# Session No. 2

**Course Title: Disaster Response Operations and Management**

**Session Title: The Nature of Disaster**

## Time: 50 minutes

**Objectives:**

2.1 Provide background information about the different types of natural,
environmental, biological, technological, and human-induced/civil
hazards.

2.2 Explain why emergencies and disasters occur from a multi-causal
perspective.

2.3 Indicate the consequences of emergencies and disasters, including
detrimental results and degree of impact.

2.4 Highlight the changes that take place during the response phase of
emergency management.

**Scope:**

The purpose of this session is to help students understand the nature of
hazards, emergencies and disasters. The professor uses a group exercise
to discuss different types of hazards and then explains why emergencies
and disasters occur. The effects of these detrimental incidents are
mentioned in terms of injuries, deaths, destruction of
property/environment, and social disruption. A comparison of the
severity of accidents, crises, emergencies, disasters, calamities and
catastrophes is provided. The professor concludes the session with a
list of changes that take place when disaster occurs and as a community
initiates a response operation.

**Session Requirements:**

1\. Instructor Reading:

> Alexander, David. 1993. *Natural Hazards*. Kluwer: Boston.
>
> Cutter, Susan L. 2001. *American Hazardscapes: The Regionalization of
> Hazards and Disaster*s. Joseph Henry Press: Washington, D.C.
>
> FEMA. 1997. *Multi-Hazards Identification and Risk Assessment: A
> Cornerstone of the National Mitigation Strategy*. FEMA: Washington,
> D.C.
>
> Haddow, George and Jane Bullock. 2003. *Introduction to Emergency
> Management*. Butterworth-Heinemann: Burlington, Ma.
>
> Hoetmer, Gerard J. 1991. "Introduction." Pp. Xvii-xxxiv in Drabek,
> Thomas E. and Gerard J. Hoetmer, *Emergency Management: Principles and
> Practice for Local Government*. International City Management
> Association: Washington, D.C.
>
> McEntire, David A. 2006. "Knowing What to Expect." *Disaster Response
> and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for Resilience*. New York: Wiley.
>
> Mileti, Dennis S. 1999. *Disasters by Design: A Reassessment of
> Natural Hazards in the United States*. Joseph Henry Press: Washington,
> D.C.
>
> Smith, K. 2001. *Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing
> Disaster*. Routledge: New York.
>
> Tobin, G.A. and B.E. Montz. *Natural Hazards: Explanation and
> Integration*. The Guilford Press: New York.
>
> Waugh, William L. Jr. 2000. "Managing Natural Hazards and Disasters."
> Pp. 59-106 in *Living With Hazards, Dealing With Disasters: An
> Introduction to Emergency Management*. M.E. Sharpe: New York.
>
> Waugh, William L. Jr. 2000. "Managing Man-Made Hazards and Disasters."
> Pp. 107-152 in *Living With Hazards, Dealing With Disasters: An
> Introduction to Emergency Management*. M.E. Sharpe: New York.

2\. Student Reading:

> McEntire, David A. 2006. "Knowing What to Expect." *Disaster Response
> and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for Resilience*. New York: Wiley.
>
> Auf der Heide, Erik. 1987. "The Problem." Pp. 1-11 in *Disaster
> Response: Principles of Preparation and Coordination*.
> <http://coe.dmha.org/dr/flash/htm>.

3\. Handouts:

Types of Hazards

Changes Resulting from Emergencies and Disasters

**Remarks:**

1.  Before beginning the discussion for session 2, the professor may
    need to discuss assignments and tests (if this did not already occur
    in Session 1).

2.  Objective 2.1 may be covered through a class activity. Divide
    students into four or five groups and assign them a particular type
    of hazard (e.g. natural, environmental, biological, technological
    and human induced/civil). Ask the groups to identify the different
    types of hazards, emergencies and disasters that may occur in their
    assigned category. Give the students 10 minutes to develop their
    lists. Ask that a spokesperson mention the different hazards,
    emergencies and disasters that they discussed as a group. Note: it
    may be wise to combine the environmental and biological hazards in
    order to have a balanced list among each group.

3.  Illustrate the seriousness of emergencies and disasters by showing
    their adverse consequences.

4.  Indicate why the emergency manager should be aware of the changes
    that take place during and after a disaster.

**Objective 2.1 Provide background information about the different types
of natural, environmental, biological, technological, and other
human-induced/civil hazards.**

**Requirements:**

Involve the students in a discussion through a group activity.

