Report

**Dominican Republic**

**Environmental** **Assessment**

September 2001

Task Order No. 841

Contract No. PCE-I-00-96-00002-00

**Dominican Republic**

**Environmental Assessment**

*Prepared by*

International Resources Group, Ltd.

*Prepared for*

USAID/Santo Domingo

September 2001

Environmental Policy and Institutional Strengthening Indefinite Quantity
Contract (EPIQ)

*Partners:* International Resources Group, Winrock International, and
Harvard Institute for International Development

*Subcontractors:* PADCO; Management Systems International; and
Development Alternatives, Inc.

*Collaborating Institutions:* Center for Naval Analysis Corporation;
Conservation International; KNB Engineering and Applied Sciences, Inc.;
Keller-Bliesner Engineering; Resource Management International, Inc.;
Tellus Institute; Urban Institute; and World Resources Institute

# Contents

[Acknowledgements iv](#acknowledgements)

[Acronyms v](#acronyms)

[Executive Summary vii](#__RefHeading___Toc526060283)

[Chapter 1. Introduction 1](#chapter-1.-introduction)

[1.1 Objectives of Assessment 1](#objectives-of-assessment)

[1.2 Methodology 1](#methodology)

[1.3 Socioeconomic Overview 2](#socioeconomic-overview)

[1.4 Development Policies and Resource Management
2](#development-policies-and-resource-management)

[Chapter 2. Soils, Land Use, and Agricultural Development
4](#__RefHeading___Toc526060291)

[2.1 Land-Use Capability and Soils 4](#__RefHeading___Toc526060292)

[2.2 Actual Land Use 4](#__RefHeading___Toc526060293)

[2.3 Changes in Agricultural Production, 1980--2000
5](#__RefHeading___Toc526060294)

[2.4 Animal Production 7](#animal-production)

[2.5 Soil Erosion 7](#__RefHeading___Toc526060296)

2.6 [Salinization of Irrigated Soils 9](#__RefHeading___Toc526060298)

[2.7 Environmental Impacts of Irrigation Projects in the Dominican
Republic
9](#environmental-impacts-of-irrigation-projects-in-the-dominican-republic)

[2.7.1 Water Quality Impacts 10](#water-quality-impacts)

[2.7.2 Alteration of Water Flows 10](#alteration-of-water-flows)

[2.8 Key Issues in Land Use and Soil Management
10](#__RefHeading___Toc526060302)

[Chapter 3. Water Resources and Watersheds
12](#__RefHeading___Toc526060303)

[3.1 The National Water Budget---Components of the Water Cycle
12](#__RefHeading___Toc526060304)

[3.2 Groundwater Resources 12](#__RefHeading___Toc526060305)

[3.3 Water Use and Efficiency---Domestic, Agricultural, Industrial
13](#__RefHeading___Toc526060306)

[3.4 Irrigation Water: Environmental
Issues](#__RefHeading___Toc526060307) 14

[3.5 Irrigation Efficiency and Administration
15](#__RefHeading___Toc526060309)

[3.6 Effects of Sedimentation on Reservoir Storage
15](#__RefHeading___Toc526060310)

[3.7 Water Quality Issues 16](#__RefHeading___Toc526060311)

[3.8 Key Issues in Water Resources 17](#__RefHeading___Toc526060312)

[Chapter 4. Forests and Forestry 18](#__RefHeading___Toc526060313)

[4.1 Forest Resources of the Dominican Republic
18](#__RefHeading___Toc526060314)

[4.2 Forest Management Initiatives 19](#__RefHeading___Toc526060315)

[4.2.1 Case Study: Zambrana Agroforestry Project
19](#case-study-zambrana-agroforestry-project)

[4.2.2 Case Study: Plan Sierra La Celestina Project
20](#case-study-plan-sierra-la-celestina-project)

[4.3 Government Reforestation Efforts
20](#government-reforestation-efforts)

[4.4 Forest Protection Issues 20](#__RefHeading___Toc526060319)

[4.4.1 Charcoal-Making 20](#charcoal-making)

[4.4.2 Forest Fires 21](#forest-fires)

[4.5 Importing Forest Products 22](#__RefHeading___Toc526060322)

[4.6 Key Issues in Forestry 22](#__RefHeading___Toc526060323)

[Chapter 5. Coastal and Marine Resources
23](#__RefHeading___Toc526060324)

[5.1 Coastal and Marine Waters in the Dominican Republic
23](#__RefHeading___Toc526060325)

[5.2 Critical Coastal Ecosystems in the Dominican Republic
23](#__RefHeading___Toc526060326)

[5.3 Marine Fisheries 24](#__RefHeading___Toc526060327)

[5.4 Freshwater Aquaculture 25](#__RefHeading___Toc526060328)

[5.5 Coastal Tourism Development 26](#__RefHeading___Toc526060329)

[5.5.1 Environmental Impact of Coastal Tourism
26](#environmental-impact-of-coastal-tourism)

[5.6 Ports and Shipping Infrastructure 27](#__RefHeading___Toc526060331)

[5.7 Urban Development 27](#__RefHeading___Toc526060332)

[5.8 Key Coastal Issues 27](#__RefHeading___Toc526060333)

[Chapter 6. Biodiversity and Protected Area Management
29](#__RefHeading___Toc526060334)

[6.1 Definition of Biodiversity in the Dominican Republic
29](#__RefHeading___Toc526060335)

[6.2 Description of Terrestrial Ecosystems
29](#__RefHeading___Toc526060336)

[6.2.1 Forest Types, Typical Species 29](#__RefHeading___Toc526060337)

[6.2.2 Other Vegetative Communities 30](#__RefHeading___Toc526060338)

[6.3 Floral and Faunal Diversity and Endemism
30](#__RefHeading___Toc526060339)

[6.4 Species Threatened and at Risk of Extinction
31](#__RefHeading___Toc526060340)

[6.5 Key Issues in Biodiversity Conservation
31](#__RefHeading___Toc526060341)

[Chapter 7. Protected Areas of the Dominican Republic
32](#__RefHeading___Toc526060342)

[7.1 Tourism in the Protected Areas 33](#__RefHeading___Toc526060343)

[7.2 Key Issues in Protected Area Management
34](#__RefHeading___Toc526060344)

[Chapter 8. Environmental Quality in the Urban-Industrial Sector
35](#__RefHeading___Toc526060345)

[8.1 Urbanization of the Dominican Republic
35](#urbanization-of-the-dominican-republic)

[8.1.1 Case Study: Santo Domingo's Marginal Neighborhoods
35](#case-study-santo-domingos-marginal-neighborhoods)

[8.2 Municipal Infrastructure Investment
35](#municipal-infrastructure-investment-1)

[8.3 Potable Water Supply for Urban Areas
36](#potable-water-supply-for-urban-areas)

[8.4 Domestic Wastewater Management 36](#domestic-wastewater-management)

[8.5 Urban Storm Water Management 37](#urban-storm-water-management)

[8.6 Industrial and Commercial Wastewater
38](#industrial-and-commercial-wastewater)

[8.6.1 Case Study: Water Pollution at Thermo-Electrical Generation
Plants
38](#case-study-water-pollution-at-thermo-electrical-generation-plants)

[8.7 Water Pollution in Natural Surface Waters
38](#water-pollution-in-natural-surface-waters)

[8.8 Solid Waste Management 39](#solid-waste-management)

[8.8.1 Characteristics and Volume of Urban Solid Waste
40](#characteristics-and-volume-of-urban-solid-waste)

[8.8.2 Status of Disposal Sites 41](#status-of-disposal-sites)

[8.9 Air Quality Issues 41](#air-quality-issues)

[8.9.1 Greenhouse Gases 42](#greenhouse-gases)

[8.9.2 Petroleum Importation and Use 42](#petroleum-importation-and-use)

[8.10 Key Environmental Issues in the Urban and Industrial Sector
42](#key-environmental-issues-in-the-urban-and-industrial-sector)

[Chapter 9. Environmental Institutions and Regulatory Framework
44](#__RefHeading___Toc526060363)

[9.1 Historical Perspective 44](#__RefHeading___Toc526060364)

[9.1.1 The 1981 Country Environmental Profile
44](#the-1981-country-environmental-profile)

[9.1.2 Environmental Institutions 1981--2000
44](#environmental-institutions-19812000)

[9.1.3 Legal and Policy Actions and Precedents for Current Environmental
Law
46](#legal-and-policy-actions-and-precedents-for-current-environmental-law)

[9.2 The Current Situation 50](#__RefHeading___Toc526060368)

[9.2.1 Public Perceptions on the Environment
50](#__RefHeading___Toc526060369)

[9.2.2 International Environmental Agreements and Donors
51](#__RefHeading___Toc526060370)

[9.2.3 Environmental Institutions 53](#__RefHeading___Toc526060371)

[9.2.4 Environmental Policy Framework 54](#__RefHeading___Toc526060372)

[9.2.5 Structure and Functions of the Environmental Secretariat
55](#__RefHeading___Toc526060373)

[9.3 Key Policy and Institutional Issues
57](#__RefHeading___Toc526060374)

[Chapter 10. Toward a National Environmental Vision
59](#__RefHeading___Toc526060375)

[10.1 Opportunities for Action 59](#__RefHeading___Toc526060376)

[10.1.1 Institutional Strengthening 59](#institutional-strengthening)

[10.1.2 Policy 59](#policy)

[10.1.3 Land Use and Soil Management 60](#land-use-and-soil-management)

[10.1.4 Water Resource Management 60](#water-resource-management)

[10.1.5 Forestry 61](#forestry)

[10.1.6 Coastal and Marine Resources 61](#coastal-and-marine-resources)

[10.1.7 Biodiversity Conservation 61](#biodiversity-conservation)

[10.1.8](#section-43) [Protected Areas 61](#__RefHeading___Toc526060385)

[10.1.9 Urban Environment 62](#urban-environment)

[References 63](#references)

# Acknowledgements

This study was prepared under the auspices of USAID/Santo Domingo and
carried out in close collaboration with USAID/Santo Domingo and the
Dominican Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources personnel.
The authors would like to express their appreciation to members of both
organizations who contributed to this report and whose efforts were
critical to its successful realization. Ms. Elena Brineman, Mission
Director of USAID/Santo Domingo, and Dr. Frank Moya-Pons, Secretary of
State for the Environment and Natural Resources, provided keen overall
intellectual guidance for the study. In addition, their critique of
draft material enhanced the analytical quality of the final product.
Messrs Donnie Harrington and Odalis Perez of USAID/Santo Domingo also
offered superb commentary on the draft documents that enriched the
quality of our analysis. Many secretariat and INDRHI officials,
particularly Rene Ledesma, Olga Luciano, Abel Hernandez, Italo Russo,
Franklin Reynoso, Cecilio Diaz, Fernando Campos, Nicolas Garcia, and
Raul Perez, provided excellent detail and insight that added significant
value to our efforts.

The EPIQ/IRG research team was composed of:

Dr. William Kaschak, Team Leader

Dr. John Warren, Policy and Organizational Network Coordinator

Mr. William McDowell, Technical Coordinator

Eng. Jehova Pena

Lic. Jose Almonte

Lic. Miguel Silva

Eng. Roberto Castillo-Tio

Eng. Hector Rodriguez

Lic. Nunilla Ramirez

Eng. Gilberto Gomez

Lic. Josefina Espaillat

Eng. Daniel Arias

Lic. Danny Pozo

# Acronyms

ADN Ayuntamiento del Distrito Nacional

APAP Agricultural Policy Analysis Project

CAASD Corporación de Acueducto y Alcantarillado

CEA State Sugar Council

CEP Country Environmental Profile

CIBIMA Centro de Investigaciones de Biología Marina

CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

CNA National Agriculture Council

COENER National Commission for Energy Policy

COGO Governmental Committee on the Ozone

CONATEF National Technical Commission on Forests

COP Conference of the Parties

CORAASAN Water and Sewer Corporation for the Municipality of Santiago

COSERENAMA Environmental Sector Coordinating Commission

CRIES Comprehensive Resource Inventory and Evaluation System

DGF Forestry Directorate

DIRENA Natural Resource Inventory Department

DNP National Parks Directorate

DRP Department of Fisheries

DTA Department of Land and Water

DVS Department of Wildlife

EC European Community

FEPROBOSUR Southern Region Forestry Production Federation

FIRENA Investment Fund for Natural Resources

GODR Government of the Dominican Republic

IBRD World Bank

IDB Inter-American Development Bank

INAPA National Water Supply and Sewerage Institute

INDRHI National Institute for Hydraulic Resources

INTEC Technological Institute of Santo Domingo

ISA Superior Institute for Agriculture

JBN National Botanical Garden

JUNTA Development Association for San Jose de Ocoa

LMD Liga Municipal Dominicana

MARENA Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment

MNHN National Museum of Natural History

NGO non-governmental organization

NIBE Ibero-American University

OAS Organization of American States

ONAPLAN National Planning Office

PUCMM Madre y Maestra Pontifical University

UASD Autonomous University of Santo Domingo

UICN World Nature Union

UNDP United Nations Development Program

UNICA Inter-American University

UNPHU Pedro Henriquez Urena National University in Santo Domingo

UTESA Technological University of Santiago

SEA Secretariat of State of Agriculture

SEOPC Secretariat of Public Works and Communications

SOEBA Ecological Society of Barahona

SOECI Ecological Society of the Cibao

STP Technical Secretariat of the Presidency

TDS travel document system

TNC The Nature Conservancy

USAID US Agency for International Development

USDA US Department of Agriculture

USEPA US Environmental Protection Agency

USGS US Geological Survey

WWF World Wildlife Fund

ZOODOM National Zoological Park

# Executive Summary

## 

## 

## 

## Introduction

In 1981 USAID sponsored the first Country Environmental Profile (CEP) in
the Dominican Republic. For the last two decades that seminal study has
been the only comprehensive analysis on the state of the Dominican
environment. The object of this current research effort is to update, on
the basis of secondary data sources, the 1981 work. This update will
provide a point of comparison for the 1981 CEP. In so doing, it will
demonstrate major trends that have occurred in key environmental
areas---soil, land use and vegetative cover, water quantity, quality and
use, institutional structure for environmental management, policy---in
the last 20 years.

This study also provides recommendations on the country's most pressing
environmental problems. These recommendations, along with their
underlying rationale, are offered to Dominican environmental sector
decision-makers, their partners in the private sector and the
non-governmental organization (NGO) community, and international donors
as an action agenda for the conservation and sustainable use of the
country's natural resources and for the reduction of vulnerability.

The comparison between the state of the environment in the Dominican
Republic between 1981 and 2001 was carried out against the backdrop of a
society that has changed significantly during that period of time. The
population of the country increased by almost 50% to a current level of
8.5 million people. Agriculture, once the mainstay of the economy, has
declined, while other sectors, most notably tourism, light
manufacturing, and financial services, have grown in importance. In
fact, tourism has become the most important sector of the economy for
generating revenues. Finally, the Dominican Republic has become an urban
country (about two-thirds of the population now live in urban settings
as compared to one-third in 1970). This poses new challenges for
environmental management.

## Major Environmental Trends

The changes in the Dominican social and economic makeup have had
significant impact on nearly every aspect of the environment. With
respect to soil and land use, this impact is seen in a series of
important trends. The 1981 study noted that erosion was one of the
environmental sector's major problems. By 2000 the area of land
classified as eroded, arid, or barren had increased by 400% (UNDP 2000).
On the surface, these data clearly demonstrate that the problem has
grown and become more acute. However, much of the increase in erosion
took place in the 1980s. Beginning in the mid-1990s there is the
suggestion that the rate of erosion began to slow---and that perhaps the
negative trend was starting to reverse.

Vegetative cover, particularly forest area, is closely associated with
erosion. Differences in the methodology among the tree cover studies
between 1980 and 1998 make it difficult to assess the real forested land
area in the country. However, it seems evident that the loss of forests
noted in the 1981 CEP continued through the 1980s. That said, by the end
of the 1990s there is evidence that the land area under forest cover was
greater than that of 1980, suggesting that deforestation had abated and
some recovery was occurring. Important contributing factors to forest
recovery include concerted government efforts at reforestation (e.g.,
the Plan Sierra project, FEPROBOSUR), expansion of the national
protected areas system, and migration patters.

The agricultural sector evolved significantly in the period between the
two studies. In 1980 the predominant systems were plantation sugar cane
production and hillside subsistence farming. Over time the system has
become much more diversified. Irrigated rice production has expanded
substantially, as has the area dedicated to such high-value export crops
as tomato, banana, plantain, and yucca. The use of processed fertilizers
and other chemical inputs to improve production and productivity has
expanded in lockstep with agricultural diversification.

Land affected by salinization has increased dramatically. This trend is
a byproduct of the rapid growth in irrigated agriculture and
deficiencies in the technology used to do such farming. It is most
prevalent on coastal plains and in the lower reaches of watersheds. In
addition to salinization, the growth in irrigation works over the past
20 years has reduced normal dry season water flows in major watersheds
(e.g., Yaque del Norte, Yuna). The change in the water flow is, in turn,
affecting downstream fresh water habitats.

Other major trends regarding water resources include continued
sedimentation of the reservoir network, a substantial increase in the
demand for water, and a decline in water quality. Sedimentation of
reservoirs was a concern of the 1981 CEP. Research in the intervening
years indicates that this problem has persisted and perhaps become more
acute. The storage capacity of all the country's reservoirs has been
reduced. The reduction in capacity of the reservoirs used principally
for agricultural purposes ranges from 10% to 25%. Such natural disasters
as hurricanes have been an important cause of the reservoir
sedimentation problem. But soil erosion and landslides in upland
watersheds are also major contributing factors.

In keeping with the country's overall population growth, there has been
a notable increase in the demand for water. Demand for water for
household use has risen more than sevenfold to more than 1.45 million
cubic meters per year. Water requirements for agriculture, driven mainly
by the expansion of irrigation works, have increased more than threefold
to almost 8 million cubic meters per year. The amount of water used for
industrial purposes has also risen considerably in response to the
growth of light manufacturing.

Few studies have been carried out in the last two decades on water
quality, but the incidence of water-borne diseases suggests that water
contamination is a serious problem that is growing worse. A major source
of contamination is the seepage of nutrients into groundwater owing to
inadequate sanitation infrastructure (principally sewerage wastewater
systems). Between 1990 and 1998, the national government invested RD\$22
million a year in potable water and sewerage infrastructure. But this
figure represented only 3% of the national budget. The fact that the
country consumes more than 1,000,000 cubic meters of bottled water per
year is a reflection of overall deficiencies in water quality. Runoff of
agricultural chemical products and discharges from mining and
manufacturing industries are other growing sources of contamination.

The status of the country's biodiversity has been impacted by the
changes in Dominican society over the past two decades. Since 1981 at
least 10% of all of the species in the country---and perhaps as much as
one-third of the vertebrates---have become endangered. The decline in
biodiversity is associated principally with the reduction of forest
habitat during the 1980s. But the stabilization of the country's forests
in the last decade is apparently easing the rate of biodiversity loss.

Growth in tourism is a second major threat to biodiversity, especially
in ecological coastline niches. To illustrate, the hospitality industry
(hotels, restaurants, and bars), most of which is located near the
beach, expanded at a rate of 13% per year during 1994--98. This growth
in hotel construction and the volume of tourists---2.5 million visited
the country in 1999---is placing extreme pressure on existing flora (sea
grasses beds, mangroves) and fauna (coral reefs, sea turtles) in coastal
habitats.

Over the past 20 years, the institutional structure for the
environmental sector has expanded significantly. The largest growth has
taken place within the NGO community. Beginning in the 1980s and
accelerating in the 1990s, a plethora of local NGOs (PRONATURA, Plan
Sierra, Progresses, FEPROBOSUR, The Jaragua Group) were established to
deal with specific watersheds, parks, and community areas and
participate with the government on environmental issues such as
education, community awareness, and sustainable management of natural
resources.

The academic community has also become more involved in environmental
study, research, and projects. The Autonomous University and the Pedro
H. Enriquez National University (UNPHU) in Santo Domingo and the Center
for Urban and Rural Studies (CEUR) of the Madre y Maestra Pontifical
University (PUCMM) in Santiago have been leaders in raising the public's
consciousness on environmental issues and conducting research on
specific natural resource questions. The Technological Institute of
Santo Domingo (INTEC) established a graduate program in environmental
education in 1988, and the Superior Institute for Agriculture (ISA)
launched a forestry school.

Public institutions grew in number over the past two decades, but,
before 2000, without a corresponding increase in effective environmental
policy. The CEP reported in 1981 that public institutions involved with
natural resources were characterized by parallel functions, inefficient
use of human and financial resources, and a lack of coordination. This
situation persisted for most of the last 20 years while the number of
public institutions increased to more than 20. Major government entities
involved in the sector included the National Hydrological Institute
(INDRHI), the Agricultural Secretariat (with a number of its
dependencies), the Forestry Directorate, the National Parks Directorate,
and the National Agricultural Council. The establishment of the
Secretariat of the Environment and Natural Resources in 2000, as the
single public institution responsible for environmental oversight, was a
significant step toward rationalizing public sector activity regarding
the environment and natural resources.

Water user associations are recent additions to the Dominican
environmental sector. The movement began in the late 1980s as an
initiative of INDRHI to improve the efficiency of water use in rural
areas. This experiment has been successful. The number of water user
associations in the country, while still small, is growing
rapidly---there were 10 such associations in 1999. Institutionally, they
represent another important presence in the management of natural
resources (in this case water). On average the local associations are
collecting four times the user fees generated by the traditional
government-managed system. Money generated by the associations is
invested in technology and training of local association members to
improve water management efficiency.

Urbanization has been an important phenomenon in Dominican society over
the past two decades. Correspondingly, the appearance of urban or
"brown" problems has been a major environmental trend. In addition to
water quality and the related deficiencies in sanitation infrastructure,
growing air and noise pollution and shortcomings in solid waste
management are the most serious threats to the urban environment.

Public policy, like the other areas of activity, has evolved
considerably since the original assessment was carried out. In 1981 the
CEP noted that that there was a defined policy regarding agriculture,
but that there was no explicit policy for natural resource management.
The CEP also noted that the legal basis for environmental management was
ambiguous and resulted in overlaps, gaps, and confusion among cognizant
institutions.

In the 1980s the national government issued 60 environmental policy
initiatives. In general, these actions---Law 355 of 1983 prohibited the
use of lime on tree trunks and Decree 1026 of 1986 established the La
Caleta Underwater Park---tended to control or prohibit the use of
natural resources. In the 1990s, under the influence of the Worldwide
Environmental Conference in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the policy process
was characterized by expanding awareness and public dialogue on
environmental issues. Policy legislation and decrees focused on the
sustainable use of natural resources. The culmination of this process
was the passage of the General Environmental Law (64-00) in August 2000.
This law not only reorganized the institutional structure for managing
the environment, but also raised environmental awareness in the public
sector planning process and required public consultation on
environmental issues with legal implications.

Major trends in the environmental sector over the past 20 years, while
showing some signs of progress, reveal the persistence of serious
problems. An action agenda to address these challenges should include:

-   Amplification and refinement of the Law 64 to establish a
    comprehensive policy regime that will promote protection and
    sustainable use of the country's natural resources.

-   Strengthening of the institutional structure, including local units
    and local private organizations put in place to manage the
    environmental sector.

-   Aggressive programs to, among other things, promote reforestation,
    curtail soil salinization, manage watersheds, and protect fragile
    ecological niches such as the coastal marine environment.

-   Aggressive environmental protection public awareness program.

-   Research on such important issues as water quality, bathometry, and
    trends in vegetative cover.

-   Increased investment in sanitation and potable water infrastructure.

-   A proactive program of consultation and consensus building with all
    relevant sectors (private entrepreneurs, NGOs, academia, local
    government) on the design and implementation of a national
    environmental program.

