Archived Information

Adult Learners:

The Social, Cultural, and Economic History

Behind Present Attitudes Toward Learning in Japan

**Makoto Yamaguchi**

**Ryutsu Keizai University**

**Japan**

Social, Cultural, and Economic History of Japanese Adult Learning

Japan is a small island country stretching in an arc along the
easternmost coast of the Eurasian continent. And when we look at Japan's
education and learning, we must remember the great influence exerted by
this geographical situation. The British Isles are located at the
western end of the same continent, and are separated from the
continental landmass by the 32-kilometer wide English Channel. In
contrast, Japan is separated from the continent by the Korean Straits,
about 162 kilometers in width and swept by high waves. In the days when
navigation was not well developed, Japan's geographical location kept it
away from the main trade routes and isolated from other major countries,
which were already taking pride in their advanced civilization. However,
Japan's geographical location was not always a disadvantage for it,
since it was this that made it possible for Japan to remain a peaceful
community, free from invasion by other countries. (1)

There are four historical facts that are of major importance in terms of
Japan's history of learning from and with foreign cultures, namely:
missions to China in the period from the 7th to the 9th century; a
national policy of isolation in the 16th century (the Christian
century); the Meiji Restoration in the 19th century and the occupation
policy of the United States after World War II.

Missions to China from the 7th to the 9th Century

Early in the 7th century Prince Shotoku carried out a policy of sending
missionaries to China, a society which rightly took great pride in its
advanced civilization, so that the institutions, science, arts and ideas
that had developed in China might be introduced into Japan. Missionaries
and students were sent once in the year 600, three times during the
period 607--614, and at frequent regular intervals during the ensuing
two centuries. Those who were sent included priests, scholars, medical
doctors, artists, musicians and blacksmiths. Some people who had
specialized in technical fields stayed in China for a number of years
and continued to participate in intense study and training, eventually
returning home to occupy leading positions in Japan. In the year
645***,*** Japan became a nation governed by the rule-of-law. What the
Japanese learned in cultural, academic, and technical fields during the
periods referred to above exerted a great influence on their system of
values and way of life for many centuries right up to the time of World
War II.

Today it is taken for granted that a country will borrow elements of its
political, social, and economic institutions from more advanced
countries, but it is surprising that Japan should have, more than a
thousand years ago, absorbed Chinese institutions and techniques and
continued to do so for such a very long time. Japan took strenuous
efforts to assimilate its borrowings in a systematic way. It was a
function of the "Silk Road"and Nara, the capital of Japan at that time,
was the end of the Road because of the barrier presented by the Pacific
Ocean. (2)

In written language, Chinese characters are symbols by themselves rather
than requiring a combining with others to express a meaning or idea.
Transmitted through literature, the Confucian teachings and system of
the region produced the "Chinese Letter and Confucian Cultural Zone." It
spread in the 3rd century to Korea and in the 7th century to Japan and
it promoted a very high standard of culture and learning. Since then,
Chinese letter learning and Confucian teachings have become very
respected and the people of Japan have followed the morality and
lifestyle of Confucianism. Learning was ranked highly by Kong Zi, the
founder of Confucianism.

For that reason, people were very conscious of learning and educational
standards. "Ke Ju"(the imperial examination system) had been implemented
since the 6th century. In this system a person who mastered the arcane
aspects of Confucianism and passed the examinations obtained a high
position in the imperial hierarchy. Even in present-day Japan, this
tradition influences people to respect examinations, qualifications,
certifications and academic careers. Even poor parents are enthusiastic
about education for their children.

There is no evidence that the Japanese had their own script before they
adopted the Chinese characters early in the Christian Era. The earliest
extant Japanese documents, the Kojiki (712), indicate that a Chinese
people called "Wani" came to Japan through Korea bringing with them
"Lunyu" (the analects of Confucius) and Buddhism scripture. It was in
the 4th--5th centuries that this occurred. It is presumed that at that
time Japanese nobles and the ruling class were thoroughly learned in
Chinese characters. Therefore, through Chinese language they learned and
adopted Chinese laws and systems during the Tang dynasty and established
a nation based on codes of laws. (3)

"Lunyu" includes chapters on the encouragement of learning, ideal
politics and administration, protection of tradition, virtue, happiness,
and education. In the first chapter on Learning, the master said:

1.  "Is it not pleasure to learn with a constant perseverance and
    application?"

2.  "Is it not delightful to have friends coming from distant quarters?"
    and

3.  "Is he a man of complete virtue, who feels no discomposure though
    men may take no note him?"

Already in the 4th century B.C., Kon Zi (552-479 BC) had said, "Learning
is Pleasure."

Also the Master said in Chapter VI the following:

1.  "At fifteen, I had my mind bent on learning."

2.  "At thirty, I stood firm."

3.  "At forty, I had no doubts."

4.  "At fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven."

5.  "At sixty, my ear was an obedient organ for the reception of the
    truth."

6.  "At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired, without
    transgressing against what was right."

This is the idea of lifelong learning. (4)

However, Confucianism is the basis of the "ruler's logic," not
democracy. The morality and system of Confucianism requires a family
like "He"(harmony). That is, the integration of family, society, and
state should have the same strength of relationships as those of a
father to a son or a teacher to a student. Individuals should devote
selfless loyalty to the group, society, or state to which they have
affiliations. Confucianism is very strict in its teaching that men are
superior to women. This concept and the attitudes it promotes is still
deeply rooted in Japan\'s social system and results in sex
discrimination.

