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![](media/image3.jpeg){width="5.220138888888889in"
height="7.227777777777778in"}***Elementary School***

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# Section 2 -- Just the Facts

**The Significance of Carlsbad Caverns National Park**

These statements explain why the park is important to our natural and
cultural heritage:

-   Carlsbad Caverns National Park, a world heritage site, contains
    large caves of world-class importance that have beautiful and
    diverse speleothems (cave formations); the Big Room in Carlsbad
    Cavern is the largest, most easily accessible chamber in North
    America.

-   Lechuguilla Cave is the deepest limestone cave in the United States;
    it contains speleothems and microbes found nowhere else in the
    world.

-   Carlsbad Caverns National Park preserves a portion of the Capitan
    Reef---one of the best preserved, exposed Permian-age fossil reefs
    in the world. The park's caves and canyons provide visitors with
    unique opportunities to view this reef from the inside.

-   Capitan Reef has exceptional potential for additional cave
    discovery, exploration and research.

-   The park contains one of the few protected portions of the northern
    Chihuahuan Desert ecosystem.

-   Carlsbad Cavern has a world-famous colony of migratory Mexican
    free-tailed bats.

-   Many species of plants and animals in the park are at the limits of
    their geographic distribution, including the northernmost and one of
    the largest colonies of migratory cave swallows in the United
    States.

-   The park's cultural resources represent a long and varied continuums
    of human use starting in prehistoric times and illustrating many
    adaptations to the desert environment.

-   Capitan Reef provides extraordinary scenic vistas, both from the top
    of the escarpment and from the rugged canyons below; the quality of
    these vistas depends on excellent air quality.

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**A Good Scientific Investigation**

A good scientific investigation is not just one experiment. It is a
long-term series of related experiments. A good investigation will be
characterized by the following:

-   It is as specific as possible.

-   All factors are held constant except for the one factor being
    tested.

-   It has a control. The control proves that the factor being tested
    actually caused the result being observed. It is a basis for
    comparison.

-   It is extensive, continuing for a period of time and testing a large
    population.

-   The student doing the investigation records each phase of work in a
    journal. The journal includes the thought processes the student
    followed, the work that led up to his/her experiment, the
    investigative techniques that were used, the results of each test,
    the problems that were encountered, and the solutions to the
    problems. Charts are also included in the journal to help organize
    the data collected.

-   Its results are measurable or countable.

-   Its experiments are repeated several times and the results are
    averaged.

-   Its results are compared to known data.

-   Its results are presented in charts and graphs. A good graph is
    neatly drawn, is large enough to be clearly seen, uses color or
    texture to clearly show a difference among items being graphed
    together, has limited items to prevent confusion, includes a key to
    explain colors or symbols, has a title and tells a purpose, and has
    labels for each axis to indicate what they represent and what
    measuring units are used.

**Any *science fair exhibit* should contain the following:**

-   problem

-   purpose

-   hypothesis

-   data

-   results

-   conclusions

-   materials

-   variable

-   procedures

**The six steps to the *scientific method*:**

-   State the problem.

-   Gather information.

-   Formulate a hypothesis.

-   Test the hypothesis, limiting the number of variables to one.

-   Record and analyze any changes.

-   State the conclusion.

When all is said and done, *scientists sometime disagree*. Even when
utilizing the data collected from the same study, scientists may draw
different conclusions. Yet, as non-scientists, we often feel we must
accept whatever the experts write or say. But when they disagree, whom
do we believe? How do we draw our own conclusions from the research? How
do we know what is fact and what is really theory?

**Below are a few questions that a non-scientist may attempt to answer
to decide for himself/herself if something is *fact* or *theory*:**

-   Was the *idea* or *fact* tested through observation and
    experimentation?

-   Is the *idea* or *fact* based on an assumption?

-   Is the *idea* or *fact* consistent with other scientific laws; such
    as, the law of biogenesis, the law of heredity, the laws of logic,
    the laws of probability, the 1st law of thermodynamics; the 2nd law
    of thermodynamics?

-   Was the *idea* or *fact* tested in such a manner that all things
    were considered - the actual structure of what was being tested and
    its chemical nature, etc.?

-   Does circular reasoning or *scientific reasoning* support the *idea*
    or *fact*?

-   Does the *idea* or *fact* sound sensible or does it conflict with
    what you are able to observe in nature?

If you read or hear something that just does not make sense to you,
***investigate***. It may be nonsense!

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**Fires at Carlsbad Caverns National Park: Foe or Friend?**

**A Healthy Force of Nature.** The underground world is only half the
story of Carlsbad Caverns. The park is located in the Chihuahuan Desert,
a rich land where a wide diversity of plant and animal communities
lives. Natural forces and processes constantly touch its landscape. Long
droughts, torrential downpours, strong winds, lightning and wildfires
all help shape the desert ecosystem.

Of all natural processes, fire is the least understood and accepted.
Yet, it receives lots of attention because of its unmistakable
signature---**smoke**!

Researchers believe large fires have occurred in the park about every 25
years. Fire is the most influential ecological disturbance of the park's
plant and animal community. Fire has played a major role in shaping the
grasslands, which once dominated the park landscape. Because fire
releases nutrients into the soil, the fire cycle is needed to maintain
nature's balance within the Chihuahuan Desert ecosystem. Without it, the
soil would not be able to support its large number and variety of plant
and animal communities.

During the first part of the 20th Century, many land managers thought
fire was bad. A massive and very successful effort was made to teach
fire prevention and to suppress wildland fire. Fires were extinguished
as soon as they were spotted. The United States did a good job, in fact,
too good of a job, extinguishing all fires. Although unplanned fires are
often deadly, not all fires deserve a bad reputation.

**Types of Fire.** Today, all land management agencies make a clear
distinction between types of fire. Wildfires are unwanted fires and are
suppressed. Wildland fires, caused by nature's lightning, are closely
monitored and allowed to burn within limits. Sometimes fire fighters
plan, start and monitor fires for a healthy ecosystem. Today, these
planned fires are called management- ignited fires and are allowed to
burn within the limits spelled out in the fire plan for the area.
Sometimes fires started by lightning or by management get out of control
and become wildfires.

When fire managers plan a fire, they do their best to make sure the
conditions are right to meet the goals of the plan. Managers consider
the following:

-   relative humidity

-   temperature

-   wind speed

-   wind direction

-   fuel moisture of the vegetation

**Why Fire is Beneficial.** Prescribed fire is an essential tool in our
attempt to restore the park's out-of-balance ecosystem. Fires are
planned for these reasons:

-   **Fire reduces hazardous fuels that accumulate on the ground**.
    Forests and rangelands produce undesirable vegetation that ignites
    readily when dry. A destructive wildfire results when of large
    amounts of vegetation, much of it dead, is ignited.

-   **Fire improves wildlife habitat**. Small fires cause woody
    vegetation to regenerate and re-sprout, resulting in palatable and
    nutritious food to wildlife. As thickets of dead and down trees are
    removed, new areas become accessible to wildlife.

-   **Fire removes noxious and competitive weeds**. Harmful plants are
    either killed or injured by fire, depending upon how intense the
    fire and how long the plants are exposed to heat.

-   **Fire is used to enhance landscapes**. Fire increases the number
    and visibility of flowering annuals and maintains open spaces. A
    diversity of vegetation also attracts a wider variety of animal
    life.

-   **Fire releases nutrients into the soil**. It is an important agent
    in recycling nutrients found in living and dead plant materials. The
    growth potential for surviving new plant life improves. But without
    fire, nutrients may not be sufficiently released into the soil for
    new plant life to emerge.

-   **Fire improves grazing**. Park rangers and forest rangers are not
    the only ones who use fire as a resource management tool. Ranchers
    use fire to improve gazing. When a fire is well planned and done
    correctly on ranch lands, the result is forage for cattle. The
    quality and quantity of grasses and forbs increase because dead
    materials are removed allowing new growth that is high in protein,
    phosphorous and calcium.

**Fires Caused by Lightning.** Lightning causes seventy six percent of
the fires in Carlsbad Caverns National Park. These prairie and woodland
fires are well documented in historic records from the late 19th
Century. Tree ring studies have documented fir scars hundreds of years
back. Most of these fires were relatively small, but have burned up to
tens of thousands of acres.

Once a lightning fire is detected, park rangers assess the situation.
Instead of rushing in and putting the fire out, they answer a few
questions:

-   Are conditions right for this fire to reduce fuels under the best
    conditions?

-   Is there a threat to life, property, historical or cultural
    resources?

-   Will the long term weather patterns help support the decision?

If these variables are all favorable, then park rangers begin strict
monitoring procedure and allow the fire to burn. If any of these
variables change, the fire is reclassified as a wildfire and is
extinguished.

**Fire Studies.** Management-ignited prescribed fires are set at two or
three locations each year at Carlsbad Caverns National Park. Along the
park roadways you will notice a greater diversity of plant and animal
life in the burned areas. Past research indicates that carefully managed
fires increase the biological diversity of the park. Studies are
underway on the effects of fire on plant colonization and distribution.
The data will guide the park's prescribed fire program, which is aimed
at restoring fire as a force in shaping the ecosystem.

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**The Bats of Carlsbad Caverns and Elsewhere**

***P**lease **P**rotect **P**est Controllers, **P**lanters and
**P**ollinators!*

It's a bird; it's a plane; **it's a bat**! A bat is the only mammal that
can fly. Its scientific name is [Chiroptera]{.underline}
(Ki-ROP-ter-ah), meaning *hand-wing*. I guess you can say a bat is handy
to have hanging around. After all, bats are great for the ecosystem.
Most eat tons and tons of harmful insects. Some species help plant
rainforests, while others pollinate plants. The thousand species of bats
are divided into two main groups---Megachiroptera (big hand-wing) and
Microchiroptera (small hand-wing). We will call them megabats and
microbats.

**Eyes, Ears, Echoes and Eatables.** Most bats are microbats. They live
just about everywhere but the polar regions. That's because there isn't
much food to munch on at the poles.

Microbats are known for their sound system-echolocation. They produce
high-pitched sounds that humans cannot hear. These sounds bounce off
objects. By listening to their echoes, these bats are able to judge
size, distance and movement of everything in their path. Flaps of extra
skin on their ears and noses help microbats catch their echoes.

The bats in the United States are mostly insectivores. Using
echolocation, they identify moths, mosquitoes and various they flying
insects. Bats usually catch prey in their mouths, but sometimes use the
skin flap between their legs to catch insects.

Megabats have large eyes and long noses. Some megabats live in the
tropics and eat fruits---frugivores. They swallow the fruit juices and
spit out the flesh and seeds of the fruit. The fruit bat is believed to
be nature's most important seed-dispersing animal. Plants that are
dependent upon the fruit bats include bananas, breadfruit, carob
avocados, dates, figs, peaches, cloves, mangos, cashew nuts, and agaves.

One megabat species echolocates. It makes a non-ultrasonic clicking
sound that echoes off cave walls. Once the bat is outside its dark
roost, it uses its eyes to look for food.

A few bats are carnivores. They eat meat-small mammals, frogs, other
bats and fish. Fish eating bats are piscivores. They use echolocation to
detect ripples on the water's surface made by fish.

Nectivores pollinate flowers as they feed on pollen and nectar. These
bats have long tongues that can reach down into flowers and lap up
nectar.

Less than one percent of bats feed on blood. These vampire bats are
called sanguivores. They live in Mexico, Central America and South
America. There are only three species of vampire bats. Two of the three
species feed on the blood of birds, and the other species drinks the
blood of mammals-mostly cattle.

If you are worried about a vampire bat sucking your blood, better keep
your toes covered! That's right. A bat is more likely to suck the blood
from your toes than from your neck.