**I. Divide students into groups** and ask them to develop a **list of
the different types of hazards** (e.g. natural, environmental,
biological, technological and human-induced/civil). Have each group
present their findings to the rest of the class.

**A. Natural Hazards**

> 1\. **Atmospheric**
>
> Hurricanes
>
> Thunderstorms/lightning/hail storms
>
> Tornadoes and other windstorms
>
> Winter storms/avalanches
>
> Heat waves
>
> 2\. **Geologic**
>
> Landslides
>
> Land subsidence
>
> Expansive soils
>
> 3\. **Hydrologic**

a.  Floods

b.  Storm surges

c.  Coastal erosion

d.  Droughts

e.  Tsunami

> 4\. **Seismic**

a.  Earthquakes

b.  Tsunamis

> 5\. **Volcanic**

a.  Eruptions

b.  Lava flows

> 6\. **Wildfire**

B. **Environmental Hazards**

> 1\. **Degradation of nature and depletion of resources**

a.  Pollution of soil, water or air

b.  Desertification (loss of productive soils)

c.  Global warming (due to pollutants)

d.  Deforestation

C. **Biological Hazards**

> 1\. **Disease outbreaks**
>
> Chicken Pox
>
> Measles
>
> Small Pox
>
> AIDS (HIV)
>
> Emerging threats (e.g., Avian Flu)
>
> 2\. **Infestations**

a.  Locust swarms

b.  Killer bees

c.  Mosquitos

D. **Technological Hazards**

> 1\. **Dam and other structural failures**
>
> 2\. **Fires**
>
> 3\. **Hazardous materials incidents**
>
> 4\. **Nuclear accidents**
>
> 5\. **Computer failures**

E. **Human Induced/Civil Hazards (those created by humans)**

> 1\. **Manufacturing accidents**
>
> 2\. **Transportation accidents**
>
> 3\. **Mass shootings**
>
> 4\. **Riots**
>
> 5\. **War**
>
> 6\. **Sabotage**
>
> 7\. **Terrorism**

II\. Note that many of these events do not act in isolation from one
another. Hazards are **hybrid, complex or compound** in nature.

A. **Natural hazards may initiate other natural hazards**

1.  An **earthquake** may lead to **landslides** or a **tsunami**

2.  A **hurricane** may produce **tornadoes** at landfall

B. **Natural hazards may initiate other technological hazards**

1.  A major **flood** may cause a **dam failure**

2.  A **lightning** strike may result in a **power failure**

C. **Technological hazards may initiate other natural/environmental
hazards**

1.  A **hazardous materials explosion** may create a **wildfire**

2.  A **nuclear accident** will lead to **environmental degradation**

D. **Natural/environmental hazards may initiate other biological/natural
hazards**

1.  Excessive **flooding** may result in a rise of **infectious
    disease**

2.  **Deforestation** may result in extreme **flooding**

E. **Human-induced/civil hazards may initiate other
technological/biological hazards**

1.  A **bombing** may lead to **fire**

2.  **Computer sabotage** may result in a **power failure**

3.  A **terrorist attack** may spread deadly **disease** around the
    country

F. **Other unique combinations**

1.  An **accident** on the highway may cause a **hazardous materials
    spill**

2.  Some people may **protest environmental degradation** which could
    turn into a **riot**

3.  The **derailment** of a train may produce a **wildfire**

4.  An **earthquake** may result in a **loss of power, phones and
    computer systems**

5.  A **hijacking** may cause a **plane crash and** **structural
    failure** (e.g. World Trade Center)

**Objective 2.2** **Explain why emergencies and disasters occur from a
multi-causal perspective.**

**Requirements:**

Present the following information as a lecture.

I.  Emphasize that the previous discussion illustrates that **hazards
    involve nature, the built environment and technology (see Mileti
    1999)**.

### A. **Nature**

> 1\. **A physical hazard agent**

a.  volcanic eruption

b.  excessive rain

c.  the rupturing of an earthquake fault

d.  etc.

#### B. **The built environment** {#b.-the-built-environment .unnumbered}

> 1\. **Structures and infrastructure**
>
> dams and dikes
>
> bridges
>
> edifices
>
> water and transportation systems
>
> etc.
>
> C. **Technology**

####### 1. **Power and phone systems**

> 2\. **Means of transportation** (vehicles, boats, airplanes, trains)

####### 3. **Manufacturing equipment**

####### 4. **Computers**

> 5\. **Etc**.