During the ensuing two centuries, Japan continued to borrow many things
from China, and on this foundation the Japanese were able to achieve
explosive developments in their own culture. The Japanese situation was
a striking contrast to that of Northern European countries, where
cultural development took place at a very slow tempo as if feeling for a
way forward in the darkness. (5)

The National Isolation Policy of the 16th Century

Confronted with new ideas from the West, Japan was forced to make
changes in every sector of its national life, in political, economic and
cultural spheres. In the Great Navigation era, which started at the end
of the 15th century, Japan was more or less under the influence of the
European powers. The introduction of guns into Japan in 1543 was
followed 6 years later, in 1549, by the introduction of Christianity by
Francisco Xavier. Japan, as a whole, was then at war, so its situation
was not conducive to being able to observe what was going on in foreign
countries, but these two events compelled the Japanese to open their
eyes to the outside world. (6)

The missionary work of the "lyezusu Kai" (Society for Jesus Christ) was
carried out in churches and schools of Christian teaching, opened where
the missionaries established themselves, children's schools which aimed
to get Japanese children to leave the temple school and study Christian
teachings, the evangelists' school for the training of missionaries, and
the medical school which opened in the hospital of Bungo to train
medical doctors.

The generous attitude showed by the missionaries toward other religions
evoked a strong resistance among the Buddhists to Christianity. After
succeeding in unifying the country, Toyotomi Hideyoshi came to think
that Christianity spread dangerous thoughts against the ruling

powers and became aware of the fact that Spain propagated Christianity
in the Philippines and conquered that country. In 1587, Hideyoshi issued
a directive ordering that the Christian missionaries be deported.

Later, in 1635, Japanese were banned from traveling abroad or returning
from overseas. In 1639, the entry of Portuguese vessels into Japanese
ports was prohibited, and in 1641, a Dutch firm moved to an island off
the coast of Nagasaki, completing the national isolation policy of the

Tokugawa Shogunate in the Edo era (Edo is the old name for Tokyo). This
policy continued for a period of over two centuries until 1853, when
Admiral Perry's fleet visited Uraga Port. During the period of national
isolation, Japan enjoyed peace and political stability at home, and its
own culture matured.

Despite the national isolation policy Japan had external relations with
the Netherlands, China and Korea. The Netherlands was, it was true, a
Christian country, but it was allowed to maintain relations with Japan
on condition that those relations were confined to trade and that
Christianity was not brought into Japan. The Japanese were therefore
able to obtain a little knowledge of trends in Europe from reports given
by the crews of Dutch vessels that visited Japan. The study of the Dutch
language also developed, restrictions were relaxed to allow the import
of Chinese versions of foreign books.

During the isolation period, Japan enjoyed freedom from warfare at home
and abroad. This period witnessed the stabilization of the system of
local rule by military lord (Daikyo) under a strong shogunate authority.
A self-ascribed ruling class of Samurai monopolized all functions of
government above the level of village and town. Under this feudal
system, the Tokugawa Shogunate defined four classes of people. These
separate classes were, Samurai, farmers, commoners and townsmen
(merchants). This was a system similar to that which originated in
China. (7)

Japan experienced significant political, social, economic and cultural
change during this period. It prospered both economically and
culturally. Along with an increase in population, there is evidence of a
general improvement of housing, food, clothing, and education over most
of the Edo period. During the Edo period, Neo-Confucian thought was
adopted as the official ideology.

Near the end of the Edo Period schooling had become significant. Large
schools called "Hanko" were formally organized by dominant authorities
which provided a graded system of instruction in Chinese classics to
almost every Samurai child.

And local "Terakoya" private schools functioned as elementary schools,
where reading, writing and arithmetic were taught by unemployed Samurai
(warriors), monks or others. The textbook was called "ouraimono" by
which youth were taught how to write letters which included greetings
four each season, various kinds of invitations and greetings to
beginning a new post and so on. It was said this was a master­piece
textbook of the world. Other private schools and academies (Shijuku)
provided more advanced instruction in a variety of disciplines and
schools of thought to both Samurai and commoners.

For the Japanese, the Edo period with the study of Chinese classics, was
like studying Greek and Roman classics for the Elizabethan Englishman.
These served as the repository of wisdom and knowledge. However, there
was an important difference between them. In Europe, religion and

morality were predominant by the province of a separately
institutionalized and powerful church. In Japan, the more weakly
organized Buddhist Temple yielded authority in the moral spheres to the
new Confucian schools.

In the Edo period, traditional music, dance, tea ceremony, flower
arrangement, "Noh" play, and military arts matured. The lemoto system
(master-family system) each school inherited secret traditions and
prized art objects of the school. Traditional cultural activities such
as tea ceremony, flower arrangement and calligraphy were a kind of
"Education for marriage" for girls. The lemoto system still exists and
offers a degree and qualification as master or teacher and a great
number of Japanese people learn and enjoy cultural activities. (8)

The Meiji Restoration in the 19th Century

In the latter half of the 19th century Japan underwent drastic changes
as a result of its opening up to the rest of the world. The impact of
Western civilization on Japan was the most traumatic and disturbing
event of its entire history. Like other non-Western countries, Japan was
exposed to the overwhelming force of a capitalist civilization showing
off its tremendous productivity and military strength as well as its
advanced science and technology. For Japan, this process of opening up
the country to the world was indeed a watershed in its history.
Subsequently, non-Western countries including Japan, no matter whether
they became colonies of the Western countries or not, were compelled to
break with their traditions and accept the challenge of Western
civilization.