# Chapter 1. Introduction

## 

## 

## 

## 1.1 Objectives of Assessment

Environmental issues in the Dominican Republic span a wide range.
Watershed degradation, soil erosion, solid and liquid waste disposal,
water and air pollution, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and pesticide
contamination are serious concerns. The matter takes on added importance
given the close link between the country's natural resource base and its
economy. The Dominican Republic has had, and will continue to have, an
economy dependent upon its natural resources. Accordingly, the prospects
for economic expansion are inextricably linked to the remediation,
protection, and prudent use of the country's natural patrimony.

In 1981 USAID sponsored the first environmental assessment carried out
in the country. Clearly, significant social and economic change has
taken place in the intervening twenty years, and it is reasonable to
assume that this change has had an impact on the environment. The
objective of this study is to establish a point of comparison for the
1981 analysis by providing a snapshot of the state of the environment in
the Dominican Republic at the beginning of the twenty-first century. It
updates the areas addressed in the 1981 analysis---vegetative cover and
forestry, water quantity and quality, land use, erosion---and highlights
the trends that have taken place in the areas over the past two decades.
Simultaneously, this assessment will give consideration to environmental
matters---policy, institutional regulatory and service delivery network,
air and noise pollution, and water contamination---that have arisen
since the 1981 report was produced.

## 1.2 Methodology

At the request of the Secretariat of State for the Environment and
Natural Resources, USAID/Santo Domingo developed the scope of work for
this study. The contents of the scope of work were discussed with, and
agreed to, by the Secretary of the Environment and Natural Resources.
USAID and the secretary also agreed on the methodology to be used in
carrying out the research---a review of existing secondary sources.

The reliance on secondary sources posed certain limitations. In some
cases it limited the ability of the researchers to demonstrate precisely
the status of given environmental sub-sectors. To illustrate, the body
of information available on forestry consists of a series of different
studies conducted with separate methodologies, particularly regarding
classification criteria for types of forests and ground cover. Because
of these methodological differences, there are wide variances in the
studies' conclusions. These variances make it difficult to document
precise trends regarding forest and other ground cover over the past
twenty years.

In other cases, the dearth of secondary data limited the team's ability
to draw definitive conclusions. For example, very little research has
been done recently on dam sedimentation. This virtual absence of
information inhibited efforts to refine estimates of actual water
storage capacity.

Despite these limitations, the methodology was adequate to draw a
comparison on the state of the country's environmental resources between
1981 and 2001. The methodology also permitted the identification of
major trends in key environmental sectors over the past two decades, as
well as the identification of research and other programming priorities.

## 1.3 Socioeconomic Overview

The Dominican Republic has a land area of slightly less than 50,000
square kilometers, and occupies about two-thirds of the island of
Hispaniola. The country's population is estimated at 8.5 million,
resulting in a population density of approximately 170 people per square
kilometer. In 1990, the population growth rate was measured at 2.3%---a
figure that demonstrated a continued decline from its high of 3.62%
registered in 1960.

After stagnation---and in some instances contraction---during the 1980s,
the country's economy flourished during the 1990s. Between 1995 and
1999, the economy grew at a yearly rate of more than 7%, and inflation
never exceeded 10% per year. In 1999, the gross national product was
\$17.6 billion---an increase of almost 100% over 1993.

During the 1990s, the agricultural sector's participation in the economy
contracted by 30% (from 17.5% in 1991 to 12.4% in 1997). The sugarcane
production and processing industry, which is included in the industrial
economic sector, was once the mainstay of the economy. In the two
decades since the 1981 profile, land in sugarcane has been reduced by
about 12%, and the sugarcane industry now represents only about 1% of
all economic output.

Although the sector has declined as a whole, there has been modest
growth in crop production. The increase in crop production is
concentrated in high-value commodities---tobacco, industrial tomatoes,
and bananas. Livestock growth has also been modest, with only a slight
increase in the area dedicated to cattle grazing.

During the 1990s industry (including sugar production, mining,
construction, and utilities) expanded from 26% to just over 32%.
Manufacturing, led by the introduction of free zone *maquila*
operations, grew at 3.8% per year between 1994 and 1998. Mining also
increased substantially over the same period.

The service sector (commerce, tourism, transport, communications,
finance, and government) remained even, contributing about 55% of the
economy during the 1990s. Tourism (hotels, restaurants, and bars) showed
impressive growth (13% per year between 1994 and 1999), as did
communications (17.5% for the same period). Within services, government
was the principal area of economic contraction.

While there has been a continuing trend of reduced population growth,
the labor force, as a result of high population growth rates in the
1960s and 1970s, has expanded by more than 3% annually since 1980. A
parallel demographic trend is the marked urbanization of Dominican
society: between 1965 and 1997, the portion of Dominicans living in
urban settings rose from 35% to 67%, while the rural population declined
by a concomitant amount.

## 1.4 Development Policies and Resource Management

In large part, the demographic shifts (especially increased
urbanization) over the last two decades (certainly throughout the 1990s)
were related to changes in the country's economy. The growth of the
urban-based industrial and service sectors has drawn people to the
cities to fill available employment niches. A growth-oriented economic
policy facilitated the impressive growth of the 1990s, but this regime
was adopted with little concern for environmental consequences. The
passage of the Environmental Law (Law 64-00) and the creation of the
Secretariat of the Environment in late 2000 were initial steps to
developing a new policy regime to join environmental protection and
sustainable natural management with economic expansion.

# Chapter 2. Soils, Land Use, and Agricultural Development

## 

## 

## 

## 2.1 Land-Use Capability and Soils

The Organization of American States published a Land-Use Capability
classification for the Dominican Republic based on 1977 soil studies
(CEP 1981). This work indicated that approximately 12.6% of the
Dominican Republic's soils (classes I-III) have good potential for
intensive cultivation with only moderate limitations, while over 55% of
the land area has soils that are so steep, rocky, or shallow (classes
VII-VIII) that they have good potential only for forestry or protected
areas (table 2.1). Much of the remaining soils have limited capability
to support intensive agriculture, though some can be used effectively
for perennial tree crops (coffee, cacao) and pasture.

Table 2.1  USDA Land Use Capability Classification for the Dominican
Republic

  ------- -------- -------------- ---------------------------------------------
  Land    Km       Percentage of  General Characteristics of Land Class Unit
  Class            National       
                   Territory      

  I       537      1.1            Excellent for cultivation, high productivity
                                  potential.

  II      2,350    4.9            Very good for cultivation, few limiting
                                  factors.

  III     3,122    6.6            Good for cultivation, some limiting factors,
                                  medium productivity potential with good
                                  management.

  IV      3,639    7.7            Limited potential for cultivation,
                                  appropriate for pasture or perennial crops,
                                  with severe limiting factors. Low to medium
                                  productivity with management.

  V       6,071    12.7           Limiting factors severe, especially drainage.
                                  Can be used for pasture, or for rice with
                                  intensive management.

  VI      5,611    11.8           Cannot be cultivated, except for certain
                                  perennial crops (such as coffee), pasture, or
                                  forestry. Limiting factors include
                                  topography, soil depth, rocky soils.

  VII     25,161   52.7           Cannot be cultivated, only appropriate for
                                  forestry uses.

  VIII    1,202    2.5            Cannot be cultivated, appropriate for
                                  protected areas or wildlife uses.

  Total   47,693   100.00         
  ------- -------- -------------- ---------------------------------------------

*Note*: Does not include 588 km^2^ of lakes, islands, and other areas.

*Source*: OAS Survey of Natural Resources of Dominican Republic 1967,
cited in 1981 CEP.

## 2.2 Actual Land Use

Data that allow a definitive comparison of land-use patterns in 1980 to
present land use are not available due to different study methodologies.
But some general trends can be detected (table 2.2):

-   Loss of broad-leaf forest cover has slowed significantly or stopped.

-   There is some suggestion that coniferous forest area expanded
    slightly.

-   Intensive agriculture, particularly steep slope cultivation of
    subsistence crops, has declined in some areas.

-   Sugarcane land has been reduced, perhaps by as much as 12%.

-   Intensive pastures have increased only slightly.

-   Urban areas are rapidly expanding.

-   Eroded or barren land has expanded significantly.

-   Area dedicated to tree crops has increased.

Table 2.2 Changes in Land Use in the Dominican Republic, 1980--98
(km^2^)

+-------+---------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+-------+
| Type  |               | OAS   | C    | D     | OAS | C    | D     |
| of    |               |       | RIES | IRENA |     | RIES | IRENA |
| Land  |               | 1967  |      |       | \%  |      |       |
| Use   |               |       | 1980 | 1998  |     | \%   | \%    |
| or    |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| Cover |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
+-------+---------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+-------+
| Broad | Humid         | 2,580 | 6    | 6,306 | 5.3 | 13.7 | 13.1  |
| -leaf |               |       | ,518 |       |     |      |       |
| f     |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| orest |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
+-------+---------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+-------+
|       | Dried, mixed, | 835   |      | 3,889 | 1.7 |      | 8.0   |
|       | and others    |       |      |       |     |      |       |
+-------+---------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+-------+
| Conif |               | 2155  | 311  | 3,025 | 0   | 4.0  | 6.2   |
| erous |               |       |      |       | .64 |      |       |
+-------+---------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+-------+
| Suga  |               |       | 4    | 3,682 |     | 8.8  | 7.6   |
| rcane |               |       | ,025 |       |     |      |       |
+-------+---------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+-------+
| Tree  |               |       |      | 3,414 |     |      | 7.1   |
| crops |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| (co   |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| ffee, |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| c     |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| acao, |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| etc.) |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
+-------+---------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+-------+
| Inte  |               |       | 2    | 2,636 |     | 4.9  | 5.5   |
| nsive |               |       | ,325 |       |     |      |       |
| pas   |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| tures |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
+-------+---------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+-------+
| Ot    |               |       | 27   | 1     |     | 57.6 | 36.5  |
| hers: |               |       | ,417 | 7,595 |     |      |       |
| mar   |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| ginal |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| a     |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| gricu |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| lture |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| /past |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| ures/ |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| mat   |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| orral |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| /tree |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| c     |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| rops/ |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| other |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| for   |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| ests, |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| etc.  |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
+-------+---------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+-------+
| Urban |               |       | 292  | 394   |     | 0.6  | 0.8   |
| areas |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
+-------+---------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+-------+
| Arid, |               |       | 402  | 1,306 |     | 0.8  | 2.7   |
| ba    |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| rren, |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| or    |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| e     |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| roded |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
| land  |               |       |      |       |     |      |       |
+-------+---------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+-------+
| Total |               |       | 47   | 4     |     |      |       |
|       |               |       | ,657 | 8,224 |     |      |       |
+-------+---------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+-------+

  -------------------------- ---------- ----------- ----------- ----------
                                                                

                                                                

                                                                

                                                                

                                                                

                                                                

                                                                

                                                                

                                                                

                                                                

                                                                

                                                                
  -------------------------- ---------- ----------- ----------- ----------

*Source*: Adapted from UNDP 2000.

## 2.3 Changes in Agricultural Production, 1980--2000

Agricultural production in the Dominican Republic has been subject to a
series of changes driven by, among other things, agricultural policy,
national and international markets, and economics. In the last 20 years,
the Dominican agricultural sector has adapted to these forces by
modifying cropping and land use patterns, as well as technology. Table
2.3 allows a comparison of acreage per crop and production levels for
the most important Dominican agricultural products.

Changes in sugar production are among the most significant to have taken
place in the agricultural sector. Before 1980, the sugar industry was
organized into large production and processing centers (*ingenios*). The
majority of the *ingenios* were controlled by the national
government---a few (three) were privately owned and operated. During
this period sugar production emphasized use of large areas of land.
Little concern was given to the application of technologies that would
enhance productivity and production in smaller areas. With the decline
of the international sugar market in the 1980s, the government faced the
difficult problem of controlling large expanses of underused land. A
privatization program was initiated in the late 1980s to address the
problem. This effort has made some progress---the former Esperanza
*ingenio* was converted into a successful irrigated rice and banana
operation---and the private owners have emphasized modern technology and
operational efficiency for enhanced productivity. But the success is
limited. Large areas of former sugarcane have been either abandoned or
are underused.

Table 2.3 Comparison of National Crop Acreage and Production, 1979 and
1998

+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
|                | 1979       |            | 1998       |              |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Crop           | Crop Area  | Production | Crop Area  | Production   |
|                |            |            |            |              |
|                | (hectares) | (metric    | (hectares) | (metric      |
|                |            | tons)      |            | tons)        |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Rice           | 106,408    | 245,437    | 106,138    | 382,199      |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Red beans      | 54,853     | 37,927     | 40,523     | 38,559       |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Black beans    | 10,355     | 11,883     | 7,535      | 8,539        |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| White beans    | 11,205     | 9,928      | 2,463      | 2,525        |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Maíze          | 36,581     | 48,177     | 37,679     | 59,614       |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Yucca          | 22,933     | 119,556    | 23,680     | 176,270      |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Sweet potatoes | 6,659      | 5,495      | 10,200     | 60,248       |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Plantains      | 30,580     | 204,250    | 56,987     | 380,627      |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Bananas        | 7,058      | 71,626     | 24,975     | 234,725      |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Ñame (root     | 2,707      | 17,274     | 2,511      | 20,125       |
| crop)          |            |            |            |              |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Potatoes       | 897        | 8,987      | 2,951      | 39,500       |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Tomatoes       | 615        | 7,131      | 1,634      | 14,406       |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Industrial     | 5,082      | 100,969    | 10,070     | 324,452      |
| tomatoes       |            |            |            |              |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Onion          | 1,447      | 10,248     | 2,355      | n/a          |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Pepper         | 911        | 3,624      | 2,359      | 23,661       |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Garlic         | 651        | 3,452      | 873        | 16,012       |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| **Coffee**     | *          | **63,000** | *          | **6,944**    |
|                | *155,000** |            | *125,000** |              |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Cacao          | 94,000     | 43,850     | 147,674    | 60,875       |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| Tobacco        | 29,402     | 33,931     | 27,516     | 73,834       |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+

*Source*: Annual Plans, Secretariat of Agriculture Economic Planning
Unit 1979--98.

The following changes in crop production over the last 20 years, as
outlined in table 2.3, may be important to national environmental
quality:

-   Area in basic cereals (rice, maize) is not increasing, but
    productivity is considerably improved, due to increased application
    of fertilizer and other inputs.

-   Dry beans and other staple crops of hillside farmers have declined
    in area under cultivation.

-   Traditional root crops (yucca, sweet potatoes, ñame) have increased
    in area, and yields have significantly improved.

-   Plantains and bananas, perennial crops, have increased in acreage,
    especially under irrigation.

-   Export crops such as industrial (canning) tomatoes and
    tobacco---crops requiring intensive inputs---have increased in
    productivity dramatically.

-   While overall area of rice cultivation has remained constant, rice
    grown under irrigation has increased significantly. The productions
    and productivity increases are attributable to enhanced technology,
    such as irrigation and application of chemical inputs.

-   Vegetables grown in the mountains (Constanza, Valle Nuevo, Arroyo
    Frio) have increased.

-   Use of chemical inputs for vegetable production has increased.