II\. Point out that **it is incorrect to equate hazards with
disasters**. It is certainly true that **hazards initiate or have an
impact upon disasters**. However, we must recognize that **humans play
major and varied roles** in disaster.

> A. A **disaster** only occurs when a **hazard interacts with the
> social environment**.

1.  An **earthquake** is a natural process that **reduces stress** among
    moving plates of the earth's crust

2.  A **wildfire** is a natural process by which **nature rejuvenates
    itself**

3.  **Droughts** and **floods** are the natural products of a dynamic
    physical environment

4.  **These events** become disasters when they **damage buildings,
    affect humans in an adverse manner or disrupt daily life**

###### B. Many of the hazard agents that lead to disaster are **human-induced** {#b.-many-of-the-hazard-agents-that-lead-to-disaster-are-human-induced .unnumbered}

1.  **Environmental degradation**

2.  **Transportation disasters**

3.  **Explosion** at a manufacturing plant

4.  **Social conflict**

### C. **Humans create vulnerability** which interacts with hazards to produce and magnify disaster

1.  Individuals and families **migrate to hazardous areas** (e.g. South
    to hurricane-prone locations and West towards earthquake-prone
    locations)

2.  Urban planners fail to stop the **development** of beach-front
    property, flood plains and along fault lines

3.  Buildings are **not constructed to withstand the forces** of nature
    or there is **no compliance with codes**

4.  The political system is **not willing to dedicate resources** to
    mitigation (due to a perception of high costs and uncertain
    benefits)

5.  Manufacturing firms **cut corners/ignore safety regulations** which
    puts employees and nearby residents at risk

6.  **People do not understand the risk** posed by hazards and
    **overlook the importance of preparedness** measures

7.  **Certain groups** (e.g. women, children, the elderly, the disabled,
    minorities, those in poverty) **may not be able to protect
    themselves** from hazards due to social, political, economic,
    physical or other constraints

8.  **Communities fail to plan, train and exercise** for important
    response and recovery operations

Objective 2.3 Indicate the consequences of emergencies and disasters,
including detrimental results and degree of impact

**Requirements:**

Present the following information as a lecture.

I.  State that the **interaction of hazards with humans
    vulnerabilities** generates many **negative consequences**.

### **People may be injured or killed**

1.  **Cut** by flying glass in a tornado

2.  **Wounded** internally during a car accident

3.  **Crushed** by a collapsed building after an earthquake

4.  **Drowned** due to flash flood

######## Property is damaged or destroyed

> 1\. **Homes** and people's belongings are **destroyed** by fires
>
> 2\. **Vessels are sunk** during hurricanes
>
> 3\. Private and public **buildings are flattened** by strong winds

#### **The environment is degraded**

1.  A **hazardous materials spill** may contaminate soil

> 2\. A **terrorist attack** may pollute our water resources
>
> 3\. A **nuclear accident** may spread radiation in the atmosphere

######## Daily activities are disrupted

1.  **Emergencies and disasters**:

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a.  **Do not allow bathing** as water lines may be broken

b.  **Prohibit sleeping** in one's bed if it was burned in a fire

c.  **Inhibit cooking** and eating if food is destroyed or power is out

d.  **Reduce the ability of a family to** **care for itself
    economically** due to the injury or death of the primary bread
    winner

e.  **Disrupt the flow of traffic** due to road closures and bridge
    collapses

f.  **Inhibit routine business transactions** because of downed phone
    and power lines

g.  **Limit the use of buildings** owing to structural damage

h.  **Hinder the sharing of information** if computers are destroyed

i.  **Discourage the performance of important government functions** as
    key leaders have been killed or employees are meeting with insurance
    adjusters to settle claims

j.  **Etc**.

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II. Note that the aforementioned **negative consequences** may be minor
    or major. These events may be labeled as **accidents, crises,
    emergencies, disasters, calamities or catastrophes** depending on
    the extent of the incident.

######### A. Accidents

> 1\. **Affect individuals** or a very small number of people (e.g. 1-5)
>
> 2\. **Produce minor damage** **and destruction** of property and the
> environment

### B. **Crises or emergencies**

> 1\. **Affect a group of people** (e.g. a family, small business or
> government department)
>
> 2\. **Produce a modest amount of damage and destruction** to property
> and the environment

### C. **Disasters**

1.  **Affect a significant portion of the community** (e.g. hundreds of
    people are left homeless)

2.  **Produce major damage and destruction** of property and the
    environment

### E. **Calamities and catastrophes**

> 1\. **Affect the vast majority of people** in several communities or
> even in a society (e.g. a county, state or country)
>
> 2\. Produce **overwhelming damage and destruction** of property and
> the environment

III\. Reiterate that **emergency managers** are mainly concerned with
larger events such as **mass emergencies, disasters, calamities and
catastrophes**.

