapping into best
> practices from other community colleges. The report also includes a
> list of indicators to determine how prepared a college is to address
> internal change. Information for this report was derived from
> extensive interviews with key personnel at two community colleges,
> Central Piedmont Community College in North Carolina and Portland
> Community College in Oregon.

14\. National Alliance of Business, Inc. The Future of Worker Training:
Business/Community College Partnerships. *Workforce Economics*, Vol. 7,
No. 1, pp. 3-6: Washington, DC, Spring 2001.

> **Abstract:** Community colleges are more frequently linking with
> businesses to provide results-oriented programs. Although cost is the
> major factor influencing a business\' decision whether or not to link
> with a community college for training, other factors come into play.
> These factors include: expertise of faculty and existence of programs
> in the area of need, the willingness of the college to modify its
> curriculum to meet the employer\'s needs, ability and desire to train
> workers on and off campus, flexibility of that training around working
> hours, and access to additional funding. This report draws on existing
> literature.

15\. Ohio Board of Regents. Information Technology Skills: Ohio
Employers' Labor Demand: Implications for EnterpriseOhio Network
Campus-Wide Leadership. Enterprise Ohio Network Professional Development
Resource Center, Kirtland, OH, January 2001.

**Abstract:** This document is intended to inform and advise the
development and operation of campuswide information technology (IT)
education and training programs at colleges belonging to the
EnterpriseOhio Network (EON). Each EnterpriseOhio Network two-year
campus seeks to provide IT education and training programs that are
increasingly responsive to the needs of its employer- and
employee-customers and the community at large. Topics discussed include
the demand for IT workers in Ohio, IT skill requirements, trend analysis
on the supply of IT workers, service delivery opportunities for EON
based on employer demand, and EON's role as a primary resource for Ohio
residents. In addition to a literature review, the Ohio Board of Regents
conducted a state-wide environmental scan and held a dozen
industry-targeted focus group discussions with local employers for this
report.

16\. Ohio Board of Regents. Business Performance Improvement: Examples
of Successful Partnerships. Columbus, OH, 2000.

> **Abstract:** This article describes the partnership between
> businesses in Ohio and EnterpriseOne, a local consortium of community
> colleges. Activities performed by community colleges include:

-   Targeted training to meet local industry needs, such as ISO 9000
    training.

-   Contract curriculum development.

-   On-site technical training.

-   Customized curriculum development for specific employer needs.

-   Developing training modules to help with employee growth.

-   Training developed for targeted workforce needs of local
    communities.

-   Developing and delivering degree programs on-site to employers.

> The Ohio Board of Regents surveyed 36 community colleges in the state
> for examples of partnerships.

17\. Payne, John H. and Williams-Foster, Cathy. Industry and Education:
A Winning Combination. *Performance Improvement,* January 1997.

> **Abstract:** This article details the development of a two-year,
> for-credit program. The program was developed through collaboration
> between a consortium of petrochemical companies in the Houston area
> and Mainland Community College, including closely mapping the
> curriculum to the specific needs of the employers and collaborating
> with businesses to develop course content.

18\. Pindar, SaraLee. Community Colleges and the Business of Workforce
Development. New Jersey Council of County Colleges, Trenton, NJ, 1999.

> **Abstract:** This report highlights New Jersey's community colleges
> and their efforts to respond to market and consumer needs. New
> Jersey's community colleges have been successful as workforce
> development businesses. Since one-third of the average New Jersey
> community college operating budget is paid by students and clients,
> the colleges must approach their business customer needs with quality
> programs and services. Topics covered include responding to market
> needs, retaining and attracting jobs, strategic alliances, and
> supporting the middle class. The author uses existing literature and
> data to augment findings from interviews of up to 19 community
> colleges in the state.

19\. Roberts, Brandon. The Best of Both. *Working Ventures*, Public
Private Ventures, New York, NY, 2002.

> **Abstract:** This reading outlines how community colleges and
> community nonprofits can work together to help local labor markets.
> The article concluded that the key lessons for developing a
> partnership include securing the support of the top leadership and
> other allies, bringing resources and money to the table, looking for
> resources everywhere, and having a clear division of labor. Similarly
> the report notes that to operate a successful partnership, partners
> must communicate well, have flexible operations, monitor and document
> results, and work to achieve systemic change. Overcoming barriers that
> impede partnerships requires college leadership that values career
> training, an entrepreneurial environment that aggressively solicits
> outside funds to support nontraditional activities, and a management
> culture that promotes and facilitates change. The report notes that
> community colleges provide small and medium-sized companies with a
> cost-effective alternative for employee training. The report draws on
> existing literature.

20\. Salter, Linda Graef. Down in the Valley. *Community College
Journal,* Oct-Nov 1999.