Under the great pressure exerted by the European countries and the
United States, Japan feared that it might become a colony of the Western
powers. So the Japanese implemented a policy of getting to know the
secrets of the wealth and power of the countries of Europe and America,
so that they could absorb these secrets into their civilization and make
use of them to make Japan a strong nation. Japan's leaders were well
aware of the necessity of training qualified manpower capable of
absorbing Western technology, institutions, and ideas and of taking the
lead in building a modern economy and society. They knew that without
such manpower any effort to modernize Japan could hardly bear fruit.

The situation was similar to that of old Japan that vigorously imported
Chinese civilization a thousand years earlier. But in the era of the
Meiji Restoration, Japan absorbed Western civilization faster and more
systematically. Those selected for study abroad were chosen after
careful consideration of their ability, and the countries to which they
were sent also chosen with great care. The strengths of different
countries varied according to subject, so the selected persons were sent
to those countries that were strongest in the subject in question. For
example, some went to Britain to study the navy and merchant shipping,
some to Germany to study the army and medical science, some to France to
study local administration and law and some to the United States to
study business practice.

A prominent Japanese educator, writer and founder of Keio University,
Fukuzawa Yukichi was influenced by the British Statesman, John Stuart
Mill, as a utilitarian was the opinion leader of his day. His book
entitled "An Enlightenment of Learning" in 1872 was the best seller at
that time. (9)

At the same time, the Government invited to Japan "foreign experts" who
were well paid and who served as government advisers. The expert of
Education was David Murray (1830--1905) from the United States of
America. He stayed in Japan for the period of 1873--1879 and established
an infrastructure of education and culture which included teacher
training as well as adult education. He created the first Western style
university, Tokyo University, and museum. At that time the slogan was
"Japanese Spirit and Western Knowledge." (10)

The modern school education system started in 1872. The Meiji government
began a policy which committed people to three primary responsibilities:
military service, tax payment and education. Persons who neglected their
duties were punished. Among the children there were some who could not
attend the schools because of coming from economically poor families.
Nowadays, Japan is one of the countries that provide a complete and
thorough education for almost the entirety of its people.

The national administration of education was reformed to cope with the
rapid changing society following World War I and, in 1929, the Social
Education Bureau was established in the Ministry of Education. From then
on, Japanese social education was closely controlled by the Government
until the end of World War II. (11)

When the term "social education" was formally adopted, it replaced the
term "popular education." (Tsuzoku Kyoiku) Beginning with the Meiji
restoration in 1868, the enlightenment of people in the form of "popular
education" was encouraged with the introduction of European model
institutions like libraries and museums. At the same time, the primary
emphasis was on education for working youth, including technical
training and the establishment of youth organizations (Semen-dan).

Democratic ideas introduced into Japan with the Westernization process
brought about by the Meiji Restoration were forcibly suppressed as
representing a dangerous ideology that was opposite the Government's
bureaucratic and, one could say, coercive policy of "conveying the will
and ideas of those who govern to those who are governed." This situation
continued up to the end of World War II. (12)

End of World War II and U.S. Occupation 1945--1952

Having been defeated in the Second World War, a shift in values took
place under the U.S. occupation, from militarism and ultra-nationalism
to democratic ideas. This was a Copernican change for the Japanese.
Basically, the U.S. occupation policy aimed to inculcate three
principles: internationalism, pacifism and democracy. It was emphasized
that Japan should carry out a policy of international cooperation and
that an environment should be created that would enable Japan to discard
its insular attitudes and increase intellectual exchange with foreign
countries.

In 1945, General Douglas MacArthur, presented to the Japanese Cabinet a
proposal entitled "The Five Major Points for Democratization of Japan."
First on the list was the emancipation of the women of Japan through
their enfranchisement---"that being members of the body politic, they
may bring to Japan a new concept of government directly subservient to
the well being of the home." This was to be supported by a major effort
to enhance civics education among Japanese adults in general. The
Occupation Authorities Officer In-Charge of Education was J.M. Nelson.
Under these points, insurance of equality in "decision making,"
observance of the decision once made, and careful attention paid to the
decision-making process were essential to a democracy. The revision of
the Election Law in 1945 legislated the equal right to vote for women.
And, under the guidance given by the Occupation Authorities, among all
adult education programs the greatest stress was given to women's civic
education. (13)

The guidance given by the Occupation Authorities in adult education was
based on the theory of group-work. On November 3, 1946, the Japanese
Constitution, the so-called "Peace Constitution," was promulgated.

The preamble to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (OECD) Constitution which states that "Since wars begin in
the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that defenses of peace must
be constructed" struck a chord in the hearts of many Japanese who now
had a strong desire for lasting peace. As an occupied country, Japan was
not allowed to acquire membership in UNESCO, but the preamble to the
UNESCO constitution stimulated the upsurge of a movement for positive
cooperation with the world body. Direct education in international
understanding was to be carried out under the occupation policy aimed at
diffusing democratic ideas through the introduction of the American way
of life, together with UNESCO policy aimed at increasing Japanese
international understanding. (14)

In 1947, the Fundamental Education Law was enacted, aiming to raise
self-reliant citizens in a peaceful and democratic state, and provide
equality of educational opportunity for all, according to their
abilities. The law emphasized the encouragement of social education,
calling on national and local authorities to establish such institutions
as libraries, museums and Kominkan (citizens' public halls). In the
main, social education was to be conducted through community-based adult
civic education, its programs closely related to the needs of the
community. A fruitful outcome depended greatly on learners' willingness
to pursue their studies spontaneously and independently. Even today,
citizen's public halls remain central to adult education.