## 2.4 Animal Production

-   

```{=html}
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```
-   

-   The livestock production sector has grown dramatically over the past
    two decades. Table 2.4 demonstrates the expansion.

> Table 2.4 Animal Production, 1979 and 1998

  ------------------------------ ------------- -------------- ------------
  Category                       1979          1998           Change

  Poultry (hundred weights)      77,700        168,966        132%

  Pork (tons)                    0\*           27,530         --

  Beef (tons)                    54,500        76,780         86%

  Milk (millions of liters)      302           443            46%

  Eggs (millions of units)       316           901.7          185%
  ------------------------------ ------------- -------------- ------------

> \*Pork production was temporarily eliminated due to African swine
> fever.
>
> *Source*: SEA Operating Plans for 1980 and 1998*.*

Dramatic increases in the production of poultry, pork, and eggs, and
more modest increases in the production of beef and milk, are driven by
local demand. This demand is largely urban-based and a result of
population shifts from the countryside to the cities in response to the
growth in the service and industry sectors. The increased production of
animal products poses a challenge in environmental management,
especially for water quality, owing to the concentration of fecal matter
at larger poultry and hog operations, and the food processing wastes
created in preparing these products for market. This is a key area where
appropriate land-use planning and environmental regulation can protect
environmental quality.

## 2.5 Soil Erosion

In 1981, the Country Environmental Profile identified soil erosion as
"the most serious problem affecting the natural resources of the
Dominican Republic." This problem was attributed in large part to
deforestation and small farm agricultural practices on steeply sloping
lands, which make up a large proportion of the nation's interior. It was
noted that these widespread erosion problems degraded soil fertility,
decreased the life span of critical water reservoirs used for
hydroelectric generation and irrigation, and exacerbated flood risks.

In the past two decades, the erosion problem continued and, in some
senses, became more acute. Data demonstrate that in 1998 land area
classified, as "arid, barren, or eroded" was four times larger than the
levels reported in 1980 (see table 2.2).

But it appears that most of the erosion since the CEP occurred in the
1980s. Beginning late in the decade, the Dominican government launched a
concerted effort to respond to this problem with a series of national
and local programs. The most notable of these programs include the
Quisqueya Verde campaign for reforestation of the 1990s; Plan Sierra's
government--private sector efforts to replace annual crops with coffee
and promote reforestation and economic development in the north-central
portion of the country; and the efforts of numerous NGOs on watershed,
soil conservation, and reforestation projects in the uplands. These and
similar efforts appear to be having some impact on water retention---an
important contributing factor to erosion control.

Economic policy of the late 1980s also played a role in slowing erosion.
Data on agricultural output indicate that the production of dry beans,
the staple crop of hillside farmers, has declined (see table 2.3). The
latter part of the 1980s also witnessed economic policies to promote
free zones and light manufacturing. The free zones became a vital source
of jobs for rural dwellers (especially small hillside farmers) faced
with a declining demand for beans and other traditional commodities.
Accordingly, opening markets to competitive imports and establishing
trade regimes that favored high-value export commodities, cheaper
imported beans, rural out-migration, and other economic pressures on
small farmers in recent decades may be as responsible for this change as
conservation programs.

Anecdotal evidence suggests that the stagnation of population growth in
rural provinces actually masks significant depopulation of remote
uplands once involved in slash-and burn agriculture (J. Pena 2001). A
demographic shift, as younger people from former hillside agriculture
zones move to local municipal centers or emigrate to Europe and the
United States, may relieve some of the agricultural pressure on steep,
remote watersheds. Limited field trips by this team in 2001 in the Nizao
watershed noted neither significant use of uplands for annual crops
(most land was in unimproved pasture, matorral, or coffee), nor
significant cropland soil erosion problems.

While more research must be done on erosion rates, and different types
of erosion under various land uses, as overall rate of erosion slows,
upland erosion and sedimentation of reservoirs continue to be
problematic.

> Table 2.5 Sedimentation Rates in Reservoirs in the Dominican Republic
> through 1995

  -------------- ------------------- -------------------------------------
  Reservoir      Years of Operation  Sedimentation Observed
                                     (M^3^/km^2^/year)

  Tavera         20                  2,284

  Valdesia       17                  3,218

  Sabaneta       12                  1, 963

  Sabana Yegua   13                  2,644

  Rincón         16                  4,442

  Hatillo        12                  4,575
  -------------- ------------------- -------------------------------------

> *Source*: UNDP 2000, J. Rodríguez 2001.

Sedimentation rates in reservoirs reported in Ottenwalder (UNDP 2000)
for several reservoirs of 2,000--4,000 m^3^/km^2^/year exceed what can
be expected from overland flow on croplands, and especially on the
pasture and matorral land uses common in the upland watersheds, even
with high sediment delivery ratio (most sediment eroded in a given year
does not make it downstream for many years). The sources of the sediment
accumulating in reservoirs include cropland erosion, but landslides
(many triggered by hurricanes), poor road construction, erosion of
riverbanks during floods, and mobilization of river bed sediments
deposited over the past decades have been significant sources of
reservoir sediment.

In general, land uses that emphasize perennial tree crops, minimize road
construction, and lower population densities in steep upland watersheds
are critical to addressing the serious existing soil erosion problems.
Promotion of soil conservation practices for hillside agriculture are
important, but in the current economic and demographic situation of the
mountainous provinces of Dominican Republic, alternative perennial crops
and appropriate municipal economic development alternatives like those
promoted by Plan Sierra and FEPROBOSUR will be a more important part of
any long-term solution.

## 2.6 

## Salinization of Irrigated Soils

About 13% of the Dominican Republic's cultivated land is under
irrigation. From 1980 to 1998 irrigated area increased from
approximately 178,000 hectares to 265,000 hectares (H. Rodriguez 1998).
Much of the irrigated land is concentrated on the nation's best soils
located in the Cibao (Yaque del Norte--upper Yuna), Yuna, and Yaque del
Sur watersheds. Salinization of soils due to poor irrigation practices
(often overuse of water raising local water tables), lack of adequate
drainage, or simply intensive re-use of tail water for downstream
irrigation, poses a distinct threat to the future use of some of these
high-quality soils.

An example of the extent of the salinization problem can be seen in
table 2.6. There are clearly relatively greater degrees of salinization
in the Lower Yaque del Norte valley---an area where irrigation systems
are supplied from tail water that has already been used for upstream
irrigation. It is also an area with insufficient drainage
infrastructure.

Table 2.6 Salinization of Soils in the Upper and Lower Yaque del Norte
Valley (hectares)

  -------------------- --------- ---------- ------------ ---------- ---------- ----------
  Location             Not       Slightly   Moderately   Strongly   Very       Total
                       Saline    Saline     Saline       Saline     Strongly   Hectares
                                                                    Saline     

  Upper Valley         56,167    4,090      3,687        --         3,345      67,289
  (Santiago--Hatillo                                                           
  Palma                                                                        

                       **84%**   **6%**     **5%**       **0%**     **5%**     **100%**

  Lower Valley         7,520     16,780     6,070        4,275      675        35,320
  (Hatillo                                                                     
  P.--Montecristi                                                              

                       **21%**   **48%**    **17%**      **12%**    **2%**     **100%**

  Total                62%       20%        20%          4%         4%         100%
  -------------------- --------- ---------- ------------ ---------- ---------- ----------

*Source*: Plan Nacional de Ordenamiento de los Recursos Hidráulicos
(PLANORHI), OEA/INDRHI 1993.

Efforts to address the problem of soil salinization can be extremely
costly when drainage structures are required. Several major projects
have worked on improved irrigation water management in Azua and Cibao,
but major deficiencies remain.

## 2.7 Environmental Impacts of Irrigation Projects in the Dominican Republic

Among the best-documented cases in the Dominican Republic of irrigation
projects' negative impacts on the environment is the salinization of the
Yaque del Norte river by high levels of water withdrawal (lowering flow
in the river) and contaminated irrigation return flows.

Table 2.7 Salinization of Water in Yaque del Norte, 1970--93, as
Evidenced by Conductivity Measurements Upstream to Downstream
(microsiemens/cm)

)

  ----------- ------------ ------------ ------------ ----------- ------------
  Year        Santiago     Estancial    Esperanza    Jibon       Hato del
                           del Yaque                             Medio

  1970        170          300          560          410         570

  1993        180          420          620          740         1000
  ----------- ------------ ------------ ------------ ----------- ------------

*Source*: Juan Antonio González 1999, Valle del Cibao: Ecología, Suelos
y Degradación, Santo Domingo*.*

### 2.7.1 Water Quality Impacts

These data indicate that downstream surface water in Hato del Medio is
10 times more saline than water in Santiago, and that much of this
degradation occurred in the last 30 years as more irrigation projects
have come on line. The salinization of water supplies by irrigation tail
water is almost certainly accompanied by significant runoff of nutrients
and sediments from agricultural fields to surface waters.

Two of the most important irrigated valleys in Dominican Republic, Yaque
del Norte and Yuna, discharge to important wetlands and estuary systems:
Monte Cristi and the Samana Bay, respectively. Both areas are
experiencing changes in salinity, sediment loads, turbidity, nutrients,
and other contaminants---concentrations of mercury have been detected in
Samana Bay (UNDP 2000). A recent study conducted in small drainages
below the Hatillo Reservoir revealed the presence of elevated levels of
cadmium, chromium, and other heavy metals. (USGS 2000). Clearly, these
contaminants can have major negative effects on estuary and reef
ecosystems, especially in partially closed estuaries like the Samana
Bay.

### 2.7.2 Alteration of Water Flows

Another major impact of irrigation is the reduction of dry season flows
in the rivers themselves due to irrigation diversions, reducing and
degrading the habitat available to freshwater aquatic life. Improving
irrigation efficiency to leave unneeded water in the river is often a
great benefit, but no evidence of studies on this issue in the Dominican
Republic was encountered. Another impact on aquatic systems is the
considerable ecological damage caused by large reservoir projects
altering hydrologic and geomorphic processes in large river systems.
These issues are apparently not yet being considered in water
development projects in the Dominican Republic.

2.8 Key Issues in Land Use and Soil Management

-   Most increases in crop production are attributable to
    intensification of the use of fertilizers and other inputs on
    available good soils. Efforts to optimize fertilizer management will
    save costs and reduce the potential for water pollution.

-   Livestock production is intensifying, especially medium- and
    large-scale poultry and pork operations, which can pose threats to
    water quality from manure and processing wastes.

-   Annual cropping of fragile uplands, especially with dry beans,
    apparently is declining significantly.

-   Soil erosion continues to be a serious problem. It is critical to
    determine whether annual cropping on hillsides is really the
    principal source of eroded sediments, or whether landslides, dirt
    roads, and stream bank erosion are more important at a watershed
    level.

-   Salinization of high-quality irrigated lands will continue to
    require substantial investment if these lands are not to be
    permanently lost for production.

-   Salinization of surface and groundwater is at risk from saline
    intrusion in large areas of the Dominican Republic. This problem is
    especially serious on the south coast, the fastest growing region of
    the country.

# Chapter 3. Water Resources and Watersheds

## 

## 

## 

## 3.1 The National Water Budget---Components of the Water Cycle

The Dominican Republic's climate varies from humid in the northeast and
high western mountains to semi-arid or arid in the southwest and
northwest. The average annual precipitation nationwide is approximately
1,500 mm. This provides a gross annual national water budget shown in
table 3.1.

> Table 3.1 National Water Cycle for the Dominican Republic

  --------------------------------- -------------------------------------
  Component                         Water Volume (millions of m^3^)

  Precipitation                     73,000

  Evaporation-transpiration         51,000

  Runoff (surface water)            20,000

  Recharge to aquifers              1,510
  --------------------------------- -------------------------------------

*Source*: PLANIACAS 1983*.*

Total annual surface water runoff is approximately 20 billion cubic
meters per year from the country's six major watersheds. The Yaque del
Norte and the Yuna-Canu watersheds are the largest, supplying about 25%
and 20% of the runoff. The balance of the water is drawn from the
Azua-Yaque del Sur, Ozama-Nizao and other watersheds. Detail on the
runoff supplied by each of the key watersheds is presented in table 3.2.

Since total flows include large flood surges (water not available for
human use) the base flow (or dry season flow) is used to estimate
available water supplies. The total available water supply can be
estimated as the surface water base flow (371 m^3^ per second) plus the
available groundwater, which has been estimated at 47.5 m^3^ per second
(PLANIACAS 1983). This is equivalent to 1,610 cubic meters per capita
for the Dominican Republic's present national population of 8.5 million.
Compared to other countries, this water availability level is adequate
for domestic, industrial, and agricultural uses---but has potential for
shortages.

## 3.2 Groundwater Resources 

Estimates by PLANIACAS in 1983 put potential groundwater resources at
approximately 1,610 million cubic meters per year. Recently INDRHI, with
international technical assistance, completed an intensive 42-volume
field study of groundwater resources. This study focused on the southern
portion of the country, where the majority of groundwater resources are
located (hydrographic basins of the Ozama-Nizao, Yaque del Sur, etc.).
Research findings indicate that recharge only in the south coast areas
alone is more than 2.2 billion cubic meters per year. Therefore, the
estimates of current available groundwater must be considerably higher
for the country as a whole than the 1983 figures.

> Table 3.2 Annual Runoff from Major River Basins in the Dominican
> Republic

+-----------+---------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
| River     | Rivers              | Mean  |       | Mean   |        |
| Basin     |                     | Base  |       | Annual |        |
| (includes |                     | Flow  |       | Flow   |        |
| various   |                     |       |       |        |        |
| rivers)   |                     |       |       |        |        |
+-----------+---------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
|           |                     | m^3^  | 10^6^ | m^3^   | 10^6^  |
|           |                     | per   | m^3^  | per    | m^3^   |
|           |                     | s     | per   | second | per    |
|           |                     | econd | year  |        | year   |
+-----------+---------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
| Yaque del | Total               | 109   | 3,440 | 181    | 5,700  |
| Norte and |                     |       |       |        |        |
| others    |                     |       |       |        |        |
+-----------+---------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
| San Juan  | San Juan            | 25    | 785   | 293    | 900    |
|           |                     |       |       |        |        |
|           | Artibonito          | 18    | 575   | 32     | 1,015  |
|           |                     |       |       |        |        |
|           | Total               | 43    | 1,360 | 61     | 1,915  |
+-----------+---------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
| Azua      | Various             | 4     | 125   | 7      | 220    |
+-----------+---------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
| Yaque del | Yaque del Sur       | 14    | 430   | 40     | 1,250  |
| Sur       |                     |       |       |        |        |
|           | Others              | 20    | 630   | 39     | 1,240  |
|           |                     |       |       |        |        |
|           | Total               | 34    | 1,060 | 79     | 2,490  |
+-----------+---------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
| Yuna-Camú | Yuna                | 54    | 1,700 | 100    | 3,150  |
|           |                     |       |       |        |        |
|           | Camú                | 24    | 770   | 52     | 1,630  |
|           |                     |       |       |        |        |
|           | Total               | 78    | 2,470 | 152    | 4,780  |
+-----------+---------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
| Ozam      | Nizao               | 19    | 610   | 30     | 945    |
| a---Nizao |                     |       |       |        |        |
| and other | Ozama               | 45    | 1,410 | 89     | 2,810  |
| south     |                     |       |       |        |        |
| coast     | Haina               | 14    | 440   | 22     | 685    |
| rivers    |                     |       |       |        |        |
|           | Chavón              | 6     | 190   | 13     | 420    |
|           |                     |       |       |        |        |
|           | Others              | 19    | 590   | 33     | 1,030  |
|           |                     |       |       |        |        |
|           | Total               | 103   | 3,240 | 187    | 5,890  |
+-----------+---------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
| National  | All Surface Water   | 371   | 1     | 667    | 21,995 |
| Total     |                     |       | 1,695 |        |        |
+-----------+---------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+

> *Note:* INDRHI is organized into three water districts: Northern
> Region (Baja Yuna, Yuna Camu, Alto Yaque del Norte, Bajo Yaque del
> Norte), Eastern Region (Este, Ozama-Nizoa), and Southern Region (Valle
> de Azua, Valle de San Juan; Yaque del Sur, Lago Enriquillo).

The INDRHI study also detailed the extent of groundwater contamination
with salts from seawater---which can be a serious problem in coastal
aquifers. Where extensive use is made of coastal aquifers, their water
table (or piezometric) level declines, which can allow seawater to move
in to fill the void created by over pumping. This problem, known as
saline intrusion, is widespread in the south coast of the Dominican
Republic.

## 3.3 Water Use and Efficiency---Domestic, Agricultural, Industrial 

According to table 3.3, water demand in 1980 was 2.3 million cubic
meters per year---2.123 cubic meters per year for agricultural purposes,
287 million cubic meters per year for household consumption, and 82
million cubic meters per year for industrial use. Table 3.3 lacks a
figure for industrial sector water demand for the year 2000 (the data
were not available at the time of the study). Nonetheless, given the
increases in the domestic use and agricultural sectors, and assuming
that there has been a significant increase in industrial sector in
accordance with the growth of industry, one can estimate that the total
current water demand is at least 10 million cubic meters per year---a
four to fivefold increase over the 1980 level.

The efficiency of water use technology is a critical variable in water
demand. As discussed below, there are serious efficiency questions
regarding the two major uses of water---irrigated agriculture and
household consumption.

> Table 3.3 Total National Water Demand (millions of m^3^ per year)

  ------------------------ ---------- --------- --------- ------- --------
  Type of Use              Source     1980      1983      1998    2000

  Urban and rural domestic A          287                 1,450   
  use                                                             

  Agricultural use         B          2,123                       7,700

  Industrial use           C          82        305               
  ------------------------ ---------- --------- --------- ------- --------

> *Sources*: A---Mott-McDonald 1998, B---G. Méndez 2000, C---PLANIACAS
> 1983.

## 3.4 Irrigation Water: Environmental Issues

Irrigated agriculture is responsible for more than 85% of national water
use in the Dominican Republic, and has a major impact on water quantity,
water quality, and aquatic habitat, all of which are important
environmental issues.

> Table 3.4 Expansion of Irrigated Area, Dominican Republic, 1980--2000
>
> (hectares)

  ------------------------------ ------------- ------------- -------------
  Area                           1980          1990          1998--2000

  Planned irrigation expansion   178,294       234,350       319,302

  Actual area under irrigation   178,294       241,838       275,000
  ------------------------------ ------------- ------------- -------------

> *Sources*: PLANIACAS 1983, INDRHI 2000, Mendez 2001.

Irrigation water supplies in the Dominican Republic include storage
reservoirs, other surface water diversions, and groundwater. Some of the
largest irrigation projects are supplied by major multi-purpose
reservoirs (irrigation, hydro-electric generation, domestic water
supply).

> Table 3.5 Major Irrigation Storage Reservoirs in the Dominican
> Republic

  -------------- ---------- --------------- ---------------- --------------
  Dam            Dam height River           Storage capacity Irrigation
                 (m)                        (millions of     service area
                                            m^3^)            (hectares)

  Las Barias     22         Nizao           3                5,628

  Sabana Yegua   76         Yaque del Sur   560              20,505

  Sabaneta       70         San Juan        77               4,860

  Hatillo        50         Yuna            700              17,718

  Rincon         54         Jima            75               2,000

  Tavera         80         Yaque del Norte 170              11,903
  -------------- ---------- --------------- ---------------- --------------

> *Note:* A number of other dams (Chauey, Maguaca, Jiguey, Aguacate, Rio
> Blanco, and Bao) are part of the water storage system. They are not
> included in the discussion here because their principal use is
> provision of potable water of production of energy, not water storage
> for irrigation.
>
> *Source*: INDRHI 2000, in Rodríguez 2001.

## 3.5 Irrigation Efficiency and Administration 

Irrigation efficiency is a measure of the proportion of irrigation water
provided that is beneficially used in crop production. Irrigation
efficiency reflects the status of the infrastructure used to deliver
water, the evaporation rate of the climate, the management of water
deliveries, the system for applying water (e.g., flood irrigation,
furrow irrigation, sprinkler irrigation), and the skill of the
irrigators. In the Dominican Republic, a large part of irrigation water
is delivered by surface canals, and applied either in furrows or as
flood irrigation, both of which are low-efficiency systems.

Total water use efficiency is estimated to be low, about 18--25%
(Rodriguez 2001). The environmental impacts of low efficiency in water
can include raised groundwater levels, salinization of cropland soils,
erosion of croplands and waterways, greater than necessary draw-downs of
rivers and streams, and excess tail water carrying salts, fertilizers,
and sediment into downstream waters.

Improvements in irrigation efficiency can require overhaul of water
management and administration systems, investments in infrastructure
(e.g. lining earthen canals), investments in water application devices
(e.g. sprinklers, pipe, drip systems), and changes in pricing of
irrigation water. Several projects have been carried out in the
Dominican Republic to review and improve irrigation and water management
practices.

One of the primary conclusions of irrigation management work in the
Dominican Republic, as well as in many other countries, is that the
systems are operated more effectively when their management is
transferred from national government agencies to local agricultural
water users association, or *Juntas* (Rodriguez 2001). To illustrate,
over the past decade, INDRHI has led a program to assign management of
the irrigation systems to local farmers. Those systems under local
management demonstrate water fee recuperation rates of 60--85%. In
contrast, the average rate of fee recuperation for systems still under
central management is about 15%. The increase in fee collection under
Junta-run systems is providing secondary water management benefits. Some
Juntas are investing the money from water fees to purchase state-of
the-art water management technology. Others are providing scholarships
to water-user association members to study modern methods of water
management. Both types of investment are contributing to enhancements in
water use efficiency.

The government recently attempted to promote increased efficiency of
water use by Presidential Decree 79-2001, which requires pricing water
by volume, regardless of whether it is for energy, domestic, or
irrigation use.

## 3.6 Effects of Sedimentation on Reservoir Storage 

The sedimentation of major reservoirs in the Dominican Republic was a
major concern of the 1981 Country Environmental Profile. Sporadic
studies carried out in the intervening years by INDRHI have documented
that those concerns have been borne out in reality. Table 3.6 explains
what was known about reservoir sedimentation through the mid-1990s.

Table 3.6  Reservoir Sedimentation

  ------------ --------------- ------------- ---------- ----------- --------------- ---------- --------------
  **Date**     **Reservoir**   **Reservoir                          **Storage                  
                               storage                              capacity lost              
                               capacity                             due to                     
                               (millions of                         sedimentation              
                               m^3^)**                              (%)**                      

                               **Active**    **Dead**   **Total**   **Active**      **Dead**   **Total lost**

  **Dec-91**   Valdesia        130           56         186         11.1            60.7       **26.1**

  **Dec-92**   Sabana Yegua    446.9         33         479.9       9.6             45         **12**

  **Feb-93**   Tavera          165.4         7.6        173         17.1            100        **20.7**

  **Dec-93**   Rincon          58.4          16.1       74.5        15.4            33.4       **19.3**

  **Apr-94**   Hatillo         416           25         441         15.2            10.4       **14.8**

  **May-99**   Sabaneta        65.6          10.9       76.5        10.8            57.6       **17.5**
  ------------ --------------- ------------- ---------- ----------- --------------- ---------- --------------

> *Source*: M. Espinal/INDRHI/2000.

The sediment accumulation in these reservoirs has reduced total storage
from 10% to 25% in only a few years or decades. Undoubtedly, in some
cases, natural disasters like hurricanes David and Georges played an
important role in delivering large sediment loads. However, in many
cases, larger sediments derived from overland erosion, landslides, and
bank erosion in upper watersheds take many years to arrive at a
downstream location, so even with improvements in the watershed the
sedimentation process will continue, and may in fact be significantly
worse than during the last measurements.

## 3.7 Water Quality Issues

Water quality information for rivers and streams is scarce. Scant data
of this type is collected regularly except at intakes for public water
supply systems. Evidence collected on the South Coast, from the mouth of
the Soco to the mouth of the Haina rivers in November 2000 by the USS
Peter Anderson (a US Environmental Protection Agency research vessel),
coupled with general trends in land use and sanitation, indicate that
elevated levels of organic matter, fecal coliform bacteria, nutrients,
and in some cases salinity, pesticides, and other contaminants are
likely in many surface waters passing through agricultural and urban
areas.

A recent study above the Hatillo reservoir, in small drainages below the
El Rosario gold mine, indicated that elevated levels of cadmium,
chromium, and other heavy metals were present (USGS 2000). Other studies
have identified high levels of mercury in near-shore coastal waters of
Samana Bay, and bio-accumulating pesticides and organic compounds, such
as DDT and PCBs, in estuary mollusks (UNDP 2000).

The relatively few studies carried out to date indicate that there are
many potential water quality problems in rivers, streams, and estuaries
in the Dominican Republic. The lack of good data on water quality
problems is troublesome, because human health, aquatic life, and
ecosystem integrity are potentially all at risk. It is imperative that
environmental authorities begin to develop a program to monitor and
analyze water quality parameters in areas at risk (ports, urban rivers,
rivers in agricultural zones, key estuaries), as well as in areas where
relatively little human activity is taking place to establish baseline
water quality information for the nation.

An exception is the INDRHI Water Quality Program. Launched in 1997, its
objective is to systematize water quality measurement. While it is too
early to note definitive results, this applied research effort holds
promise for generating reliable data for future programming.

## 3.8 Key Issues in Water Resources

Issues are of critical importance to water resource management in the
Dominican Republic include:

-   *Salinization of Surface and* *Groundwater---*Groundwater is at risk
    from saline intrusion in large parts of the Dominican Republic,
    especially the south coast, which is one of the fastest growing
    areas of the country. Surface water has been degraded by
    salinization in certain intensive agricultural areas.

-   *Access and Efficiency Issues in Public Water Supply---*A high
    proportion of Dominicans, especially in rural areas, still have no