But should you go through life worried about catching rabies? No, not
from bats. Very few bats are rabid (far less than one percent), and
therefore rabies transmission from bats to humans is extremely rare. On
average, there is less than one human death per year from bat rabies,
which means that you have a far better chance of being hit by lightning.
However, you should still take precautions: as with any other wild
animal, avoid touching bats. Be sure that your cats and dogs receive
their rabies shots; your own pets are more likely to carry rabies.

**Sleep in Peace.** Bats are nocturnal, flying in darkness searching for
food. During the day, they sleep hanging upside down. Bats huddle
closely together. Hundreds can hang out together in a single,
square-foot space!

Only bats that live in temperate climates hibernate. Hibernation allows
their body temperature to cool down. To conserve body fluids, bats
hibernate in cool, damp places like caves. However, Mexican free-tailed
bats at Carlsbad Caverns do not hibernate, they migrate south.

Hibernating bats should not be awakened before they are ready. The
thirty-minute waking process causes bats to use much of their stored
fat. If they cannot find food to replace their lost energy, they die.

**Papa Bat, Mama Bat and Baby Bat.** Papa bats and mama bats have baby
bats---pups. Female bats of the same species gather in nursery colonies
to give birth to and raise their pups. Colonies of bats often gather in
caves.

Mexican free-tailed bats and most other bats have only one pup a year.
Any more than two pups would weight down the mother, making flying very
difficult.

Pups usually develop quickly, taking only six to nine weeks to become
adult bats. They usually fly for the first time when they are three or
four weeks old. By this time, they have permanent teeth, having already
lost their milk teeth. Pups keep the Tooth Fairy busy!

Five hundred pups can roost in a one-square-foot area of a cave ceiling.
These crowded conditions keep the babies warm. The warmer the pups, the
faster they grow.

Mother bats leave their babies behind to find food. At sunrise, do you
think a mother bat can return to the roost and locate her own pup, among
thousands all huddled together? The answer is yes! We aren't positive
HOW, but perhaps the nose knows. It is commonly thought that a mother
bat identifies her own pup by recognizing its odor. Perhaps the mother
also recognizes her pup's clicking sounds.

**Yucky Guano!** Some caves have million of bats living in them. At
Carlsbad Caverns National Park research is being done to determine just
how bats are living in the cave. Park rangers estimate that there are
currently between three and five hundred thousand bats. All these bats
translate into deep piles of guano!

Jim White, who explored Carlsbad Caverns a hundred years ago, estimated
that a hundred-thousand tons of guano (bat droppings) were mined from
the cave back in the early 20th Century. The guano was used to fertilize
citrus groves in Southern California. Since becoming a National Park
site, no guano has been mined.

Guano is more than a fertilizer. Many tiny creatures live and feed on
the guano. Larger creatures eat the tiny creatures. It's part of a
food-chain.

Who in their right mind would wade through tons of guano for the sake of
education? Students might ask their teachers. Some Carlsbad teachers
have braved the odor of bat guano. And for what? Just to go back to
their classrooms and share first-hand knowledge of Bat Cave.

**A Bad Rap!** Bats don't deserve a bad reputation; they deserve a bat
reputation. Bats don't get tangled in hair; they aren't flying mice;
they aren't dirty; they aren't blind; and they aren't evil.

Bats have only a few natural enemies. Their predators include owls,
hawks, and snakes. People are bats worst enemies. People ruin bat
habitats when they clear forest and pollute. They kill hibernating bats
by waking them. And some people even deliberately kill bats because they
believe the bat myths.

However, bats have a fast growing number of friends. Many countries have
laws to protect these beneficial creatures. Often cave entrances are
covered with grating through which bats can go, but people cannot. Bat
houses are becoming so popular throughout the world, that highway
departments are building bridges that attract bats.

The City of Carlsbad, New Mexico is a bat friendly community. It is home
to the International Bat Festival where bat education is fun for the
whole family.

One way to remember WHY people today are protecting bats, is to think
**P**. Bats are **p**est controllers, **p**lanters and **p**ollinators.

**Batty Facts.**

-   Fifteen species of bats inhabit Carlsbad Caverns National Park.

-   The bat is the symbol of happiness in many parts of the world.

-   Some bats reach speeds of 60 miles (97 kilometers) per hour.

-   Some bats live 32 years are longer, although most live fewer than 20
    years.

-   In the United States, rabid bats are rare; less than 1/2 of 1% carry
    rabies.

-   Bats are the only major predators of night-flying insects.

-   The smallest bat species weighs less than a penny and is about the
    size of a bumble bee.

-   The largest bat species has a wing of 5\'5\" and weights about 2
    pounds.

-   The total population of bats is estimated to be more than ten
    billion.

-   Some bats reach an altitude of 10,000 feet (3,048 meters.)

-   A bat's knees bend backwards.

-   Most North American bats can be mailed with a 32¢ stamp.

-   Baby bats' claws are so sharp they can hang on the imperfections of
    a light bulb.

-   The 20 million Mexican free-tails from Bracken Cave in Texas eat the
    weight of 63 elephants in insects each night.

**A Batty Poem.**

Bats are mammals\
like you and me\
Some live in caves\
and some live in trees.

Bats are nocturnal\
they are active at night.\
No bats are blind,\
some have good sight.

They use echolocation\
to find insects they eat.\
They can fly at 60 miles per hour\
and at 10,000 feet!

When the weather turns cold\
and there's no food to eat\
Some bats migrate or hibernate in a\
deep sleep.

Some bats are pollinators\
and some eat fruit.\
Just look at their noses or ears,\
they are adapted to suit.

So, don't be afraid\
next time you see a bat.\
They are part of nature\
and belong just where they're at.

> *---Arizona Game and Fish Department, WILD Kids, Number 15*

**For More on Sonar Equipped Bats, Read On...** Not all bats use echo
ranging. Some nectar-sippers have sonar, but most large fruit bats and
the "flying foxes" do not have sonar. They usually search for food by
sight or smell. They have good vision, especially night vision. Although
their eyes are specialized for night vision, they can see well during
the day. Like other mammals with good night vision, bats are color
blind.

With its larynx, a sonar-equipped bat makes short pulses of very
high-frequency sound. With its nose and mouth, it may channel the wave
pulses into a broad beam of sound. The bat uses its relatively large and
extremely sensitive ears to detect sound. Its ear canal closes when
pulses are produced and opens to receive the echo. Bat brains process
sound well. Even when hundreds of thousands of same-species bats are
flying in close quarters, like at Carlsbad Cavern, each bat is able to
recognize and analyze its own echoes.

The resolution of bat sonar is truly astonishing. Bat sonar can detect
wires that are nearly as wide as a human hair. Some species of bats can
track a 3 mm fruit fly, and snatch it out of the air in 0.5 second.

Many animals can hear frequencies that are inaudible to people. Most
people cannot hear sounds with frequencies higher than about 20,000 Hz.
Cats can hear sounds up to about 25,000 Hz; dogs can hear sounds up to
35,000 Hz. But bats can hear sounds with frequencies between 12,000 Hz
and 150,000 Hz!

For greater accuracy, most bats emit several frequencies at once, and
many slide the frequencies up or down during the pulse. This technique
is known as frequency modulation (FM). Because different frequencies are
reflected in different ways by different materials, a bat can
differentiate an insect from a leaf by sound alone. And you thought
people were the only ones who stayed tuned to FM!

The bat evaluates frequency shifts in the echoes in order to determine
the speed and direction of the target. One theory states that a bat is
able to determine its target's location in relation to itself, by
comparing the echo received by each ear. The bat also evaluates other
characteristics of the target, such as its size, texture and orientation
in space. Unwanted noise is filtered out of the echo by its ears and
brain.

Bat sonar has three basic modes of operating---search mode, target mode
and terminal mode.

When in cruising flight, a bat uses its sonar in a search mode emitting
five to ten short pulses every second. Search mode allows a bat to
detect obstacles or potential prey at a distance.

If a bat detects an object of interest, say a moth, it switches its
sonar to the target mode. The bat focuses its sonar on a particular
object, shortens the individual pulses and increases the number of
pulses to between thirty and fifty per second. The bat then reads the
echoes for information about the target's size and density, texture,
speed, direction and altitude.

In the final tenth of a second, the bat switches its sonar to the
terminal mode, increasing the pulse rate to as much as 200 per second.
With great precision, the bat snatches its prey out of the air. The bat
then returns its sonar to the search mode and continues its flight.

**For Comments About Bats of New Mexico, Read On...**

Western Pipistrelle---often the first bat out, sometimes even in
daylight

Big Brown Bat---prefers human-made structures for roosting sights

Spotted Bat---black fur with three white spots and large pink ears, a
late night flier

Pallid Bat---stalks scorpions, centipedes and small reptiles, nickname
is "Rambo bat"

Townsend's Big Eared Bat---ears nearly as long as body

Allen's Big Eared Bat---audible calls

Mexican Free-Tailed Bat---largest concentrated groups of mammals in the
world, can tolerate ammonia as high as 5000ppm

Pocketed Free-Tailed Bat---long, narrow wings

Big Free-Tailed Bat---likes moths, ants and crickets; communal in small
groups of about 100

Western Mastiff Bat---largest bat in NM and USA; must free-fall at least
10 feet to begin flight

Southwest Myotis---daytime roosts still unknown

California Myotis---some hibernate, others do not

Long-Eared Myotis---hunts in tangled vegetation for insects

Little Brown Bat---common throughout USA

Western Small-Footed Myotis---may hibernate under rocks

Fringed Myotis---can rescue fallen pups

Cave Myotis---migratory, ears can touch tip of nose

Long-Legged Myotis---hunts in open country using one prominent harmonic
tone

Yuma Myotis---desert hunter that lives close to water

Western Red Bat---red fur, male more colorful than female

Eastern Red Bat---red fur

Hoary Bat---varied vocalizer, CF-FM both

Yellow Bat---fur a dusky yellow

Silver-haired Bat---frosted black fur; roosts and hibernates in frees,
forages close to ground

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**The Geology of Carlsbad Caverns National Park**

*Coral Reef - Limestone Mountain - Limestone Cave - Decorated Cave*

**One Theory.** None of us witnessed the formation of Carlsbad Cavern.
And since time and conditions don't allow us to duplicate the process in
a laboratory, we are left with theories based on puzzle pieces. One
theory, simplistically stated is...

-   A very long time ago, a shallow sea covered Carlsbad Cavern. Plants
    and animals lived and died in the sea. Their shells and skeletons
    piled on top of each other, making a reef. Over time, many layers
    piled up, squashing the shells and making the layers hard, compact
    and thick.

-   The sea dried up causing the reef to be exposed to the air.

-   Movements in the earth's crust pushed the reef upwards, forming a
    limestone mountain.

-   Trees and other plants grew on the mountain, covering the old reef
    and causing cracks to develop in the limestone.

-   Rainwater sank into the soil and went down through the plants' roots
    and finally down through the cracks in the limestone. On its way
    through the atmosphere and the soil, the water absorbed carbon
    dioxide. A weak acid was chemically formed when the water mixed with
    the carbon dioxide. The resulting carbonic acid dissolved the
    calcite in the limestone.

-   At some point, large rocks in the cave ceiling fell. This opened up
    chambers, like the Cavern's Big Room---25 stories high and a third
    of a mile wide.

-   As water seeped and dripped its way into the Cavern, beautiful
    formations decorated the cave.

**Soluble Rock.** The largest and vast majority of caves are formed in
soluble rocks---those that can be dissolved by a weak, natural acid.
Limestone, dolomite, gypsum and marble are soluble rocks. Carlsbad
Cavern, Lechuguilla Cave, Slaughter Canyon Cave and Mammoth Cave are all
solution caves.