"The Survey on Literacy of Japanese People" was conducted in 1950 by the
National Institute for National Language under the guidance of Mr. John
C. Pelzel, a social anthropologist affiliated with the CIE. Its purpose
was to examine how the post-war occupation policies of the United States
of America affected the degree of illiteracy among Japanese people. It
was the largest survey of the time. (15)

In Japan, family planning began not as an issue of reproductive rights,
but simply as economic necessity. According to traditional Japanese
concepts, a child must be welcomed as a gift from God. There was no room
for the individual to decide if she should have a child or not. The
introduction of the idea of equal rights for men and women did not
provide the incentive for family planning either. Difficult living
conditions resulting from the wholesale destruction of the war had made
life hazardous. Family planning for the first time was accepted as
necessary for the protection of the mothers' and children's health.

In 1954, The Family Planning Federation of Japan was formed at the
request of Ministry of Health and Welfare, and would promote the
movement for family planning. The Federation's activities resulted in a
dramatically reduced birth rate. It was later called a population
revolution or the "Japanese population miracle." (16)

The introduction of American democracy brought about a revolutionary
change in Japanese women's lives in other ways as well. It completely
altered traditional views on women and laid the foundation for the
improvement of women's status both in and outside the family. With the
new Constitution and introduction of the Education Act and the Labor
Standards Act, male superiority in the family began to fade. A true
coeducational system would appear, along with the formal endorsement of
equal pay for equal work, and legal protection for maternity. Indeed, as
early as 1945--46, many women were elected to the Japanese Diet.

Up to this time, most Japanese women accepted a life that was decided by
others. However, woman's life-spans were being extended. They now had
much smaller families and therefore a shorter period of child-rearing.
The load of housework was reduced through the diffusion of household
electrical appliances that enabled them to have more free time. Their
educational level began to increase rapidly, furthering the pressure for
equality between men and women. Women became more and more aware of the
importance of selecting and creating their own lives-styles. (17)

Rapid Economic Growth---Adult Education to Meet a Swiftly Evolving
Society 1955--1974

During the period 1955 to 1974, Japan's great economic growth was
increasing rapidly perhaps due to Japan's unique lifelong employment
system, education system and seniority system. The seniority system
links promotion and benefits strictly to age and length of service. The
root of this practice goes back to the 1920s and 1930s and has continued
to the present. However, the situation has made this system of practices
incompatible with the rise in life expectancy and joint participation of
men and women in the labor market.

It led to neither reconstruction nor the increased democratization of
small communities. On the contrary, it resulted in rapid migration to
cities that became thronged with workers, especially the young. Family
structures evolved relatively quickly from the extended family model to
the nuclear family model, bringing significant changes in the social
environment. It weakened the linkage among the inhabitants of local
communities. Signs of disorganization and disintegration of rural
communities began to appear. Furthermore, rapid unbridled economic
growth resulted in air pollution, water contamination, massive traffic
congestion and it generally made people feel as if things were badly out
of balance. Gradually, with so much emphasis on growth and development,
individuals became aware that they themselves had to take action if
there was going to be an improvement in the quality of their lives. (18)

This rapid economic growth enabled householders to procure electrical
appliances, ready-made clothes and pre-cooked foods, all of which
lightened the housewives' tasks and increased their leisure time.
Combined with governmental policies designed to develop women's
vocational outlets in order to boost the economy, these developments
resulted in many middle-aged women going to work. They usually waited
until after their children had grown up to start working. After having
devoted considerable time and effort the raising and educating what was
becoming fewer children in the home, most women went to work on a
part-time basis. (19)

The Japanese government issued a report entitled "The Restoration of
Humanities in the Community Life." About the same time, the Minister of
Education officially consulted with his Social Education Council on
"What should social education be like in the rapidly by changing social
structure?" On the equality front, the joint participation of men and
women in many fields was well in progress. In the latter half of the
1960s, Japan's national policy introduced the concept of volunteer work
as a part of both youth and women's education. In the 1960s, a
"volunteer center" was established in every prefecture to support
government efforts in the field of welfare. Some issues addressed by
volunteers were new community problems resulting directly from
stupendous growth including the destruction of nature, public pollution,
misuse of natural resources, the degradation of community social
structures resulting from industrialization, urbanization, and an
increase in the number of elderly people who lived alone. The
inhabitants of smaller communities wished to recreate the spontaneous
solidarity and cooperation in their communities they had known in their
youth. In order to help solve those problems, about 30 percent of the
women in their 30s and 40s took part in some kind of volunteer work.
(20)

At the same time, private culture centers run by educational and
cultural industries were becoming highly developed. Often a function of
profit-making broadcasting, department stores, railways and press
interests, these centers provided a tremendous number of opportunities
for exposure of the general public to a variety of national and
international educational and cultural exhibits.

International Women's Year---Growth of Feminist Consciousness 1975--1984

Women's liberation in Japan was characterized as a new cultural movement
aimed at the study of women. It's obstacles were, and are, many,
including the Patriarchy, Buddhism, Confucianism and the idea of the
vertical, male-oriented society that divides individuals into upper and
lower classes. One of the peculiarities of women's problems in Japan is
that women are unaware of their human individuality. According to
Confucian ethics, "Harmony is the Greatest Virtue" and Western
individualism has been denied as contradictory to social harmony. As a
result, women's primary value derived from their traditional role in the
family system. The "Good Wife and Wise Mother" have been regarded as
ideals for all women, regardless of personal aspirations. International
Women's Year in 1975 provided great impetus to Japanese women. (21)

The Japanese government carried out the most vigorous programs ever seen
in Japan with the aim of increasing equality between men and women and
thus raising the women's social status. In particular it worked
strenuously for the enactment of the Law for Employment Equality between
Men and Women.