    access to domestic water, which causes this part of the population
    to pollute public waters to meet the basic human needs of bathing,
    laundering clothes, and so on. Most existing public water supply
    systems are emphasizing conservation and efficiency measures
    critical to environmental quality.

-   *Integrating Supply Protection into Policy---*Protecting key supply
    reservoirs and aquifers from sources of contamination is a key
    justification for land use planning and should be the focus of
    investments in the water sector.

-   *Administration of Irrigation Water Supplies---*The traditional
    "public institutional management model has proven to be ineffective
    for managing irrigation water systems. Privatization of irrigation
    systems, and realistic pricing for water, both of which have been
    initiated by INDRHI, needs to be further promoted and put in place.

-   *Documenting Water Quality Threats---*A gigantic lack of data on
    ambient water quality conditions threatens to obscure various
    threats to human health, aquatic life, and ecosystems from
    agricultural, industrial, mining, and urban development sources.

-   *Access to Sedimentation Information---*There is relatively little
    information available on dam sedimentation. Bathometric studies to
    analyze rates and levels of sedimentation, and the associated loss
    of dam storage capacity need to be given high priority.

# Chapter 4. Forests and Forestry

## 

## 

## 

## 4.1 Forest Resources of the Dominican Republic

The Dominican Republic has a wide variety of forest cover. Broad-leaf
forests, including high-elevation cloud forests, as well as humid
forests, and semi-humid forests, are widespread in the steeper and less
accessible areas of the northern, central, and eastern parts of the
country. Conifer forests, made up almost entirely of the indigenous
*Pinus occidentalis*[,]{.underline} are found at very high elevations,
principally in the Cordillera Central. Dry forests are widespread in the
south, southwest, and eastern tips of the country. Many of the best
remaining forest stands are in protected areas (see section 4.2).

Before 1980, forests that once covered 70% of the country were
drastically reduced by logging and agricultural invasion. Between 1980
and 1998, several studies were carried out to measure forest cover. The
fact that these studies used different methodologies makes it difficult
to compare, in quantitative terms, the status of forested land area.
What can be concluded from the CRIES (1980) and DIRENA (1998) studies is
that the total area under forest cover increased by about 550 square
kilometers in the intervening 18 years (table 4.1). Furthermore, it
appears that coniferous forests have recovered the most---the DIRENA
study indicates that land area under broad-leaf dry forests has expanded
significantly. But, again, the differences in definitions in forest
categories between the two studies make it impossible to draw a
definitive conclusion. However, at least the data indicate that
broad-leaf forests have more or less stabilized in the past 20 years
compared to the trend in the period before the 1981 CEP.

> Table 4.1 Land Area with Forest Vegetation as Quantified by Various
> Studies, 1967--98 (km^2^)

+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
|                      |        |                    |   |     |   |      |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
|                      |        |                    |   |     |   |      |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
|                      |        |                    |   |     |   |      |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
|                      |        |                    |   |     |   |      |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
|                      |        |                    |   |     |   |      |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
|                      |        |                    |   |     |   |      |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
|                      |        |                    |   |     |   |      |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
| Type of land use or  |        |                    |   | CR  |   | DI   |   |   |
| cover                |        |                    |   | IES |   | RENA |   |   |
|                      |        |                    |   |     |   |      |   |   |
|                      |        |                    |   | 1   |   | 1998 |   |   |
|                      |        |                    |   | 980 |   |      |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
| Broad-leaf forest    | Humid  |                    |   | 6,  |   | 6    |   |   |
|                      |        |                    |   | 518 |   | ,306 |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
|                      | Dried, |                    |   |     |   | 3    |   |   |
|                      | mixed, |                    |   |     |   | ,889 |   |   |
|                      | and    |                    |   |     |   |      |   |   |
|                      | others |                    |   |     |   |      |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
| Coniferous           |        |                    |   | 311 |   | 3    |   |   |
|                      |        |                    |   |     |   | ,025 |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
| Sugarcane            |        |                    |   | 4,  |   | 3    |   |   |
|                      |        |                    |   | 025 |   | ,682 |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
| Tree crops (coffee,  |        |                    |   |     |   | 3    |   |   |
| cacao, etc.)         |        |                    |   |     |   | ,414 |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
| Intensive pastures   |        |                    |   | 2,  |   | 2    |   |   |
|                      |        |                    |   | 325 |   | ,636 |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
| Others: marginal     |        |                    |   | 27, |   | 17   |   |   |
| agriculture,         |        |                    |   | 417 |   | ,595 |   |   |
| pastures, matorral,  |        |                    |   |     |   |      |   |   |
| tree crops, other    |        |                    |   |     |   |      |   |   |
| forests              |        |                    |   |     |   |      |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
| Urban areas          |        |                    |   | 292 |   | 394  |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
| Arid, eroded, bare   |        |                    |   | 402 |   | 1    |   |   |
| land                 |        |                    |   |     |   | ,306 |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+
| Total                |        |                    |   | 47, |   | 48   |   |   |
|                      |        |                    |   | 657 |   | ,224 |   |   |
+----------------------+--------+--------------------+---+-----+---+------+---+---+

> *Source*: CRIES 1980, DIRENA 1998.

The reasons for the stabilization and incipient recovery of forests
include:

-   Economic policies that (1) reduced taxes on the importation of low
    cost food commodities which, in turn, contributed to a reduction in
    steep slope subsistence agriculture, and (2) subsidized bottled
    cooking gas which, in turn, had a direct impact on the dramatic
    reduction of the charcoal-making industry.

-   The growth of the urban-based industrial (e.g., free zone
    manufacturing) and service (banking and tourism) sectors that helped
    fuel a migration of rural residents, especially hillside
    agriculturalists, to the cities.

-   Government-sponsored reforestation and natural resource management
    programs.

-   Natural regeneration of former agricultural hillside land.

-   

-   Expansion in the number and size of protected areas.

## 4.2 Forest Management Initiatives

In 1988 CONATEF emitted Resolution 3-88 that started a Program of
Certification of Plantations with Rights to Harvest. This program has
contributed to a number of private forest plantation efforts by
establishing the legal right "to use trees planted trees planted on
one's own land." Between 1988 and 2000, this program issued almost 6,000
certificates resulting in more than 16,000 hectares planted in forest.
Furthermore, the program has been gaining momentum steadily. In 1991
only 400 hectares were planted under the program. In 2000 the area
planted was more than 2,000 hectares.

Several notable forest management activities have been initiated in the
past 20 years, two of which---Plan Sierra's La Celestina Project, and
the Zambrana Agroforestry project of Enda Caribe---are highlighted in
brief case studies below.

### 4.2.1 Case Study: Zambrana Agroforestry Project

In 1984 an NGO named Enda Caribe launched a pilot agro-forestry project
using participatory methods in coordination with the Federation of
Campesinos of Zambrana-Chacuey in Sánchez Ramírez Province.

The project did field trials with 88 species of native and exotic trees,
among which *Acacia mangium* showed the best results, and generated
enthusiasm among the campesinos that wanted to attempt reforestation
projects.

The success of *Cassia* *mangium* extended into neighboring areas, and
hundreds of small farmers showed interest in planting this exotic tree.
In 1992 the Association of Agroforestry Producers of Zambrana was formed
with 600 members. The planting rates rose to several hundred thousand
seedlings a year. A small sawmill was installed to process the first
harvests from the farmers' plots.

The early results in Zambrana encouraged small and medium-scale
producers to establish *Acacia mangium* plantations in other
low-elevation areas of the country.

### 4.2.2 Case Study: Plan Sierra La Celestina Project

Plan Sierra began the La Celestina management project in 1983 to test
the development of a forest management plan on a degraded natural
forest. The project was funded in part by the government of Sweden.

The project area is 3,860 hectares, of which 57% is covered with native
pine forests mixed with some broad-leaf forest. Initially, the native
forest was so degraded that the plan called for substituting plantations
for the natural forest. A second part of the project is the installation
of a modest, but modern, sawmill. This mill is operated by local project
participants and is the commercial, income generating dimension of the
project.

This project has been through several difficult periods, but has
succeeded in conserving a natural forest in the area. It also has
demonstrated the economic feasibility of sustainable, locally managed
wood harvesting, and established a land market for mountain areas with
forest industry potential.

## 4.3 Government Reforestation Efforts

Since 1981, the national government has launched a series of large-scale
reforestation campaigns. Most notable among these efforts is the
Quisqueya Verde initiative that began in 1997. Quisqueya Verde was an
ambitious undertaking that set as a goal the planting of 30 million
trees in three years. Despite a heralded launch, the project's success
is debatable. It has suffered from the difficulties similar to those
experienced by other reforestation efforts in the Dominican Republic. To
illustrate, government land available for reforestation has not been
clearly identified, private landowners fear that land reforested will be
lost to productive uses, and commercial operators fear that, given
current policy, they will be prohibited from harvesting their trees.

## 4.4 Forest Protection Issues

### 4.4.1 Charcoal-Making

In 1981, when the CEP was published, charcoal production for urban
cooking fuel was a large rural industry that impacted dry woodlands and
forests in the Dominican Republic. In 1985 the consumption of wood for
charcoal, used for cooking by nearly two-thirds of the entire
population, was estimated at 4,172,700 m^3^ of wood per year (JACC 1988,
Gomez 2001). Beginning in the mid-1980s a government policy of
subsidizing propane gas and cooking stoves, suggested by the National
Commission for Energy Policy (COENER), was set in place. While perhaps a
distortion to the economy at large, this policy was a boon to forest
protection efforts. The gas subsidy measure virtually eliminated the
demand for charcoal in less than 20 years . According to DGF, charcoal
consumption dropped from 1,596,000 sacks in 1982 to 26,465 sacks in 2000
(Gomez 2001).

The decline in the charcoal-making industry has had a significant impact
on the rural economy. Many poor households lost an important source of
income. However, while quantifiable data are not available, it is
believed that this loss was offset by the movement of farmers to urban
jobs, especially in the free zone light-manufacturing sector.

### 4.4.2 Forest Fires

As a matter of course, significant numbers of forest fires break out in
the dry season in Dominican Republic. The DGF has tabulated information
on forest fires and reports that during 1981--2000 there were 1,365
recorded forest fires affecting 72,796 hectares. The years 1990 and 1997
were particularly bad fire years, with 15,269 hectares and 13,075
hectares respectively burned. Commonly, 1,000--5,000 hectares are
affected annually. The DGF has trained fire-fighting brigades and
provided some specialized equipment and training.

##### Table 4.2 Forest Fires in the Dominican Republic, 1981--2000 

+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| *       | ########        | **Total Affected       | **Average       |
| *Year** | Number of Fires | Surface (hectares)**   | Surface         |
|         |                 |                        | (hectares)**    |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1981    | 14              | 4,849                  | 346             |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1982    | 25              | 1,998                  | 80              |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1983    | 43              | 4,746                  | 110             |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1984    | 88              | 3,079                  | 35              |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1985    | 49              | 1,299                  | 27              |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1986    | 60              | 835                    | 14              |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1987    | 41              | 1,339                  | 33              |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1988    | 32              | 525                    | 16              |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1989    | 51              | 808                    | 16              |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1990    | 74              | 15,269                 | 206             |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1991    | 83              | 6,247                  | 75              |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1992    | 52              | 1,485                  | 29              |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1993    | 45              | 5,118                  | 114             |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1994    | 170             | 5,080                  | 30              |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1995    | 19              | 860                    | 45              |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1996    | 55              | 674                    | 12              |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1997    | 234             | 13,075                 | 56              |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1998    | 55              | 1,061                  | 19              |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 1999    | 61              | 1,144                  | 19              |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| 2000    | 114             | 3,304                  | 29              |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+
| **      | **1,365**       | **72,796**             |                 |
| TOTAL** |                 |                        |                 |
+---------+-----------------+------------------------+-----------------+

> *Source*: Department of Forestry Planning, Sub-Secretariat of Forestry
> Resources, Dominican Secretary of State for the Environment and
> Natural Resources

## 4.5 Importing Forest Products

The Dominican Republic continues to be a net importer of wood products,
as well as paper. Data on wood product imports alone indicates that the
country spent an average of US\$50 million a year of foreign exchange on
sawn wood, both pine and fine hardwoods. And 85%--90% of imported wood
volume is made up of American and Chilean pine (Gomez 2001). In 1981,
the CEP indicated that the Dominican Republic was importing US\$30
million a year of wood products.

## 4.6 Key Issues in Forestry

-   *Absence of an Industrial Forestry Sector---*The forestry sector has
    stagnated in the Dominican Republic as a result of government
    policies to restrict wood harvest. No viable commercial timber
    industry exists. Most legal forest plantations are young and of
    small size (less than 5 hectares). It is unclear whether standing
    timber would be available to support a viable industry.

-   *Negative Incentives for Private Land Forestry---*Despite the
    limited success of the Certification of Plantations Program, few
    private landowners in the Dominican Republic are planting tree crops
    owing to negative incentives for reforestation.

-   *Silvicultural and Forest Management Models---*Little research is
    being done on forest management, and most attention has been given
    to exotic species (*Cassia mangium* and *Pinus caribea*) or the
    indigenous pine. Numerous native broad-leaf hardwoods exist
    (including local species of mahogany *Sweitenia*), and it is likely
    that much reforestation could be rapidly accomplished by natural
    regeneration if the right incentives were there.

-   *Future* *Uses of Public Lands and Sugar Council Lands---* It is
    important to look at what role national government land, and land
    now controlled by the State Sugar Council (CEA), could be available
    for use in large-scale reforestation, perennial crop production, or
    other uses. It is imperative that the new uses on any large-scale
    government tracts be based on sound research, including
    silvicultural studies and market research.

-   *Forest Cover Stability---*The loss of forest cover appears to be
    stabilizing; there is some suggestion of forest recovery.

# Chapter 5. Coastal and Marine Resources

## 

## 

## 

## 5.1 Coastal and Marine Waters in the Dominican Republic

The Dominican Republic is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the north,
the Caribbean Sea on the south, and the Mona Passage to the east,
comprising, in total, 238,250 km^2^ of in-shore and offshore waters
within the Exclusive Economic Zone. Of this total, approximately 3%
(7,600 km^2^) is part of the island shelf, defined as waters less than
180 meters deep. Another 2% of the oceanic waters form the Banco de la
Plata and Banco de la Navidad, which are important reef areas off the
north coast.

## 5.2 Critical Coastal Ecosystems in the Dominican Republic

The Dominican Republic's coast is made up of a combination of rocky
coastlines and headlands, mangroves and other wetlands, dunes and
beaches. Below the surface of shallow coastal waters, sea grass beds and
coral reefs are critically important resources for marine productivity.

-   *Rocky coastlines* are primarily of limestone (coraline) origin.
    They are widespread ecosystems, and often intermixed with sand
    beaches.

-   *Mangrove forests* are made up of four major tree species:
    *Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, Conocarpus erectus,* and
    *Laguncularia racemosa*, each tolerant of salt water and adapted to
    different conditions of submergence. These are ecosystems of high
    biodiversity, highly productive in biomass, important for rearing of
    many juvenile and adult fish, crustacean and mollusk species. They
    also protect coastal areas from erosion, remove sediments from
    rivers discharging to the estuaries and shallow coastal waters, and
    improve the quality of coastal waters.

The most important mangrove ecosystems in the Dominican Republic are at
the mouths of the Yuna and Yaque del Norte rivers and are part of the
national protected area system. No trends in mangrove forest
conservation have been established, but with the end of charcoal-making
in the 1990s, exploitation of mangrove forests is not currently a major
concern (Silva personal communication 2001).

> Table 5.1 Mangrove Forest Distribution in the Dominican Republic

  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
  Coastal zone                        Total mangrove area (km^2^)

  North Coast                         193

  East Coast                          75

  South Coast                         57

  TOTAL                               325
  ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

> *Source*: CEPNET/IDB, 1998.

-   *Dunes and beaches* are dynamic ecosystems, constantly changing form
    in response to wind, tides, and coastal erosion. There are a number
    of endemic plant species found on coastal dunes in the Dominican
    Republic (N. Ramirez personal communication 2000). Important coastal
    dune systems exist at El Estero in Montecristi Province, Bahia de
    Calderas in La Altagracia Province, and Salinas in Peravia province.
    Sand beaches are widespread but sporadically located along the
    Dominican coast. They are a major attraction for the large tourist
    industry, and beachfront properties are highly valued for hotel
    investments. They are also important ecosystems for a number of
    birds, sea turtles, and other marine and coastal species.

-   *Sea grass* *beds* are highly productive ecosystems characteristic
    of clear, shallow coastal waters, often found in close proximity to
    coral reef ecosystems. Major sea grasses in the Dominican Republic
    are *Thalassia testudinum*, *Syringodium filiforme*, *Halodale*,
    *Holophila*, and *Ruppia maritima*. These areas can be important in
    biomass production, and are favored habitat for various commercial
    conch species, but are also easily damaged by increased turbidity or
    other water quality degradation in coastal waters.

-   *Coral reefs* are well known to be among the most biologically
    diverse ecosystems on the planet, as well as the most highly
    productive of subtropical marine waters. Principal reef formations
    in the Dominican Republic are included in table 5.2. These reefs
    include many of the important fishing grounds in the Dominican
    Republic.

> Table 5.2 Principal Coral Reef Areas in the Dominican Republic

  ---------------------- ---------------------------- -------------------
  Zone                   Location                     Province

  North Coast            Bahía de Icaquitos a Punta   Montecristi
                         Rucia                        

                         Punta Balandra               Samaná

  East Coast             Punta Icaco a Cabo Engaño    La Altagracia

                         Canal de Catuano             La Altagracia

                         Isla Saona                   La Altagracia

  South Coast            Isla Catalina                La Romana

                         Guayacanes--Juan Dolio       San Pedro de
                                                      Macorís

                         La Caleta                    Distrito Nacional

                         Puerto Viejo                 Azua

                         Isla Beata                   Pedernales
  ---------------------- ---------------------------- -------------------

> *Source*: CEPNET/IDB 1998
> (http://grid2.cr.usgs.gov/cepnet/rep_dom/submenu.htm).

## 5.3 Marine Fisheries

Marine fisheries in the Dominican Republic are primarily coastal and
exploited by a low-technology artisanal fishing industry. The marine
fishing fleet was estimated in 1979 (CEP 1981) and estimated in 1991
(PROPESCAR-Sur 1991), using methods that may not be strictly comparable.
The data are reported in table 5.3.

> Table 5.3 Marine Fishing Fleet in the Dominican Republic

  ----------------------------------------------- ----------- -----------
  Vessel                                          1979        1991

  Cayuco: Dugout canoes of 3--5 meters            420         1,418

  Yola: Open boats of 4--6 meters with outboard   830         2,136
  motors                                                      

  Bote, Pivote, Barco: Larger motorized craft     150         198
  (\>6 meters)                                                

  Total                                           1,400       3,752
  ----------------------------------------------- ----------- -----------

> *Sources*: CEP 1981, PROPESCAR-SUR 1991, Comprehensive Census of the
> Coastal Fishery in the Dominican Republic.

The fishery is primarily exploited using bottom-fishing techniques, with
heavy emphasis on hand lines. Production was estimated for 1976--80
total landings as 7,000 tons a year (CEP 1981). Production in 1992--99
is presented in table 5.4.

Table 5.4 Marine Fishery Landings in Metric Tons, Dominican Republic
1992--99

  -------------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------
  Year           1992     1993     1994     1995     1996     1997     1998     1999

  Production     13,169   12,949   13,027   18,662   13,192   14,536   10,069   8,517
  (tons)                                                                        
  -------------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------

*Source*: Department of Fisheries 1999, Silva 2001.

The inference to be drawn from these data is that the size of the
fishing fleet has grown significantly in the last two decades, and that
marine fish landings have been correspondingly higher in most years. The
particular significance of lower landings in 1998/99 is not clear. An
Inter-American Development Bank study reported in the 1981 CEP estimated
the potential sustainable production of 10,454 tons per year from
accessible island shelf and offshore bank areas (0.8 tons per km^2^).
Localized studies have indicated a drop in production from the Samana
estuary, of 1.86 tons per km^2^ to 0.48 tons per km^2^ from 1980 to 1994
(Silva and Aquino 1994).

The PROPESCAR-SUR survey published in 1990 included 226 species of bony
fishes, 12 species of cartilaginous fishes (sharks, rays), 9 species of
crustaceans, and 11 species of mollusks for a total of 258 species in
the catch figures. Catch surveys published by the national Department of
Fisheries (DRP) report a much lower diversity---the 1999 survey
mentioned 68 marine species. This is probably not so much a reflection
of changes in species catch as a reflection in the distinct level of
detail in the survey techniques. With these discrepancies in the type
and quality of data, it is not known whether particular stocks are at
risk of over-exploitation.

Anecdotal evidence suggests that over-fishing of certain high-value
species, particularly spiny lobster (*Panulirus argus*) and conch
(*Strombus gigas*), both of which are exported as well as consumed
locally, is occurring in certain near-shore waters (Silva 2001). In
general, the quality of the available data is insufficient to judge
whether the marine fishery is sustainable at the current levels of
harvest on a national scale; however, certain areas and species are
being over-fished and are apparently poorly regulated.

## 5.4 Freshwater Aquaculture 

Aquaculture in the Dominican Republic is focused on freshwater
production of fish, primarily Tilapia (*Oreochromis*) and *Macrobrachium
rosenbergii*, a large shrimp. There are 22 private aquaculture ventures,
most of which produce fish and shrimp (table 5.5).

> Table 5.5 Production of Freshwater Fish and Shrimp in Commercial
> Facilities, 1994--98 (metric tons)

  --------------- ----------- ---------- ----------- ---------- -----------
  Product         1994        1995       1996        1997       1998

  Shrimp          121         41         96          212        169

  Fish            56          11         66          127        80
  --------------- ----------- ---------- ----------- ---------- -----------

> *Source*: F. Richardson and M. Nicolas, "La aquaculture en la
> Republica Dominicana: Presente, pasado, y futuro," forthcoming.

## 5.5 Coastal Tourism Development

The tourism industry in the Dominican Republic is a fast-growing and
important part of the national economy. In the Dominican Republic
tourism is strongly focused on beach-oriented international hotels, many
of which have been built by foreign investors. The hotel, bar, and
restaurant industry grew consistently at an average of almost 13%
annually in 1994--98, and the tourism industry contributes to many other
aspects of the national economy, including construction, communications,
and so on, as well as being an important source of new employment
(Central Bank 1999).

> Table 5.6 Increase of Hotel Rooms in the Dominican Republic, 1993--98

  -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
  Year     1993     1994     1995     1996     1997     1998     1999

  Rooms    26,801   29,243   32,846   36,273   40,453   44,665   49,623
  -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

> *Source*: National Association of Hotels and Restaurants, Inc.
> (ASONAHORES) 2000.

Almost all of the new hotel construction is in coastal environments,
especially on the north, east, and southeast coasts.

> Table 5.7 International Tourists Arriving in the Dominican Republic

  ------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------
  Year          1996           1997           1998           1999

  Arrivals      1,925,565      2,211,394      2,309,139      2,649,418
  ------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------

> *Source*: National Association of Hotels and Restaurants, Inc.
> (ASOHONORES) 2000.

### 5.5.1 Environmental Impact of Coastal Tourism

The rapid growth of tourism is placing significant pressure on coastal
ecological niches in a variety of levels. Constant destination resort
construction and ever-increasing volumes of tourists are threatening the
coastal marine biodiversity. Simultaneously, the tourism industry is
demanding increases in essential services (potable water, public
sanitation facilities). The demand for basic services is, in the long
run, beneficial. In the short and medium-term this demand is levied on a
system (at the national and local levels) unprepared to meet it. In sum,
the key environmental issues raised by coastal tourism development
include:

-   Increased discharge of sediment and wastewater into coastal waters
    (degrading water quality, sea grass and coral reef communities).

-   Urbanization, population growth, and public sanitation problems in
    beach communities due to new hotel work forces.

-   Alteration of natural geomorphic processes (beach erosion,
    migration) due to construction of hotel infrastructure.

-   Degradation of beach, mangrove, or wetland habitat for sensitive
    species such as sea turtles, waterfowl, and other species.

-   Conflicts in use between tourists, commercial fishermen, and
    shipping interests.

-   Danger of over-exploiting coastal aquifers and saline intrusion in
    groundwater.

-   Damage to reefs and other fragile environments by over-use (anchor
    damage to popular reef areas, etc.).

-   Encroachment into protected areas.

Areas of potential conflict between tourism development and sensitive
coastal environments are, geographically widespread. For example, a
number of critical resources, including important sea turtle nesting
beaches, coastal lagoons critical to waterfowl, and high-quality sea
grass beds/fishing zones are concentrated in the northeast Altagracia
Province, also designated a tourism development zone. Appropriate
