## *Chapter 11*

## *Livestock Production*

### Brief Description of the Sector {#brief-description-of-the-sector .unnumbered}

The use of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry, and other livestock
offers many benefits to millions of farmers in the developing world.
These animals are integral to rural livelihoods and culture, providing
food (meat, blood, eggs and dairy products), materials (wool, hide,
horns, etc.), income, and mechanical power for pulling carts or plowing
fields. Asia has been identified as the developing region in which the
demand for livestock products is expected to rise most rapidly.
Livestock manure can serve as a source of fertilizer. Grazing can help
sustain vegetation and promote biodiversity by dispersing seeds,
controlling shrub growth, breaking soil crusts, stimulating grass growth
and improving seed germination. Livestock also may represent savings and
currency, and have cultural value as well. For example, gifts of
livestock may serve to resolve conflicts or cement marriages.

Livestock production can be categorized under three main systems:
grazing, mixed farming and industrial.

-   **Grazing** systems generally rely on native grassland or forests
    for fodder, with little or no use of crops or imported inputs, and
    are traditionally managed by pastoralist communities.

-   **Mixed farming** systems integrate livestock and crop production.
    Adding livestock to their farms helps farmers diversify risk and
    extract value from otherwise valueless or low-value by-products of
    each activity: crop residue becomes feed, manure becomes fertilizer.
    Soil nutrients can be further replenished by rotating leguminous
    (nitrogen-fixing) fodder crops with food crops. These systems are
    managed by settled farmers.

-   **Industrial production** systems concentrate livestock populations
    in special facilities and separate their feeding and waste
    processing from the land on which they live. Feed is provided
    directly instead of being acquired through grazing, and manure is
    transported off-site. Generally, these systems are owned by
    relatively wealthy individuals and managed by local employees.

Grazing systems are most favored in arid, semi-arid, or other areas of
marginal value for crop-based agricultural production, while mixed
farming systems flourish in temperate, subhumid, humid, and some
highland climates. Industrial production, because it does not depend on
local fodder supplies, can be conducted in any climate and generally
occurs near the urban centers it supplies, sometimes even in peri-urban
areas.

Livestock production is increasing throughout the developing
world[,]{.mark} Although more slowly in sub-Saharan Africa than in most
other regions. This increase is driven by growing population, increasing
urbanization and rising incomes. This situation is expected to continue
throughout the next decade. A shift towards industrial
production---farming of monogastric species (pigs, poultry) fed with
grain---may be an unavoidable trend in areas with rapidly growing demand
for animal food products.
![](media/image1.jpeg){width="3.0236111111111112in"
height="2.1569444444444446in"}

Properly managed, livestock production can enhance land and water
quality, biodiversity, and social and economic well-being. However, when
improperly managed, livestock production may cause significant economic,
social and environmental damage. Increasing livestock production has the
potential to increase environmental harm. This guideline is intended to
help identify potential adverse environmental impacts and to suggest
mitigation and monitoring options, as well as "best management
practices" to address them.

### Potential Environmental Impacts in the Livestock Sector and Their Causes {#potential-environmental-impacts-in-the-livestock-sector-and-their-causes .unnumbered}

#### Large areas of land degraded {#large-areas-of-land-degraded .unnumbered}

##### Overgrazing  {#overgrazing .unnumbered}

Overgrazing of rangeland reduces the density of vegetation and the
amount of organic matter generated. This, in turn, increases soil
erosion from wind and water and decreases soil fertility through loss of
nutrients. In arid and semi-arid areas these impacts may also contribute
to desertification. Fortunately, ecosystems in these areas demonstrate
considerable resilience and often recover when grazing pressure is
reduced, either through traditional methods or through modern management
practices.

##### Policy and Legal Problems {#policy-and-legal-problems .unnumbered}

In areas that traditionally rely on grazing, the health of rangeland is
generally best maintained by traditional pastoralist practices, which
regulate grazing location and herd size in accordance with drought
cycles and the supply of fodder. In fact, government policies or donor
interventions that disrupt or discourage these practices may be a root
cause of degradation. A variety of government policies may restrict the
movement of livestock within a range area and prevent livestock managers
from moving stock from areas that have been depleted of fodder to better
supplied areas.