The year of 1983 can be said to have been the first year of the new
media age in Japan. Today, various communication media, which have
effectively contributed to socio-economic development, have penetrated
deeply into our daily lives. They have played an important role in
economic and social change. It is up to the individual to find ways of
obtaining and managing appropriate information and knowledge for
personal and social benefit. Terms such as multimedia, Internet,
personal computer communication has become, familiar to us, but
understanding the meanings of these words is a different matter. There
are many that are illiterate in computer technology. There is a wide gap
in technical knowledge between computer users and non-users. This may be
partially due to people's ages. (22)

The development of information technology is faster and more intense
than was expected. Able individuals have been actively participating in
social changes that aim to develop a sustainable society. The government
encourages workers to keep up their vocational skills throughout their
working lives and tries to reduce their working hours and establish
systems of paid leave for educational and professional training.

Lifelong Learning Movement---Requirements of a Modern Society:
1984--1994

For the past 50 years the Japanese have chosen to use the term "social
education." For adult learning this term is probably the equivalent of
the term "liberal arts adult education" used in the West. This kind of
education does not necessarily lead to specific vocational or
professional qualifications, instead, the adult's main reason to learn
may be intellectual curiosity, cultural improvement, sports, improvement
in one's quality of life, mental satisfaction, or just for fun and
pleasure. "Lifelong learning" is used in Japan as the broadest of
learning terms, encompassing all learning activities including formal
education, sporting and cultural activities, recreation and out-door
activities. "Social Education" is just a part of the total lifelong
learning concept.

In the 1990s, Japan became a multilinguistic and multicultural society
with a great number of migrant workers and their families coming to
Japan. As of 1996, the number of foreigners living in Japan was
1,362,371 or 1.09 percent of the total population. The largest group was
Korean with 49 percent of the total foreigner population, followed by
Chinese at 16 percent, 13 percent were Brazilian, 5 percent were
Filipino, 3 percent were American, and 2 percent were Peruvian. A
realistic figure adds some 200-300,000 illegal migrant workers. After
the Immigration Law was revised in 1989, the number of 2nd and 3rd
generation Japanese-descendant Brazilians and Peruvians returning to
Japan with their families increased steeply. These are significant
numbers considering the Chinese-Confucianism culture of Japan, which has
a tradition of placing much value on blood linkage. (23)

The population of older adults has rapidly increased. The ratio of older
adults has doubled in a 24-year period to rise from 7 percent to 14
percent. As compared with other countries we can see a significant
difference: France 114 years, Sweden 82 years, the United States 69
years, the UK 64 years and Germany 42 years. Japan's Labor Laws set the
retirement age at 60 but most men choose to take another job until the
age of 65. Following their second retirement most men

embark on a third learning course. The pattern of Japanese working women
follows an M curve.

Many retire to start a family. After child rearing, it is difficult to
reenter the workforce on a full time basis so most work part-time. There
is a large demand for extra learning from women over the age of 35.

Due to the increase in leisure time during weekends for both school
children and adults, a group, or circle, and volunteer activities have
become popular methods for seeking to fulfill one's life by creating
unique lifestyles. Since 1992, the Ministry of Education and Science,
Culture, and Sports has proposed a conceptual design where people are
engaged in various kinds of volunteer activities consistent with their
knowledge or skills gained through lifelong learning programs. At the
Nagano Winter Olympiad, 32,000 volunteers worked there. However, we need
to study a social evaluation of volunteer activities that pays travel
expenses or lunch. It seems to me, volunteer activities promoted by the
public sector are the Japanese pattern of participation.

Contemporary society can be defined in such terms as "information
society," "the global society"or "the aging society." In these contexts,
Japanese people are seeking to change their lifestyles, to live with
more autonomy, individual fulfillment and cultural self-expression based
on their own original ideas and ability. A book entitled "Thought of
Seisin (honest poverty)" written by Koji Nakano was published in 1992
and it was a best seller. The book describes the lifestyle of a priest
of Zen Buddhism who, though lie had a minimal standard of living,
developed a high quality of thought. The books ideas warn against the
social climate of materialism. The people most influenced by these ideas
are hard working senior workers in their fifties who are retiring soon.
It is interesting that people in Europe and the United States of America
take an opposite view as compared to the Japanese. Americans work for
wealth in their retirement.

Present Learning Activities of Japanese Adults

In 1995, the total population of Japan was 125,569, 000 with 73 percent
of total population living in cities. The ratio of adult population
(over 20 years of age) was 64.3 percent. The ratio of the older adult
population, of those over 65 years of age was 15.6 percent. In the 1990s
Japan's Labor Laws set the retirement age at 60 but most men chooses to
take another job until the age of 65.

As of 1996, the number of foreigners living in Japan was 1.09 percent of
the total population. The largest group was Korean followed by Chinese,
Brazilian, Filipino, American, and Peruvian. A realistic figure adds
some 300,000 illegal migrant workers.

