[Natural Communities]{.underline}

(from the Silvio O. Conte National Fish and Wildlife Refuge Final Action
Plan and Environmental Impact Statement, October, 1995, U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Hadley, MA)

Overview

Wetlands

Palustrine wetlands

Tidal Salt Marshes

Freshwater and Brackish Tidal Wetlands

RAMSAR Designated Wetlands

Freshwater Marshes

Bogs

Fens

Wetland Trends

Rare and Exemplary Natural Communities

Overview

Many different plant communities exist, including common types of
wetlands, forests, and grasslands, as well as a number of rare
communities. Forests are the dominant land cover type and are increasing
as abandoned agricultural lands revert to forest cover. Generally, the
forests in the northern section of the basin are northern hardwood
(maple‑beech‑birch) at lower elevations and coniferous (spruce‑fir) at
higher elevations. Stretching southward into Massachusetts, the northern
hardwoods are intermixed with red and white pine. An oak‑hickory forest
predominates in the watershed\'s lower reaches. Other upland plant
communities include grasslands maintained for pastures, hayfields,
airports, and closed landfills; shrubby fields which occur as abandoned
fields experience plant succession; orchards; and cultivated fields.

Wetlands

Restoring and maintaining the integrity of wetlands and other waters is
one of the purposes mentioned in the Conte Act. The Connecticut River
watershed contains approximately 257,000 acres of wetlands (Table 3‑7)
which represents approximately 3.6% of the land in the watershed (7.2
million acres). These wetland estimates are based on the percent of each
county in the watershed times the total number of wetland acres of that
type in each county. Of the four states, Massachusetts has the most
wetlands in the watershed (39%) (Figure 3‑6). The Fish and Wildlife
Service\'s National Wetland Inventory acreage estimates were used for
the

States of Massachusetts, Connecticut and Vermont (in New Hampshire, the
best available data was 1973 USGS land cover data). The National Wetland
Inventory figures should be considered conservative because of the
inherit limitations of the mapping techniques used. National Wetland
Inventory maps do not identify farmed wetlands, except cranberry bogs.
Also, some of the drier wetland soils areas are hard to identify by
aerial photo interpretation and may require extensive field checking.

Palustrine wetlands

The majority of the Connecticut River watershed wetlands are palustrine
wetlands. The majority of the palustrine wetlands are deciduous forested
wetlands. The second largest group of palustrine wetlands are
forested/scrubBshrub wetlands followed by scrubBshrub/emergent wetlands.

Forested wetlands vary from wetlands having standing water for only a
small part of the year to wetlands which are quite wet and have
seasonally flooded and/or saturated surfaces for a large part of the
year. Red maple swamps are the dominant type of forested wetland in the
watershed. They reach their greatest abundance in the southern part of
the watershed. Red maple swamps occur in a wide range of settings and
provide habitat for a large variety of species, including several
wetlandBdependent species. Studies have demonstrated that red maple
swamps constitute significant habitat for amphibians (Golet et al 1993).

Riverine floodplain forests are usually dominated by silver maple (*Acer
saccharinum*), cottonwood (*Populus deltoides*), and black willow
(*Salix nigra*). Many of these floodplain forests have been lost.

In the northern part of the watershed, in the conifer forest region, the
wetter areas support spruceBfir and northern white cedar swamps.
Forested wetlands tend to have more birds as well as the number of bird
species nesting in a given area than upland forested sites (Newton
1988).

Many forested wetlands contain vernal pools (pools that form in the
spring, but dry up later in the year). They are becoming rare and some
species of wildlife are totally dependent upon them for their survival.
Some amphibians such as the wood frog (*Rana sylvatica*) and all species
of mole salamanders (genus *Ambystoma*) breed exclusively in vernal
pools. It is important that a large wooded area around each vernal pool
not be disturbed because these areas provide important functions, such
as feeding, shelter and overwintering areas. Massachusetts is the only
state in the watershed to certify vernal pools. Vernal pools are
sensitive to developmental pressures and are very hard or impossible to
replace.

Tidal Salt Marshes

The second largest group of wetlands in the Connecticut River watershed
are estuarine wetlands which are located in the lower part of the
mainstem of the Connecticut River. Estuarine wetlands are influenced by
tidal and freshwater flows. The lower part of the Connecticut River is
considered the most pristine largeBriver tidal marsh system in the
Northeast (State of Connecticut et al 1994). The wetlands located at the
mouth of the Connecticut River are intertidal marshes vegetated by
grasses such as smooth cordgrass (*Spartina alterniflora*), salt hay
grass (*Spartina patens*), spike grass (*Distichlis spicata*), black
grass (*Juncus gerardii*) and other saltBtolerant plants. Salt marshes
are considered among the most productive ecosystems in the world.