tourism development may be able to proceed or adapt, with minimal damage
to these resources, or even contribute to their protection, but the
commitment to do so must come from the government, and be accepted by
the development interests.

## 5.6 Ports and Shipping Infrastructure

Major ports in the Dominican Republic include Haina, Puerto Viejo de
Azua, Barahona, Santo Domingo, San Pedro de Macoris, La Romana, Duarte,
Santa Barabara de Samana, Puerto Plata, and Puerto Libertador. Haina
handles a large portion of the commercial and industrial cargo, while
Puerto Plata, Santa Barbara, Duarte, La Romana, and Santo Domingo handle
commercial and tourist traffic, including large cruise ships. The five
largest ports (including Haina, Puerto Plata, and Santo Domingo) handled
15,803 ships and nearly 42 million tons of cargo in 1990--94 (UNDP
2000).

The potential for contamination of coastal waters from these vessels is
significant. Large ships discharge fuel, wastewater, and solid waste,
which can cause damage to coastal waters or place a major disposal
burden on coastal communities. The risk also exists that cargo ships
carrying toxic or noxious substances, such as petroleum, could wreck in
Dominican waters.

## 5.7 Urban Development

The coastal areas of Dominican Republic include most of the largest,
fastest-growing urban areas, including Santo Domingo, which will soon
encompass a third of the entire Dominican population, and many heavy
industries are located in the port areas. This development pattern means
that all environmental risks created by growing urbanization (see
chapter 8) concentrated in coastal environments.

## 5.8 Key Coastal Issues

Coastal management is a complex inter-disciplinary field, which
integrates economic and social development with environmental
sustainability in fragile coastal areas. The Dominican Republic's
coastal management issues are central to national development, not only
because the majority of the population and demographic growth is in
coastal areas, but because one of the most dynamic sectors of the
economy, the international tourism industry, is almost entirely
concentrated in a few coastal areas, and demands a high degree of
sanitation and environmental integrity to remain viable.

-   Coastal marine fisheries are increasing pressure on the resource,
    but current data collection and analysis do not allow appropriate
    planning to conserve critical stocks.

-   The dynamic international tourism industry is having a detrimental
    impact on certain coastal resources and needs appropriate
    environmental evaluation and planning.

-   Future coastal tourism growth, if not integrated into
    environmentally sound urban and rural planning, will degrade the
    very resources---coastal scenery, high water quality,
    biodiversity---on which it is based.

-   Shipping, ports, and harbors are a critical sector for potential
    environmental contamination.

# Chapter 6. Biodiversity and Protected Area Management

## 

## 

## 

## 6.1 Definition of Biodiversity in the Dominican Republic

The diversity of native flora and fauna in the Dominican Republic is an
important part of the country's rich natural resource patrimony. That
said, it is important to note that biodiversity in island settings has
two predominant characteristics: (1), a high level of endemism (species
found nowhere else in the world) and (2) high vulnerability of
extinction. The Dominican flora and fauna are typical of this pattern.

> Table 6.1 Definition of Biodiversity for the Dominican Republic

  -------------------- --------------------------------------------------
                       Definition

  Diversity of         The number of distinct habitats and biological
  ecosystems           communities

  Diversity of species The variety and relative abundance of different
                       species present

  Genetic diversity    The internal genetic diversity of each species, or
                       the sum of genetic information contained in the
                       plants, animals, and microorganisms
  -------------------- --------------------------------------------------

> *Source*: Global Strategy for Biodiversity 1992.

## 6.2 Description of Terrestrial Ecosystems

The wide majority of native terrestrial ecosystems in the Dominican
Republic were forests or matorral. While over time there has been a
steady decline in forests, as recently as the middle of the 20th century
about 70% of the original cover remained in tact. Since the 1950s the
rate of forest loss accelerated markedly. Current estimates place only
36% of the country's land area in forests, and much of that is found in
protected areas and national parks (Tolentino et al. 1998).

### 6.2.1 Forest Types, Typical Species

The principal native forest types, with typical species, and sample
localities are as follows:

-   *Conifer forest.* Dominated by the native pine, *Pinus
    occidentalis*, this forest is found in elevations between 800 and
    3,085 meters. Most significant conifer forests are in Armando
    Bermudez, Jose del Carmen Ramirez, Valle Nuevo, Sierra de Bahoruco,
    and Sierra de Neiba national parks.

-   *Broad-leaf cloud forest.* Found in very humid mountain zones
    between 600 and 2,300 meters in elevation, typical species include
    *Didymopanax tremulus*, *Brunellia comocladifolia*, *Magnolia
    pallecens, Magnolia hamori*, and *Prestoea Montana.* This forest
    type is restricted to the Cordillera Central and Cordillera
    Septentrional and the Sierra Bahoruco and Sierra Neiba.

-   *Broad-leaf humid forest.* This forest type is widely distributed in
    mountainous areas between 500 and 1,500 meters. Typical species
    include *Ocotel* *Sloanea berteriana, Tabuebuia berterii, Mora
    abbottii*, and *Cyathea arborea.* This forest type can be found in
    Reserva Científica Ebano Verde, Loma la Humeadora, and Lomas Quita
    Espuela y Guaconejo. It is commonly found mixed into traditional
    coffee and cacao plantations.

-   *Broad-leaf semi-humid forest.* This is a low-elevation forest found
    on lower mountain slopes and in coastal areas, including karst
    terrain and many soil types now dedicated to agriculture. Typical
    species include *Coccoloba diversifolia, Guaiacum sanctum*, and
    *Swietenia mahagoni.* Examples of this forest type persist in Parque
    Nacional del Este, near Bávaro, and on the southern flank of the
    Sierra Bahoruco.

### 6.2.2 Other Vegetative Communities

In extremely dry areas of the south, southwest, and extreme east the
dominant ecosystem is a Dry Matorral, or thorn brush ecosystem. Typical
species include *Tabebuia berterii, Sweitenia mahagonia*, and *Acacia
macracantha,* as well as various species of cactus and other
xerophytes*.* This habitat is found in the Lake Enriquillo area, Azua
Valley, and other areas of the southwest. Other minor ecosystem types,
in terms of area covered, include various mangrove ecosystems, fresh and
saltwater wetlands, and savannas.

## 6.3 Floral and Faunal Diversity and Endemism

The Dominican Republic has an exceptionally high rate of endemism.
Island habitat endemism is particularly fragile and subject to
extinction. Accordingly, aggressive conservation is required to preserve
the country's rich biodiversity. The fact that neighboring Haiti has
little native terrestrial habitat left gives added importance to
conserving the Dominican Republic's biological uniqueness. Table 6.3
identifies the variety and rate of endemism of native species. Almost
all the reptiles and amphibians are endemic, and more than a third of
the Dominican Republic's flora is endemic.

> Table 6.3  Species-Level Biodiversity in the Dominican Republic

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                          Number of    Number of endemic   Percentage of
                          species      species             species that are
                                                           endemic
  ----------------------- ------------ ------------------- -------------------
  Flora                                                    

  Plantas vasculares      5,600        1,800               36

  Algas                   168          unknown             unknown

  Fauna                                                    

  Mamíferos               48           2                   10

  Aves                    296          26                  9

  Reptiles                146          138                 94.5

  Anfibios                65           63                  97

  Peces                   399          --                  --

  Molusco                 311          --                  --

  Artrópodos/Crustáceos   164          --                  --

  Cnidarios               111          --                  --

  Equinodernos            67           --                  --

  Poliferos               39           --                  --

  Annelidos               6            --                  --
  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------

> *Sources*: CIBIMA 1994, SEA/DVS 1990, UNDP 2000, CEPNET IDB, Liogier
> 1978, CIBIMA 1994.

## 6.4 Species Threatened and at Risk of Extinction 

The biodiversity of the Dominican Republic faces numerous threats,
especially due to the loss of a major portion of the terrestrial forest
habitat. At least 10% of the species in the Dominican Republic and 33%
of the vertebrates (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish) are
endangered or threatened with extinction (table 6.4). By any standard,
this is an extremely high rate of potential loss of biodiversity.

> Table 6.4 Threatened Species in Dominican Republic

  --------------- ---------- ------------ --------------- --------------------
  Species group   Total      Percentage   Number of       Percentage of class
                  species    of total     species         or group threatened
                             species in   threatened or   with extinction
                             this class   endangered      

  Plants          5,600      75.4         442             8

  Algae           168        2.3          Unknown         --

  Vertebrates     954        12.8         204             33

  Invertebrates   698        9.4          117             17

  Total           7, 420     100          763             10
  --------------- ---------- ------------ --------------- --------------------

> *Source*: N. Ramirez 2001.

Marine species, including a diverse array of marine mammals (whales,
dolphins), are poorly known and not well represented in this analysis.
Although marine species are mobile and not as often endemic it is
noteworthy that the near-shore banks of the Dominican Republic are the
most important wintering area for humpback whales in the Atlantic Ocean.

## 6.5 Key Issues in Biodiversity Conservation

-   Threats to biodiversity in the Dominican Republic include the
    continuing degradation of forest habitats by land-clearing,
    human-caused forest fires, and mining; the illegal hunting and
    capture of certain species for the pet trade (birds, reptiles); and
    the introduction of alien species that are particularly pernicious
    in island environments.

-   The scientific knowledge of biodiversity in the Dominican Republic
    is quite incomplete. Improved knowledge of the conservation status
    and ecology of many little-known species will improve the ability to
    conserve them. This requires an investment in education and
    research.

-   Many terrestrial species probably owe their continued existence to
    the substantial national park and protected area system being
    developed in the Dominican Republic.

# Chapter 7. Protected Areas of the Dominican Republic

Over the past two decades, the Dominican Republic has dramatically
expanded its protected area network. In 1980 there were only 9 protected
areas. By 2000 that number had grown to 70 (table 7.1). The part of the
protected area network that is completely land based accounts for 16% of
the country's total area. In addition, there are parts of protected
areas (Jaragua and Montecristi) that are marine niches, while there are
other parks (Banco del Plata Marine Sancturary) that are complete marine
environments. The marine parks and the aquatic parts of the
predominantly land reserves add over 27,000 km^2^ to the protected area
network (table 7.2). This significant expansion reflects a conscious
effort on the part of government, and the growing interest of the
public, in protecting the country's natural resources. It also reflects
the increasing emphasis on biological and natural science education, and
the political influence of the conservation stakeholders.

The protected area system in the Dominican Republic is rapidly
improving, but obviously still quite deficient in management
infrastructure, staff, and visitor infrastructure. Political will must
be generated to adequately fund the government entities responsible for
patrolling and managing 16% of the Dominican land surface. A number of
NGOs are assisting in the task of managing the national parks in the
Dominican Republic, using several co-management models. Much work
remains to be done in the area of strengthening relationships with local
organizations, including not only NGOs, but also communities and
municipalities.

> Table 7.1 The Increase in Protected Areas by Decade

+---------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+
| Protected areas                       | To 1980  | 19     | 199     |
|                                       |          | 81--90 | 1--2000 |
+---------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+
| Scientific reserves                   | 1        | 6      | 10      |
+---------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+
| National parks                        | 8        | 12     | 22      |
+---------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+
| National monuments                    |          |        | 9       |
+---------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+
| Anthropology reserves                 |          |        | 2       |
+---------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+
| Fauna refuge                          |          |        | 7       |
+---------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+
| > Fauna sanctuary                     |          | 1      |         |
+---------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+
| > Wildlife refuge                     |          | 1      |         |
+---------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+
| Panoramic view                        |          | 1      | 10      |
+---------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+
| Ecological corridors                  |          |        | 6       |
+---------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+
| Recreation areas                      |          |        | 3       |
+---------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+
| Special ecological reserves           |          |        | 1       |
+---------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+
| **Total**                             | **9**    | **21** | **70**  |
+---------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+
| **Percentage of** **national land     | **4.2**  | **     | **18**  |
| surface included**                    |          | 11.2** |         |
+---------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+

> *Sources*: Mores 1980, Valdés and Mateo 1992, Ramirez 2001.

Table 7.2 Size and Status of Protected Areas by Category

  ------------ -------- -------- ------------ ------------- ------------ ------------- -------- ---------------- ---------------- --------
  UICN         Number            Total area   Surface area               Manage-ment            Areas with       Areas with       Area
  category     of areas          (km^2^)      (km^2^)                    plans                  visitor          management       with
                                                                                                infrastructure   infrastructure   staff

                                              Terrestrial   Marine                                                                

  Scientific            10       639          546           94                         2        2                2                2
  Reserves                                                                                                                        

  National              22       8,485        6,359         2,126                      8        6                14               17
  Parks                                                                                                                           

  National              11       246          155           98                         --       --               3                5
  Monuments                                                                                                                       

  Wildlife              7        25,577       273           25,303                     --       --               2                2
  Refuges                                                                                                                         

  Other                 20       546          513           33                         --       --               --               0

  **Total**             **70**   **35,494**   **7,844**     **27,646**                 **10**   **8**            **--**           **26**

  Percentage                                  16%           12%                                                                   
  ------------ -------- -------- ------------ ------------- ------------ ------------- -------- ---------------- ---------------- --------

*Sources*: UNDP 2000, Sub-secretary of Protected Areas and Biodiversity
(consultant) Bonnelly de C. 1996, Bibliography for *Management and
Development of the Marine Protected Areas in the Dominican Republic*.

Table 7.3  Protected Areas and National Parks

  -------------------- ---------- ------------- ----------- ------------------
                       Local      Foreign       Total       Fees collected
                       tourists   tourists      visitors    

  Parque del Este      --         143,199       143,199     RD\$4,506, 626

  Isla Catalina        318        44,735        45,053      RD\$1,327

  Los Haitises         2,333      8,291         10,624      RD\$442,655

  Isla Cabritos        8,149      1,996         10,145      RD\$284,500

  El Choco             0          6,813         6,813       RD\$181,780

  La Isabela           2,001      2,379         4,380       RD\$151,770

  Montecristi (Cayo    895        1,610         2,505       RD\$86,950
  arena)                                                    

  Armando Bermúdez     1,348      147           1,495       RD\$72,670

  Loma Isabel de       617        1,088         1,705       RD\$49,010
  Torres                                                    

  Cuevas del Pomier    2,652      42            2,694       RD\$28,775

  Estero Hondo         0          1872          1,872       RD\$27,830

  La Vega Vieja        1,111      61            1,172       RD\$15,740

  Parque Nacional      613        156           69          RD\$21,655
  Jaragua                                                   

  Laguna Cabral        8          22            30          RD\$1,260

  Sierra de Bahoruco   0          24            24          RD\$1,200

  Laguna Redonda y     15         --            15          RD\$300
  Limón                                                     

  Valle Nuevo          0          3             3           RD\$150

  Total                20,060     212,435       232,495     RD\$7,200,408.00
  -------------------- ---------- ------------- ----------- ------------------

*Source*: DNP Annual Report 1999.

## 7.1 Tourism in the Protected Areas 

Tourism development in protected areas is largely in an incipient stage.
Fees are charged for national and foreign visitors, which generates some
income. But only a part of the revenue from visitations is retained for
park maintenance. Park managers sense that operational budgets are far
below needed requirements. An aggressive revenue generation campaign or
increase in transfers from the national treasury is needed to maintain,
at a minimum, and hopefully upgrade it.

It is clear from this summary that the visitor use potential of the
national park system, and its potential for generating fee income, is
very underused. Parque del Este is responsible for more than half of all
visitors and fees generated.

## 7.2 Key Issues in Protected Area Management

Many important issues constrain the national protected area system. Some
of the most prominently mentioned issues according to high-level staff
are:

-   *Budget and Financial Management---*The dramatic expansion in number
    and size of national protected areas has not been accompanied by a
    corresponding budget. Of particular concern is the possibility that
    private property included in new parks might be subject to financial
    compensation.

-   *Physical Demarcation and Patrol---*Many of the protected areas have
    no physical demarcation of boundaries, signs designating their
    borders, or staff to patrol and educate local communities about the
    parks.

-   *Development of Tourism Facilities---*Absence of appropriate
    infrastructure for tourist use hampers the access to many parks. In
    some cases, private investors are interested in helping develop park
    infrastructure, especially coastal areas, but this issue is a
    two-edged sword, and potentially controversial.

-   *Invasion of Protected Area Lands by* *Agricultural and Recreational
    Users---*Some remote parks suffer from agricultural invasions, a
    continuing problem in Parque Nacional los Haitises. In Dunas de las
    Calderas mangrove and dune areas are being eliminated for
    construction of private recreational residences.

-   *Natural Resource Damages---*Deforestation, poaching (for meat or
    pet trade), off-road vehicles (on dunes/beaches especially), and
    forest fires are all serious problems in some protected areas.

-   Community relations, participation in management, and compensation
    to local communities who have lost some traditional uses of
    protected areas are all major issues for the national park service.

-   It is also advisable to carry out economic valuations of protected
    areas in order to provide environmental and economic bases for
    investment.

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

## 8.3 Municipal Infrastructure Investment

## 

The municipal governments, which are responsible for basic environmental
sanitation in urban areas (garbage collection, street cleaning, road
repair, maintaining sanitary and

+------------+------------------+----------+-----------+--------------+
|            | #                |          |           |              |
|            |                  |          |           |              |
|            | #                |          |           |              |
+------------+------------------+----------+-----------+--------------+
|            |                  |          |           |              |
+------------+------------------+----------+-----------+--------------+
|            |                  |          |           |              |
+------------+------------------+----------+-----------+--------------+
|            |                  |          |           |              |
+------------+------------------+----------+-----------+--------------+

### 

## 

######## 

######## 

  -------------------------------------------- --------------------------
                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               

                                               
  -------------------------------------------- --------------------------

### 

### 

####### 

####### 

  --------------------------------- -------------------- -----------------
                                                         

                                                         
  --------------------------------- -------------------- -----------------

Consumption of gasoline is approximately 7.8 million barrels/year, gas
oil is 14.8 million barrels/year, and fuel oil is 5.9 million
barrels/year. The fastest-growing sector is gasoline consumption
(Castillo Tio, 2001).

## 8.8 Summary of Key Environmental Issues in the Urban and Industrial Sector

The environmental issues presented by the rapid urbanization and
increasing industrialization of the Dominican Republic are at present,
quite evident, but poorly documented. Data on water quality degradation
by urban runoff and sewage effluent, as well as by industrial and
agricultural activities, are still extremely scarce. This situation was
noted in the CEP of 1981, and still holds true today. The same situation
pertains to air pollution, where there is an extreme dearth of data.

One of the primary priorities at this stage is to begin a diagnostic
process to examine the actual quality of the surface waters, ground
water, and Chapter 8. Environmental Quality in the Urban-Industrial
Sector

## 

## 

## 

## 8.1 Urbanization of the Dominican Republic

Only a few decades ago the Dominican Republic was an agriculturally
based nation. It is now rapidly evolving into a primarily urban society.
A nation with 65% of its population in rural areas in 1965 became a
nation with the same amount in urban areas by 1997. This urbanization of
Dominican society has put huge pressures on municipalities to provide
infrastructure and services to maintain acceptable environmental quality
in the booming urban centers. These pressures will only increase in the
immediate future.

Santo Domingo is the center of the urbanization process. Over half of
the nation's urban residents live in Santo Domingo, which in 2001 has
2.7 million people, 2,600 kilometers of roads, 700,000 vehicles, and
covers over 300 square kilometers. In 1980 by comparison, Santo Domingo
had 1.3 million inhabitants and covered 161 square kilometers
(Castillo-Tio, 2001).

### 8.1.1 Case Study: Santo Domingo's Marginal Neighborhoods

A worst-case scenario for environmental management in a rapidly
urbanizing setting exists in the marginal neighborhoods along the
canyons leading to the Isabela River in the northeast part of Santo
Domingo. One example is La Zurza, where thousands of mostly one-room
homes are perched precariously on the steep slopes of a canyon.
Population density is 80,000 people per km^2^; potable water supplies
are leaky homemade pipes of electrical conduit; sewage disposal ranges
from open drains to bottomless latrines perched over a stream. Huge
quantities of garbage are accumulated in the canyon bottom, where they
are washed downstream to the Isabela River by a combination of
industrial wastewater, raw sewage, and storm water. The local population
traverses dirt paths on the steep canyon slopes and crosses this
effluent stream to reach nearby homes. Heavy rains and hurricanes flood
out all the low-lying homes at the canyon's outlet.

Local community and municipal organizations are working to tackle these
enormous problems and have made progress on housing improvements,
garbage pickup (a locally run private operation), and storm water
drainage. In one community near La Zurza, a massive covered storm drain
in the bottom of the canyon has provided physical separation from the
raw sewage and industrial effluents, as well as some flood relief. The
flat top of the storm drain provides a valuable secondary use as a
walkway for access to all homes. Large infrastructure investments need
to be made simply to control storm water runoff, and protect homes from
being flooded with polluted water. Safe potable water, sewerage, and
wastewater treatment are far more expensive long-term goals.

## 8.2 Municipal Infrastructure Investment

Municipal governments, which are responsible for basic environmental
sanitation in urban areas (garbage collection, street cleaning, road
repair, maintaining sanitary and storm-water drainage networks), among
other duties, received only 2.5% of the national revenue in 1998,
equivalent to 0.4% of the gross national product (Castillo-Tio 2001).
The capital investment needed in this sector is also substantial, but
establishing financial mechanisms for maintenance budgets for
municipalities in environmental quality work is a key need for the
future. The government invested an average of RD\$22 million annually
from 1990--98 in potable water and sewer infrastructure, representing
approximately 0.3% of the national budget during that period
(Castillo-Tio 2001). This rate of infrastructure investment will need to
rise substantially to improve the national access to potable water and
sewage facilities.

## 8.3 Potable Water Supply for Urban Areas

Nationwide, 54% of urban people had access to domestic (piped) water in
1979, while in 1998 80% of the urban population has access to domestic
water supplies---a significant improvement (CEP 1981, H. Rodriguez).
Nonetheless, 850,000 urban dwellers still have no access to domestic
water supplies.

Unmet demand for high-quality potable water is evident in the
consumption of more than 1,000,000 cubic meters of bottled water per
year. The cost borne by the consumer is reflected in the fact that the
cost of water provided by the Santo Domingo aqueduct is RD\$4/m^3^ and
the cost of bottled water is RD\$900/m^3^. In 1991, the percentage of
the urban population consuming bottled water was 13.9%, while in 1995
the proportion using bottled water had already increased to 40%
(Castillo-Tio 2001). This substantial increase in the use of bottled
water took place in spite of a dramatic price differential between the
water supplied by the Santo Domingo aqueduct system (RD\$4/m^3^) and the
processed bottled product (RD\$900/m^3^).

## 8.4 Domestic Wastewater Management

Appropriate wastewater management is critical to both human health, to
the quality of the urban environment, and to water quality in rivers,
streams, aquifers, and coastal areas. Sanitary sewers served
approximately 15% of the urban population in 1979, while estimates for
the entire nation were about half that (CEP 1981).

> Table 8.2 Coverage Of Sewer Connections in Different Urban Areas

+------------------+---------------+-------------+------------+-------+
|                  | Small urban   | Santo       | Santiago   | Nat   |
|                  | areas         | Domingo     |            | ional |
|                  |               |             | (CORAASAN) |       |
|                  | (INAPA)       | (CAASD)     |            |       |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+------------+-------+
| Number of        | 47,500        | 63,000      | 52,200     | 16    |
| connections      |               |             |            | 2,700 |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+------------+-------+
| Number of homes  | 47,500        | 94,500      | 52,200     | 19    |
|                  |               |             |            | 4,200 |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+------------+-------+
| Population       | 185,350       | 378,000     | 261,000    | 82    |
| served           |               |             |            | 4,300 |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+------------+-------+
| Total coverage   | 4.00%         | 16.20%      | 38.20%     | 1     |
|                  |               |             |            | 0.70% |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+------------+-------+

> *Source:* Consultant's Report on Economic and Financial Analysis,
> December 1996.

In 1997, INAPA provided sanitary sewer service to 4% of the rural and
smaller municipal center population, CAASD provided such service to 16%
of the Santo Domingo population, and CORAASAN provided sanitary sewer
service to 38% of the population of Santiago. Accordingly, the total
national rate of sanitary sewer coverage is 10.7% (Castillo-Tio 2001).
The combined rate of coverage in the major urban centers of Santo
Domingo and Santiago is about 21%, which may indicate a slight
improvement over 1979. Further improvements were made in 1997--2000.

Approximately 19% of the national population is estimated to use septic