**Cave Formations.** A cave formation is a speleothem. The word comes
from two Greek words---*spelaion* meaning cave and *thema* meaning
deposit. Speleothems are mostly calcite, the same mineral that makes up
limestone. When the water table lowers and air enters the cave
conditions are right for the process of cave formations to begin.
Slightly acidic water percolates through the limestone above the cave
dissolving the calcite. When the water reaches the cave, calcite is
redeposited.

Two factors that influence the growth rate of the cave formations:

-   **Temperature**---The outside temperature affects the rate of decay
    of plants and animals. The higher the temperature, the faster the
    decay. As the decay rate increases, so does the carbon dioxide in
    the soil. When high levels of carbon dioxide is present, the water
    flowing through the soil is more acidic.

-   **Water**---The more rainfall, the faster the growth.

Two factors determine the shape of cave formations:

-   **HOW THE WATER ENTERS**---Does the acidic water enter the cave by
    dripping, seeping or splashing?

-   **WHETHER THE WATER STANDS OR FLOWS**.

Mineral content determines the color of a cave formation:

-   Pure calcite is white, almost colorless.

-   Iron and other minerals combine with calcite crystals to add red,
    orange and black.

**What's in a Name?** In the case of a speleothem, it's as good as a
picture.

> **Soda Straw.** A soda straw is hollow on the inside and has water
> dripping through it. Over time the inside clogs with calcite, causing
> the stalactite to grow larger.
>
> **Drapery.** Water in a cave does not always drip. It may seep along a
> slanted ceiling, forming thin draperies that hang in folds. They are
> also known as curtains and ribbons.
>
> **Flowstone.** Flowstone is a cave formation that looks like a flowing
> stone waterfall. It forms when water seeps down cave walls, over rocks
> and onto the floor.
>
> **Shelfstone*.*** A flat shelf of stone can form around the edges of
> cave pools and around stalagmites in a cave pool. Even if a pool dries
> up, the shelfstone remains.
>
> **Cave Pearls.** Cave pearls are stone balls and can be as large as
> ping-pong balls. A pearl forms around grains of sand. Layers of
> calcite are added to the grain over time. Dripping water keeps the
> pearl moving round and round in the pool.
>
> **Popcorn.** Popcorn is a cluster of calcite balls that build upon the
> walls of a flooded cave.
>
> **Helictites.** A helictite is similar to a soda straw, except it
> curls and twists in every direction, even against gravity. No one is
> certain how helictites forms.
>
> **Totem Poles.** A totem pole is as skinny as the stalactite above it.
> However, some are taller than skyscrapers and bigger than a giant
> redwood.

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**Types of Caves**

Cave and cavern are different words for the same thing. Caves are
underground cavities formed by nature. Mines are manmade. There are more
than 40,000 known caves in the United States; 88 have been discovered
thus far in Carlsbad Caverns National Park.

Caves harbor rare animal life, fragile mineral formations and
irreplaceable archaeological objects. That's why most of Carlsbad
Caverns National Park's caves are ***wild caves***. Only explorers who
have special permits may enter them. ***Show caves***, such as Carlsbad
Cavern, are open to the public. They may have lights, stairs, railings
and benches.

With 355 miles of passageways, Mammoth Cave in Kentucky is the **world's
longest cave**. Lechuguilla Cave in Carlsbad Caverns National Park is
the **deepest limestone cave** in the United States, thus far with more
than 100 miles of surveyed passageways. The **world's deepest cave** is
Jean Bernard Cave in France at 5,256 feet deep. The **world's largest
cave chamber** is Sarawak Cavern in Sarawak, Borneo. The chamber is
2,300 feet long. The **largest room in North America** is Carlsbad
Cavern's Big Room.

**Caves are formed in various ways\...**

-   **Solutional caves** are formed by weak, natural acid dissolving
    soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite, gypsum and marble.
    Carlsbad Cavern is a solutional cave.

-   **Lava tubes** form during the cooling of lava flows. First, a crust
    forms on the lava as it begins to cool. A break in this crust allows
    some of the molten lava to flow through the crack leaving long,
    tunnel-like passages.

-   **Sea caves** form from wave action. The waves force water into the
    cracks in rock, breaking off the rock.

-   **Wind caves** form from wind erosion or cliffs or hills. They are
    almost always small caves that seldom penetrate into total darkness.

-   **Talus caves** form from huge rocks that have fallen from cliffs.

-   **Glacier caves** form by melting waters moving through glaciers.

-   **Soil caves** form when flash floods move through the soils and
    transport earth with them. They are found in desert areas.

-   **Tectonic caves** form by the action of earthquakes.

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**Safe Cave Exploration**

-   Never go alone. Always go with at least two friends.

-   Tell someone where your group will be caving and when you are going
    and when you are returning.

-   Each caver should carry at least three sources of light.

-   As a reserve, carry a waterproof packet of matches and candle.

-   Remain in one spot if you become lost or your light fails.

-   Wear heavy-duty clothing, high boots, kneepads and a hard hat are
    essential.

-   Carry water.

-   Carry a first aid kit.

-   Carry tools for repairing lights.

-   Carry a space blanket.

-   Carry a compass, watch, note pad, pencil for recording your route.

-   Only enter caves that you are prepared to enter. Proper training and
    equipment are need to enter caves with rugged, vertical or steep
    topography.

-   Never trust equipment left in a cave.

-   Never cave when you are ill, under medication or under the influence
    of drugs and/or alcohol.

-   Obtain permission from the cave owner before entering.

-   Leave the cave as you found it.

-   Do not collect souvenirs! If you find an artifact, leave it where
    you find it. Report your finding.

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**The Wildlife of Carlsbad Caverns National Park**

Members of the animal kingdom are classified according to body
structure. The two general groups of animals are vertebrates (animals
with backbones) and invertebrates (animals without backbones.)
Vertebrates, making up less than one tenth of the entire animal
population, include: birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and fish. The
majority of animals are invertebrates. Invertebrates are divided into
three general group---those with jointed feet, those with unusual bodies
and those with one-celled bodies.

Carlsbad Caverns National Park has a large diversity of animals, both
vertebrates and invertebrates. Because the park is part of the National
Park System, its wildlife is protected. Annually, the park participates
in the National American Ornithological Union Christmas Bird Count and
has many cooperators involved in ongoing studies of bats, birds, mammals
and reptiles.

In order to better understand and interpret the variety of wildlife, the
park produces a monthly wildlife observation list, which is retained on
file. All park employees, cooperating association employees and park
visitors are encouraged to contribute to the list. Your group is welcome
to submit completed Natural History Field Observation cards to the
Surface Natural Resource Office. Cards are available at the visitor
center.

**Native Species.**

> **Cave Species.** Most insects, such as cave crickets, are found near
> sources of light and food-near bat roosts or along visitor use trails.
> There is little or no food to support larger animal species. The cave
> does not have running streams to provide a home for fish or
> amphibians.
>
> **Microorganisms.** For thousands of years, microscopic bacteria and
> fungi have thrived in stable, dark cave environments. In Lechuguilla
> Cave, over 1,000 strains of microbes from the pools, soils,
> speleothems, corrosion residues and sulfur deposits have been
> isolated. On-going research is looking into potential medical
> application of knowledge gained by studying the microbes.
>
> **Bats.** A large colony of about 500,000 Mexican free-tailed bats
> live in Carlsbad Caverns for seven months a year. They use the dry,
> dome-shaped room of the cave for roosting, birthing and nursing young.
> Migratory, they leave the park in the early fall and return from
> Mexico in the spring. In addition to the Mexican free-tailed bat, 14
> other bat species live in the park, and two extinct species may have
> inhabited the park's caves in earlier times. The fringed Myotis and
> the California Myotis are common, along with Townsend's big-eared bat
> and Western pipistrel. Like the Mexican free-tailed bats, most of the
> other bats are seasonal residents.
>
> **Cave Swallows.** Since the mid-1960s cave swallows have been
> roosting in mud nests in the twilight area just inside the entrance of
> Carlsbad Cavern. The Carlsbad Cavern nesting group is one of the
> largest populations in the United States and is apparently at the
> northern limit of its range. Visitors often mistake these birds for
> bats, as they circle near the cave entrance. A local school teacher,
> Steve West, has voluntarily banded, weighted, sexed, aged and released
> more than 10,000 cave swallows. In 1999, local students will enter the
> data into a database and analyze it.
>
> **Surface Species.** The park's surface wildlife species includes 331
> species of birds, 64 species of mammals and 44 reptile and amphibian
> species.
>
> Mule deer are plentiful. Large mammal predators include coyote,
> mountain lion and gray fox. Other mammals include elk, squirrels,
> bats, porcupines, ringtail, raccoons, badgers, rabbits, skunks,
> weasels and mice.
>
> Bird species include hawks, ospreys, kites, vultures, falcons, owls,
> quail, nighthawks, ring-tailed pheasants, wild turkeys and bobwhites.
> Other birds that are sometimes found in the Rattlesnake Springs unit
> of the park include grebes, herons, ibis, swans, geese, wading and
> diving ducks, sandpipers, woodpeckers, flycatchers, swallows,
> warblers, vireos and hummingbirds. Rattlesnake Springs is recognized
> as one of the outstanding birdwatching sites in the New Mexico/West
> Texas region. More than 300 species have been observed. It is the only
> nesting site in New Mexico for the eastern bluebird. An estimated 90%
> of New Mexico's population of Bell's vireo nests are at the site.
>
> Also found in the riparian habitat at Rattlesnake Springs are
> reptiles, amphibians and several fish species. Rattlesnake Springs
> provides habitat for some species found nowhere else in the United
> States, for example, the Texas emperor butterfly.

**Non-Native Species.** Barbary sheep are highly adaptable in their food
selection and are able to survive in almost any rugged terrain. The
Barbary sheep at Carlsbad Caverns compete with native mule deer and
bighorn sheep.

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**Amphibians and Reptiles**

**Reptiles.** The scientific name for reptile is Reptilia, which means
to creep. Snakes lizards, turtles and crocodiles are reptiles. Lizards
and snakes are the largest group of reptiles, with nearly 3,000 species
of each. At Carlsbad Caverns National Park both are common.

These cold-blooded vertebrates breathe with lungs throughout their
lives. They have tough, dry skin that is covered by a protective layer
of scales. Scales preserve body moisture enabling them to survive for
long periods without water. They live on land and lay eggs. Many species
molt several times a year.

Predators of reptiles include birds, mammals and other reptiles. They
avoid their enemies by using coloration that blends in with their
surroundings.

**Amphibians.** The scientific name for amphibian is Amphibia, which
means both-lived. Frogs, toads, newts and salamanders are amphibians.

Amphibians develop through a process of metamorphosis-they undergo
significant changes in form and structure during their life cycle. As
larvae, they breathe with gills. After they reach adult-hood, they
breathe with lungs. Their skin is smooth and moist. They lay
soft-shelled eggs and spend their adult lives either in water or on
land.

Some amphibians use coloration to protect themselves; others simply stay
out of sight. Some produce poisons that irritate the mouths of their
attackers. Their enemies include birds, snakes and mammals. Fish prey on
their eggs and larvae.

**Slitherers & Croakers.**

> *Likenesses.* Both are ectothermic. Most reptiles and amphibians shed
> their skins and many eat their old skin for protein. Most lay eggs and
> are able to change colors. All have an organ, which aids their sense
> of smell---Jacobson's organ.
>
> *Differences.* Reptiles have dry skin covered with scales, while
> amphibians usually have moist, scaleless skins. Reptiles have claws on
> their feet, amphibians have none. They have different skeletal
> features and circulatory systems. Most amphibians lay soft, shell-less
> eggs in water. Reptiles usually lay shelled eggs on land.