> **Abstract:** This article highlights a partnership between a Silicon
> Valley-based community college and local employers to provide a
> training pipeline. It describes some specific steps taken by the
> college to provide the best possible training opportunities, including
> partnering with high schools, developing a consortium of local
> community colleges to develop and deliver training, delivering
> for-credit programs to employees on-site, staying connected to
> national trends, and seeking updates on best practices in training
> development and delivery.

21\. Schwager, Mahna and Lee, June. Industry Review and Validation of
Model Curriculum for Programmer/Analyst, Network Administration, and
Technical Support. California Community Colleges, Office of the
Chancellor. WestEd, San Francisco, CA, May 2000.

> **Abstract:** This report provided an example of industry involvement
> in the development of a community college-based training program.
> Industry representatives reviewed the curricula for computer
> programmer/analyst, network administrator, and technical support
> courses at ten community colleges in California. IT industry
> representatives and community college faculty participated in focus
> groups in this study. Participants offered specific suggestions
> targeted to each course and noted the competencies needed for the
> three occupations and the usefulness of industry certification and
> community college certificates and degrees. They also considered
> future trends, including evolving technologies, new business models,
> new skills and types of workers, and new training models.

22\. Seppanen, Loretta. Assessment of Meeting Employer Needs and the
Labor Market Experience of Job Upgrading and Retraining Students in
Washington Community Colleges. A Baseline Report. Washington State Board
of Community College Education, Olympia, WA, June 1991.

> **Abstract:** This report describes four different studies of
> Washington State community colleges\' shortcomings and strengths in an
> effort to provide upgrading and retraining for employed workers. The
> report draws on findings from a 1990 survey of 1,151 employed students
> attending 8 community colleges in the state. Key areas of focus are
> access, funding, removal of barriers, and enhancing
> success/cooperation. According to findings: one-third of community
> college students was there for retraining/upgrading. Those most likely
> to be served were women, people with a high school diploma or some
> college, younger workers, and those in health, managerial, and
> administrative positions. In addition, the state paid for most of the
> retraining (only 20% was paid entirely by the employer through
> contract training). More enrollees were enrolled for
> upgrading/retraining than for entry-level job preparation, and 64
> percent expected to need continual training. Overall, students were
> satisfied with the availability of classes, especially night courses,
> while employers were satisfied with the cost effectiveness of
> community colleges.

23\. Thompson, Ingrid. Silicon and Ivy: Enhancing California\'s
Workforce and Educational Goals through the Corporate College Model.
Materials from a presentation to California Community College
Foundation, San Jose, California, April 21-22, 1997.

> **Abstract:** This article looks at corporate colleges within
> community colleges. The overarching argument is that \"community
> colleges should consider establishing corporate colleges since they
> can generally accomplish the task \[of training\] more
> cost-effectively than corporations and have experience creating
> learning environments for adults.\" The report profiles California\'s
> West Valley Mission Community College, which has established a
> corporate college program that both provides support services at
> company sites and meets the academic and financial needs of students.
> In addition, four models of corporate college structure are noted:

-   Accelerated Associate\'s program (an established schedule of classes
    at company sites).

-   Blended Associates degree (80% of the courses at company sites and
    the other 20% on campus).

-   Consortia model (allowing students from various nonprofits and
    smaller companies to participate).

-   General education courses offered at a client site, with class
    schedules designed to meet the client\'s needs.

> This report also draws on existing literature to help describe
> findings from the profile.

24\. Warford, Larry J. and Flynn, William J. New Game, New Rules: The
Workforce Development Challenge[.]{.underline} *Leadership Abstracts*,
World Wide Web edition, The League for Innovation, April 2000.

> **Abstract:** Community colleges face new responsibilities in
> preparing workers for jobs. This article describes a strategic
> approach to expanding the mission of a community college to address
> workforce needs. Colleges must have a strategic plan for workforce
> development, analyze and identify workforce segments, and match
> workforce segments with internal divisions designed to address
> specific needs. Additionally, the article provides three questions for
> community college leaders that are designed to help them determine how
> prepared their college is to service these segments. The authors draws
> on their own expertise and backgrounds for this report.

25\. Whiteman, Jo Ann M. Business Curriculum Development in the
Community College. University of Central Florida, 2001.

> **Abstract:** Community college curriculum may be generally classified
> as career, developmental, community, and collegiate studies. This
> report examines the business curriculum offered in community colleges.
> The author notes that in the business curriculum, three developmental
> curriculum models are used to analyze job requirements in a specific
> work context so educational programs can be developed to prepare
> future employees: the skills component model, the professional model,
> and the general component model. All three of these models are defined
> and explored. The author draws on existing literature for this report.