systems, 53% use latrines, and 17% of the population has no wastewater
disposal at all (Castillo-Tio 2001).

The wastewater treatment system in Santo Domingo consists of 600
kilometers of tubes which discharge variously into marine waters, into
the Isabela and Ozama rivers, and into 13 small wastewater treatment
plants which then discharge into the same two rivers. The wastewater
treatment plants are reported to have "serious deficiencies in operation
and maintenance" (Castillo-Tio 2001). It is not known what proportion of
effluent is treated before discharge.

The municipal government of Santo Domingo has done a feasibility study
of master planning and construction of comprehensive wastewater
collection and treatment for the city. The initial estimated capital
cost for this project is RD\$12,000 million (Castillo-Tio 2001).

At the municipal level (smaller urban areas), 15 wastewater collection
and treatment systems were constructed in 1968--78. These systems have
been expanded since that time, and a few additional projects have been
built, but the rate of investment in this infrastructure has declined in
the last 20 years. At least 80 municipal areas are in need of major
investment in wastewater collection and treatment, among a total of over
150 smaller urban centers in Dominican Republic that have no sewer
systems (Castillo-Tio 2000).

The inadequate sewer and wastewater treatment infrastructure, combined
with deficiencies in potable water supply, quality control, and source
protection among existing water systems, result in a continuing
vulnerability to water-transmitted diseases in the Dominican Republic.
Table 8.3 below indicates that several water-borne diseases continue to
be common.

> Table 8.3 Incidence Of Water-Borne Diseases in the Dominican Republic,
> 1994

  ------------------------- ------------------------- --------------------
  Disease                   Number of cases           Rate per thousand
                            nationally                

  Acute diarrhea            133,932                   180.86

  Typhoid fever             1,714                     15.82

  Hepatitis                 2,364                     3.14

  Paratyphoid fever         1,758                     2.37
  ------------------------- ------------------------- --------------------

> Source: First National Seminar on Water Quality in the Dominican
> Republic. Lina Hotel, August 30, 1994.

## 8.5 Urban Storm Water Management

Rainfall runoff in urban areas washes many different contaminants from
streets, buildings, construction sites, and industrial areas, forming a
major source of non-point water pollution. These contaminants include
nutrients, sediment, heavy metals, bacteria, oils, grease, rubber, and
organic matter, which originate from automobile traffic, garbage, and
other sources. Both street cleaning and the construction of storm sewers
with treatment facilities can be used to combat this problem. In Santo
Domingo, the City Council has discussed the development of an improved
and expanded storm water sewer system, based on studies by the World
Bank for the Secretary of Public Works and Communication (SEOPC/IBRD Nº
01-97---Master Rainwater Drainage Plan for the Dominican Republic).

## 8.6 Industrial and Commercial Wastewater

There are more than 7,000 registered industries and large commercial
operations in Dominican Republic, with approximately 70% of them in the
Santo Domingo area. Industrial development has been most rapid in the
free-trade zones, but that growth is reported to be slowing. The total
discharge of organic matter into rivers and coastal waters, primarily in
the south coast area, by these industries and businesses is estimated to
be 600,000 tons per year of biological oxygen demand, compared to
125,000 tons per year of biological oxygen demand from domestic
wastewaters (Castillo-Tio 2001). To illustrate, a chemical analysis
carried out by INTEC in 1993 revealed elevated contamination levels in
the Ozama. Levels of chloride, lead, iron, and nickel were above the
international norms for rivers and lakes. The main causes of this
contamination were industrial discharges.

Despite the probable magnitude and impact of industrial wastewater
discharge, relatively little data is available concerning the topic. The
sector is characterized as follows (Castillo-Tio 2001):

-   Clear norms and standards for industrial wastewater treatment and
    discharge do not exist, and sampling programs for wastewater are
    underdeveloped. The Commission on Ecological Sanitation (Comision de
    Saneamiento Ecologico) takes samples of wastewater effluents at 550
    industries, usually 3 samples per year.

-   Financial resources for industrial wastewater monitoring are scarce.

-   Some of the most dangerous contaminants are not being analyzed.

-   It is estimated that 90% of the industries discharge wastewaters to
    water bodies or sewers without any treatment. Industrial wastewater
    treatment plants are few.

## 

### 8.6.1 Case Study: Water Pollution at Thermo-Electrical Generation Plants

A USAID--funded study of the energy sector made the following
observations about coal- and petroleum-fired electrical generation
plants:

-   Rainfall runoff control appears to be oriented only towards
    controlling flooding, not minimizing contact of rainfall runoff with
    materials, which can contaminate waterways.

-   Runoff from all electrical generation plants was observed to be
    oily, indicating contamination from petroleum products stored at the
    plants was discharging to rivers and coastal waters.

-   The coal-fired plant at Itabo allows rainfall runoff from the stored
    coal piles to flow directly into coastal waters. Coal pile runoff is
    usually acidic, high in suspended solids, and may contain traces of
    heavy metals, all potentially damaging to coastal ecosystems.

-   Thermal pollution of receiving waters by generation plant cooling
    water is prevalent, posing a severe hazard to coral reefs which are
    extremely sensitive to water temperature variations.

(See Goldberg Associates, "Energy Sector Management Plan for the
Dominican Republic," November 18, 1997.)

## 8.7 Water Pollution in Natural Surface Waters

Very little data exists in the Dominican Republic regarding the quality
of surface waters and coastal waters. Due to the intensive use of the
existing rivers, the intensification of crop and livestock production in
rural areas, and the character of industrial and domestic wastewater
management, it is expected that significant water pollution problems may
exist.

## Table 8.4 Surface Water Quality, June 2000

+----------------------+----+---+----+----+----+---+--------+--------+
| Parameters           |    |   |    |    |    |   |        |        |
+----------------------+----+---+----+----+----+---+--------+--------+
| River, Location      | EC | p | T  | P  | N  | C | Co     | Col    |
|                      |    | H | DS | O4 | O3 | l | lifoms | iforms |
|                      | (  |   |    |    |    | a |        |        |
|                      | uS |   | (m | (m | (m | s | T      | F      |
|                      | /c |   | g/ | g/ | g/ | s | otales | ecales |
|                      | m) |   | 1) | 1) | 1) |   |        |        |
|                      |    |   |    |    |    |   | (MPN/  | (MPN/  |
|                      |    |   |    |    |    |   | 100ml) | 100ml) |
|                      |    |   |    |    |    |   |        |        |
+----------------------+----+---+----+----+----+---+--------+--------+
| > Río San Juan,      | 4  | 7 | 2  | 0  | 10 | C | \>1    | \>1    |
| > margen derecha     | 32 | . | 67 | .4 | .6 | 2 | 10,000 | 10,000 |
| > (Puente) San Juan  |    | 9 |    |    |    | S |        |        |
|                      |    |   |    |    |    | 1 |        |        |
+----------------------+----+---+----+----+----+---+--------+--------+
| > Río San Juan,      | 6  | 7 | 2  | 0  | 11 | C | \>1    | \>1    |
| > aguas abajo Planta | 27 | . | 04 | .9 |    | 2 | 10,000 | 10,000 |
| > Tratamiento        |    | 2 |    |    |    | S |        |        |
|                      |    |   |    |    |    | 1 |        |        |
+----------------------+----+---+----+----+----+---+--------+--------+
| > Río San Juan en el | 7  | 8 | 4  | 0  | 10 | C | 9,300  | 9,300  |
| > Puente Rosario     | 18 |   | 49 | .7 | .6 | 2 |        |        |
|                      |    |   |    |    |    | S |        |        |
|                      |    |   |    |    |    | 1 |        |        |
+----------------------+----+---+----+----+----+---+--------+--------+
| > Río San Juan, El   | 1  | 8 | 1  | 0  | 11 | C | 910    | \>2.2  |
| > Ingenito, aguas    | 76 | . | 10 | .3 | .4 | 1 |        |        |
| > arriba de la Presa |    | 1 |    |    |    | S |        |        |
|                      |    |   |    |    |    | 1 |        |        |
+----------------------+----+---+----+----+----+---+--------+--------+
| > Toma del           | 7  | 7 | 4  | 0  | 49 | C | \>2.2  |        |
| > Acueducto, El      | 72 | . | 72 | .4 | .3 | 3 |        |        |
| > Hatico             |    | 1 |    |    |    | S |        |        |
|                      |    |   |    |    |    | 1 |        |        |
+----------------------+----+---+----+----+----+---+--------+--------+
| > Río San Juan,      | 1  | 7 | 3  | 0  | 9  | C | 360    | 360    |
| > aguas debajo de la | 79 | . | 04 | .2 | .2 | 1 |        |        |
| > Presa de Sabaneta  |    | 3 |    |    |    | S |        |        |
|                      |    |   |    |    |    | 1 |        |        |
+----------------------+----+---+----+----+----+---+--------+--------+

*Source*: PRODAS Project 2000.

Although these waters are low in salts and potentially good to excellent
quality for various uses, they are severely over-laden with phosphates
and nitrates, and contaminated by fecal coliform bacteria. This is
indicative of environmental sanitation problems throughout the study
area, including human and livestock excreta reaching surface waters, and
probably runoff of fertilizers, sediment or other nutrient sources.
Nutrients at these concentrations, which reach coastal waters or
reservoirs, can cause major algae blooms, sometimes including species
that are toxic to aquatic and marine life. These algae blooms can also
severely reduce water clarity and reduce dissolved oxygen in receiving
waters.

This type of water pollution can pose a serious threat to the quality of
coral reefs, sea grass beds, and all associated marine life in shallow
coastal waters, and are incompatible with sustainable tourism and
commercial fishing uses.

## 8.8 Solid Waste Management

Management of solid waste, especially urban garbage is a high profile
environmental issue in the Dominican Republic. The major institutions
that are involved in this issue are:

-   Office of the President of the Republic:
    S.T.P--ONAPLAN--SESPAS--L.M.D.--A.D.N.

-   Executive-Level Bodies: Secretariat of Environment and Natural
    Resources, Secretariat of Commerce and Industry

-   Other Public Institutions and Private Entities: City Councils
    (*Ayuntamientos*), private institutions, and NGOs.

In Santo Domingo the solid waste collection services are 95% privatized.
This process was initiated in 1984. Eighteen municipalities out of the
nation's 105 now have a privately contracted garbage collection service,
or are in the contracting process.

### 8.8.1 Characteristics and Volume of Urban Solid Waste

Solid waste has changed in composition in Santo Domingo in the last 20
years. In 1980 it was estimated that 80% of the waste was organic
material (50% food waste, 30% garden waste). In 2001, the organic
fraction has declined to 52%, while plastics now make up 8%, paper and
cardboard 15%, and glass 3% (table 8.4).

Table 8.4 Composition of Solid Waste from Various Sources

  ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- --------- -------- -------
  Sources     Resident,   Resident,   Resident,   Resident,   Public    Hotels   Mean
              high income low to      low income, low income, markets            
                          medium      area #1     area #2                        
                          income                                                 

  Plastic     14.0        14.3        6.4         13.8        1.5       --       8.3

  Paper       23.0        17.1        12.0        13.8        --        23.3     14.9

  Clothes     2.2         9.3         8.2         10.6        --        3.8      5.7

  Glass       1.9         6.2         1.7         4.3         --        2.8      2.8

  Metal       3.3         7.5         6.3         4.0         --        1.5      3.8

  Food wastes 11.6        19.4        18.3        23.3        95.0      22.1     31.6

  Garden      41.3        26.2        5.5         7.2         3.5       39.4     20.5
  waste                                                                          

  Soil, other 2.7         --          41.6        23.0        --        7.1      12.4

  Total       100.0       100.0       100.0       100.0       100.0     100.0    100.0

  Humidity    40.0        53.4        --          --          60.1      --       51.2
  (%)                                                                            

  Specific    364.2       523.8       474.0       357.5       412.9     402.1    422.4
  weight                                                                         
  (kg/m^3^)                                                                      
  ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- --------- -------- -------

*Source*: Castillo-Tio 2001.

Note the high content of paper from all sectors except public markets,
the very high proportion of garden wastes from high and medium-income
residential areas, and the preponderance of food wastes from public
markets. These differences present interesting possibilities for sorting
waste and recycling by collection zones. Garbage collection in Santo
Domingo is accomplished by a private fleet of trucks, including 205
compactors, 68 dump trucks, and various other vehicles. In 20 other
municipalities there are 76 compactors and 72 dump trucks, with the
necessity of at least doubling these numbers to give adequate service in
the municipalities (Castillo-Tio 2001).

> Table 8.5 Solid Waste Produced in the Dominican Republic

  ------------- ------------------- ----------- ------------ --------------
  Year          Santo Domingo,      Remainder                Total tons per
                average value, tons of country               year
                per day                                      

                                    Tons per    Tons per     
                                    day         year         

  1999          2,688.26            --          --           973,916

  2000          3,570.16            2,030       740,950      1,409,200
  ------------- ------------------- ----------- ------------ --------------

> *Source*: Castillo-Tio 2001.

### 8.8.2 Status of Disposal Sites

Approximately 98% of the solid waste collected in the Dominican Republic
is deposited in open, unlined dumps. San Francisco and Moca are
attempting to bury garbage at their disposal sites, and Puerto Plata has
been financed by the World Bank to develop a comprehensive collection
and disposal system with high standards. Open-air disposal in unlined
dumps or pits can create serious environmental health risks, including
serious groundwater contamination. This is a major risk in southern
coastal plain areas where depth to groundwater is shallow and limestone
aquifers have high rates of transmission of contaminant plumes.

## 8.9 Air Quality Issues

Major sources of potential air pollution in the Dominican Republic
include motor vehicles, thermal power plants, and other industrial
sources. The vehicle fleet has increased rapidly, requiring large
investments in highways, but also caused locally serious air quality
problems, especially in Santo Domingo. Leaded gasoline was banned in the
Dominican Republic only as recently as 1999. The principal air
pollutants affecting the Dominican Republic include: particulate matter,
carbon monoxide, lead, sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxides. Other gases
such as methane and carbon dioxide, affect the ozone layer or global
greenhouse phenomena. These originate from the transport/industrial
sector as well as the agricultural sector. The cities most affected by
air pollution are Santo Domingo, Santiago, San Pedro de Macorís, La
Vega, Bonao, and San Cristóbal.

> Table 8.6 Vehicle Fleet in the Dominican Republic

+-----------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+----------+
| Type of vehicle | 1992    | 1993    | 1994    | 1999    | 2010     |
|                 |         |         |         |         |          |
|                 |         |         |         |         | (pr      |
|                 |         |         |         |         | ojected) |
+-----------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+----------+
| Automóvil       | 119,519 | 152,063 | 221,000 | 359,655 | 654,213  |
| privado         |         |         |         |         |          |
+-----------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+----------+
| Jeeps and SUVs  | 11,678  | 14,230  | 14,350  | 35,627  | 53,984   |
+-----------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+----------+
| Private buses   | 9,304   | 10,199  | 14,833  | 27,050  | 40,988   |
+-----------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+----------+
| Cargo trucks    | 79,147  | 92,318  | 111,178 | 177,653 | 269,188  |
+-----------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+----------+
| Motorcycles     | 237,334 | 302,411 | 506,000 | 689,398 | 1        |
|                 |         |         |         |         | ,044,610 |
+-----------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+----------+
| Other vehicles  | 24,956  | 40,402  | 43,710  | 43,651  | 49,810   |
+-----------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+----------+
| Total           | 481,938 | 611,623 | 911,071 | 1,      | 2        |
|                 |         |         |         | 333,034 | ,112,793 |
+-----------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+----------+

> *Source*: Castillo-Tio 2001

Growth in private automobiles is approximately 7% annually, with the
rest of the fleet increasing at about 4.5% annually. Motor vehicle
exhaust is the source of 85% to 95% of the carbon monoxide in urban
areas. Carbon monoxide levels have recently been measured in several
cities in Dominican Republic, as reported in table 8.7. A 1991 study
carried out by INTEC in Santo Domingo revealed carbon monoxide levels
considerably higher than internationally established norms (Mendoza de
Cid et al. 1991), thus demonstrating the growing air pollution problem
in the country's capital. Similar trends are taking place in other urban
areas.

Table 8.7 Carbon Monoxide Air Pollution Levels

  -------------------------- ---------------------- ----------------------
  Location                   Average carbon         Peak carbon monoxide
                             monoxide (ppm)^a^      (ppm)^b^

  San Pedro de Macoris, Zona 105 ppm                439 ppm
  Franca                                            

  San Pedro de Macoris,      89 ppm                 239 ppm
  Puerto                                            

  Santo Domingo, Av. 27 de   34 ppm                 63 ppm
  Febrero/Lincoln                                   

  Santo Domingo (1997),      17 ppm                 28 ppm
  Centro                                            
  -------------------------- ---------------------- ----------------------

a\. The US Environmental Protection Agency allows an 8-hour average for
CO to equal 9 ppm.

b\. The US Environmental Protection Agency allows a 1-hour concentration
for CO to equal 35 ppm.

*Source*: Castillo-Tio 2001

### 8.9.1 Greenhouse Gases 

From 1980 to 1995, the production of carbon dioxide (CO~2~) per capita
increased from 1.1 to 1.5 tons per person per year (UNDP 2000). In 1998
the Dominican Republic ratified the Convention on Climate Change and
began to put effort into diminishing its emissions of greenhouse gases.

### 8.9.2 Petroleum Importation and Use 

The total consumption of petroleum-based fuels, for automobiles and
industrial use, has increased dramatically in the last 20 years in
Dominican Republic. Table 8.8 outlines the changes in consumption from
1972 to 2000.

> Table 8.8 Comparison of Petroleum Fuel Consumption, 1972 and 2000

  --------------------------------- ------------------- -----------------
                                    1972                2000

  Barrels per day of petroleum      35,000              137,000
  products                                              
  --------------------------------- ------------------- -----------------

Consumption of gasoline is approximately 7.8 million barrels per year,
gas oil is 14.8 million barrels per year, and fuel oil is 5.9 million
barrels per year. The fastest growing sector is gasoline consumption
(Castillo-Tio 2001).

## 8.10 Key Environmental Issues in the Urban and Industrial Sector

The environmental issues presented by the rapid urbanization and
increasing industrialization of the Dominican Republic are at present,
quite evident, but poorly documented. Data on water quality degradation
by urban runoff and sewage effluent, as well as by industrial and
agricultural activities, are still extremely scarce. This situation was
noted in the 1981CEP, and still holds true today. The same situation
pertains to air pollution, where there is an extreme dearth of data.

One of the primary priorities at this stage is to begin a diagnostic
process to examine the actual quality of the surface waters, ground
water, and air sheds in critical areas of the Dominican Republic. This
is not simply a matter of collecting and analyzing samples, but requires
experienced personnel to design reasonable, cost-effective, but
statistically sound monitoring programs oriented towards very specific
objectives. Experience has shown that careful design of environmental
monitoring programs can save vast amounts of time and expense often
wasted on hastily organized data collection.

Given that many of the sources of urban environmental degradation are
known, the general issues are clear, despite the lack of abundant
quantitative documentation:

-   Large investments in public water supply and sanitation are urgently
    needed, including potable water, sewer, wastewater treatment
    systems, and storm water runoff throughout the urbanizing areas of
    the country. Santo Domingo lags behind Santiago---and perhaps some
    other secondary cities in this area. This is a national issue with
    major public health, economic, and environmental consequences.

-   Industrial wastewater is a serious concern, but little data is
    available. Environmental audits of thermal electric generating
    plants have revealed wastewater management problems, including
    thermal pollution of sensitive coastal waters.

-   A case study in Rio San Juan drainage indicates that nutrient
    pollution of rivers and streams is a major problem, especially where
    these rivers discharge into shallow coastal bays and coral reef
    areas.

-   Privatization of solid waste collection has helped some
    municipalities move forward effectively in this area of sanitation,
    but other municipalities lag behind. Highly visible garbage
    collection/disposal problems on the south coast threaten not only
    public health and welfare, but threaten to degrade the tourism
    potential of the entire area.

-   Air pollution issues are not well documented in Dominican Republic,
    but some recent analysis has confirmed that air pollution from motor
    vehicles (particulates, carbon monoxide) are a serious issue is some
    large cities. Automobile numbers are rising rapidly in the urban
    centers.

# Chapter 9. Environmental Institutions and Regulatory Framework

## 

## 

## 

## 9.1 Historical Perspective

### 9.1.1 The 1981 Country Environmental Profile

As indicated in the preceding sections, the 1981 CEP provided a
comprehensive treatment of most physical aspects of the natural
resources and environmental sectors, as well as a relatively thorough
coverage of the institutional factors at the time. However,
environmental policy was not a high priority in 1981, and little
emphasis was given to it. Policy was essentially treated in a minor
descriptive piece in the introductory section, and in brief descriptions
of legal bases in some of the subject matter sections. Nevertheless,
almost all of the 48 major recommendations generated in the CEP are at
least marginally policy-related, and the editors of that document did
identify as an urgent necessity in 1981 the formulation of a natural
resources policy, and the linking of that policy with the developmental
objectives of the country. In the intervening years, the institutional
structure for dealing with the environment has undergone profound
change, while the people of the Dominican Republic have managed to make
meaningful progress toward an environmental policy approach that can
help transform the way natural resources are managed in this country. It
is useful at this point to review the institutional dynamics and the
major policy actions that have contributed to---and continue to help
formulate---this country's environmental management regime.

### 9.1.2 Environmental Institutions 1981--2000

The institutional structure for the environmental sector has expanded
significantly. Substantial growth has occurred in the public sector
institutions whose responsibilities include management of the resource
base, and within the universities. However, the greatest growth has
taken place in the NGO community. In the private industrial sector,
participation and commitment have continued to lag.

The CEP identified 26 institutions involved in the sector in 1981, of
which 18 were public sector agencies, including most importantly the
Agriculture Secretariat (SEA). Another of the 18 was Plan Sierra, which
at that time was considered a crossover institution with both public and
private participation. There were eight other private institutions,
including universities, and notably only three of what would be
considered environmental NGOs. Similarly, the international donor
community was not active in this sector before 1981.

On the private sector side, production, construction, and extraction
industries have typically shown very limited interest in managing the
environment in a sustainable way. The tourism industry, which has grown
dramatically since 1981, has in general also shown a surprising lack of
interest. Improving cooperation from these industries will be a
continuing important challenge.

Beginning in the 1980s, and accelerating in the 1990s, in this country
as elsewhere, interest in environmental matters began to manifest itself
in a growing proliferation of local NGOs established to deal with
specific watersheds, parks, community areas, or other sites of local or
regional interest. Some of these organizations quickly established
relationships with donors and the international environmental community
(for example, the Nature Conservancy---TNC, the World Wildlife
Fund---WWF, and others), and have become major players in the
institutional framework for the environment. Examples of active
environmental NGOs established or becoming very active during the period
include:

-   *PRONATURA* was a pioneering coalition of private organizations with
    environmental interests, and was instrumental in bringing TNC to
    this country. Once a joint venture, TNC now has separate
    representation.

-   *Plan Sierra,* another pioneering Dominican environmental
    institution, has had profound impacts on natural resources
    management in the northern central highlands.

-   *The Ecological Society of the Cibao (SOECI)* and the *Dominican
    Society of Ecology* were two early NGOs that were formed by
    interested individuals in Cibao and Santo Domingo, respectively.

-   *PROGRESSIO,* an NGO, partnered with the Dominican government in the
    administration of the Ebano Verde nature reserve.

-   *The Jaragua Group,* an NGO, cooperated with the DNP for research in
    the Jaragua National Park.

-   *The Quita Espuela Foundation* cooperated with the DNP in
    administration of the park of the same name.

-   *The Ecological Society of Barahona (SOEBA)* administered
    environmental education campaigns in Jaragua and Sierra de Bahoruco
    National Parks.

-   *The Development Association for San Jose de Ocoa (JUNTA)* actually
    began sponsoring natural resources activities in the southern
    central mountains as early as the 1970s, and was active throughout
    the period, administering the USAID--funded Investment Fund for
    Natural Resources (FIRENA).

These organizations---and many others too numerous to mention
here---have made major contributions in environmental education, public
awareness, and sustainable management of natural resources, in what has
become a major trend since 1981. In addition, the academic community
throughout the nation became more and more involved in environmental
study, research, and projects over the last two decades. It was in the
academic community and among NGOs that the environmental movement began
in this country in the 1970s. From initial conferences on the subject at
the Pedro Henriquez Urena National University in Santo Domingo (UNPHU)
in the 1970s, to the offering of a graduate degree in environmental
education by the Technological Institute of Santo Domingo (INTEC) in
1988, university faculty members have been at the forefront of the
environmental movement. The Superior Institute for Agriculture (ISA) in
Santiago, had established a forestry school in the late 1970s.

Public sector institutions also grew in number during the past two
decades, but in many ways without a corresponding increase in effective
environmental policy before the year 2000. The CEP reported that in
1981, the public institutions that were directly related to natural
resources were often characterized by parallel functions,
inter-institutional interference and conflict, inefficient use of human
and financial resources, and a lack of coordination. This situation
persisted and worsened for most of the last 20 years, while the number
of involved public institutions increased to 21. Public institutions
with major roles in the sector during the 1980s and 1990s included the
following:

-   *The Dominican Hydraulic Resources Institute (INDRHI)* was given the
    specific mandate for managing hydrographic regions. However, there
    were overlapping responsibilities with other institutions, such as
    SEA and DGF.

-   *The Agriculture Secretariat (SEA)*---particularly through its
    dependencies for natural resources *(SURENA)*, fisheries *(DRP)*,
    wildlife *(DVS)*, land and water *(DTA)*, and linkage with *Plan
    Sierra*---was increasingly active in environmental areas during the
    period. Several other SEA units also involve themselves in some
    environmental matters. These would include the departments of plant
    protection, research, and natural resource inventory, the livestock
    directorate, and others.

-   *The Forestry Directorate (DGF)* had the primary responsibility for
    oversight of the nation's forest resources, although other agencies
    also had minor roles, and the overall system was confused by a
    series of laws and decrees, a lack of incentives, and the absence of
    coordinated sustainable use planning.

-   *The National Parks Directorate (DNP)* was created in the 1970s to
    conserve, protect, and develop recreational areas.

-   *The National Agriculture Council (CNA)* was set up as an
    agriculture and natural resources advisory board under the SEA, but
    with both public and private representation.

-   *The National Environmental Commission* was created by decree in
    1987 as a government body with 16 specific objectives, including the
    coordination of institutional activities related to the environment.

-   *The National Zoological Park (ZOODOM),* the *National Museum of
    Natural History (MNHN),* and the *National Botanical Garden (JBN)*
    all either conduct research or execute activities related to the