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**The Cowbirds of Carlsbad Caverns National Park**

Cowbirds do not moo, but they are associated with cows. Originally, they
followed roaming bison herds in the great planes. They expanded their
breeding range into improved habitats such as cleared forests, livestock
grazing, agriculture and irrigation. Since the arrival of the Europeans
to North America, they have not only increased their range, but also
their population.

Brown-head cowbirds do not construct nests of their own, rather they lay
their eggs in nests of other *host* species. Cowbirds formerly
parasitized about 50 species. They now parasitize at least 220 species.
This is a real problem because they decrease the nesting survival of the
host species. Cowbird chicks usually require shorter incubation periods
than their host species, are often larger, and seek food more
aggressively from the host bird.

Declines of migratory songbird species, partially due to parasitism by
cowbirds, have been documented throughout the Southwest. Desert riparian
areas are of major concern as they are relatively rare, isolated, and
provide important habitat for breeding birds. New Mexico has lost
approximately 90% of its riparian habitat since European settlement.
Over 50% percent of New Mexico's endangered bird species must depend on
the remaining 10% of riparian habitat for breeding or foraging.

The riparian area at Rattlesnake Springs in Carlsbad Caverns National
Park provides critical nesting habitat for many songbird species,
including the New Mexico state endangered Bell's vireo. To determine the
extent and effects of the cowbird problem at Rattlesnake Springs, park
biologists conducted a program of nest monitoring in 1996-97. They found
cowbird eggs in the nests of various bird species, including those of
the Bell's vireo. When cowbird eggs were found in nests that were still
being incubated by the host bird, biologists shook the cowbird eggs to
prevent them from hatching.

The brood parasitism rates discovered during cowbird studies at six
other parks in 1995 were low in comparison to rates at Rattlesnake
Springs. At Rattlesnake Springs the rate is 33 percent. The highest
parasitism rate of the six parks studied was at Point Reyes National
Seashore -- 10.7%.

Biologists continue to monitor nests and conduct point counts to
determine the number of cowbirds that use the Rattlesnake Springs area.
Cowbird eggs are shaken and replaced in the nests of state or federally
endangered species (e.g., Bell's vireo and southwester willow
fly-catcher) to increase breeding success of these sensitive birds.
Cowbird eggs will not be addled or removed from non-listed host species
in order to determine the effects of brood parasitism on host success.
Long-term mitigation measures, such as cowbird removal by trapping or
shooting, possible habitat improvement for nesting birds and irrigation
practices at Rattlesnake Springs will be critically reviewed and
recommendations made for future management.

\*Source: *Research in Carlsbad Caverns National Park: Scientific
Exploration and Discovery*, 1997 Editor: Gary Vequist.

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**Mountain Lions at Carlsbad Caverns National Park**

It has been blamed for crimes it never committed, described as having
attributes it never possessed, and has been credited with feats it could
not possibly accomplish. It has been considered a varmint, a
livestock-killer, and a competitor for game animals. Homesteaders and
ranchers shot the animal on sight. Many more were poisoned and tracked
down with dogs. As a result of this indiscriminate killing, the cougar
disappeared from the eastern United States and the prairies.

The cougar, like many predators, has gained a bad reputation, partly
because it lives a secretive lifestyle shrouded in mystery.
Unfortunately, the unknown cultivates fear and myth, and myths have
perpetuated misunderstanding. Is the cougar the culprit legend has made
it out to be, or is this animal a critical member of the Chihuahuan
Desert ecosystem deserving of our protecting? Recently, a great deal of
biological study has taken place and, as a result, the image of the
cougar is slowly changing.

Cougars are in the cat family Felidae. They are large, unspotted cats:
hence the name *Felis concolor,* or cat of one color. Colors vary from
gray, brown, gold-tawn to russet, depending on where it lives.
Underparts, chin and throat are dull white; the sides of the muzzle,
back of the ears and tip of the tail are black.

One of the most outstanding characteristics of the cougar is the long
heavy tail, which measures two-thirds the length of the body and head.
Here, in the Chihuahuan desert, adult males average 125 to 160 pounds
and adult females 90 to 110 pounds.

The genus *Felis*, or small cats, includes the cougar, lynx, bobcat,
ocelot and the house cat; the cougar is the largest member of this
genus. Cats in this genus purr but cannot roar.

As predators of large quarry, cougars have features that enable them to
catch and kill prey. The teeth are large, especially the canines. Sharp
claws are necessary for seizing and controlling prey. Eyes are important
for predation. Cougar eyes are close together and face forward. This
arrangement limits the total field of view but gives the cougar better
depth perceptions, increases accuracy when attacking prey. Even the
tongue is specially adapted with sharp protuberances that help to remove
meat from bones.

Critics have charged that the National Park Service (NPS) areas are
protecting large numbers of predators. The truth is that the nature of
large predators requires a low density of the animals throughout their
range. Many predators, including the cougar, need a lot of space to find
sufficient food. In the Chihuahuan Desert, biologists estimate that
cougar density is three to five animals per 100 square miles. For
perspective, human density in New Mexico is about 1,200 people per 100
square miles. Biologists estimate that to maintain a genetically viable
cougar population for the next 100 years, a minimum of 500 adults would
be required. All the NPS areas in the state of New Mexico combined would
not be large enough to maintain healthy cougar population.

Cougars have been blamed for preying on large numbers of domestic
animals, particularly sheep. Unguarded sheep can be easy prey for
cougars and significant economic losses may be incurred as a result of
cougar predation. Although predation of livestock may occasionally
occur, it is not typical of cougar hunting behavior. The cougar's major
prey species is mule deer, making up approximately 75% of their diet.
Also, there is a need in young cougars to have items identified as food.
Thus, the prey they are taught to kill by their mother becomes an
important component in their adult diet. A female that has not learned
to kill cattle or sheep will not teach her young to do so.

Another common misconception is that cougars devastate deer and elk
populations. In a study conducted by Sweanor and Logan in the San Andres
Wildlife Refuge, findings show that even with cougar predation, deer
populations have been steadily increasing. They also found that deer
populations fluctuate more due to environmental conditions such as
drought rather than predation. Some studies even suggest that cougars
may be critical to maintaining healthy deer populations. By keeping deer
numbers in check, cougars reduce competition between members of the prey
species and keep deer moving, which in turn avoids overbrowsing.

What happens when predators are removed from the ecosystem? This
question is still being studied. With research comes understanding, and
with understanding may come a desire to restore and protect these
elusive and beautiful animals.

---by Park Ranger Lynn Carranza, *Felis concolor*, Spring 1998

During the mid-1980s, 22 mountain lions were radio-collared in and
around Carlsbad Caverns National Park. Biologists estimated that an
average of 58 mountain lions roamed the 400-square mile study area each
year. Twice yearly, biologists travel the same trails keeping their eyes
on the ground looking for signs-scat, tracks, scrapes and lion-killed
deer. Signs indicate that then lion population is stable.

The State of New Mexico is devising a statewide plan for managing
mountain lions. The data collected at Carlsbad Caverns and Guadalupe
Mountains National Parks will help park managers to speak intelligently
about the status and trends of the lion population in the Guadalupe
Mountains.

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**The Rodents of Carlsbad Caverns National Park**

**The Forgotten Animal.** The simple fact is that park visitors come to
see the cave, and frequently, the bats. Sighting mule deer is an
unexpected plus for most visitors; unless, of course, the deer they see
run into their car. Rattlesnakes also get their share of attention from
park visitors. You can be certain that people return home with tales
about the cave, the bats, the mule deer, the snakes and even the furry
tarantulas.

But has any visitor ever gone back home talking about the rodents of
Carlsbad Caverns National Park? Not likely. Until recently, almost
nothing was known about the most diverse group of mammals inhabiting the
park. Most information on this group was based on a few museum specimens
and a publication written almost seventy years ago.

**Rodent Survey.** In the early 1990s, the National Park Service funded
a study to determine the kinds, distribution and relative abundance of
rodents living within the park's boundaries. The survey found 27 rodent
species including squirrels, pocket gophers, kangaroo rats, pocket mice,
harvest mice, woodrats and porcupines. Six species were reported in the
park for the first time. The results of the survey provided basic
ecological data for making park management decisions and for designing
accurate interpretive programs. The baseline information can be used for
monitoring population trends. Studies will continue at the park because
rodents are indicators of habitat quality in the park.

**Focus: The Kangaroo Rat.** Among the rodents of Carlsbad Caverns
National Park is the tiny kangaroo rat. It is one of the few animals
that never needs to drink water. It gets its moisture from the plants,
insects and dry seeds. When a kangaroo rat finds food, it may stuff some
of it into its cheek pouches, then carry the food to its burrow for
storage.

All mammals, including rodents, produce water as they digest their food.
While all mammals produce this water, only the kangaroo rat can survive
on the tiny amount it produces. The kangaroo rat is the expert when it
comes to using water efficiently.

***\**** Source: *Research in Carlsbad Caverns National Park: Scientific
Exploration and Discovery, 1997,* Gary Vequist, Editor.

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**The Vegetation of Carlsbad Caverns National Park**

The lower elevations of Carlsbad Caverns National Park are located in
the Upper Chihuahuan Desert; upper elevations are a transition zone
between desert and the Southern Rocky Mountains, making the park's flora
very diverse and more characteristic of areas to the north, south and
west.

**Native Species.** As part of the northern Chihuahuan Desert vegetation
zone, the park consists mostly of shrub and grassland. The park has
about 800 plant species. Desert shrub is found mainly at the lower
elevations. Common plant species include sotol, creosote bush, redberry
juniper, white-thorn acacia, prickly pear, algerita, desert willow,
Mexican buckeye, toothed maple, lechuguilla, ocotillo, Torrey yucca,
catclaw, and grasses.

Common in high elevations and on north-facing slopes are sotol, oak,
mahogany, lechuguilla, New Mexico agave, catclaw mimosa and grasses. The
highest elevations at the park's west end have a very unique flora -
primarily a grassland or savanna with scattered pinyon pine, alligator
and rocky mountain juniper, ponderosa pine, and other oaks. There are
more flowering forbs in the higher elevations. Two distinct blooming
periods occur: in the spring and late summer. The distinctive New Mexico
agave and maguey plant can also be found at these high elevations.

Vegetation changes have occurred from trespass grazing and from fire in
historic times. Most park boundaries have now been fenced, eliminating
trespass grazing and allowing the return of more natural vegetation.

An indicator plant is a plant that is found only in a certain area.
Indicator plants of the Chihuahuan Desert are lechuguilla, tarbush,
sotol, and candelilla.

**Non-Native Species.** There is a dozen known nonnative plant species
in the park. Common nonnative plant species in the park include Johnson
grass, tree of heaven, common horehound and yellow star thistle. The
common horehound and yellow star thistle might easily spread and
displace native plants.

Within the Rattlesnake Springs unit of the park there is a historic
district. The district's nonnative fruit trees and ornamental trees and
shrubs are part of the area's history. Nonnative Russian olive trees and
salt cedar trees are present at Rattlesnake Springs both within and
outside the historic district. In most circumstances, Nonnative plants
in the park are inventoried and some pulled by hand.