Freshwater and Brackish Tidal Wetlands

Further upstream, the Connecticut River has extensive, high quality
freshwater and brackish tidal wetland systems which provide essential
habitat for several federallyBlisted species, species at risk and
globally rare species, including wintering bald eagles, shortnose
sturgeon, piping plover, and Puritan tiger beetle. This area provides
significant American black duck habitat for breeding, wintering, and
migration. It serves as an important movement corridor for migratory
birds, especially waterfowl, rails, many species of neotropical
migrants, and raptors. Within this group of wetlands, wild rice
(*Zizania aquatica*) marshes are considered rare and valuable and
function as significant resting and feeding areas for waterfowl,
shorebirds, and especially the sora rail (*Porzana carolina*).

RAMSAR Designated Wetlands

The lower Connecticut River tidal wetlands complex has been designated a
\"Wetland of International Importance\" by the Ramsar Convention. The
Ramsar Project area contains 20,570 acres and consists of 20 discrete
major wetland complexes (State of Connecticut et al 1994). The Ramsar
designation is used for wetland complexes that have international
significance in terms of ecology, botany, zoology, limnology, or
hydrology. The lower Connecticut River tidal wetlands complex is
considered the best example of this type anywhere in the northeastern
United States.

Freshwater marshes

Nontidal freshwater marshes are important wetlands to protect because of
their high biological productivity and importance to wildlife. In the
Connecticut River watershed, many of these marshes form in old oxbows or
where beaver dams create temporary ponds. Marshes may be shallow or
deep, with water levels ranging from a few inches to several feet.
Marshes support a variety of emergent plants such as cattails
(*Typhaceae*), grasses(*Gramineae*) and sedges (*Cyperaceae*). Some
extremely rare plants species grow in these freshwater marshes,
including the northeastern bulrush.

Bogs

Another important wetland type in need of protection is bogs. Bogs are
poorly drained acidic wetlands which form a floating mat of vegetation.
Bogs vary from small floating mats along the edges of ponds to peat
filled watersheds that may be as deep as 100 feet. Bogs contain unique
plant communities specifically adapted to survive on few nutrients. The
dominant vegetation is sphagnum moss (*Sphagnum spp.*). Other
characteristic plants in bogs include tamarack (*Larix laricina*), black
spruce (*Picea mariana*), sweet gale (*Myrica gale*), orchids
(*Platanthera spp.*), and leatherleaf (*Chamaedaphne calyculata*) (The
Nature Conservancy 1985). Due to their uniqueness and their extreme
sensitivity to disturbances, bogs are given the highest priority for
protection under New Hampshire state law RSA 483BA.

Fens

Calcareous wetlands (fens) support a lush and diverse flora and a number
of rare plants (Dowhan and Craig 1976). These calcium rich wetlands host
various orchids and sedges, particularly calciumBloving species such as
chestnutBcolored sedge (*Carex lasiocarpa*). Besides protecting these
wetlands, it is important to protect the surrounding aquifers as well,
so that importance alkaline rich springs continue to flow through the
calcareous wetlands.

Overall wetlands trends in the watershed ‑ Unfortunately, a significant
portion of the wetlands in the watershed have already been destroyed or
degraded (anywhere from 35% to 74% loss). Although the conversion and
loss rates have been reduced due to the increased effectiveness of state
and federal regulations, incremental losses continue to occur due to
exempted filling and those permits which are granted under the
provisions of the Clean Water Act (Chapter 1). A net loss of wetlands in
both quantity and functional quality is anticipated if current practices
continue.

Wetlands trends in Connecticut ‑ The Connecticut Department of
Environmental Protection states that Connecticut may have lost 40B50 %
of its freshwater wetlands and approximately 65 % of its coastal
wetlands (Metzler and Tiner 1992). Tiner, Stone and Gookin (1989)
completed a wetland trend analysis for central Connecticut comparing
1980 aerial photos with 1985/86 photos. The study area covered 780
square miles and contained 28,177 acres of wetland (6% of the area).
Vegetated wetlands were the most abundant type (91%). A total of 117
acres of vegetated wetlands were converted to nonwetland and 28 acres
were made into ponds. Palustrine emergent wetlands (59 acres) and
forested wetlands (53 acres) experienced the biggest losses. Although
this 1989 study covers only part of the Connecticut River watershed, it
provides the best available information on what is occurring in the
watershed. Commercial development and highway/road construction were the
most significant causes of wetland loss. Also, there were losses due to
golf courses and home construction.