    environment.

-   *The Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources,* established
    in 2000, is now the only public institution responsible for
    environmental oversight and activity.

### 9.1.3 Legal and Policy Actions and Precedents for Current Environmental Law

Since 1981, there has been an evolution in the way public policy deals
with the environment. The CEP reported that in 1981 there was a
well-defined national policy regarding agriculture and development
planning for agriculture, but that there was no explicit policy for
managing natural resources. The CEP further stated that solutions to
environmental problems were only sought once such problems became
serious enough to warrant immediate attention. It found that the legal
bases for environmental management were relatively ambiguous, and that
much of the relevant legislation, having been created to deal with
problems on an individual basis, resulted in overlaps, gaps, and
confusion among responsible institutions.

Clearly, this situation changed dramatically over the subsequent two
decades. Change, however, has been incremental during the period. It is
meaningful to consider several of the watershed events that have
characterized the evolution of public debate and guided the official
actions affecting the environmental climate in recent years.

-   *Rio 1992.* In the case of the Dominican Republic, preparations for
    the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development did
    indeed serve as a catalyst in focusing attention on the plight of
    the environment. The national report issued at the conference
    indicated, with respect to a policy and legal framework, that
    "measures to protect natural spaces, create environmental
    organizations and commissions ... ratify international agreements
    ... had been the form through which the Dominican Government had
    demonstrated its preoccupation with accelerated degradation of the
    natural resources of the country." It added, "Mechanisms for
    conserving natural resources and the environment ... are not backed
    up by an environmental policy that orients actions and facilitates
    the operational effectiveness of the responsible organizations"
    (Government of the Dominican Republic).

-   *Sustainable Tourism Development Policy.* In 1996, the State Tourism
    Secretariat adopted this policy, in compliance with an agreement
    with the World Tourism Organization. Implementation of the policy
    has fostered the beginnings of economically and environmentally
    viable tourism development with respect to use of coastal and marine
    resources. However, the policy has fallen short of its original goal
    of bringing about a fundamental change in the tourism industry to
    make it environmentally friendly.

-   *Agricultural Policy Analysis Project (APAP).* An APAP study
    prepared a policy inventory in 1992, which focused on watersheds,
    forestry, biodiversity, and sustainable agriculture. Coming in the
    same year as the Rio Conference, this study provided Dominican
    policy makers with a useful basic document for considering some
    aspects of environmental policy (Nunez et al.).

-   *Rio +5 yrs.* Five years later, in 1997, the success of the country
    in achieving the targets agreed to in Rio in 1992 was evaluated. It
    was determined that "if the Dominican State had indeed taken actions
    for the protection of resources and the environment in its search
    for sustainable human development, it has done so in an isolated and
    fragmented manner, with old institutional structures." The report
    put forth the important idea that the Dominican government should
    establish a high-level institution to guide and integrate
    environmental policy (Almonte).

-   *Environmental Strategy, 1994--2003.* The 1994 document entitled, "A
    Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity in the Dominican
    Republic: 1994-2003," made the case that ecological damages also
    caused significant economic and social costs, and reiterated the
    necessity to adopt integrated environmental policies. (Almonte)

-   *National Nutrition Plan 1998--2005.* This plan recognized the
    important links between the environment and other sectors of
    society. It also recognized the importance of integrated
    participation by civil society and the NGO community in programs on
    nutrition and environment.

-   *National Sustainable Development Council.* This report of the
    national commission set up to review follow-up actions from the Rio
    conference affirmed a lack of attention to the environment, and
    observed, "Development of economic activities in the Dominican
    Republic, including development of the tourism industry and the duty
    free zones, has been brought about, in the majority of cases,
    without contemplating \[environmental\] preservation."

-   *National Environmental Dialogue.* During the mid-to-late 1990s the
    national government encouraged a broad public dialogue on
    environmental issues, and a commission was formed to identify
    environmental problems and define remedial actions. This dispersion
    and legal inefficiency that characterized the sector. The plenary of
    the National Dialogue placed priority on adoption of an
    environmental agenda that included the formulation of a national
    environmental policy and the adoption and execution of a supporting
    legislative agenda. Direct results of this commission included the
    creation of the Environmental Sector Coordinating Commission
    (COSERENAMA), and the approval of the 1999 Forestry Law, which
    created the National Forestry Institute, replacing the old DGF.
    These actions also led directly to the conceptual steps needed to
    reorganize the environmental sector via a new environmental law
    (Almonte).

-   *INDRHI Action Plan 1999.* In its 1999 Action Plan, the National
    Water Resources Institute articulated a new emphasis on water
    resource management as its mission. The same document noted a vision
    for the institute based on fundamental policy changes, including
    improved institutional development, modernization and restructuring,
    decentralization, and the management and conservation of natural
    resources, particularly water and soil. The actions in the INDRHI
    Plan were oriented toward: (1) organization of agricultural water
    user associations into boards; (2) an increase in the area under
    irrigation; (3) a bottom-up review of the institute's role; (4)
    provision of basic data for integrated resource management; (5)
    community-based water resource education; (6) development of a
    national system of natural disaster alert network; (7)
    implementation of bilateral activities with Haiti; and (8)
    institutional modernization.

-   *Seminar/Workshop Toward Formulation of a Solid Waste Policy for the
    Dominican Republic.* This event held in April 2000 publicly affirmed
    the need to "design and install a Dominican Government policy that
    establishes the legal and institutional framework for managing solid
    waste."

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-   *2000* *Human Development Report.* This UNDP study evaluating human
    development in the country found that "the focus of environmental
    policy had been characterized by a proliferation of decrees, laws,
    resolutions, norms, institutions, commissions, agreements, and
    treaties that had as results temporary solutions that did not
    provide fundamental problems with definitive solutions." It added,
    "In the Dominican Republic linkage between the economic and
    environmental policies has not existed" (UNDP).

To set the stage for the eventual enactment of a new environmental law
in 2000, it is instructive to accompany the preceding list of
influential events with a chronology of the major environment-related
policy dispositions issued during the period.

Examples of laws passed during this decade include Law 355 of 1983,
which prohibited the application of chemical lime to tree trunks, and
Law 258 of 1985, which approved a national plan for forestland use.
Importantly for environmental education, Law 295 of 1985 incorporated
environmental education in public and private school curricula.
Similarly, there was considerable variety among the many decrees passed,
from the routine to the significant, such as a series of decrees that
declared a number of national parks (for example, Decree 1026 of 1986,
establishing the La Caleta Underwater Park).

Table 9.1 summarizes over 60 policy acts that tended to control or
prohibit certain uses of natural resources during the 1980s, while
totally inadequate financial resources were dedicated to the
institutions responsible for executing these same public policies. In
addition, these actions were, for the most part, disconnected, and
without any coordinating mechanisms. It is also worthy of note that,
during the 1980s, the Dominican Constitution was modified, but was still
without any direct reference to the environment.

During the 1990s, while fewer environmental actions were generated, laws
and decrees passed were generally more focused on impacts. Decree 226 of
1990 prohibited the discharge of raw chemical and organic wastes into
waterways; Decree 531 prohibited cutting of mangroves; and other decrees
were directed at coral reef preservation, environmental contamination,
limiting destructive agricultural practices, and creating a green belt
for major cities.

> Table 9.1 Environmental Policy Dispositions, 1980--90

  ---------------- ------------ ------------- --------------- ------------
  Sub-Sector       Laws         Decrees       Resolutions     Total

  Forestry         7            17            1               25

  Protected areas  0            13            0               13

  Coastal/marine   0            5             0               5

  Pollution        1            4             0               5

  Wildlife         0            3             0               3

  Mining           0            0             0               0

  Water            1            2             0               3

  Fishing          0            8             0               8

  Soils            0            0             0               0
  ---------------- ------------ ------------- --------------- ------------

> *Source*: Jose Almonte.
>
> Table 9.2 Environmental Policy Dispositions, 1990--2000

  ---------------- ------------ ------------- --------------- ------------
  Sub-Sector       Laws         Decrees       Resolutions     Total

  Forestry         1            6             0               7

  Protected areas  0            11            1               12

  Coastal/marine   0            3             1               4

  Pollution        1            4             2               6

  Wildlife         0            0             1               1

  Mining           0            1             0               1

  Water            0            1             0               1

  Fishing          0            0             0               0

  Soils            0            0             1               1
  ---------------- ------------ ------------- --------------- ------------

> *Source*: Jose Almonte.

In 1981--2000, environmental policy and the institutional framework that
functions within policy parameters suffered through a series of dramatic
changes. This perspective suggests that in the environmental sector, the
last 20 years can conveniently be considered as two distinct periods.
During 1981--91, policy actions were defined by traditional views
including prohibitions and strict controls. There was little
understanding of fundamental links between the environment and other
sectors of the economy (for example, watershed management, downstream
silting, and power failures; contamination, water quality, and public
health; pollution and tourism).

The beginning of the period 1992--2000 is marked by the development of a
national environmental position for the Rio Conference. It can be
characterized as a period of rapidly expanding awareness and vigorous
public dialogue on environmental issues. There was still a basic lack of
an integrating entity for the sector, but a process was underway through
which this shortcoming would be addressed.

9.2 The Current Situation

On entering the twenty-first century, the Dominican Republic faces its
myriad environmental problems with tools and resources that are very
different from those in 1981. Public awareness of and interest in the
environment have increased, and this growing constituency is reflected
in the dynamic institutional situation and the new policy environment
described in subsequent sections of this profile. Nevertheless, there
are aspects of human resource and environmental education that warrant
review, as discussed below. A critical assumption of the environmental
movement is founded on the principles of geographic interrelationships
and the environmental agreements and donor arrangements in which the
Dominican government is a participant form an important component of the
current environmental profile of this country. Of course, the
strengthened institutional framework and promising new policy regime
must be the fundamental elements with which the Dominican people will
effectively manage their environment in the near term.

### 9.2.1 Public Perceptions on the Environment

Historically, the development of an aware and interested public
constituency has been a necessary condition for achieving change in the
environmental policy arena. In an economic context, it is analogous to
creating demand for a product. There are many aspects to this process.
Development of workable environmental education programs requires core
individuals with formal training to conduct research, report on results,
and impart both technical information and the ability to pass
information on effectively to others. There are now numerous sources in
the Dominican Republic and other countries for these kinds of formal
education. Informal environmental education at the neighborhood or
community level is commonly facilitated via outreach programs provided
by both NGOs and government. The best of these often involve a heavy
element of community or municipal participation, because natural
resources management is essentially a social act. As such, it requires a
high level of common---rather than individual or familial---commitment,
which initially may be a relatively unfamiliar sentiment. In such
fundamental attitudinal change is found a key challenge for
environmental educators. In addition to person-to-person outreach,
communications media are often utilized as effective elements for
reaching large numbers of people, and print, radio, and television
programs are used effectively in this regard in the Dominican Republic.

-   *Environmental Education and Public Attitudes.* Since the 1980s the
    formal education sector has attempted to incorporate, with mixed
    success, environmental education in both basic and middle school
    curricula. More recently, Law 300 of 1998 expressly mandates the
    inclusion of environmental and natural resource studies in all
    levels of education on a national scale. On the informal side,
    decades of environmental education and awareness campaigns carried
    out by a broad range of NGOs throughout the country have undoubtedly
    changed the perceptions and attitudes of thousands of Dominicans,
    and have prepared many thousands more to manage their own lives in
    manners much more friendly to the environment.

-   *Human Resources for the Environmental Sector.* While execution of a
    directed human resource demand and availability study was not within
    the scope or budget of this analysis, observations and discussions
    imply that demand for trained professionals will continue to grow in
    many subject matter areas related to the environment. Intuitively,
    with environmental oversight apparently becoming more extensive and
    intensive, an increased demand for practitioners for the public
    sector would be expected. However, with probable continued
    availability of donor assistance to the sector, resources should be
    available to provide for near-term needs in academic and technical
    training through more efforts in the regulatory area, private demand
    will also grow. Typically, the scenario in such cases has been that
    the private sector hires individuals already trained by the public
    sector, and if this approach is repeated here, it could put
    pressures on the availability of trained personnel for the public
    sector and NGO community. In any event, additional investments in
    human resource development can be expected. Fortunately, sources for
    such training are available locally, and more specialized or
    advanced graduate training can be obtained offshore. The following
    Dominican universities conduct research activities and offer
    technical and academic degree programs in varying fields of
    environmental studies:

    -   Department of Natural Resources, Pedro Henriquez Urena National
        University (UNPHU), Santo Domingo

    -   Department of Natural Resources, Superior Institute of
        Agriculture (ISA), Santiago

    -   Environment Department, Northeastern University, San Francisco
        de Macoris

    -   Faculties of Agronomy, Sciences, or Economic and Social
        Sciences, Autonomous University of Santo Domingo (UASD)

    -   Technological Institute of Santo Domingo (INTEC)

    -   Pontifical Catholic University Mother and Teacher (PUCMM)

    -   Technological University of Santiago (UTESA)

    -   Dominican O&M University

    -   Catholic University of Santo Domingo

    -   University of the Caribbean

    -   Naval Academy of Superior Studies

    -   Inter-American University (UNICA)

    -   Ibero-American University (NIBE)

### 9.2.2 International Environmental Agreements and Donors 

*Agreements.* International environmental agreements have become a
critical tool for rationalizing natural resource use among nations on a
regional and global scale. Indeed, ratification of (and compliance with)
specific agreements is now often a condition to approval of funding for
projects from international donor groups, governments, and NGOs. The
Dominican Republic is signatory to a number of these agreements (table
9.3).

##### *Donors.* Significant donor investments in the environment, beginning in the 1980s, grew substantially throughout the 1990s, and continue at a relatively high level. Between 1980 and 2000, donor commitments to projects related to natural resources (including water resource infrastructure) exceeded US\$435 million. The two largest donors were the World Bank and the Inter-American Development Bank, each with programs of well over US\$100 million during the period. A second tier of donors includes bilateral programs from the governments of Germany, Japan, Switzerland, and the United States, joined by smaller bilateral programs such as that of Spain. The UN Development Program and the European Community are also major multilateral donors (Arias).

Table 9.3 International Environmental Agreements

  --------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Agreement         Fundamentals       Status             Country Situation
  ----------------- ------------------ ------------------ ------------------
  Convention on     Protects           Signed March 17,   Convention
  International     endangered species 1987, and          requirements have
  Commerce          threatened by      confirmed by the   been executed
  governing         excessive          National Congress  through the
  endangered flora  exploitation via                      wildlife
  and fauna (CITES) import/export                         department of the
                    permits                               SURENA-SEA and the
                                                          botanical garden

  Vienna Convention Reduces substances Confirmed by the   A governmental
  (Montreal         causing            National Congress, committee on ozone
  Protocol)         destruction of the August 16, 1993    (COGO) coordinates
  relative to the   ozone layer,                          activities
  substances        regulating the                        
  threatening the   amount of                             
  ozone layer       atmospheric                           
                    contamination by                      
                    gases that react                      
                    with ozone in the                     
                    upper atmosphere                      

  Convention        Conservation of    Signed June 5,     The country has
  governing         biological         1992, and          participated in
  Biological        diversity, and     confirmed by the   the Conference of
  Diversity         sustainable use of National Congress  the Parties (COP)
                    natural resources  December 6, 1996   and has initiated
                    used.                                 implementation
                                                          activities for the
                                                          national strategy
                                                          and action plan

  Framework         Combats            Confirmed by the   Assisted with
  Convention to     desertification    National Congress  Conferences of the
  Combat            and mitigates the  and proclaimed by  Parties (I, II);
  Desertification   effects of         the president,     actively
  and Drought       drought.           1997               participated in
                                                          regional meetings,
                                                          creating a
                                                          National Action
                                                          Plan

  International     The elimination of Confirmed by the   In February,
  Conference for    the right to       National Congress, established an
  the prevention of discharge wastes   May 1998           international
  discharging       that threaten the                     forum on the
  wastes from ships environment from                      prevention of
  in transit        ships in transit                      marine
                                                          contamination.

  Conference on     Establishes        Confirmed by the   Approved proposed
  Climate Change    allowable          National Congress  implementation
                    emissions levels   and proclaimed by  activities to
                    for carbon dioxide the president,     establish the
                    and other gases    1998               national strategy;
                    that cause                            initiated the next
                    greenhouse and                        inventory of gas
                    global warming                        emissions and
                                                          their mitigation.
  --------------------------------------------------------------------------

*Note*: The Dominican Republic is also party to five regional
agreements, including the Inter-American Institute for Global Change
Research (since 1997), the Cartagena Agreement for Protection of the
Marine Environment (1998), the Protocol on Marine Contamination from
Coastal Rivers and Estuaries (1999), and the two Cartagena Protocols for
the Greater Caribbean Region on Hydrocarbons (1998) and Native Flora and
Fauna (2000).

*Source:* Arias.

The advantages that these programs bring to the country---in addition to
the purely financial and physical---include major increments in the body
of knowledge regarding local environmental and natural resource
conditions and relationships, enhanced environmental education coverage
and impact, increased public awareness, improved ability to comply with
terms of environmental agreements, and greater facility to handle
environmental analysis and policy. The prospects for a continued high
level of donor assistance in this area beyond 2000 are good. The fact
that this country's economic indicators have been improving may argue
for reductions in some areas or by some donors, or for a shift to more
loans and fewer grants. But the country remains a viable partner for
environmental initiatives with high chances for both visible impact and
implementation success. Indeed, a number of major environmental programs
with relatively long life spans are even now in early stages of
implementation. For example, Germany (Yaque del Norte watershed),
Switzerland (watersheds, environmental consortium), the World Bank and
Inter-American Development Bank (watersheds, environmental policies,
wastewaters), Japan (irrigated agriculture), and the European Community
(environmental services) are all in very early phases of major
environmental or natural resources projects here. Ongoing initiatives
with United States government participation include continuing hurricane
reconstruction activities, an analysis of impacts of mining, watershed
management activities, potential technical support in the environmental
sector, and this update of the CEP.

### 9.2.3 Environmental Institutions

*Public Sector.* The most important development among public
environmental institutions is the establishment of the Secretariat of
the Environment and Natural Resources. This institution is described in
greater detail in a subsequent section on structure and functions of the
secretariat.

In addition to the secretariat and its allied institutions, there are
other institutions involved in environmental management. These include
municipal governments; the Secretariats for Public Health and Social
Assistance, Industry and Commerce (includes mining), Agriculture,
External Relations, Armed Forces, and Tourism; the National Potable
Water Institute; the Technical Secretary to the President; and the
public works corporations.

*Private and NGO Sectors.* According to PRONATURA, one of the
pioneering---and still very important---NGOs in this sector, there are
now more than 130 NGOs in the Dominican Republic reporting some kind of
environmental activity. In addition, there are seven universities and
ten quasi-governmental agencies, such as museums, botanical and
zoological parks, and research centers, that are involved in the sector.
This is a dramatic increase over the eight private institutions active
in 1981.

Private for-profit firms do not universally embrace environmental
programs anywhere, (although there certainly are numerous anecdotal
cases of environmentally friendly voluntary actions in this regard in
the Dominican Republic, as elsewhere). This should not suggest that most
firms involved in development investments in this country routinely
ignore possible environmental impacts. For example, most international
banks and donor organizations now have environmental guidelines that
must be followed by any contractors---including local ones---involved in
carrying out activities financed with their resources. In the future,
developing effective working relationships with developers, the tourism
industry, and other industrial sectors will be a key challenge for
environmental policy formulators and officials.

### 9.2.4 Environmental Policy Framework 

The environmental policy framework underwent sweeping change in 2000.
The approval by the National Congress of Law 64, of August 18, 2000,
created a new legal and institutional framework. It created the
Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources, and integrated the
secretariat and the other public institutions with environmental
functions, incorporating for the first time within the environmental
regime of the Dominican Republic the vision of integrated environmental
management. It also established a series of environmental policy
principles for the country, to which the private sector and current and
successive governments presumably must adapt. The General Environmental
Law (64-2000) not only reorganized the policy and public institutional
frame. It also established the underlying instruments through which
policy may be executed, and formed the basis for empowering Dominican
individuals, communities, NGOs, firms, and others to participate more
fully in environmental dialogue and in the planning and execution of
environmental initiatives.

*Legal and Regulatory Framework.* Law 64-00 stipulates that the
policies, plans, and programs of the public sector be subjected to
environmental evaluations and that such analysis be applied in a manner
that is consistent with the national environmental policies in effect.
The law states, "Planning of national, regional, and provincial
development of the country must incorporate the environmental dimension
through a dynamic, permanent, participative, and concerted process among
the different entities involved in environmental management." With
respect to enforcement, the law created a judicial system for the
defense and protection of the environment, which is housed
administratively in the Office of the Attorney General.

A number of environmental policy principles have been articulated for
the application of Law 64-00. Several of these principles reflect
efforts to link environmental policy with economic or development
policy. These include:

1.  Environmental programs are to be integrated with general economic
    development plans and programs.

2.  Environmental costs are to be incorporated in the national accounts
    and national production.

3.  Economic analysis will be applied in the prevention and restoration
    of environmental damages.

4.  Judicial norms and policy principles for environmental management
    are public law.

This approach seeks to identify and hold responsible parties that damage
the environment, to charge for use of natural resources, and to include
from the outset of development planning appropriate consideration of
environmental effects. These are important principles, but their
effective application will require substantial public relations work and
a mix of penalties for non-compliance and positive incentives to
encourage and reward compliance.

Other key principles deal with national policy complying with
international environmental agreements, the need to decentralize
environmental management (consistent with integrated watershed
management, which is not yet universally applied in the Dominican
Republic), and the proclamation that human consumption is the highest
priority for water use.

Several instruments available to the secretariat for putting
environmental policy into practice have been identified, including:

-   Environmental planning

-   Environmental law and related technical norms

-   National land use planning

-   National protected areas system

-   Environmental licenses and permits

-   Environmental impact analyses

-   Environmental vigilance and inspections

-   National environmental information system

-   Scientific and technological developments

-   National fund for the environment and natural resources

-   Environmental education and dissemination

*Other* *Relevant Environmental Laws.* A number of other laws relating
to environmental and natural resources management remain on the books
and in effect. These treat such areas as water rights and use, hunting
and fishing, pesticide use, mining, parks, and waste disposal. Among
these laws are the following:

-   Law 85 of 1931, on hunting

-   Law 3003 of 1951, on marine ports and coasts

-   Law 4471 of 1956, on health codes

-   Law 4990 of 1958, on vegetative sanitation

-   Law 5852 of 1962, on ground water and public water distribution

-   Law 5914 of 1962, on fishing

-   Law 6 of 1965, creating INDRHI

-   Law 55 of 1965, instituting social and economic planning

-   Law 305 of 1968, establishing maritime zones

-   Law 311 of 1968, regulating pesticides

-   Law 487 of 1969, on ground water regulation

-   Law 123 of 1971, on extraction of stone, gravel, and sand

-   Law 146 of 1971, on mining

-   Law 67 of 1974, on national parks

-   Law 218 of 1984, on toxic and other wastes

-   Law 112 of 1987, on obligatory forest service.

### 9.2.5 Structure and Functions of the Environmental Secretariat

*Organization.* The secretariat, under overall direction of a cabinet