Two particular policy-based problems are:

-   *Land tenure insecurity.* Lack of confidence in secure title to
    rangeland (especially on communal lands) has been shown to reduce
    the incentive to manage the land sustainably. Many national
    governments have either implicitly or explicitly claimed ownership
    of range and wildlands and ignored traditional or customary claims.

-   *Privatization of communal resources.* Where national governments
    have privatized, or are privatizing, formerly state-owned or
    communal lands, new owners may erect fencing or prevent herds from
    crossing or grazing on their property.

##### Wells and boreholes {#wells-and-boreholes .unnumbered}

Traditionally, access to water on critical grazing lands has been
controlled to limit livestock populations and prevent herds from
outgrowing the forage supply in dry areas. Thus, new wells or boreholes,
generally sponsored by donors or governments, may undermine traditional
livestock management systems practices by allowing herds to grow beyond
sustainable levels for surrounding areas. Overgrazing and degradation
are most noticeable in the immediate vicinity of the boreholes or wells,
but their effects can extend (in gradually decreasing severity) over a
considerable radius. Boreholes also reduce pressure on livestock owners
to decrease herd size during drought and may discourage movement of
herds to other rangelands, disrupting historic wet season/dry season
grazing patterns. Larger herd sizes and reductions in pastoral movement
may prove to be a recipe for severe degradation of soil and vegetation.

##### Wet-Season Grazing {#wet-season-grazing .unnumbered}

Poor timing in the use of rangeland can also damage the soil. Wet-season
grazing can compact the moist earth, reducing its ability to absorb
moisture This increases erosion from water runoff.

##### Poor Balance of Livestock Species  {#poor-balance-of-livestock-species .unnumbered}

Each species or breed of livestock has foraging preferences and will
graze favored areas and plants while neglecting others. Browsing
animals, such as goats and camels, prefer the leafy tops of shrubs. By
contrast, grazers tend to consume ground-level grasses and leafy plants.
A poor balance between browsers and grazers can change the mix of plants
in ways that degrade the area. For example, too many grazers can
diminish the number and populations of herbaceous plant species and
allow woody plants to become dominant, changing, possibly irreversibly,
the character and utility of the ecosystem.

#### Damaged habitat and reduced biodiversity  {#damaged-habitat-and-reduced-biodiversity .unnumbered}

Livestock production can damage habitats and reduce biodiversity in
wildlife and domestic stock, in vegetation, and in aquatic and wetland
ecosystems.

##### Harm to wildlife and domestic stock and loss of wildlife habitat.  {#harm-to-wildlife-and-domestic-stock-and-loss-of-wildlife-habitat. .unnumbered}

The loss of habitat caused by livestock production in grazing and mixed
farming systems may be one of the greatest threats to wildlife. Human
population growth and density, and the accompanying increase in
livestock, often leads producers to expand livestock grazing ranges into
wild lands and the conversion of wild lands to mixed farming use.

##### Slaughter of wildlife by livestock managers.  {#slaughter-of-wildlife-by-livestock-managers. .unnumbered}

Another danger to wildlife is intentional slaughter by livestock
managers. Fear that the wildlife will prey on livestock and damage crops
is a common motivation, as is the belief that the wildlife are competing
with livestock for fodder, the desire to prevent spread of disease to
livestock, and concern for human safety.