Another serious threat to wetlands is the discharge of materials (direct
discharges of industrial and municipal waste and indirect discharges of
urban and agricultural runoff) into waters and wetlands which degrades
water quality and functional value for wildlife habitat. The most
threatened wetlands are located close to urban areas.

Large acreage of floodplain wetlands have been filled and/or diked for
industrial and commercial development along the Connecticut River in
Hartford and East Hartford. With a substantial increase in development
activity and land values, impacts to wetlands are not likely to decrease
in the near future. It has been estimated that even with Connecticut\'s
strong wetland regulatory program, 1,200 to 1,500 acres of inland
wetland will be filled each year (Council of Environmental Quality
1986).

Wetland trends in Massachusetts ‑ A National Wetland Inventory analysis
(Tiner 1992) estimates that currently 6 to 7% of Massachusetts is
classified as wetlands. According to Tiner (1987), 16.5% of
Massachusetts consists of hydric soils (the percent of hydric soils may
be used to represent an estimate of the original wetland acreage). This
means Massachusetts has loss between 58% and 64% of its wetlands
(Commonwealth of Massachusetts 1988).

A 1978 U.S. Soil Conservation Service report estimated an annual
statewide wetland loss rate of .4% (compared to U.S. average loss rate
of .5%B1.0% in the mid 1970\'s). In Massachusetts, the primary cause of
wetland loss has been urbanization. The 1988 Wetlands Report and Action
Plan (Commonwealth of Massachusetts 1988) lists agriculture, road
construction and other buildings as the chief cause of wetland loss in
Massachusetts. Inland wetlands are lost to agricultural conversions
because they do not require section 404 permits. Such activities are
usually either covered by nationwide permits or are exempt because they
entail no dredge or fill activities.

Wetland trends in Vermont ‑ Vermont has lost as much as 35% of its
original wetland acreage (Parsons 1988). Approximately half of the
wetlands lost have been palustrine emergent marshes. Wetlands continue
to be lost at a rate of 100B200 acres annually (State of Vermont 1993).
In Vermont, road construction, residential and commercial development,
as well as the draining of wetlands for agricultural production, account
for the majority of the loss

Wetland trends in New Hampshire ‑ There are no known wetland trends
studies completed in New Hampshire part of the watershed. The New
Hampshire Wetlands Priority Conservation Plan (New Hampshire Office of
State Planning 1989) lists agriculture as the major cause of freshwater
wetland losses. Wetlands have been drained for timber cutting, and
ditched and drained for hay, grain, forage, and vegetable crops. Also,
the Plan states that inland wetlands have been lost to road and highway
construction, building construction, and peat and mineral/gravel mining.
According to the Plan, there has been a net loss of wetlands in New
Hampshire and the quality of many existing wetlands has been reduced by
adverse environmental impacts, developmental pressures, and improper
land use management practices. The New Hampshire wetlands permitting
process allows the filling of approximately 50 acres of wetland per year
(New Hampshire Office of State Planning 1989).

Rare and Exemplary Natural Communities

The four‑state natural heritage programs track \"rare and exemplary\"
natural communities. Communities are groups of plants which
characteristically occur together because they thrive under the same
environmental conditions. Certain animal species are also associated,
but not as predictably; animal species are not used in characterizing
for classification purposes. Common types of communities are described
by the major forest types, for example, white pineBnorthern red
oakBwhite ash or sugar mapleBbeechByellow birch. Rare communities
consist of groups of plants which are specialized to better withstand or
compete under certain conditions. These conditions, in turn, occur only
in very limited areas. Examples of this would be alpine, calcareous, and
trap rock ridge communities. In other instances, human activities within
the watershed have caused once common vegetative communities to become
rare; many of the Connecticut River\'s extensive floodplain forests
having been cleared for agriculture. For a more complete discussion of
the causes of rarity, Dowhan and Craig (1976). Exemplary communities are
sites containing the best example of a particular community type.

One hundred and twenty‑five different types of plant communities are
listed. The overall number of types which are actually distinct is less
than 125, because communities are named in a slightly different way in
each state. This means that the same community may have several
different names. The Nature Conservancy is currently refining a
standardized classification which would allow the different community
names used in each state to be reliably correlated. No attempt was made
in this analysis to lump any types together.

Each community type also has one to many sites. The total number of
community sites is 605. Eighty‑six percent of the community types have
10 or fewer sites.