Learning Activities

*Illiterate People*

The Year of International Literacy was 1990, yet most Japanese people
are not aware of the domestic problem of illiteracy. They assume there
are no illiterates in Japan. However, there are a sizable number of
illiterates who wish to become literate. Because of the high economic
growth in Japan, nation­wide research on literacy has not been conducted
for 40 years. Therefore, the Japanese people are not aware of the
problem. However, approximations indicate that 3 million or 3 percent,
of the total population are illiterate. These are mostly the Buraku
people, members of a socially segregated group, and members of the Ainu
tribe. The largest groups among these are middle aged and older women.
Recently, the population of refugees from Vietnam and Cambodia in Japan
is high. Koreans, returnees from China, and workers from Asian countries
are adding to the increasing number of illiterates.

During the 1960s, the Buraku liberation movement expanded rapidly,
demanding the central government make a policy for the Buraku
liberation. After a special law was passed in 1969, the housing and
health environment with regard to Buraku people rapidly improved. But
even with these improvements, less than 20 percent of the Buraku
children go to universities, as compared to about 40 percent of Japan's
other children.

*Literacy Classes*

Literacy classes in Buraku communities are organized as a movement for
liberation. Literacy activities in Buraku communities began in the 1960s
with the rising liberation movement. Today, throughout Japan it is said
that there are 600 classes in literacy being conducted in Buraku
communities. As of 1986 there were 34 evening classes conducted at
junior high schools with 2,700 learners. To further these initiatives,
the Central Committee for the Year of International Literacy was
established in January 1990.

Some community centers offer learning opportunities in Japanese
Language. These classes are widely open to all people, not only Japanese
but also to Koreans, foreign workers from other Asian countries, as well
as foreign women who married Japanese. Besides "Literacy Class" there
are evening classes at Junior High Schools and Voluntary Literacy
Classes conducted by Koreans, such as the Mugi-mame Class (barley-beans)
in Osaka. (24)

*The Adult Learner*

According to a report entitled "Comprehensive Study on Educational
Planning of Lifelong Learning Society" conducted by National Educational
Research, the ratio of people enrolled in Social Education programs
conducted by cities, towns and villages during 1990 was 56 percent. The
learners, both men and women, increase in number by age groups---women
in their sixties

were the highest at 65 percent. The number of students who were enrolled
in the University on

Air was 66,730, of which males were 45 percent and females were 55
percent. As for age groups, the twenties were 27 percent, the thirties
23 percent, the forties 20 percent, the fifties 12 percent, and over
sixty was 11 percent.

Student preferences by majors at the University on Air are as follows:
Development and Education 26 percent, Life and Welfare 23 percent, Human
study 19 percent, Society and Economy 13 percent, Industry and Technique
10 percent, Understanding Nature 10 percent. As for their academic
backgrounds, high school graduates are 41 percent, junior college,
university and graduate school 28 percent.

*Content of Learning*

As for adult learners, the three highest concerns about the content of
learning are hobbies, sports and health care. As categorized by age
groups, the young highly prefer sports, vocational training, computers
and languages. Their concerns are active training and self-development
through vocational programs. To the contrary, the older adults highly
prefer hobbies, culture, current topics, health care and social
activities.

According to the answers collected by gender, men prefer to promote
their vocational knowledge, skills or technique, academic knowledge and
culture. To the contrary, women engaged in learning do so to promote
their happiness, health, friendships and life-refreshment. We may just
as well say men seek an immediate and direct effect from the programs
while women have an inclination for indirect benefits produced by the
programs.

In the past, it has been said that the enjoyment and promotion of
culture were purely for amusement. However, the situation has changed
with the increase in leisure hours on weekends for both school children
and adults. The aims of adult learners are two fold. These days every
citizen is expected to live an enriched life, aiming to develop his or
her personality to the fullest and striving to achieve self-fulfillment.
At the same time, adults have to participate in balanced, independent
social and economic development. Adult learning should be modified and
improved in response to recent changes in socio-economic and cultural
development.

*The Level of Learning*

In response to the question "What subjects did you learn most eagerly?"
The answers were as follows: at the beginner's level, 22 percent; at a
slightly more advanced level, 27 percent; at an even higher academic
level, 17 percent; unable to judge 24 percent. From this it can be said
that a variety of programs cover the beginners' level through higher
academic levels.

The primary factors that prevent participation in learning activities
are as follows: time 44 percent, location 23 percent, information 22
percent, expenditure 21 percent, and motivation 19 percent. The total
number of the adults who take part in lectures and classes offered
through Social Education was 73,710,000. The facilities and programs
offered by the Social Education Board and other non-public cultural
centers or services have rapidly increased in number in order to support
the vast number of learners. Universities and other school-based
education institutions have opened and offered their projects for the
public to support. (25)

Workers

The labor force participation rate was 64 percent in 1995, and the ratio
of unemployment was 3 percent. The proportion of females to total
employees was 39 percent in 1996. Japan's economy and society today is
confronted with rapid changes in industrial structure driven by
technological innovation and the progressive shift of company activities
overseas. This trend has accelerated the urgency of training human
resources capable of supporting business developments in high,
value-added sectors and new areas of industry.

In order to promote the cultivation of advanced human resources capable
of supporting high, value-added and new business areas, subsidies and
other assistance is available for employer groups and other
organizations that develop and implement systematic and planned
education and training along the lines of the advanced human resource
guidelines. The framework for human resources development are divided
into two categories, in private enterprises and public sector.

*In the Public Sector*

To promote occupational opportunities development for the unemployed or
those wishing to change their jobs, and to provide pre-employment
preparation for young persons, the National Government and prefectural
governments have established public human resources development
facilities, where efforts are being made to provide vocational training
matched to the needs of the workers and enterprises.