##### Extinction of local livestock breeds.  {#extinction-of-local-livestock-breeds. .unnumbered}

Systematic livestock production may result in loss of genetic diversity
in livestock species. This is unfortunate because genetic diversity is a
measure of a species' robustness. Local breeds may have traits
conferring resistance to emergent or future pathogens, or have other
favorable adaptations to local environments. The consistent replacement
of local breeds with more productive imported ones can contribute to the
extinction of that breed and of all the genetic diversity harbored
within its population.
![](media/image2.jpeg){width="3.3944444444444444in"
height="2.558333333333333in"}

#### Harm to Vegetation {#harm-to-vegetation .unnumbered}

##### Clearing of forest and wild lands.  {#clearing-of-forest-and-wild-lands. .unnumbered}

(See "Widely degraded land areas" above.) Vegetation is typically
altered or destroyed when forests/wild lands are cleared or are burned
to promote new growth. This changes local ecosystems and may contribute
to global warming. Fires to burn vegetation are dangerous and degrade
air quality.

##### Loss of rangeland fertility.  {#loss-of-rangeland-fertility. .unnumbered}

Ironically, mixed farming systems may reduce the fertility of rangeland
while helping to solve a farmland problem. Traditional farming practices
cause a net loss of nutrients in farm soils; that is, when crops are
harvested and sold (or even when human waste is deposited in a latrine)
nutrients that make the soil fertile may be lost. Mixed farming reduces
the extent of this loss, by transferring nutrients from the range to the
farm in the form of manure. The gain in fertility for the farm is, of
course, a net loss for rangeland. Over time, the altered nutrient
balance can reduce the productive capacity of the range and/or lead to
changes in the composition and density of plant species.

##### Loss of farm fertility.  {#loss-of-farm-fertility. .unnumbered}

Damage from mixed farming often occurs when poverty and population
growth pressure change the crop/grazing land ratio, where other nutrient
sources are not available. As the land area available for each grazing
animal shrinks, overgrazing becomes prevalent leading to soil erosion
and nutrient loss. Harvesting livestock further reduces nutrients
available for crop production.

##### Damage to riparian soil and vegetation*.* {#damage-to-riparian-soil-and-vegetation. .unnumbered}

Livestock in grazing and mixed farming systems often graze very heavily
in riparian areas along streams and lakes. Results include trampling,
loss of vegetation, soil disturbance, and soil compaction, erosion
and/or sedimentation which can severely damage riparian habitats,
increase siltation and adversely affect watersheds.

Pesticide contamination from treatments to protect livestock from
insect-borne infections (e.g., livestock "dipping") may ultimately reach
the aquatic environment. Here it can be toxic to aquatic organisms, as
well as people or animals who depend on these sources for drinking
water.

##### Introduction of invasive plants.  {#introduction-of-invasive-plants. .unnumbered}

New breeds or fodder crops can introduce invasive non-native plants into
a region. The manure, coats and hooves of newly introduced breeds can
carry plant seeds. Most non-native plants are not invasive, but when
they are, the results can be devastating.

##### Contamination from manure*.*  {#contamination-from-manure. .unnumbered}

Livestock manure contains relatively high concentrations of nutrients,
solids, enteric bacteria and other microorganisms, and organic material.
The manure from industrial livestock operations is often discharged or
"leaked" into lakes or streams, because it cannot be economically
transported to replenish crop fields. When this occurs, the nutrients
can cause eutrophication (rapid plant growth in water bodies), solids
can create sedimentation, and organic material leads to oxygen depletion
(BOD) of the water. Manure from mixed farming, if applied in a
concentrated fashion, can lead to similar problems.

##### Degrade water quality and reduce water supplies.  {#degrade-water-quality-and-reduce-water-supplies. .unnumbered}

Where water is scarce, either chronically or seasonally, the diversion
of water to sustain livestock potentially limits its availability for
other purposes. This is of particular concern in arid and semi-arid
regions, where the construction of boreholes to supply livestock can
lead to unsustainable withdrawal rates and the dangerous depletion of
aquifer reserves.

As noted above, stockpiled manure can contaminate bodies of water,
causing myriad adverse effects. These include eutrophication, oxygen
depletion, sedimentation, contamination with enteric bacteria and
possibly other pathogenic organisms, toxic pollution from pesticides,
and contamination of groundwater and aquifers with both nitrates and
pesticides. Moreover, high concentrations of nitrate in potable water
supplies represent a potential health hazard, especially for children.