**Survival Tricks.**

> **Transpiration Tricks.** Desert plants use the sun's energy to
> convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar. During this process of
> photosynthesis, small pores (stomata) on a plant's leaves and stems
> open to absorb carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen. Each
> time the stomata opens, water is lost. This water-loss process is
> known as transpiration.
>
> If desert plants were to lose a large amount of water through
> transpiration, they would be unable to replace the water easily and
> would die. Luckily, they have some water-saving tricks:

-   smaller, fewer and deeper stomata

-   waxy coverings

-   open stomata at night to carry out transpiration at night

-   little leaves or no leaves at all to lessen the surface area exposed
    to the sun and wind

-   roll leaves to hide from the sun

-   drop leaves during droughts

> **Sucking It Up Tricks.** Desert plants get as much water as possible.
> Some have very deep taproots; some have huge, tangled networks of
> shallow roots that spread out in all directions; and many have both a
> deep taproot and a network of shallow roots.
>
> **Shrinking and Swelling Trick.** Many desert plants store the water
> that their roots soak up and then use it during periods of no rain.
> Succulent plants store the water in their fleshy leaves and stems.
> Some succulents have folds that allow them to swell with water during
> wet periods.
>
> **Hairs and Spines Tricks.** Hairs and spines reduce moisture loss by
> breaking the wind. They also cast shadows on desert plants helping
> them hide from the sun. Some hairs and spines are shiny and reflect
> the sunrays. They also protect the plant against hungry animals.
>
> **Chemical Trick.** Chemicals of some plants, keep other plants from
> growing nearby, thus reducing competition for the scarce water supply.
>
> **Seed Tricks.** Some seeds wait out dry spells in a dormant
> state---sometimes for decades. Some seeds are covered with natural
> chemicals, called inhibitors. The chemical keeps the seeds from
> germinating until enough rain falls.

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**The Backcountry of Carlsbad Caverns National Park**

Carlsbad Caverns is best known for its caves, but there is another part
of the park that few visitors ever see---33,125 acres of wilderness.
With a little extra time and preparation, the opportunity exists to
explore beyond what the average person will experience.

This is desert country, full of deep rugged canyons and tree-lined mesas
far from the stresses of civilization. One can hike in the backcountry
for days and never encounter another person, hear traffic, or smell car
exhaust. The 60 miles of hiking trails offer places for quiet
contemplation as well as for friends to get away together.

Hiking in the desert is a challenging, yet rewarding, experience. To
fully enjoy and appreciate your hike, remember that desert hiking
requires time and preparation. Trails have been left undeveloped to
preserve and enhance the wilderness experience. You may find yourself
walking on narrow ledges or down steep, rocky draws. Carrying a
topographic map and a compass is highly recommended. Climate is hot and
dry in the summer, cold and dry in the winter. Over the year,
temperatures may range from nearly zero to above one hundred degrees.
Temperatures may change as much as fifty degrees in a twenty-four hour
period. Summer rains may bring flash flooding in canyon bottoms.

If you are lucky, you will see wildlife---jackrabbit, ringtails, mule
deer and roadrunners. Typical plants include sotol, agave, lechuguilla,
juniper and desert grasses. Trees are found in the elevations. After a
spring rain, you may see the desert come alive with flowers.

Be sure to wear sturdy and comfortable hiking boots and long pants to
protect yourself from spiny desert plants.

Except for a few permanent seeps draining down canyon walls, water is
scarce and unreliable in the backcountry. Be sure to bring at least one
gallon per person, per day.

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**Rock Art**

Rock art, as with any type of artifact, is a remnant of a culture. It
may be prehistoric, historic or even modern. Pictures made on rock can
be seen in many parts of the world. Only the person who created the rock
art knew the meaning and why it was created. Experts, however, may
attempt to understand by describing and classifying the rock art. But,
even without exact meanings, we can all enjoy and learn from rock art.
Native American people created rock art on the surface or in the mouth
of caves at Carlsbad Caverns National Park. Throughout New Mexico and
around the world, many people of many different cultures produced
various kinds of rock art. **Rock art** is of two
types---**petroglyphs** and **pictographs**.

**Petroglyphs** are carvings of symbols into rock. *Petro* means rock or
stone, and *glyph* means a carving or marking. Pictures and designs were
cut into or carved in relief on large rocks, rock faces of caves, sheer
rock cliffs or other similar places, using several methods. One method
of making petroglyphs was by pecking. This was often done by means of a
direct blow with a hammerstone, a tool sometimes found in association
with petroglyph archeological sites. This method did not provide precise
control over the placement or size of the dent, and produced rough or
uneven looking petroglyphs. Sometimes the designs were made up solely of
evenly spaced holes which produces a "stippled" effect petroglpyh. In
other parts of the world are found percussion formed holes called
*cupulas* which cover entire boulders, but are without an apparent
overall design.

Chiseling is another method used to produce petroglyphs at Carlsbad
Caverns National Park and other areas. Using two stone tools, one being
used as a hammerstone and the other a chisel, the artist could produce
carvings of much finer detail than those made by using a hammerstone
alone.

A third method used in making petroglyphs is called incising. This
consisted of rubbing, grinding, scratching or carving a picture or
design into a rock face with either a sharpened bone or hard stone tool.
In historic times, iron and steel tools were used to make incised
petroglyphs throughout the Southwestern United States.

A fourth method, not common in the park, is drilling holes or marks into
the rock.

**Pictographs** are rock paintings, usually found in more protected and
concealed areas than petroglyphs, possibly because of their higher
vulnerability to weathering. Pictographs are the most common type found
at Carlsbad Caverns National Park. Colored rocks and minerals were
powdered for pigments and produced reds, yellows, whites, blacks and
even some greens and blues for use in paintings. The powders were mixed
with a binding agent to help the paint adhere to a rock surface and to
be fairly durable. Binding agents may have been plant juices, animal
fats, raw bird eggs, water or even saliva.

Hematite, an iron oxide mineral, can make a red to reddish-brown paint.
Limonite, another iron oxide mineral, often referred to as yellow ochre,
produces many shades of yellow. A white pigment can be obtained by
grinding white clay, chalk, gypsum, calcium carbonate or any other white
mineral. A black paint can be obtained by using powdered charcoal. This
source for pigment would have been readily available since fires were a
very common occurrence for cooking, firing pottery or just to keep warm.
Uncommon colors such as blue or green could be produced by grinding up a
mineral with a high copper content such as turquoise, malachite or
azurite. Instead of a copper mineral, sometimes green paint was produced
from an iron mineral called chlorite.

Rock art has been broken down into three classifications, for clarity.
Drawings of any type of human figure are known as *anthropomorphic*,
while animal figures are called *zoomorphics*. A symbol that cannot be
classified into either of the other categories is simply called
*geometric*.

Where does one find rock art? It is often found on vertical cliffs
facing either south or east, but it can be also found in other
localities such as inside of caves, in rock shelters, overhangs, near or
around dwelling or storage sites, or on boulders. Areas of frequent
travel such as trails have a large amount of rock art associated with
them, as well as areas that are near water, or near unusual physical
features.

Interpretation of rock art is very controversial. No one really knows
what the symbols represent, but some commonly seen symbols or *glyphs*,
seem to carry a meaning agreed upon by people of many different
cultures. Spirals or concentric circles are believed to denote the sun.
Others, however, suggest spirals represent water. The Hopi people
believe that they show migration routes of their ancient ancestors.
Handprints are said to be the signature of the artist who designed that
specific rock art panel, but it has also been suggested that handprints
denote a sacred area. There are numerous handprint sites found in many
localities around the world. Interpretation is probably best when done
by members of the cultural group which made the rock art. However, only
the person who created the rock art really knew the meaning.

Common game animals such as big horn sheep or deer are often depicted in
rock art and are thought to be ritual or hunting scenes. Many times
hunters with weapons are shown along with the animals. Of course, rock
art located in places other than the United States portray animals
common to that particular place. In Australia, for example, kangaroos
and echidnas are just as common in aboriginal rock art as bighorn sheep
are here in the desert Southwest. Other types of animal life have also
been represented in rock art, including bears, bison, cougars, coyotes,
rodents, bats, scorpions, snakes, lizards, fish stingrays and birds.
Even petroglyphs of animal pelts are sometimes seen!

Pottery and blanket designs are other common elements found in rock art.
But human figures are probably the most widespread symbol. Men are
represented in everything from hunters to possible *warriors* or
ceremonial figures. Sometimes males are represented in very elaborate
dress, and at other times, just as plain entities. A frequently seen
male personage is a humpbacked flute player, often referred to as
*Kokopelli*. He is believed to be a supernatural fertility being. He may
also represent a trader carrying a backpack or a person afflicted with
tuberculosis. Even though representations of men seem to be more
numerous than those of women in rock art, occasionally one finds a glyph
that is unmistakable a female. In Ancestral Puebloan rock art female
figures can be identified by their distinctive hair style. Even today,
some Pueblo women wear their hair arranged in two buns on either side of
their head to signify they are of marriageable age. For some reason,
plants are only seldom seen as rock art components. But occasionally,
they too are represented. Growing corn plants are sometimes found in the
*Four Corners* area of the Southwest.

Other things represented in rock art are astronomical in nature. Along
with the commonly seen sun, moon and stars, sometimes more unusual sky
events are recorded. Chinese records indicate that a star exploded
within the constellation Taurus on July 4th 1054 A.D. This star, known
today as the Crab Nebula Supernova, flared up to be ten times more
massive than our sun, and it outshone everything in our galaxy for
almost two months! Before dawn on the morning of July 5th, the crescent
moon was approximately two degrees north of the supernova. It is
believed by some that this phenomenon was recorded by ancient man in
rock art at Capitol Reef National Park in Utah, Chaco Canyon in
north-central New Mexico, and many other sites in the *Four Corners*
area. Many rock art specialists feel that crescents in conjunction with
stars, spirals or sun symbols are representations of this unique sky
event.

One of the major problems when studying rock art is how to date it. The
ability to date a particular site absolutely is rare, but various
methods provide means of *relative* dating. The amount of desert
varnish, or patination as it is called, is an important means of
determining the relative ages of petroglyphs made at different times on
the same surface. Desert varnish or patina is the formation of a black
or brown stain of manganese or iron oxides on rock surfaces. When a
petroglyph is made, the design is pecked or scratched through this
surface exposing the lighter unoxidized rock beneath the patinized
surface. This lighter surface begins to oxidize as soon as it is
exposed. The older the design is, the darker it becomes. If two or more
designs on a surface were made at different times, the more recent one
will be lighter in color. But because patina varies with the composition
of the rock, exposure to sun and rain, and location, the degrees of
patination alone is not an absolute guide for dating.

Superimposition is another way to determine the relative age of rock
art. Designs were sometimes painted or pecked on top of older ones, and
in some cases the figures of several different styles and time periods
were made in the same spot. Figures on top are considered younger than
those underneath. The association of house ruins with rock art is
sometimes a very helpful dating method. Frequently, these archaeological
sites can be placed in a given time frame by dating charcoal or other
organic material with one of the many scientific methods of absolute
dating or by the pottery types or other artifacts present. A useful
approach of ordering the chronology of certain rock art styles has been
the comparison of rock art figures with those on datable artifacts such
as pottery, clay pipes or wall plaster in the ruins themselves.

Relative dates are sometimes provided by the content of the art itself.
The first appearance of the bow as a hunting weapon, replacing the spear
and the atl (spear thrower), is dated in Arizona as early as 200 A.D. It
spread eastward across New Mexico, reaching West Texas between 600 and
1000 A.D. The appearance of the bow in rock art has been helpful in
establishing the earliest possible date for these pictures. Conversely,
rock art that displays atls or spear throwers are thought to predate
those panels that show humans using bows and arrows.

The horse is another element that is useful for relative dating. The
presence of this animal on rock art indicates beyond any doubt that one
is dealing with art of the historical period. First brought to this
continent by the Spaniards in the 16th Century, the horse was becoming
popular among the Apaches of New Mexico as early as the first half of
the 17th Century. Horses also began to appear in Navajo art in the 17th
Century. Some Navajos and other Native Americans show the arrival of the
European into the southwest as people in 17th Century. Spanish costumes
are depicted on rock art panels. Rock art from even later periods
symbolizes the technology of the times as it displays trains and
Euro-American houses.