> A. **First responders** can deal with **accidents, crises and smaller
> emergencies** without the assistance of emergency managers.
>
> B. **Emergency managers** are required when **an event outstrips the
> capacity** of emergency responders and/or local resources.

Objective 2.4 Highlight the changes that take place during the response
phase of emergency management.

**Requirements:**

Present the following information as a lecture.

I.  Large events such as emergencies and disasters also result in
    **significant changes** that have a bearing on emergency management.
    Dynes, Quarantelli and Kreps have identified (1972) six of these
    important changes.

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A.  **Uncertainty**. In the immediate aftermath of disaster there is a
    lack of information about:

> 1\. **What has happened**
>
> 2\. **Why it occurred**
>
> 3\. **The number of injured and dead**
>
> 4\. The **extent of the devastation**
>
> 5\. And **what is required for the emergency response.**

B. **Urgency**. Although there is a lack of knowledge about the nature
of the incident, virtually **everyone in the community will agree** that
there is a need to react quickly to emergencies and disasters.

1\. **Warnings** must be issued immediately

2\. **Injuries** must be treated right away

3\. **Roads** must be repaired as soon as possible.

###### C. **Emergency consensus**. After a disaster there is considerable **agreement about values and priorities**.  {#c.-emergency-consensus.-after-a-disaster-there-is-considerable-agreement-about-values-and-priorities. .unnumbered}

######  {#section .unnumbered}

###### 1. Individuals, groups, businesses, government departments, and political leaders **all concur that an emergency or disaster occurred**.  {#individuals-groups-businesses-government-departments-and-political-leaders-all-concur-that-an-emergency-or-disaster-occurred. .unnumbered}

######  {#section-1 .unnumbered}

###### 2. People are therefore **more likely to work together** to respond and take care of emergency and disaster needs. {#people-are-therefore-more-likely-to-work-together-to-respond-and-take-care-of-emergency-and-disaster-needs. .unnumbered}

###### D. **Expansion of citizenship role**. People are not only more willing to cooperate after an emergency or disaster, they are also more likely to become **involved in response activities**. This may include: {#d.-expansion-of-citizenship-role.-people-are-not-only-more-willing-to-cooperate-after-an-emergency-or-disaster-they-are-also-more-likely-to-become-involved-in-response-activities.-this-may-include .unnumbered}

1\. **searching for neighbors** who may be trapped under debris

2\. **caring for the wounded**

3\. and **providing relief supplies** to charitable organizations.

######  {#section-2 .unnumbered}

###### E. **De-emphasis of contractual relations**. Because it is vital that the response to any emergency or disaster take place as soon as possible, traditional **contract relations are set aside**. In other words: {#e.-de-emphasis-of-contractual-relations.-because-it-is-vital-that-the-response-to-any-emergency-or-disaster-take-place-as-soon-as-possible-traditional-contract-relations-are-set-aside.-in-other-words .unnumbered}

######  {#section-3 .unnumbered}

###### 1. **written agreements are always not used** (e.g. vending of goods and services).  {#written-agreements-are-always-not-used-e.g.-vending-of-goods-and-services. .unnumbered}

######  {#section-4 .unnumbered}

###### 2. People often participate in spontaneous **verbal agreements** to acquire personnel, equipment and services.  {#people-often-participate-in-spontaneous-verbal-agreements-to-acquire-personnel-equipment-and-services. .unnumbered}

######  {#section-5 .unnumbered}

###### 3. **Accounts and debts are settled** **later**, once the response phase has ended.  {#accounts-and-debts-are-settled-later-once-the-response-phase-has-ended. .unnumbered}

######  {#section-6 .unnumbered}

###### 4. In many cases, **resources will be donated** with no thought of reimbursement. {#in-many-cases-resources-will-be-donated-with-no-thought-of-reimbursement. .unnumbered}

> 5\. Note: This is not to imply that there are no contracts used in
> time of a disaster. **Fire departments**, for instance, often **have
> contracts** with **building material suppliers and safety equipment
> vendors**. These have been **approved by the city** and can be **put
> into effect** at an agreed upon price **with** a simple **phone**
> **call**.