##### Harm to human health.  {#harm-to-human-health. .unnumbered}

Using water for farm animals may make it less available for the many
uses that influence health, such as bathing, washing, cooking, and
drinking. Moreover, as mentioned above, excessive contamination by
enteric microorganisms, toxic pesticides or nitrates in may render water
unfit for human consumption and may be especially dangerous to children.
Pesticides or other vector control treatments used on livestock
represent threats to the health of livestock managers, their families,
and others exposed directly or through water use. These substances may
be toxic, cause birth defects, alter children's proper development,
promote cancer, or slowly poison one or more organ systems.

##### Climate change/global warming.  {#climate-changeglobal-warming. .unnumbered}

Approximately 17% of global methane is produced by livestock digestion
and manure. Methane is a greenhouse gas that has 56 times more global
warming potential than carbon dioxide over a 20-year time horizon.
Furthermore, clearing wild or forest land for new fields reduces the
land's ability to act as a carbon sink. As noted above, setting fire to
vegetation to clear land or promote new growth for livestock to graze on
may also contribute to global warming.

**Odor***.*

Concentrated manure stored at industrial livestock facilities can
generate strong and unpleasant odors, damaging the quality of life of
nearby residents. This problem is most evident when facilities are
located in densely populated areas.

### Sector Program Design---Some Specific Guidance {#sector-program-designsome-specific-guidance .unnumbered}

The following questions and suggestions are intended to help project
designers and managers identify factors and practices that may
cause---or prevent---adverse environmental impacts. Bear in mind that
the first priority of most livestock managers and farmers is household
food security and family welfare. Sustainable practices must always be
balanced against these immediate demands.

#### Consider climate, terrain, and ecosystem {#consider-climate-terrain-and-ecosystem .unnumbered}

Since environmental impacts from livestock production vary, depending on
the specific climates, terrains and ecosystems involved, project
designers need to address these characteristics during the initial
design phase:

-   What is the climate in the project area (arid, semi-arid, temperate,
    subhumid, humid)? What do historical records of rainfall patterns
    and flooding indicate? Is the proposed livestock management practice
    compatible with this climate?

-   What terrains are found in the project area(s) (alluvial plain,
    highland, rocky desert, wetland, etc.)? Do they have any known
    vulnerabilities to livestock grazing? For example, are there many
    unprotected streams or rivers? Are there slopes with limited topsoil
    sensitive to
    erosion?![](media/image3.jpeg){width="3.7784722222222222in"
    height="2.4652777777777777in"}

-   Will the project encompass or border on protected or ecologically
    sensitive areas? Are there any threatened or endangered species in
    the area? Would the proposed project directly or indirectly threaten
    wildlife or native vegetation? For example, does the project require
    expansion of grazing into protected areas or make livestock more
    vulnerable to wildlife predators, triggering reprisals by farmers?

#### Evaluate policy, legal, customary and cultural context  {#evaluate-policy-legal-customary-and-cultural-context .unnumbered}

The policy, legal, and cultural contexts of a project merit attention,
since, as illustrated above, these factors may limit program options or
erect substantial barriers to success.

##### Policy/legal {#policylegal .unnumbered}

-   Do livestock owners and managers have legal and recognized ownership
    and responsibility for land and grazing resources? What are the
    current or proposed national land tenure policies, and how are they
    implemented at the local level? Are they effective in encouraging
    sustainable management of grazing land and resources?

-   What is the tenure status of current or proposed rangeland---Is it
    owned by individuals or the community? Does the government have
    claims?

-   What wildlife protection laws exist and how are they implemented in
    the region?

##### Culture/custom {#culturecustom .unnumbered}

-   What role does livestock play in local culture and customs, and how
    might the proposed project affect these practices? Would the
    proposed project disrupt traditional grazing patterns?

-   If there are customary land tenure arrangements, what are they and
    how would the proposed livestock management system work within these
    arrangements? For example, will livestock herders---who often come
    into conflict with farmers, particularly during droughts---have a
    means of working out disputes with farmers?