In particular, to meet the challenges of technological innovations in
recent times, microelectronics and office automation equipment are being
updated, and efforts are being made to enrich the contents of training.
The types and numbers of human resources development facilities are as
follows:

Polytechnic College (31)

Human Resources Development Centers (228)

Polytechnic Centers (65)

Long-terms advanced vocational training for graduates of upper secondary
schools

Long-term vocational training for graduates from lower or upper
secondary schools

Short-term vocational training for the employed and the unemployed

*Private Enterprises*

To ensure that as many enterprises as possible the Ministry of Labor
provides the following active measures for human resources development:

1.  Enterprises are encouraged to appoint a human resources development
    promoter who plays a central role in human resource development
    programs.

2.  At the Human Resources Development Service Center established in
    each prefecture, formation as well as advice and guidance concerning
    human resources development are provided to employers, by using the
    Ability Development Database System (ADDS).

3.  The following system of grants has been created to help employers
    provide their workers with vocational training, in line with the
    concept of lifelong human resources development:

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i.  Grants for Lifetime Development of Vocational Abilities

ii. Grants for dispatching workers to authorized Vocational Training

*Present Situation of Learning Through Workers' Self-learning*

According to the 1992 report, "The Learning of Working Life" by National
Institute of Educational Research, the purposes of learning by workers
of their own initiative was as follows: "development of ability directly
useful for job" 51 percent, "acquisition of qualifications outside the
company"28 percent, and, "expansion of personal far-sighted vision" 21
percent.

On the other hand, while the desire for learning as expressed in the
statement "expansion of personal far-sighted vision" is 58 percent,
"preparation for and acquisition of qualification for promotion within
the company" remains at 19 percent. On the other hand, items surveyed
such as, "acquisition for development of special ability or personal
ability" was 50 percent, "to foster international ways of thinking,
including foreign language study" was 47 percent. It shows that while
workers wish to learn a wide range of content, in fact they continue to
learn content that is relative to job performance. This indicates that
workers' self-directed learning is executed entirely apart from the
enterprise.

*Needs of Vocational Training of Enterprise and Workers*

According to the above referenced survey, there is a great gap between
what the enterprise provides and what the workers need. The workers'
needs are "education in office automation," "design of quality of one's
working life" and "fostering international ways of thinking which
includes a foreign language skill." These are the big three. However,
the most important three

needs of enterprises are "education for work administration," "education
for business," and "education of specialty skills." This means that
enterprises think of education as an enterprise-group education whereas
the workers seek personal learning.

In consideration of the fact that the most powerful motivation for
developing occupational abilities is the desire of workers to better
themselves, a system for supporting workers' self-learning has been
strengthened as an integral part of lifelong human resources
development. (26)

The Older Adult

According to the Basic School Survey, conducted by The Ministry of
Education, Sports and Culture (1997), 51 percent of 60-year-olds have
attended high school and only 10 percent have attended a junior college
or university. After 1954, these percentages rose significantly. The
ratio of those who go to high school (97 percent) and junior college or
university (39 percent) has increased rapidly.

Those older citizens who were educated have a rich depth of knowledge,
technique, and experience and pay attention to their health. They are
totally different from the image of a weakened individual and their
lifestyles are active. Some have the power to engage in a global market,
with far-advanced skills and information for understanding the impact of
globalization. Some are excellent in languages and computer skills.
Retirement surely is a turning point in life, but we are now in the age
of ageless, gender-free societies where men and women play many active
roles in the fulfillment of life as it exists in Japan. (27)

*Learning Activities of the Older Adult*

According to the 1996 report, "The Basic Survey on Social Life" by the
Statistics Bureau, Management and Coordination Agency, Japanese
Government, the ratio of the persons between the ages of 60--69 engaged
in learning or research is 20 percent. And over 75 years of age is 4
percent. As for topics of learning or research, the 60--69 year old
prefer "Art and Culture"-30 percent, "Current Topics"-25 percent and,
"Home Economics and Housekeeping"-24 percent. The over 75 population
sample prefer the following: "Arts and Culture"-33 percent, "Current
Topics"-26 percent, "Humanity"-22 percent, "Home Economics and
Housekeeping"-22 percent, and, "Medicine and Health Studies"-21 percent.
The older adults in Japan love their traditional culture and moreover
try to study current topics so that they might not fall behind the time.

*Activities of Older Adults*

The ratio of the older adult, those over 60, who participated in any
circles and, or groups is 63 percent of which the average class
participation per person is 1.8 circles or groups. On the other hand,
the typical responses to the question "why don't you participate?" are
that some have family affairs to attend to (34.2 percent), and others
are not sure of their physical strength and health. More than 70 percent
of those people who want to spend their thriving lives through

circle and/or group activities need to have active relations within
their communities. The ratio of the older persons in Japan who
participate in such group activities is higher than those of the United
States and Germany.

The ratio of Japanese people who in 1997 had graduated from high school
was 97 percent and from Junior College or university was 39 percent.
These rates have increased in past years. The level of Japanese adult's
learning require higher academic levels, not only high school level.
Lifelong learning in response to the needs of the public. With the sharp
decrease in the number of children 18 years of age and under,
universities and all of higher education, have had to change their
policies from the old system to new ones and accept adult students.

With the rapid development of computer technology and electronic
networking, governments and local agencies, as well as public
institutions including adult learning, are urged to engage in rapid and
radical change. This technology can be effective for volunteer
activities and networking. It can become a method of social
participation for expressing one\'s own opinion. Learning that uses
multimedia technology is at once both mutually engaging and
communicative. The key for educational purposes are networking, and
cooperative learning. Learning becomes a networking process and can
provide access to various kinds of educational resources.