level secretary, is organized into five sub-secretariats: Environmental
Management, Soils and Water, Forest Resources, Protected Areas and
Biodiversity, and Coastal and Marine Resources. These sub-secretariats
are further divided internally into appropriate directorates and
departments. Unfortunately, the secretariat does not yet have a single
physical plant, and its sub-secretariats and many staff members are
still scattered around Santo Domingo in different government office
buildings. Many of them are still housed in former quarters that may
keep them physically attached to other secretariats or other
institutions from which they were recently detached administratively.

In addition, the following institutions are now dependencies of the new
secretariat: Sectoral Planning and Programming Office, National
Environmental and Natural Resource Council, the National Botanical
Garden, the National Zoo, the National Aquarium, and the Museum of
Natural History.

*General Objectives.* The general objectives of environmental policy
under the secretariat include the following:

-   Prevent, regulate, and control causes of environmental
    deterioration.

-   Establish measures and opportunities for conservation and
    sustainable use of resources.

-   Recognize the real value of natural resources, including the
    environmental services they provide.

-   Achieve national planning that is founded in sustainable
    development, and social justice.

-   Promote correct use of public space via land use planning.

-   Strengthen the Protected Areas System.

-   Guarantee rational management of watersheds.

-   Stimulate environmental education.

-   Establish and strengthen a decentralized national system of
    environmental management.

-   Comply with international environmental commitments.

-   Provide a safe environment that contributes to sustained health and
    disease prevention.

*Strategic Plan.* The purpose of the near-term strategy is "to apply an
integrated public policy, for the conservation and protection of natural
resources and the environment." The mission of the secretariat has been
articulated in terms of regulating the management and use of the
environment, the ecosystems, and natural resources, to reach sustainable
development. The vision of the secretariat has been defined as follows:
"to comply with its mission, the (Secretariat) will develop an open,
democratic, and participatory policy, based on cooperation, strategic
alliances, the communities and business sector; in order to imbue every
public and private entity that intervenes in the environment with a
sustainable development model that guarantees an adequate quality of
life for present and future generations."

Mid-term strategic objectives include: (a) collaborating with the
Technical Secretary of the Presidency and other organizations in the
definition of a policy and general plan for national land use planning;
(b) implanting a national environmental action plan via the following
sub-systems---environmental norms, environmental evaluation,
environmental quality monitoring, and environmental protection; (c)
developing a national system of environmental quality indicators; (d)
collaborating with appropriate institutions to incorporate environmental
education in every curriculum, and developing a massive education
campaign; (e) formulating and implementing a national approach for
managing solid wastes, sewage, and toxic wastes; (f) promoting
sustainable use forest management; (g) conserving native genetic
resources in flora and fauna; (h) recuperating natural water sources;
and (I) designing, developing, and administering a national system of
natural, cultural, and historic areas.

*Near-Term Objectives.* In the short term, the secretariat is proposing
to:

-   Save, study, conserve, and use the biodiversity and ecosystems
    consistent with the natural patrimony of the country.

-   Develop tree planting to conserve and improve the environment,
    combat erosion, and protect water resources and infrastructure.

-   Adopt and put in place emission limits and quality control norms.

-   Establish agreements and strategic alliances with local governments
    and other public and private entities to put into practice watershed
    management plans.

-   Foment and regulate research on environmental conditions and
    biodiversity.

-   Establish a national environmental information system.

*Sub-Sectoral Strategic Objectives.* Several objectives have been
identified for the near term (one year) for specific sub-sectors. These
include:

-   The *Environmental Management* sub-secretariat, essentially the
    "new" part of the public institutional structure, is beginning to
    elaborate, adopt, and put into practice quality control and
    emissions norms and standards. (Public agencies with
    responsibilities for forestry, soils and water, marine resources,
    and protected areas all existed before Law 64-2000, while the new
    sub-secretariat took over and greatly expanded the functions of the
    Environmental Protection Institute.) A recent report on their
    activities through the end of the year 2000 indicates that in only
    four months, the sub-secretariat has completely re-oriented the
    processes it inherited, restructured internal operations, and
    diversified the framework of public environmental interventions.
    Substantial achievements were also noted in the design of an
    operational framework for the environmental evaluation department;
    installation of an office for coordinating action at the municipal
    level; preliminary design work towards monitoring systems for
    hotels, industries, and water quality; and follow-up on
    international environmental agreements.

-   In *Soils and Water*, staff members are in the process of developing
    clear standards for extracting aggregates, and initiating plans for
    designing land use planning and watershed management policies. Of
    course, in this and the other sub-secretariats that follow, a major
    concern for staff has been the continuation of public administration
    responsibilities held prior to the Law 64 reorganization, while
    adapting to a new organizational regime with added responsibilities.

-   In *Forestry,* development is underway on tree planting initiatives,
    and high priority is also placed on development of technical norms
    for management plans, forest industry and permitting, and forest
    transport. Also, work is underway on reconciling provisions of the
    1999 Forestry Law with Law 64-2000.

-   The *Protected Areas and Biodiversity* group is making plans to
    save, study, and effectively use Dominican biodiversity and
    ecosystems. It is recognized that few of the country's parks and
    protected areas are currently under management plans, and that
    preservation of these natural areas will be very much in jeopardy
    until real management occurs.

-   In *Coastal and Marine Resources*, employees are developing norms
    for planning fishery resource management and fomenting a management
    and conservation ethic among those who participate in the fishing
    industry.

## 9.3 Key Policy and Institutional Issues

In the course of developing the above overview of the institutional and
policy framework, a number of potential problems or issues or
opportunities present themselves. The sector is much better prepared to
deal with such issues than it was at the time of the 1981 CEP. That
said, there are more problems and more immediate issues to deal with now
than there were 20 years ago. The structure of the public institutions
and policy regime was much improved by the new Environmental Law.
However, the law and its institutional base are both far from being set
firmly and permanently in place, and the leaders involved in this
process are aware of that and are working diligently to take advantage
of their challenge and their opportunity. It is critical that this
window to achieve fundamental change for the sector be open long enough
to allow full institutionalization of the integrated sector approach
enabled by Law 64-2000. Hence, the primary and most critical
environmental issue facing the Dominican government in 2001 is
achievement of permanence and credibility for the secretariat.

-   

-   Environmental Norms and Standards

# Chapter 10. Toward a National Environmental Vision

## 

## 

## 

## 10.1 Opportunities for Action

On the basis of the research carried out to develop this environmental
profile, the investigators have identified a series of environmental
sector "Opportunities for Action." They are presented for consideration
to the Dominican environmental community (public, NGO, and commercial
sectors) and international funding organizations in the formulation of a
proactive plan to manage the country's natural resource base in an
efficient, sustainable way.

### 10.1.1 Institutional Strengthening

-   *Secretariat---*The Secretariat for the Environment and Natural
    Resources came into existence with the passage of the Environmental
    Law in August 2000. The secretariat was created by joining together
    five previously existing entities under a new senior management
    overlay. While the secretariat has made significant strides in its
    first months, a concerted effort at institutional building could
    weld the secretariat into a thoroughly professional, effective
    environmental management organization.

-   *Municipal Government Environmental Management---*The new
    environmental law provides an enhanced role for municipalities in
    management of environmental matters at the local level. Both
    municipal authorities and senior Secretariat officials are
    enthusiastic about this legislative endorsement. However, the local
    governments require considerable institutional development
    assistance to effectively carry out their new mandate.

### 10.1.2 Policy

-   *Laws and Implementing Regulations---*The new Environment Law (Law
    64-2000) established a framework for a proactive plan of action to
    protect and to manage in a sustainable way the country's natural
    resources. That said, there is important substantive work required
    to complete the environmental framework by developing sub-sectoral
    laws and/or implementing regulations for, among others, the forestry
    sector, land use zoning), fisheries, and water use. Based on the
    experience of other countries, these regulatory tools are most
    successful when they are developed in a participatory way with
    stakeholder consultation and input. Best practices also suggest that
    are most effective when they are designed with incentives to
    counterbalance sanctions.

-   *Norms and Standards---*Essentially the country is devoid of
    environmental norms and standards. Secretariat senior management has
    placed high priority on establishing such a regulatory regime and is
    anxious to launch a program that includes guidelines for, among
    others, atmospheric pollution, groundwater contamination, solid and
    liquid waste disposal, noise pollution, and coastal zone defilement.
    Again, implementation of such regulatory regimes has achieved best
    results when carried out with active stakeholder participation and
    incentives to counterbalance any sanctions that might be put into
    place.

-   *Involving Communities---*Environmental and natural resource
    management issues are frequently matters of community-wide interest.
    That said, there is a growing body of evidence that indicates that
    the solutions to these issues are being generated through
    participatory problem solving. Review of Law 64-2000, as well
    discussions with Secretariat officials, clearly indicate that both
    the legislation and political will exist to engage stakeholders, in
    an active, substantive way, in addressing environmental issues.
    Effective implementation of this policy should be part of
    environmental sector institution building efforts.

### 10.1.3 Land Use and Soil Management

-   *Data Collection and Analysis---*Improved data collection on land
    use and cropping patterns, employing state-of-the-art technology
    (remote sensing and GIS) would furnish meaningful, needed assistance
    in soil conservation and management planning.

-   *Land Use Planning---*Land use in the Dominican Republic has not
    evolved in an orderly or planned fashion. The absence of such
    planning has contributed to the deterioration of the country's
    natural resource base. A proactive land use planning initiative
    would make a significant contribution to environmental protection.
    The current scheme under consideration, a comprehensive, top down,
    nationwide zoning effort may not be the most appropriate approach.
    Other country experience has demonstrated "micro-zonification"
    (micro-watershed by micro-watershed planning with active stakeholder
    participation) to be a far more effective watershed planning and
    management tool. Moreover, the micro-zonification approach would be
    most effective if it were to give priority attention to key
    watersheds, high value agricultural lands threatened by urbanization
    and areas with tourism potential.

-   *Watershed Management Models---*Appropriate models for watershed
    management and soil erosion control with an emphasis on perennial
    cropping systems and economic development opportunities, have been
    developed for the country. However, they are known only to a small
    group of technicians and administrators engaged in the environmental
    sector. Making the models user-friendly (understandable to
    laypersons) and distributing them broadly among agricultural
    producers would contribute directly to sustainable use of natural
    resources.

-   *Irrigated* *Soil Management---*Improving management of irrigated
    soils will require improved water management. Broadening and
    deepening the national government's irrigation district
    privatization initiation would be an effective means to this end.

-   *Sustainable Hillside Agriculture---*Hillside agriculture, as
    traditionally practiced in the Dominican Republic has been a
    destructive force. As a result, many areas have become deforested
    and unproductive. Shade coffee holds promise as an option for
    addressing this problem. There is evidence that high quality coffee
    can be produced in the Dominican Republic, provided there is
    adequate financing and acceptable production system management.
    Investments in shade coffee could improve upland watershed
    management, create employment, and generate export earnings.

### 10.1.4 Water Resource Management

-   *Data Collection and Management---*Water resource data collection,
    from precipitation to stream flow to groundwater, has been by and
    large neglected in the Dominican Republic for the past 15 years,
    although a very good system was in place in the early 1980s.
    Reactivation of this the system, as a part of the institution
    building process within the secretariat, would help promote
    sustainable use of this vital resource.

-   *Water Quality Monitoring---*Initiating a water quality-monitoring
    network would be a valuable compliment to reactivation of a data
    collection and analysis system.

-   *Municipal Watershed and Aquifer Protection---*The land use planning
    exercise recommended above should also give priority to protection
    of municipal source watersheds and aquifers. Attention to these
    important "resource niches" could be part of a municipality-based
    (at least active participation of local government) sustainable
    resource management initiative.

-   *Bathometric Research---*It is generally recognized that siltation
    is diminishing the water storage capacity of the country's reservoir
    network. However, little quantifiable data exists on the degree of
    the problem. Accordingly, bathometric studies to determine the
    extent of storage capacity loss would be useful for planning
    decisions regarding water for a variety of purposes---irrigation,
    energy, human consumption.

### 10.1.5 Forestry

-   Silviculture and Forest Management Models---The little research
    being carried out on forest management focuses on imported, exotic
    species and indigenous pine. Numerous native hardwoods exist and
    significant reforestation could be accomplished if research, and
    proper incentives, were applied. Native hardwood specie research
    could also be applied to reforestation efforts on public lands and
    lands being taken out of sugar cane production.

### 10.1.6 Coastal and Marine Resources

-   *Eco-tourism---*Protection of endangered coastal ecosystems and
    species can be integrated into eco-tourism options for the rapidly
    growing hotel industry. The opportunities are numerous (whale
    watching of Samana, off-shore bird watching, nocturnal sea turtle
    observations). A policy regime emphasizing incentives, and
    eco-tourism education for hotel managers and tourists would be
    essential parts of programming in this area.

-   *Wastewater Management---*The rapid growth of the hotel industry has
    placed enormous pressure on the coastal ecological niches. Untreated
    hotel wastewater is presenting a critical threat to coastal area
    biodiversity. An aggressive program of wastewater treatment systems
    is needed to correct this critical problem.

### 10.1.7 Biodiversity Conservation

-   *Collaboration on Conservation---*Excellent opportunities exist for
    collaboration with international conservation organizations and
    universities interested in biodiversity conservation. Past Dominican
    administrations have been developing these institutional contacts.
    Given the threat of extinction to a variety of species found in the
    country, the moment is opportune for expanding on these
    institutional arrangements.

-   *Eco-tourism---*Growing worldwide interest in eco-tourism provides
    the Dominican Republic with opportunities to capitalize on its
    unique island biodiversity. To illustrate, the above-mentioned whale
    and sea turtle watching possibilities could be used as springboards
    from which to expand on eco-tourism themes, especially in the
    biologically rich and little visited (by tourists) southwest section
    of the country.

### 10.1.8 

### Protected Areas

-   *Financing**---***Adequate financing to administer protected areas
    is and has been an important issue. At present, money for protected
    area maintenance is derived from two sources---government transfers
    and park entrance fees. In the aggregate these revenues are not
    sufficient to improve and maintain the protected areas to standards
    that will protect biodiversity and that are internationally
    accepted. A financial self-sufficiency program should be launched
    immediately. Such a program should be based on the "diversification
    of revenue streams" (e.g., trust funds, debt for nature swaps,
    merchandizing, park entrance fees, international donor grants,
    partnerships with commercial operators) to assure achievement of
    adequate income levels.

-   *Protection, Physical Demarcation,* *and Patrol---*A large number of
    the protected areas have no physical demarcation of boundaries,
    signs designating borders, nor staff to educate and patrol and
    educate local communities and visitors about the biodiversity in the
    parks. An initiative to correct these shortcomings would contribute
    directly to conservation of natural resources. This type of program
    achieves best results when they are carried out on a collaborative
    basis with active participation of local stakeholders.

-   *Tourism Facilities---*Investing in interpretation centers, rest
    rooms, reception facilities, and the like would greatly improve park
    visitations, thereby generating revenues for park maintenance.

### 10.1.9 Urban Environment

-   *Managing Urban and Tourism Growth---*Having experienced
    extraordinary growth in urban population and in tourism and
    associated industries, the Dominican Government recognizes the need
    to bring order to the development process. This growth has
    exacerbated environmental problems allied with urbanization,
    including air, water and noise pollution. The need to treat these
    issues is reflected in the environmental policy principles
    identified earlier. The challenge is moving from the principles to
    concrete actions to address the problems.

-   *Solid Waste Management---*In an economy in which tourism plays a
    large and ever increasing role visible solid waste management
    deficiencies can have serious adverse effects. In the heavily
    visited eastern part of the country, unregulated trash lines miles
    of highway leading to international destination resorts, and
    punctuates beaches, markets and urban centers. In addition to the
    serious health hazard to Dominicans and tourists alike, posed by the
    unregulated trash, it is also part of a message the Dominican
    Republic sends back to tourism "origin" countries (the United
    States, Germany, Japan). To avoid creation of a negative image that
    might drive tourists to seek alternatives venues, a concentrated
    effort to manage this problem is clearly needed.

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Grupo Jaragua, WWF (World Wildlife Fund), and USAID (United States
Agency for International Development). 1995. *A Strategy for the
Conservation of Biodiversity in the Dominican Republic, 1994--2003.*
Santo Domingo: Grupo Jaragua.

Hartshorn, et al. 1981. *The Dominican Republic: Environmental Profile
of the Country---A Field Study.* USAID Contract No.
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INDRHI (National Institute for Hydraulic Resources). Various years.
Statistical Reports, 1980--2000. Agriculture Statistics Section. Santo
Domingo.

---------. 2000. Water Quality Databank.

---------. 1999a. Action Plans.

---------. 1999b. *Integrated Rural Development Yaque del Sur River
Basin Project.* Tomo II Nipon--Koei. Santo Domingo.

---------. 1999c. *Biophysical and Socioeconomic Diagnosis of the
Artibonito and Macasias Rivers*. Consultora Tecnología Ambiental, S.A.,
Santo Domingo.

---------. 1997. *Semi-Detailed Identification of the Soils of Moncion
Dam Influence Area. Agrology Division.* Santo Domingo.

---------. 1990. *National Inventory of Surface Water Resources.* Santo
Domingo.

INDRHI (National Institute for Hydraulic Resources) and AQUATER. 2000.
*National Hydrogeological Study.* Santo Domingo: INDRHI.

INDRHI (National Institute for Hydraulic Resources) and GTZ (German
Society for Technical Cooperation). 1993. *Atlas of Maximum Rainfall in
the Dominican Republic.* Santo Domingo: INDRHI.

INDRHI (National Institute for Hydraulic Resources) and OAS
(Organization of American States). 1994. *National Plan for Hydrological
Resource Mapping.* Santo Domingo: INDRHI.

INDRHI (National Institute for Hydraulic Resources) and PLANIACAS. 1983.
*National Plan for Research, Use, and Control of Ground Water.* Santo
Domingo: INDRHI

IPGH (Pan American Institute for Geography and History). 1991. *World
Resources.*

JACC (Dominican Agro-Enterprise Group). 1988. *Diagnosis of Forestry
Sector.* Santo Domingo.

JAFTA (Japanese Forestry Technical Association). *Master Plan for
Management of the High Basins of Sabana Yegua Dam*. Preliminary Report.
Santo Domingo.

M de G (Dominican Naval Institute). 1976. *Action Plan for Isla de Santo
Domingo and Lista de Faros.* Department of Hydrography. Santo Domingo: M
de G.

Mendez, Gerardo. 2000. *Analysis of Derivation and Use of Water of Mean
Dams in the Dominican Republic.* INDRHI (National Institute for
Hydraulic Resources).

Morrell, M. 1988. *Forestry Situation in the Dominican Republic.* Santo
Domingo: Fundación Progressio.

Mott-MacDonald. 1998. *Dominican Potable Water And Sanitation Sector
Reform Consolidation Project.* CAASD, CORAASAN, CORAAMOCA Visiting
Report. Inter-American Development Bank.

National Budget Office (ONP). 2000. *National Budget for Fiscal Year
2000.* Santo Domingo.

---------. 1999. *National Budget for Fiscal Year 1999.* Santo Domingo.

Nuñez, R., et al. 1992. *Inventory of Natural Resource Policies in the
Dominican Republic.* Technical Report No. 128. USAID, Santo Domingo, Dos
Tomos.

OAS (Organization of American States). 1967. *Evaluation of Natural
Resources in the Dominican Republic---Study for Their Development and
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Oehlschiflaeger, C. 2000. *Dry Forest National Management Project: The
Actual Situation and Suggestions for the Future.* Azua, Dominican
Republic: Southern Region Forestry Production Federation, INDESUR, and
GTZ (German Society for Technical Cooperation).

ONAPLAN (National Planning Office). 1992. *United Nations World
Conference on Environment and Development (Brazil 1992) National
Report.* Santo Domingo.

OPS (Pan-American Health Organization) and WHO (World Health
Organization). 2000. "Biodiversity." *HEALTH Bulletin* 11(June/July).

---------. 1998. *Potable Water and Sanitation Sectoral Analysis.* Santo
Domingo.

PLANIMEX. *Bajabonico River Valley.* Inter-American Development Bank
(IADB), Agreement IADB: 496/SF-DR.

Plan Sierra. 1993. *General Module, Forestry Training Modules.* San José
de Las Matas, Santiago.

---------. 1991. *La Celestina: Forest Management and Rural Development
Integrated Project.* Swedish Agency for International Technical and
Economical Cooperation Agency (BITS) and Swedforest Consulting AB.

Presidency of the Dominican Republic. 2000. *Green Quisqueya National
Plan: Working for the Community and the Natural Resources, 1997--2000.*
Santo Domingo.

Richardson, F., and M. Nicolás. Forthcoming. *Aquaculture in the
Dominican Republic: Past, Present, and Future*.

Rodriguez M., Hector. 2000. *A New Vision for the Management of the
Hydraulics Resources of Dominican Republic.*

---------. 1997a. "Contamination of Underground Water in the Dominican
Republic." *Bulletin Codiano* (73).

---------. 1997b. "Water and Environment, The Ecological Industry:
Challenge For The XXI Century." *Bulletin Codiano*.

---------. 1996a. "The Role of Underground Water in the Santo City Water
Supply. Water: The Life (Seminar)." *Bulletin Codiano.*

---------. 1996b. "Some things You Should Know about the Water."
*Bulletin Codiano.*

---------. 1996c. "The Management of Underground Water (Parts A and B)."
*Bulletin Codiano.*

---------. 1995a. "Population Increases and Water Decreases." *Bulletin
Codiano.*

---------. 1995b. "Water: The Life (Seminar)." *Bulletin Codiano.*

---------. 1993. "Some Regards about the Past, Present, and Future of
Underground Water in the Dominican Republic." *Bulletin Codiano* (73).

Rodriguez M., Hector, and Martin Veras F. 1996. "The Challenges of
Potable Water Sector Facing the XXI Century." First Congress of
Dominican Sanitarian Engineering Association (ADIS).

Rodríguez, R. 1991. "Evolution and Actual Status of the Dominican
Forestry Sector." Santo Domingo.

Russo, I., R. Rodríguez, and G. Basilis. 1982. *Toward a Policy for
Forestry Development and Conservation.* Forest General Directorate
(DGF), Santo Domingo.

SEA (Secretariat of State of Agriculture).1988c. *Operational Plan,
Sub-Secretariat of Planning, Secretariat of State of Agriculture (SEA).*
Santo Domingo.

---------. 1984c. *Study of Soils of San Juan de la Maguana Valley,
Classification and Aptitude for Use and Management.* Santo Domingo.

---------. 1981. *Semi-Detailed Study of the Azua Flat.* Santo Domingo.

---------. 1980. *Operational Plan.* Santo Domingo.

SEA (Secretariat of State of Agriculture) and AGROHORTI.1988a.
*Integrated Study of the Natural Resources in the Grande/Del Medio River
Basin.* Santo Domingo.

---------.1988b. *Integrated Studies of the Natural Resources of the
Nizao River Basin.* Santo Domingo.

SEA (Secretariat of State of Agriculture), German Service for Social and
Technical Cooperation, and HELVETAS. 2000. *Strategies for the
Sustainable Management of Natural Resources in Southeastern Dominican
Republic*. Santo Domingo.

---------. 1990. *Biological Diversity in the Dominican Republic.* Santo
Domingo.

SEA (Secretariat of State of Agriculture) and PACM. 1999. *Action Plan
and Environmental Management for Santo Domingo City Shore.*

SEMARN (Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources). Forthcoming.
*Forest Plantations with Planting Certificates and Rights for Cutting in
the 1999--2000 Period.* Santo Domingo.

---------.2000. *Annual Memoir.* Santo Domingo.

Silva, M., and R. Colón. 1996. *Guide for Fisheries Statistics in the
Dominican Republic.* Center for the Eco-Development of Samana Bay and
its Surroundings, Inc. (CEBSE), and Fishery Project for the Dominican
Southwestern (PROPESCAR--SUR). Santo Domingo.

Silva, M., and C. Aquino. 1995. *Diagnosis of the Fishery Situation in
the Samana Bay.* Center for the Eco-Development of Samana Bay and its
Surroundings (CEBSE). Samana, Dominican Republic.

Solórzano, Raúl. 2000. *Identification of Technical Cooperation Needs
for the Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources.* Consultancy
Report. Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARN) and
German Society for Technical Cooperation (GTZ). Santo Domingo.

Tolentino, L., and M. Peña. 1998. *Inventory of Vegetation and Land Use
in the Dominican Republic.* Department of Natural Resources Inventories,
Sub-Secretariat of Natural Resources, and Secretariat of State of
Agriculture (SEA). Moscosoa.

Torres, H. 1994. *Evaluation of Conservation Potential of the National
Parks of the Dominican Republic.* Consultancy Report prepared at the
request of The Nature Conservancy. Santo Domingo.

UNDP (UN Development Program). 2000. *Human Development of the Dominican
Republic, 2000*.

UNEP (UN Environmental Program) and TNC (The Nature Conservancy). 2000.
*Training Manual for the Management of Protected Marine Areas, Module
4.*

USAID (US Agency for International Development). 1992. *Intensive
Research of the Rural and Urban Activities and Their Impact on the Water
and Coastal Resources.* PDC--5517--I--00--0105--00. Order No. 9., 113
Pages.

USGS (US Geological Survey). 2000. *Survey Report, Caribbean District.*
San Juan, Puerto Rico.

Valdés, G., and J. Mateo. *System for Protected Areas of the Dominican
Republic.* National Park Administration, under the auspices of the
Pro-Nature Fund. Santo Domingo.

WHO (World Health Organization) and UNICEF (United Nations Children's
Fund). 2000. *Global Evaluation of Potable Water and Sanitation 2000:
Analytical Report for Dominican Republic.*

**Environmental Regulations in the Dominican Republic**

*Year Law Subject*

1931 85 Regulations on hunting

1951 3003 Creating polices for harbor and coasts

1956 4471 Code of health

1958 490 Vegetal health

1962 5582 Control of fresh and grown waters and distribution of public
waters

1962 5914 Regulations for fishery

1965 55 Creating the national system for social, economic and
administrative planning

1965 6 Creating the National Institute for Hydraulics Resources (INDRHI)

1965 8 Determining the responsibilities of Secretariat of State of
Agriculture (SEA)

1966 257 Creating the National Office for Civil Defense

1968 305 Modifying Law 1474 about maritime and fresh water areas

1968 311 Regulations for the presentation, management, and use of
pesticides

1969 487 Control and exploitation of grown waters

1971 123 Prohibiting the extraction of non-metallic minerals

1971 146 Updating the mining regulations

1974 67 Creating the Directorate of National Parks (DNP)

1977 602 Norms and quality systems.

1984 218 Prohibiting imports of any kind of wastes

1987 112 Creating the obligation of Forest Services for individuals

1991 14 Creating the civil service and the administrative career

1998 300 Creating "Environment and Natural Resources" as obligatory
subject in the national education system

2000 64 Creating the a new and general framework for the management of
environment and natural resources and the Secretariat of Environment and
Natural Resources (SEMARN).

**People and Institutions Consulted**

Dr. Ana Mercedes Henríquez, INTEC-Ecologic

Julio Cícero, Loyola Polytechnical Institute

Luis Carvajal, UASD/Academy of Science

Dominican Zoological Gardens

Simón Guerrero, Sub-Director ZOODOM