-   If livestock management arrangements are communal, how would these
    be affected by and/or affect the proposed development activities?

#### Assess current and proposed species and breeds  {#assess-current-and-proposed-species-and-breeds .unnumbered}

Introduction of a new breed into an area should be approached with
caution. The new breed may bring with it diseases that can decimate
local livestock herds and wildlife. In addition, the foraging habits of
a new breed may lead to a sharp decline in available forage and
biodiversity. A new breed's reproductive habits can lead to a herd's
uncontrolled growth. Weeds can be accidentally introduced along with a
new animal species, and they may displace desirable vegetation.

The long term full costs and benefits of introducing a given new
livestock species into a particular environment should be assessed. For
example, large animals roam over extensive areas in search of food,
often require a greater financial investment, can be more difficult to
control, and have lower reproductive potential than small animals. It is
important not to underestimate the value of breeds that are well adapted
to the environment.

Livestock tend to overgraze favored areas and plants while neglecting
others. Native plants may not be able to survive heavy grazing. While
unforaged plants tend to lose vigor and nutritional value as they
mature. The introduction of new plant species (whether accidentally or
intentionally) may quickly result in replacement of native plants. Even
when grazing pressure is reduced, exotic plant species sometimes retain
their dominance.

Ask the following questions when introduction of a new breed or species
is proposed:

##### About current species and breeds {#about-current-species-and-breeds .unnumbered}

-   Which wild and domestic species are already present in the area, and
    in what numbers?

-   How have they been used in local farming systems and traditions?

-   What are the feeding preferences of local livestock and wildlife?
    What is the balance between browsers and grazers? Do domestic
    species compete for resources with one another and with wildlife?

-   Have population sizes of wild or domestic species changed recently?

-   Could local breeds satisfy the project's needs?

##### About proposed species and breeds {#about-proposed-species-and-breeds .unnumbered}

-   If new species or breeds are being considered, how will their
    production complement or conflict with local species or breeds,
    wildlife, and other local resource users?

-   How would they fit in local herding systems?

-   Are they well suited to the local climate and environment?

-   Are they resistant to local livestock diseases?

-   Have alternative species or breeds been considered for possible
    introduction?

#### Evaluate current and proposed livestock management practices {#evaluate-current-and-proposed-livestock-management-practices .unnumbered}

To maximize forage productivity, it is best to combine or alternate
various livestock breeds on a range. Their differing food preferences
can help to keep plants productive by minimizing overgrazing of a
particular favored area and allowing less preferred plant species time
to mature. It is prudent to make superior forage available to those
animals with the highest needs. When forage is limited, livestock
managers may decide that young and milk-producing animals must have
first access to new pastures and ranges with a wide variety of abundant
forage.

Managers should investigate the value of various systems of rotating
livestock. Rotation allows land to be grazed continuously throughout the
year. Livestock can be rotated between fields or ranges to prevent the
buildup of disease and to vary grazing pressures. Through either fencing
or herding, they can be relocated into croplands to consume crop
residues.

Assessment of seasonal grazing patterns should include potential impact
on soils. Dry-season grazing can benefit the land by breaking up crusted
soil and working seeds into the ground. By contrast, as mentioned above,
grazing on moist soil can cause considerable soil compaction, which
reduces the soils ability to absorb moisture and can result in increased
erosion from runoff during the rainy season.

Many of the environmental impacts from livestock production are
associated with particular practices of livestock managers. Thus it is
critical to understand current practices and how the proposed project
might alter these practices or promote new ones.

-   Who are the local community's livestock managers?

-   What practices do a family or community use to control the size and
    composition of livestock herds?

-   How do livestock managers currently control livestock movement? Will
    the proposed project change these movements in a way that might harm
    the environment?

-   Does the proposed project require the construction of fences? If so,
    will they interfere with wildlife migration or transit of livestock
    belonging to other communities? Could the fences lead to overgrazing
    and land degradation? Will the fences be built with local materials?
    Would living fencing be practical? Would solar-powered electric
    fencing be technically and economically feasible?