A very commonly asked question concerning rock art is, "Why was it
drawn?" Since no one knows the answer for sure, this question only leads
to more questions. Could they just be doodles? Do they tell a story?
Were they for religious reasons? Or ceremonial? Are they recording
historical or prehistoric happenings? Some people believe rock art is
actually a form of writing, and each symbol can be read like
hieroglyphics. Others say rock art is just that---art---something to be
gazed upon and enjoyed. Only the artist who made the petroglyph or
pictograph would know for sure. Whatever their meaning or why they were
made, the rock carvings and paintings by themselves are irreplaceable
records and monuments to the artists who made them. They are a very
unique and valuable tradition of human endeavor.

One thing that keeps us from ever finding the answers to rock art's
mysteries is vandalism. Shooting bullets, scratching names and pictures
on or near rock art, spraying paint, or defacing them in any way,
forever destroys the chances of discovering their meaning. Even touching
rock art or making rubbings of the symbols does irreversible damage to
these priceless works of art! Presently, all cultural resources such as
rock art and all other archaeological materials on federal lands are
protected by the Antiquities Act of 1906, the Archaeological Resources
Protection Act of 1979, and many other laws and regulations. The
National Park Service, US Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management
all work to enforce the laws which protect our rich heritage of cultural
resources. Similar state and, often, local laws protect archeological
resources on state and private lands.

So, please, allow others who follow to experience the same satisfaction
in discovering rock art as you have. By conserving ancient rock art
maybe someday more of their mysteries may be revealed.

As you have probably figured out by now, the study of rock art has much
speculation and many educated guesses at best. Maybe no one will ever
decipher all the petroglyphs and pictographs. Maybe no one will ever
find out the reasons they were made. But if nothing else, rock art says,
"I was here."

---Edited by [David Kayser, Museum
Technician](mailto:david_kayser@nps.gov)

![](media/image4.png){width="0.6in" height="0.8346456692913385in"}

**Jim White**

In 1925, Jim White's friend, author Carl B. Livingston, wrote an article
entitled *Through the Carlsbad Cavern with Jim White*, and said:

*Jim White is not the explorer with the pith helmet, tight-legged pants
and horn-rimmed glasses---but the genuine article of cowboy tradition.
There is a difference between the "high-brow" explorer with money and
prestige as speedsters to fame, and the prowess of the pioneer who
blazes the way over a new horizons with just nothing save a step that is
true and a light in his eye that knows no fear. There was no crowd of
reporters to hang on Jim's every word. Had he failed in his purpose,
there would have been none of the soothing ointment of consolation that
comes to explorers of position in the shape of "victorious defeat" when
they do not succeed. Had Jim been killed, he would not have been a
national martyr in the cause of science, but just a "durn" fool---he did
succeed though and the hats are off to him.*

White did not fail and was not killed. And, he was not a fool. Today,
our hats are still off to Jim White. He first entered the cavern in
1898. Although he was not the cavern's discoverer, he explored it the
most extensively. He privately guided tours from the early 1900s to
1923; he guided the 1923 General Land Office survey expedition; and, he
guided the 1924 six-month National Geographic Society expedition. From
1923 through 1929, White guided visitors at Carlsbad Cave National
Monument.

Jim White, with his equivalent of a third-grade education, spoke softly
and infrequently. Livingston pointed out that:

*Jim White does not talk much, except to a few, and not very often then.
And I have it straight that what he says is not "windys" (sic) invented
to entertain the dudes.*

Willis T. Lee, 1924 NGS expedition leader, wrote in the National
Geographic Society magazine that:

> *Like other guides before him, he has discovered that tourists
> appreciate hair-raising yarns more than hair-splitting distinctions.
> According to his own statement, our guide does not allow dull fact to
> interfere with a good story.*

Eventually White guided a few people in the cavern who could show
surface-bound people the wonders of the caverns---photographers. By
1923, cavern photos appeared in the *New York Times* and Carlsbad Cave
National Monument was created.

White died in 1946 at the age of 64. In 1953, Congress appropriated
money to erect a visitor center plaque honoring his accomplishments.
Today, more than a hundred years after 16-year-old White ventured into
the cavern, no single person's name is more synonymous with the caverns
than that of Jim White!

*---[Park Historian Robert Hoff](mailto:bob_hoff@nps.gov)*

![](media/image4.png){width="0.6in" height="0.8346456692913385in"}

**Carlsbad Caverns National Park Area History, 1848-1998**

By Robert Hoff, Park Historian

**1848.** February 2, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is signed with
Mexico after the Mexican War, transferring about 1.2 million-square
miles of the Southwest, including Texas, to the United States.

**1854.** Captain John Pope of the Army Topographical Corps crosses the
Guadalupe Mountains surveying possible routes for the railroad.

Dr. George Getz Shumard, a New Jersey-born military surgeon on the
expedition, discovers Permian age fossils in the Guadalupe Mountains.

**1858.** The route of the Butterfield Overland Mail runs through the
Guadalupe Mountains. A stage station is established at Pine Springs.

**1866.** Charles Goodnight and Oliver Loving begin driving cattle north
along the Pecos River on the route that will become known as the
Goodnight-Loving Trail. Loving is severely wounded in an Indian fight at
Loving Bend on the Pecos River.

**1867.** John Simpson Chisum drives his first herd of cattle along the
trail from Texas into New Mexico. He begins a ranch that soon extends
from near Fort Sumner to the Black River.

**1870.** Seven Rivers (originally called Dogtown because of the prairie
dog colonies there) is settled by the Herskill Jones family of Virginia.
Situated where seven arroyos lead into the Pecos River, it will become
an important trading post on the cattle trail from Texas.

Outlaw Billy the Kid frequently visits Seven Rivers. Billy the Kid will
remain one of the post popular figures in Western history and a person
who is looked at through the lense of mythology.

**1875.** John Chisum moves his cattle north from Black River. He
continues to graze as far south as Seven Rivers.

**1878.** Dogtown is renamed Seven Rivers for the seven arroyos flowing
into the Pecos at that point. Seven Rivers is just north of present day
Carlsbad.

The Tenth Cavalry, an all Negro regiment (nicknamed the "Buffalo
Soldiers") establishes a permanent camp at the old Pine Springs stage
station in the Guadalupe Mountains. In October, Colonel Benjamin
Grierson visits the camp and explores the Black River canyon.

**1880.** The Tenth Cavalry under Colonel Grierson crosses the
Guadalupes and camps near the mouth of Black River on their way to the
Fort Stanton reservation. There are several skirmishes with Apache
parties supporting Victorio.

Dan Lucas begins ranching along the Black River on the property that is
now Washington Ranch (Current-Argus, 8/19/31). This is the ranch which
Jim White was working for when he first came across the cavern entrance.

**1881.** Henry Harrison arrives from Indiana and homesteads at
Rattlesnake Springs. Cavalry patrols use his farm as a point of supply
during the 1880s (Caverns, 39). In 1934, the National Park Service will
acquire Rattlesnake Springs as a water source. From 1938 - 1942
Rattlesnake Springs will serve as a Civilian Conservation Corps camp. In
1963 Rattlesnake Springs will become a detached part of the National
Park.

Colonel Nelson Miles and the Ninth Cavalry use Rattlesnake Springs as a
rendezvous and supply camp in 1881-1883 (Current-Argus, 7/21/31).

**1882.** William C. Sublett finds gold nuggets in the Guadalupe
Mountains eight to twelve miles from Pine Springs. Speculation is that
the nuggets came either from a lost mine or from a cache of gold stolen
from the Butterfield stage (Current-Argus, 6/4/30).

Jim White is born in Mason County, Texas on July 11. White will become
the singularly most identified person with Carlsbad Caverns history.

**1884.** Charles B. and John Eddy form a livestock company with Amos
Bissell to operate in southeastern New Mexico. One of their first
ventures is the Halagueno Ranch which covers the area from Seven Rivers
to La Huerta. (Halagueno is Spanish for promising and attractive.)

**1885.** The Valley Land Company owned by Dan Harroun holds the first
water rights on the Pecos River.

**1886.** This is known as the year of the "big die." Drought causes the
loss of about thirty-five percent of area cattle.

**1887.** Charles B. Eddy builds the Halagueno diversion ditch on the
Pecos River three miles above the later site of Avalon Dam and
incorporates the venture as the Pecos Valley Land and Ditch Company.

**1888.** Former sheriff Pat Garrett (Garrett shot and killed 22-year
old Billy the Kid on July 14, 1881; 48-year-old Garrett will be
assassinated on February 29, 1908 near Las Cruces, New Mexico) and
promoter Charles Greene join with Charles Eddy to create a system of
canals and flumes for diversion of water to their properties. Greene
secures potential investors from the East including Robert W. Tansill,
manufacturer of the Punch five cent cigar. Plans for a new town on the
Pecos River are laid out by Eddy and his partners. A street and dam are
named after Tansill and a street after Greene.

September 15, the town of Eddy is christened in champagne on the south
bank of the Pecos River.

**1889.** February 25, Eddy County is created. The first county seat is
at Seven Rivers.

James John Hagerman, miner and railroad builder, becomes a partner in
the Pecos Irrigation Company.

October 6, the first school in Eddy opens on South Main with thirty-five
pupils.

The first newspaper in Eddy, the Eddy Argus begins weekly publication
with Richard Rule as editor.

Future caverns guano miner John B. Forehand establishes a ranch on the
Black River (Current-Argus, 11/7/57).

**1890.** March, the Witt brothers complete construction of a wooden
flume near Eddy. The purpose of the flume is to carry river water
"across itself" for irrigation purposes.

The county seat changes from Seven Rivers to Eddy by a vote of 331 to
83.

The bridge over the Pecos River at Greene Street in Eddy is completed.
So many Carlsbad servicemen suffer in the Bataan Death March during
World War II that later the bridge is renamed the Bataan Bridge.

Avalon Dam and many of the canals leading from it are completed,
financed by James J. Hagerman.

**1891.** Vaud, at the present site of Loving, is settled by fifty-four
Swiss immigrant farmers.

Kirkwell, a station on the Pecos Valley Railway is also settled by Swiss
farmers. Its name is changed to Malaga after a type of grape grown
there.

January 10, the first railroad train arrives in Eddy on the newly
completed line from Pecos, Texas, to the south.

A second newspaper, the Eddy Current, is founded by William Mullane.

Jim White's family settles at Lone Tree, a ranching community eight
miles east of Eddy. Future cave explorer and guide Jim White is nine
years old.

**1892.** Jim White goes to work for the X-X-X Ranch, belonging to John
and Dan Lucas, about three miles from the cavern's natural entrance.

**1893.** The settlement of Otis is named for T. E. Otis, a director of
the Santa Fe Railroad.

Heavy rains in July and August cause floods that wash away Avalon Dam,
the wooden flume and the Greene Street bridge.

A school building is completed in Eddy at the present site of Edison
School.

**1894.** By October, the railroad is complete from Eddy to Roswell.

**1898.** The first hospital and library are started in Eddy.

Main Corridor rock inscription inscribed "J White" and "1898," suggests
that White may have entered the cavern for the first time in 1898.

**1899.** A post office is established at the present site of Artesia.
It is named Stegman for a local land promoter whose wife, Sallie, is a
niece of John Chisum. On their ranch is the first artesian well in the
area.

May 23, Robert W. Tansill proposes changing the name of Eddy to Carlsbad
after the mineral water spa in Czechoslovakia. This is approved by
general city election.

**1900.** James W. Tulk secures water rights from the Queen Ranch to
open a general store. In 1904, Tulk opens his store and post office
establishing the town of Queen, 40 miles southwest of Carlsbad. Early
population figures show about sixty inhabitants.