The introduction of multimedia provides the result of mutual learning
and mutual teaching to the learners---a growing, shared knowledge base.
But, it requires the learner to be self-motivated, self-assertive, and
self-directed, and able to exercise good listening-skills and an
independent mind to become self-confident learners.

On the other hand, as the process of decentralization occurs and more
flexible administrative and management styles arise, former patterns of
centralization of administration and administrative initiative are
changing. The society is working together with the central government
and local government, administrative officers and citizens as partners.
Citizens are required to be more autonomous and actively participate in
the local administration of decision-making processes. In order to
participate in social, economic and cultural development of local
administration, learning about administration and politics such as law,
system, enclosure, administrative information, and, questioning the
authorities are necessary learning points for citizens.

The Central Educational Council of the Ministry of Education, Science,
Culture, and Sports published a report entitled "Japan's vision for
Education towards the 21^st^ Century." The concept of learning in the
report was "the power to live in and create an affluent society."
Needless to say, a healthy body is essential in order to survive in this
changing society. This fundamental idea for learning should be realized
as Japan approaches the 21^st^ century.

References

\(1\) Edwin 0 Reischauer, Japan: The History of Nation, 1970, Alfred A.
Knopp INC., United States of America.

\(2\) Sadao Nishijima, Chugoku Kodai Kokka and Higashi Ajia Sekai, 1983,
Tokyo University Press.

\(3\) Makoto Yamaguchi, *Adult Education from the Viewpoint of
Development Industrial Countries of the Far East,* Slovene Adult
Education Center, 1993, Ljubljana, Slovenia.

\(4\) Legged version edited with notes by Yoshio Gaeri, Confucian
Analects, 1950, Bunki Shoten, Tokyo.

\(5\) Makoto Yarnaguchi, *A Challenge of Internationalism and Community
Education in Japan.* Journal of Community Education, International
Community Education Association, 1989, Birmingham.

\(6\) An Illustrated Encyclopedia, Japan, pp.323--325, 1993, Kodansha,
Tokyo.

\(7\) Makoto Yamaguchi, *Cultural Development, Adult Education and Local
Communities,* Ryutsu Keizai Daigaku Shakaigakubu Ronso, 1993, Ryutsu
Keizai University Press, Ryugasaki, Japan.

\(8\) Yukichi Fukuzawa translated and notes by Teruhiko Hinotani,
Gakumon no Susume (An Enlightenment of Learning), 1989, Mikasa Shobo.

\(9\) Noboru Umetani, The Oyatoi Gaikokujin, Vol. 1, 1968, Kashima
Institute Publishing, Tokyo.

\(10\) An Illustrated Encyclopedia, Japan, pp. 323--325, Kodansha, 1993,
Tokyo.

\(11\) Makoto Yamaguchi*, Administrative Policy of Women's Education in
Japan after the World War II., The State and Adult Education- Historical
and Systematical Aspects,* edited by Franz Poggeler, 1990, Peter Lang,
Germany.

\(12\) Makoto Yamaguchi, *A Challenge of Internationalism and Community
Education in Japan,* Journal of Community Education, International
Community Education Association, 1989, Birmingham.

\(13\) Makoto Yamaguchi, Literacy Movement in Japan, Ryutsu
Keizaidaigaku Sakaigakubu Ronso, 1990, Ryutsu Keizai University Press,
Ryugasaki, Japan.

\(14\) Makoto Yamaguchi, Status of Women and Family Planning in Japan,
Proceedings of Asian Regional Conference on Women, Population and
Development, 1985, UNFPA.

\(15\) Makoto Yamaguchi, Rekishi no nakano Josei to Dansei, Joseigaku
Gairon, 1987, Aki Shobo. Tokyo.

\(16\) Makoto Yarnaguchi, *Japans Experience in Adult Civic Education
Convergence,* Vol.19 No.42, 1986, International Council for Adult
Education, Toronto.

\(17\) Ibid

\(18\) Ibid

\(19\) Makoto Yamaguchi, Women's Participation in Society and Lifelong
Education-Aims and Method of Re-Education, Courier No.34, Asian
South-Pacific Bureau of Adult Education, 1985. Tokyo.

\(20\) Makoto Yamaguchi, *Adult Education and Multi-Media Society in
Japan, Living and Learning*, 1997, Ryutsu Keizai Daigaku Shakaigakubu
Ronso, Ryutsu Keizai University Press, Ryugasaki, Japan.

\(21\) Makoto Yamaguchi*, Education and Culture in the Multi-ethnic
Society*, 1992, Ryutsu Keizai Shakaigakubu Ronso, Ryutsu Keizai
University Press, Ryugasaki, Japan.

\(22\) Makoto Yamaguchi, *Literacy Movement in Japan*, Ryutsu Keizai
Shakaigakubu Ronso, Vol.13, No.1, 1990, Ryutsu Keizai University Press,
Ryugasaki, Japan.

\(23\) National Institute for Educational Research, Shogai Dakushu no
Kenkyu, 1993, MTEI Publishing co., Tokyo.

\(24\) Ministry of Labor. White Paper 1997.The Japan Institute of Labor,
1997. Tokyo.

\(25\) National Institute for Educational Research, Shogai Gakushu no
Kenkyu, 1993, MTEI Publishing CO, Tokyo.

\(26\) Management & Coordination agency (Policy Office on the aging of
Society), White Paper on the Aging Society, 1997. Tokyo.

\(27\) Ministry of Health and Welfare (Minister's Office), Statistical
Report on Social Administration Services, 1995. Tokyo.