-   Are streams and riverbanks currently protected from livestock
    damage? If the proposed project will open new areas to grazing, will
    water supplies need to be protected?

-   Must steps be taken to prevent new livestock and associated animals
    (e.g., dogs) from transmitting disease to wildlife? Is there a
    vaccination/animal disease control program available for this
    purpose?

-   Will the project involve construction of improvements (e.g.,
    boreholes or other infrastructure)? Could these lead to unplanned
    changes in herding patterns and overgrazing?

#### Assess demand and use of livestock products  {#assess-demand-and-use-of-livestock-products .unnumbered}

-   Who is marketing livestock and livestock products?

-   Is the demand for livestock products coming from local or outside
    populations? How rapidly is it increasing or decreasing? How stable
    is the demand?

-   In preparing livestock products, are people using technologies which
    reduce impacts on the environment, open additional markets, or
    improve health and nutrition (of people and animals.)

####  {#section .unnumbered}

#### Assess livestock ectoparasite management {#assess-livestock-ectoparasite-management .unnumbered}

Epidemic and endemic diseases continue to be a major constraint to
livestock productivity in large parts of the developing world. Although
vaccines have controlled many of the epidemic diseases, they continue to
cause severe economic losses through morbidity and mortality. These
diseases include the infections caused by vector-borne haemoparasites
and helminths. Existing technologies, such as chemotherapeutic agents
and live vaccines that were previously successful in controlling these
diseases, are no longer effective---because of acquired resistance or
weakened delivery services. Appropriately designed alternatives are
often lacking.

Consider population pressure and disease burden

Two factors that may affect the outcome and impact of projects
population growth and fatal or debilitating epidemic diseases.
Population growth may lead to conflicting uses of grazing lands or
reduce individual farms or rangeland to sizes that cannot sustain
livestock. Fatal or debilitating epidemic diseases may weaken effective
dissemination or replication of proper livestock management techniques.

-   What is the current and projected population growth rate in the
    project area? How might this affect project sustainability in the
    future?

-   What is the current extent of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the region?
    How might this affect the composition of the population (size,
    ethnic makeup, age/gender distribution) and family structures
    necessary for project sustainability? How will development and
    livestock technical support services be affected?

-   Are there other epidemic diseases in the region, such as sleeping
    sickness, that might adversely affect project implementation?