The Carlsbad Irrigation Project is reorganized and refinanced under the
direction of Francis Tracy.

**1903.** Stegman changes its name to Artesia with the discovery of
Artesian water in the area.

A cement flume, replacing the wooden one that washed away, is completed
at Carlsbad. This structure requires 6,000 barrels of concrete.

June 16, Abijah Long establishes placer mining claim, 20 acres around
natural entrance to caverns. Long heads up the first bat guano
(droppings) mining company and sells out within a couple of years.

**1903 -- 1923.** Main period of guano mining at the cavern. Thousands
of tons of guano are mined during this period and is shipped mostly to
California as a fertilizer. High shipping rates and intensive labor
cause guano mining company ownership to change seven times. Jim White
serves as a guano miner and foreman during this period and uses his free
time to explore the cavern and to guide others into it.

About 1915, he takes in photographer Ray V. Davis whose photographs make
the publicizing of the huge cavern easier than ever before. Soon the
government sends a survey expedition (April - May 1923) and the National
Geographic Society sponsors a day trip expedition which takes six months
to complete.

**1906.** June 8, the Antiquities Act gives the President power to
proclaim national monuments and also prohibits excavation or
appropriation of antiquities on federal lands.

**1911.** February 11, Jim White's sister, Rosa, scratches her name on
wall in the Appetite Hill area. In 1914 Rosa will marry Mr. Henry
Samples, a friend of Jim's and an early National Park Service guide in
the 1920s.

**1912.** January 6, New Mexico becomes a state, 62 years after becoming
a territory. The same month 30-year old Jim White marries 18-year old
Fannie Hill.

**1916.** August 25, Congress establishes the National Park Service.
This is 44 years after the establishment of the first national park,
Yellowstone, in 1872.

**1917.** April 6, U.S. proclaims war against Germany.

**1918.** First photographs in the Caverns' Scenic Rooms and Big Room
are taken by Ray V. Davis. His photographs stimulates interest in the
caverns. Davis photos will appear in 1923 New York Times. In 1927, Davis
will start the Cavern Supply Company the concession company which
provides food, souvenirs and other services to visitors.

**1923.** April 6 - May 8, Robert Holley, General Land Office (In 1947
the General Land Office and the U.S. Grazing Service will become the
Bureau of Land Management.), surveys and maps cave, guided by Jim White
and photographed by Ray Davis of Carlsbad. Recommends establishment as a
national monument.

August 6, Major Richard Burges, prominent El Paso lawyer and long-time
National Geographic Society member, begins campaign to make Caverns a
national monument. He brings it to the attention of the National
Geographic Society and to the United States Geological Survey.

Burges proposes construction of a tunnel from the plains into the
Caverns to reduce difficulty of access. Tunnel idea is supported by NPS
Director Mather until the \$30,000 estimated price tag makes it
impracticable. Also making the non- selection of the tunnel option
easier is that in 1925 the Carlsbad Chamber of Commerce donates the
money to build a 200 step wooden stairway at the natural entrance.

September 19 - October 3, Dr. Willis T. Lee first explores caverns and
recommends national monument status, joining General land Office Mineral
Examiner Robert Holley's earlier recommendation based on his April - May
1923 expedition. Lee's article appears in January 1924 National
Geographic magazine. Lee states in the article about Jim White:

The guide is the only source of such meager information as may be
obtained. Far be it for me to cast aspersion on an estimable guide whose
business it is to entertain his guests. Like other guides before him, he
has discovered that tourists appreciate hair-raising yarns more than
hair-splitting distinctions. According to his own statement, our guide
does not allow dull fact to interfere with a good story.

October 25, President Calvin "Silent Cal" Coolidge speaks up and
proclaims Carlsbad Caves National Monument.

**1923 -- 1927.** W.F. McIlvain, a Carlsbad Chamber of Commerce
President, serves as first custodian (superintendent), overseeing first
trails, stairs and lights. He supervises Jim White, works with Willis T.
Lee, coordinates with city officials and makes \$12.00 a year.

**1924.** March 20 - September 15, Dr. Willis T. Lee, sponsored by
National Geographic Society and assisted by Jim White, extensively
explores Caverns. Lee employs 21-year old daughter Elizabeth and 19-year
old son Dana in the expedition. Dana keeps a detailed and interesting
diary of the expedition. Within one week of the start of the expedition,
a movie company arrives to shoot footage in the cavern.

(Willis T. Lee came to this area around the turn of the century on
assignment with the United States Geological Survey to determine why
some area dams were leaking from their reservoirs. He returned in 1923,
again to investigate similar problems, and became interested in the
cavern. Taking a period of leave from his United States Geological
Survey in 1924, he organized and led the 1924 expedition. An
inexhaustible worker, Lee promoted the cavern at every opportunity,
writing and speaking about it, even on the radio.)

Lee, in April 1924, writes to Director Mather and suggests that when the
tunnel is built into the Big Room that visitors be allowed to drive
their cars through it and into the Big Room. Luckily, this idea was
never put into effect.

Lee will leave in 1925, but will remain interested in the cavern's
affairs, even discussing with NPS Director Mather in Washington, the
reports from the caverns, including Jim White's projects in progress and
requests for permission for various projects.

Lee will work on a Carlsbad Cave manuscript, never finishing due to his
death in 1926 at age 61. Like White, Lee stands out as an energetic and
devoted supporter of the caverns.

NPS Director Steven Mather visits in April and is photographed in a
guano bucket with Willis T. Lee.

**1925.** Staircase from natural entrance to Bat Cave is installed,
eliminating use of guano bucket to enter cave. Bucket material is
donated by Carlsbad Chamber of Commerce through efforts of the first
custodian (the 1920s term for Superintendent), W.F. Mcllvain.

September, Willis T. Lee's second National Geographic article, detailing
his second visit, is published.

**1926.** First trail established by NPS, dirt path and wooden stairways
through Main Corridor, King's Palace, Queen's Chamber and 3/4 of Big
Room. First electric lighting system via Main Corridor and King's Palace
is installed. King's Palace has a telephone.

Willis T. Lee named the King's Palace "Shinav's Wigwam." His place
names, with Native-American origins, were simply too difficult to
pronounce and remember, and will be renamed.

**1927.** May 16, Col. (an honorary title) Thomas Boles enters on duty
as first Superintendent and will serves until 1946. At retirement Boles
will note that he spent approximately \$3 million in appropriated park
funds during his tenure and collected in fees about \$3.5 million during
the same period. Along with White and Lee, Boles deserves the
recognition of being an extraordinary promoter of the cavern.

Boles travels as far away as California to promote the park (while on
other park-related business). He speaks on a ham radio in Carlsbad to
2,000 listeners on the east coast. He promotes the building of roads and
installation of elevators. Politically sensitive and aware, Boles never
misses an opportunity to extend friendly and enthusiastic welcomes to
visiting congressmen.

Boles promotes high quality and entertaining visitor services. His Rock
of Ages ceremony gains fervent visitor support and is presented for 17
years in the Big Room at the cavern until national level forces deem it
not suitable for a park program.

(Former Park Guide-Nurse and later Park Guide Supervisor (1943-1973)
Olive "Johnny" Johnson said in a 1994 oral history interview that she
had never met anyone who cared more about Carlsbad Caverns than the
Arkansas-born, civil-engineer trained Tom Boles. Jim White, Jr. reported
that his Dad and Boles didn't get off on the right foot together, but
that they became friends. In 1946, the year that Boles was reassigned to
Hot Springs National Park, he served as a pallbearer at Jim White's
funeral in April.)

Boles will die in 1972 at the age of 90 and will be buried in a Carlsbad
cemetery. Just months before his death he would travel to nearby
Guadalupe Mountains National Park to attend its dedication.

Trail past Bottomless Pit opens. School for employees' children is
established in park. The Cavern Supply Company is established. Fees to
enter caves are \$2.00 per person.

June 23, first wedding ceremony is held in cave, performed at Rock of
Ages.

**1928.** February, Charlie White (no relation to Jim White) homesteads
120 acres at Walnut Canyon, the future White's City.

May 16, Cavern Supply Company begins serving lunches in cave.

June, trail from top of Appetite Hill to Lunchroom opens.

November, electric lighting in Big Room is completed. Guides carry
lanterns for emergencies only.

**1929.** July 27, First Rock of Ages ceremony is held. The presentation
of this ceremony will continue until December 5, 1944, when will it
cease due to broader agency directives. For years after its
cancellation, visitors complain vehemently.

March, tunnel through Devil's Den is completed and opened. No longer is
climb on a wooden staircase over Devil's Hump necessary.

May, first stone quarters is completed and occupied.

June 26, Jim White resigns due to failing health. White later changes
his mind about resigning, but never re-enters the National Park Service.
In 1936, White receives a permit to sell his life story pamphlet in the
underground lunchroom.

June, Green Lake Room and King's Palace is connected by tunnel and trail
constructed.

August, park personnel wear uniforms for first time.

September, first Bat Flight program is presented. This program continues
to be very popular today.

November, nature trail opens to public.

**1930.** March, trail from Lower Cave Overlook to Top of the Cross
opens, eliminating need to double back to the Totem Pole during tours.

February 18, Lake of the Clouds is discovered. At 1,037\' beneath the
visitor center, this is the lowest point in the Carlsbad Caverns.

February 20, Frank Ernest Nicholson with 14 assistants arrives to
explore. According to Superintendent Boles, Nicholson's expedition
stories were written for 55 newspapers and seem elaborate and unreal and
his activities lacked anything of scientific value, but the park
welcomes the associated publicity of his visit.

The Carlsbad Cave National Monument seeks to gain support for conversion
to Carlsbad Caverns National Park.

April 16, tunnel at entrance is completed, and the staircase to Bat Cave
area that had been used since 1925, is abandoned.

May 14, Congress designates Carlsbad Caverns National Park.

**1931.** August, elevator shaft is completed.

November, first elevator is installed.

**1932.** January, elevator goes into use. Interestingly, this \$100,000
elevator is installed during the Great Depression, but the cavern
visitation is around 90,000 a year and the cavern is making money.

Lights are installed in Green Lake and Papoose Rooms, completing
original electric lighting system.

June, first permanent female guides are employed.

July 3, tunnel between Papoose Room and King's Palace is dynamited,
completed and opened, thereby connecting entire cave trail system.

**1934.** April 7, almost three thousand plus (2,871) people accompany
the 10:30 a.m. guided tour, making this the largest single guided tour
through the caverns to date.

**1935.** June 24, Rattlesnake Springs replaces Oak Springs as park
water source.

**1936.** February 9, Jim White begins selling his book (ghostwritten by
Frank Ernest Nicholson) in the cave. On his 1930 visit, Nicholson was a
pseudo-explorer, would-be broadcaster and newspaper adventure writer who
carefully blended facts and fantasy into exciting misinformation.

White's wife, Fanny, continues to sell Jim White's Own Story until her
death in 1964.

**1937.** July, Tom Tucker discovers Slaughter Canyon Cave. Since the
early 1970s, the National Park Service has provided tours of this
primitive trail cave.

September 28, park receives the one-millionth visitor. This took 14
years to accomplish.

**1938.** February 16, discovery of Slaughter Canyon Cave (New Cave) is
announced to public.

July 1, Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camp is established at
Rattlesnake Springs, and will operate until April 1942. CCC boys build
several buildings here and help repair rain storm-damaged Walnut Canyon
road in September 1941.

First major renovation and improvement of the lighting is begun.

**1939.** Second group of employee housing is under construction
(tri-plexes constructed of adobe and stuccoed) by CCC workers and will
be completed in 1942.

January 25, Park Ranger Leslie Thompson falls down elevator shaft and
manages to grab hold of cables at 125 feet into shaft; he suffers minor
blistering to hands; he returns to work two days later. Thompson, a
patrol ranger, will die of a heart attack in 1953 in his mid-fifties at
Rattlesnake Springs.