###### F. **Convergence**. **People and material resources will flow to the scene** of an emergency or to a community that has experienced disaster.  {#f.-convergence.-people-and-material-resources-will-flow-to-the-scene-of-an-emergency-or-to-a-community-that-has-experienced-disaster. .unnumbered}

######  {#section-7 .unnumbered}

###### 1. This may include **volunteers**, **curious** **onlookers**, **reporters** from the media, **academic researchers**, **charitable organizations**, and **government departments**.  {#this-may-include-volunteers-curious-onlookers-reporters-from-the-media-academic-researchers-charitable-organizations-and-government-departments. .unnumbered}

######  {#section-8 .unnumbered}

###### 2. **First responders** with emergency vehicles will arrive, in addition to **generators**, **heavy equipment** and **medical supplies**.  {#first-responders-with-emergency-vehicles-will-arrive-in-addition-to-generators-heavy-equipment-and-medical-supplies. .unnumbered}

######  {#section-9 .unnumbered}

###### 3. **Food** will be donated to emergency workers and **cash and in-kind donations** will be sent to care for the victims. {#food-will-be-donated-to-emergency-workers-and-cash-and-in-kind-donations-will-be-sent-to-care-for-the-victims. .unnumbered}

G. Note that these changes have a significant **impact upon the**
decisions of the **emergency manager**.

> 1\. **Uncertainty** about what is taking place **makes decision making
> difficult**.
>
> 2\. The **urgent nature** of the incident makes an **expeditious
> response** necessary.
>
> 3\. A **consensus** about priorities **facilitates the performance**
> of important response functions.
>
> 4\. The **increased involvement of citizens** can be both
> **advantageous** and **disadvantageous** for the emergency manager (as
> people may help responders or get in their way).
>
> 5\. The **downplaying of contractual relations** helps the emergency
> manager **acquire resources quickly**.
>
> 6\. The **convergence of people and resources** is both a **benefit**
> and a **drawback**.
>
> 7\. On the one hand, **assistance and supplies may be needed** for the
> response. On the other hand, **too many resources or the wrong type of
> resources may be sent** to the scene or affected community.

Questions to be asked:

1.  What are the different types of hazards?

2.  How does one hazard interact or affect another hazard?

3.  Is a hazard the same thing as an emergency or a disaster? Why not?

4.  What makes a hazard become an emergency or disaster?

5.  What are the effects of an emergency or disaster?

6.  Are all emergencies and disasters the same in terms of scope or
    degree of impact?

7.  What are some of the changes that take place after a disaster?

8.  Why is it important for the emergency manager to be aware of these
    changes after disaster?

# 

# 

# Types of Hazards

A.  Natural Hazards

1\. Atmospheric

a.  Hurricanes

b.  Thunderstorms/lightning/hail storms

c.  Tornadoes and other windstorms

d.  Winter storms/avalanches

e.  Heat waves

> 2\. Geologic

a.  Landslides

b.  Land subsidence

c.  Expansive soils

> 3\. Hydrologic
>
> Floods
>
> Storm surges
>
> Coastal erosion
>
> Droughts
>
> Tsunami

1.  Seismic

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a.  Earthquakes

b.  Tsunamis

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2.  Volcanic

> Eruptions
>
> Lava flows

3.  Wildfire

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B.  Environmental Hazards

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1.  Degradation of nature and depletion of resources

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a.  Pollution of soil, water or air

b.  Desertification (loss of productive soils)

c.  Global warming (due to pollutants)

d.  Deforestation

# 

# 

# 

# Types of Hazards (continued)

C.  Biological Hazards

> Disease outbreaks

a.  Chicken Pox

b.  Measles

c.  Small Pox

d.  AIDS (HIV)

e.  Emerging threats (Avian Flu)

> Infestations

a.  Locust swarms

b.  Killer bees

c.  Mosquitos

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D.  Technological Hazards

> Dam and other structural failures
>
> Fires
>
> Hazardous materials incidents
>
> Nuclear accidents
>
> Computer failures

E.  Human Induced/Civil Hazards

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1.  Manufacturing accidents

2.  Transportation accidents

2\. Mass shootings

> Riots
>
> War
>
> Sabotage
>
> Terrorism

# Changes Resulting from Emergencies 

# and Disasters

(Dynes, Quarantelli and Kreps 1972)

Uncertainty

Urgency

Emergency Consensus

Expansion of Citizenship Role

De-emphasis of Contractual Relations

Convergence