### Mitigation and Monitoring Issues {#mitigation-and-monitoring-issues .unnumbered}

Environmental Mitigation and Monitoring Issues for Livestock Projects

+----------------+------------+----------------------------------------+
| Activity       | Impact     | Mitigation                             |
|                |            |                                        |
|                | *The       |                                        |
|                | activity   |                                        |
|                | may. . .*  |                                        |
+================+============+========================================+
| **Introduction | Degrade    | To prevent overgrazing and soil        |
| of a new       | large      | compaction, ensure that pastoralists   |
| grazing        | areas by:\ | and livestock managers/farmers have    |
| livestock      | -          | secure tenure rights. Monitor          |
| production or  | ov         | implementation of tenure policy.       |
| of mixed       | ergrazing\ |                                        |
| farming**      | -          | Develop decision-makers' awareness of  |
|                | imbalanced | the long-term economic importance of   |
|                | foraging - | maintaining balanced ecosystems and    |
|                | dominance  | resilience, including maintenance of   |
|                | by low-    | biodiversity and wildlife. Provide     |
|                | utility    | similar knowledge to pastoralists and  |
|                | plant      | livestock managers/farmers.            |
|                | species\   |                                        |
|                | - soil     | For grazing systems, guarantee         |
|                | c          | managers and pastoralists sufficient   |
|                | ompaction\ | mobility and flexibility to manage     |
|                | - soil     | grazing areas sustainably, use water   |
|                | erosion    | and biomass efficiently, destock       |
|                |            | rapidly in times of drought and        |
|                | Damage     | restock when rains return.             |
|                | habitat    |                                        |
|                | and reduce | For mixed farming systems, determine   |
|                | bi         | farmer/livestock manager's ability to  |
|                | odiversity | match livestock requirements to        |
|                | by:\       | available rangeland and fodder crops   |
|                | -          | for long-term sustainability.          |
|                | ov         | Strengthen capabilities through        |
|                | ergrazing\ | education and incentives where needed. |
|                | -          |                                        |
|                | imbalanced | To avoid killing of wildlife that is   |
|                | foraging\  | thought to be infecting or preying on  |
|                | -          | livestock, provide livestock managers  |
|                | c          | with financial incentives to maintain  |
|                | ompetition | ecosystem balance. Explore possible    |
|                | with       | community-based natural resource       |
|                | wildlife   | management (CBNRM) approaches. (See    |
|                | for fodder | "Community-based Natural Resource      |
|                | or water\  | Management" in this volume for more    |
|                | -          | information), or other successful      |
|                | increased  | integrated wildlife and livestock      |
|                | killing of | management methods, such as combined   |
|                | wildlife   | wildlife and livestock ranching.       |
|                | to         |                                        |
|                | "protect   | To maintain rangeland and mixed        |
|                | herds"\    | farming system sustainability, ensure  |
|                | -spreading | a balanced mix of foraging and grazing |
|                | disease to | species, including wildlife where      |
|                | wildlife   | appropriate. Determine fodder          |
|                |            | preferences of domestic and wildlife   |
|                |            | species.                               |
|                |            |                                        |
|                |            | To ensure balanced use of fodder and   |
|                |            | water, determine baseline carrying     |
|                |            | capacity for livestock and wildlife    |
|                |            | (where appropriate). Establish quota   |
|                |            | systems for domestic species and       |
|                |            | wildlife to ensure that carrying       |
|                |            | capacity is not exceeded. Change       |
|                |            | domestic species and breeds to         |
|                |            | minimize overlap between their         |
|                |            | preferred fodder and that of local     |
|                |            | wildlife, and/or ensure a sufficient   |
|                |            | supply of fodder for domestic species  |
|                |            | and wildlife. Monitor management of    |
|                |            | the quota system.                      |
|                |            |                                        |
|                |            | Establish historical baselines for     |
|                |            | climate and precipitation, taking into |
|                |            | account seasonal and geographic        |
|                |            | variations. Establish historical       |
|                |            | baselines for soils, water quality and |
|                |            | quantity, flora and fauna, and select  |
|                |            | indicators to measure deviation from   |
|                |            | baseline. Monitor indicators to gauge  |
|                |            | whether long-term resilience of range  |
|                |            | and mixed farming systems is being     |
|                |            | maintained. Train herders,             |
|                |            | pastoralists and farmers as resource   |
|                |            | monitors.                              |
+----------------+------------+----------------------------------------+