February 10, President Franklin Roosevelt signs legislation adding
approximately 39,000 acres to the park, including Slaughter Canyon. This
occurs during the time F.D.R. stilled faced huge problems of poverty and
unemployment at home and the rising spectre of Hilter's aggression in
Europe.

Superintendent Boles accidentally met Eleanor Roosevelt in El Paso and
invites her to visit the caverns, but her busy schedule does not permit.

Superintendent Boles invites famous people to the cavern. He shows the
cavern to aviator Amelia Earhart, entertainer/philosopher Will Rogers,
baseball player Ty Cobb, and others

June 2, Robert Ripley (Ripley's Believe It or Not) makes radio broadcast
from Rock of Ages hill. Broadcast is carried by telephone cables to
surface and carried nationwide on CBS radio. Boles, White and the New
Mexico Governor John Miles took part.

**1940.** May 10, Sewage system and first flush toilets go into service
in the Underground Lunchroom area. Replaces privy system installed in
1926. (This is only one of many examples of the incredible technology
and hard work that has made the cave easily accessible to visitors.)

**1941.** December 8, U.S. proclaims war against Japan. Several NPS
staff go off to fight. Many soldiers visit here. General visitation down
due to gas rationing. A group of scientists try to develop idea of
equipping sedated bats with incendiary bombs for dropping over enemy
territory. Bats from caverns are "drafted" for the project. An accident
resulting in burning government buildings puts the damper on further
project development.

**1943.** April, shortcut under Iceberg Rock constructed.

**1944.** May, Superintendent's office moves from town of Carlsbad into
park.

September, CCC buildings at Rattlesnake Spring are removed.

December 5, Rock of Ages ceremony discontinued. Becomes the most common
visitor complaint for next ten years!

**1945.** September 8, Visitor fee for elevator use is eliminated.

**1946.** April 26, Jim White dies at age 64. U.S. Congress authorizes a
plaque for the visitor center in 1953 to honor his achievements.
(Although he did not discover the cavern, he was the first to explore it
extensively. White promoted it, guided it and built facilities at it. In
1998, on the 100th anniversary of White's probable first entry into the
caverns, it is safe to say that no man's name is more synonymous with
Carlsbad Caverns than Jim White's name. What Jim White, the mostly quiet
and soft-spoken Texas native contributed to the history of the caverns,
will continue to speak loudly for years.)

**1948.** January, first Park Ranger is permanently stationed at
Rattlesnake Springs.

September, sloth bones found at Devil's Den.

**1949.** June 8, commercial electric power begins, replacing the park
generator. Powerhouse is converted to vehicle garage, and its use as
part of maintenance yard facilities will continue.

**1950.** March, motion picture "King Solomon's Mine" is filmed at
Slaughter Canyon Cave (New Cave).

**1951.** Paving of cavern trail begins.

January, seating area at Rock of Ages hill is removed. Stairs from
Whales Mouth to Devil's Den removed, is replaced by inclined trail.

March 14, construction employee Mr. Earl Rupe is killed by dynamite
blast during construction in cave.

**1952.** August 19, Tex Helm takes the "Big Shot" of the Big Room using
2400 flashbulbs.

**1953.** Paving of existing trails is completed.

**1954.** January, Bat Cave seating area is completed.

March, Iceberg Rock seating area is completed.

Lighting system improvements and repairs, begun in 1952 completed.

July 8, second elevator shaft is completed. (Construction was begun in
January 1954.)

**1955.** New elevators are installed and put into service. First
fluorescent lights are installed in cavern.

Walk out tours are discontinued with advent of new elevators.

May, Top of the Cross seating area is completed.

**1956.** October, Carlsbad Caverns Natural History Association begins.
(current name: Carlsbad Caverns Guadalupe Mountains Association)

March, stairway from Iceberg Rock to Green Lake Room is replaced by
incline trail.

May, Putnam Cabin is constructed to facilitate overnight backcountry
operations.

**1957.** August, camel bones are found in Slaughter Canyon Cave (New
Cave).

September, all guano mining operations are halted at Slaughter Canyon
Cave (New Cave); by the end of September, all mining equipment is
removed from cave.

**1958.** January, jaguar bones are found at Slaughter Canyon Cave.

January 20, quit claim on the 40 acres over Bat Cave are filed, giving
the NPS full control of the area.

**1959.** March, construction of the current Visitor Center is
completed; old stone buildings near cave entrance are removed and tour
operations are transferred to the visitor center.

Adjacent parking areas, originally constructed in 1940 as overflow are
now used as primary parking, with the lower parking area designated as
overflow and Bat Flight parking.

June, motion picture, Journey to the Center of the Earth, with Pat Boone
and James Mason, is filmed in the King's Palace and Boneyard.

July, visitor center is formally dedicated.

**1960.** November, television show "Route 66" films an episode in the
King's Palace.

**1961.** December 10, Project Gnome, a 5 kiloton nuclear weapon test,
is detonated underground, 34 miles southeast of the caverns. (This test
was to determine the feasibility of using nuclear power to generate
electricity.)

**1963.** Bat Flight amphitheater at the natural entrance is constructed
and placed into operation. First requested some 16 to 17 years earlier
for seating area for Bat Flight viewers.

April 3, Civil Defense supplies are stored in the Underground Lunchroom
area and the caverns are designated as a shelter for Roswell, Artesia,
Hobbs, Carlsbad and adjacent areas. Plan unrealistically specifies that
25,000 people could use shelter at once.

May 13, Walt Disney visits the caverns and is personally guided by the
park superintendent.

**1966.** June 26, Guadalupe Room, the 2nd largest room in the cavern,
is discovered.

**1967.** June, self-guided trips through the Big Room are begun.
Rangers are stationed at points (standing "beats") throughout the Big
Room and interpret their section as visitors pass by. Tours are still
guided through Main Corridor and Scenic Rooms.

**1972.** January 6, self-guided tours of entire cavern are initiated.
Guided tours, which had been the primary method used to show visitors
the caverns, come to an end.

**1974.** August, Telesonics radio interpretive system is placed into
operation. Visitors begin carrying "players" for getting more
information.

**1975 -- 1977.** Caverns lighting system is replaced, a project long
overdue.

**1976.** June 28 - July 4, during the Bicentennial Year, Tom Rohrer,
assisted by Ron Kerbo, leads expedition into what is later named
"Liberty Dome" over the Bottomless Pit (a 370\' expanse top to bottom).
Last time that mountain climbing "pitons" are permitted to be used in
the caverns for the most part.

October 4, Park employee Tom "Boomer" Bemis explores a room with an
opening so small that only he is the only park employee small enough to
get into it. Room named "Bemis Chamber."

**1977.** January, current lighting and wiring system is completed.
Emergency light system is installed, eliminating use of lanterns during
power failures.

**1978.** November 10, under Public Law 95-625, 33,125 acres of Carlsbad
Caverns National Park is designated as wilderness.

**1979.** July 10, four armed men enter the Underground Lunchroom area
and "take over the cave," securing hostages. Local newspaper editor
volunteers to negotiate with perpetrators. Incident ends several hours
later with arrest of the terrorists.

**1980.** May 17, Interior Secretary Cecil Andrus visits the park.

October 11, eighteen-year-old visitor is killed in accidental fall at
the Natural Entrance.

**1981.** Ten other caves in the park open for recreational caving with
permits subject to skills and experience of applicants.

March 16, NPS group, including Jimmy Sillas and Ron Kerbo, covers guano
mining shafts for safety. Originally blasted in the early 1900s for the
bat guano mining, the shafts, by the 1980s, were impacting on the
nursery activities of the thousands of Mexican freetailed bats who
annually arrived at the caverns.

July 9, Actor Ron Howard, formerly "Opie Taylor" of the Andy Grifith
show and future Apollo 13 and Backdraft director, visits the Caverns.

**1982.** Project to remove utility wires and pipes from elevator shaft
to separate utility shaft (from front of visitor center down to pump
room) is completed.

October, Cave Specialist Ron Kerbo and Geologist Mike Queen use light
cord, balsa wood and helium balloons to float cord to area 200\' above
Baby Hippo area, snagging a stalagmite. Later, both climb rope into area
later named Balloon Ballroom Climb. Sixteen years have passed since the
Guadalupe Room was discovered by searching into horizontal tunnels.

**1983.** June, wheelchair-bound visitor makes trip through the Natural
Entrance and Main Corridor.

September 17, Interior Secretary James Watt visits park.

**1984.** June, a group of Colorado cavers receive permission to dig in
the already disturbed floor of 90\' deep with 200\' of passageway in
Lechuguilla Cave to investigate "blowing leads." Six trips to dig out
the loose dirt will occur between November 23, 1984 and May 25, 1986
when a small alcove is discovered. After taking steps to shore up the
dug tunnel, the explorers hit pay dirt. By May 31, 1986, Lechuguilla
will be surveyed at 3500\' long and 703\' deep.

**1985.** December 15, Cave Specialist Ron Kerbo, BLM employee Jim
Goodbar, and Geologist Mike Queen again use helium balloons to float a
cord to the ceiling area in the Big Room, 255\' high, later named Spirit
World. This is the same "technology" used three years earlier at the
Ballroom Balcony Climb in the Main Corridor.

**1986.** Actor Pernell Roberts (Bonanza and Trapper John) visits the
cavern.

August, actor Anson "Potsy" Williams (of "Happy Days" fame) visits the
cavern.

September 5, Lechuguilla is surveyed at 7400\' long and 927\' deep.

October, NBC sent a cameraman/reporter on a "Spirit World" climb with
Kerbo, Goodbar and others. Segment airs on the Tom Brokaw Evening News.

**1987.** June, Dr. Merlin Tuttle, president of Bat Conservation
International, visits the park and says Carlsbad Caverns is likely the
most important site in the world for public education about bats.

October 14, Lechuguilla is surveyed at 37,500\' long and 1,207\' deep.

**1988.** The Caverns Historic District and the Rattlesnake Springs
Historic District is created. At the caverns architectural styles exist
from the 1920s - 1930s, the 1940s and the 1960s.

February 26, Cave Specialist Ron Kerbo departs on a one month trip to
the People's Republic of China as a member of the first American caving
expedition to that country.

May 30, Lechuguilla is surveyed at 86,000\' and 1,501\' deep.

**1989.** Cave Specialist Ron Kerbo visits the Soviet Union August 22 -
September 10 to reciprocate a Soviet cavers trip to America.

**1991.** March 31, Caver Emily Davis Mobley breaks her left leg about
1,000\' down in Lechuguilla Cave. More than 150 rescuers team to bring
her back to the surface in four days. Nation-wide press coverage
results.

**1992.** January 4, Cristobal Colon, 20th generation descendent of
Christopher Columbus, visits the park, arriving in a New Mexico State
Police helicopter. Rangers give Mr. Colon a tour of the cavern.

**1994.** April, Lechuguilla surpasses 70 miles of known passageway.

December, a National Aerospace and Aeronautics Association (NASA) and
National Geological Service team makes its 2nd five day trip into
Lechuguilla Cave.

**1995.** December, Carlsbad Caverns National Park becomes a World
Heritage Site.

**1997.** February, "The Gash," a 210\' long cave, becomes the park's
85th cave.

**1998.** May, large elevators are replaced. New elevators have windows
so that visitors may view the 75 story stone shaft as the elevator
ascends and descends.

Employees prepare for October's 75th anniversary of the park's
establishment, October 25, 1923.

Before summer, known passageways in Lechuguilla Cave is surveyed at 96
miles.

*---*[Robert Hoff, Park Historian](mailto:bob_hoff@nps.gov)