+--------------+------------+-----------------------------------------+
| Activity     | Impact     | Mitigation                              |
|              |            |                                         |
|              | *The       |                                         |
|              | activity   |                                         |
|              | may. . .*  |                                         |
+==============+============+=========================================+
| > In         | Generate   | Assure pastoralists' access to seasonal |
| > highland   | conflict   | grazing and water.                      |
| > areas      | between    |                                         |
|              | livestock  | Strengthen systems for wildlife         |
| Near rivers  | managers   | management and for control of problem   |
| and streams  | and other  | animals to minimize adverse             |
|              | groups,    | interactions with pastoral and mixed    |
|              | such as    | farming systems (such as disease        |
|              | farmers    | transmission, predation and crop        |
|              |            | damage).                                |
|              | Cause      |                                         |
|              | erosion    | To prevent the spread of disease from   |
|              |            | livestock to wildlife, carefully        |
|              | Damage     | research any new breeds and associated  |
|              | riparian   | diseases.                               |
|              | habitat    |                                         |
|              |            | To prevent conflict between livestock   |
|              | Degrade    | managers, farmers, pastoralists and     |
|              | water      | other groups, ensure that the customary |
|              | quality    | or legal rights and responsibilities of |
|              |            | all parties are harmonized and          |
|              | Damage     | accepted. Agreements should cover how   |
|              | aquatic    | each resource will be used, who will    |
|              | and        | use it, when it is to be used,          |
|              | wetland    | utilization rates and quotas,           |
|              | habitat    | management costs, and monitoring        |
|              | and        | responsibilities. If such rights and    |
|              | bi         | responsibilities are not yet            |
|              | odiversity | established, work with policymakers to  |
|              |            | create a respected legal framework.     |
|              |            |                                         |
|              |            | To minimize erosion caused by livestock |
|              |            | raised in highland areas, avoid         |
|              |            | overgrazing through the use of quota    |
|              |            | systems matched to carrying capacity.   |
|              |            | Ensure that terracing and paths are     |
|              |            | well constructed, and reduce soil       |
|              |            | compaction by providing incentives to   |
|              |            | avoid wet season grazing.               |
|              |            |                                         |
|              |            | To prevent erosion, sedimentation,      |
|              |            | degradation of water quality, and       |
|              |            | damage to aquatic habitats and          |
|              |            | biodiversity, protect stream and        |
|              |            | riverbanks from browsing or grazing     |
|              |            | through fencing or herding techniques.  |
+--------------+------------+-----------------------------------------+
| **           | Improper   | Preferably, apply manure to crop        |
| Introduction | management | fields. If the expense of transport     |
| of           | and/or     | makes this uneconomical, treat the      |
| industrial   | treatment  | manure. Options for treating animal     |
| livestock    | of manure  | manure are like those for treating      |
| production** | from       | human waste. These include construction |
|              | industrial | of artificial wetlands, detention       |
|              | facilities | ponds, composting, and biogas           |
|              | may        | generation. Site these treatment        |
|              | -degrade   | systems with care to minimize adverse   |
|              | water      | impacts on water bodies and             |
|              | quality    | communities. (See section on "Water     |
|              | -damage    | Supply and Sanitation" in this volume   |
|              | aquatic    | for more information.)                  |
|              | and        |                                         |
|              | wetland    |                                         |
|              | habitat    |                                         |
|              | and        |                                         |
|              | bi         |                                         |
|              | odiversity |                                         |
|              | -harm      |                                         |
|              | human      |                                         |
|              | health     |                                         |
|              | -create    |                                         |
|              | odor       |                                         |
+--------------+------------+-----------------------------------------+
| **           | Degrade    | Thoroughly research new species of      |
| Introduction | land       | livestock. Determine their              |
| of new       |            | grazing/browsing preferences and        |
| livestock    | Reduce     | compare them to those of current        |
| and breeds** | bi         | livestock species/breeds and wildlife   |
|              | odiversity | to minimize overlap and prevent         |
|              | and harm   | unbalanced feeding. Pilot-test new      |
|              | habitat    | breeds and species before introducing   |
|              |            | them in a broad program, and monitor    |
|              | Reduce     | their impacts over time.                |
|              | genetic    |                                         |
|              | diversity  | If local breeds can meet specified      |
|              | of         | needs, strongly consider their use. In  |
|              | domestic   | particular, even if local breed is a    |
|              | species    | relatively low producer, weigh this     |
|              |            | drawback against the breed's disease    |
|              | Transmit   | resistance and hardiness in the local   |
|              | disease to | environment.                            |
|              | wildlife   |                                         |
|              |            | Introduce entirely new species or       |
|              | Introduce  | breeds to a region with great care      |
|              | invasive   | Evaluate the risks of introducing new   |
|              | non-native | diseases that might be transferred to   |
|              | plant      | wildlife.                               |
|              | species    |                                         |
|              |            | If breeds or species from other parts   |
|              |            | of the world are to be introduced, wash |
|              |            | and comb their hooves and coats to      |
|              |            | remove plant seeds. Feed livestock on   |
|              |            | grain or other crop feed in transit to  |
|              |            | minimize the risk of accidentally       |
|              |            | introducing new plant species.          |
+--------------+------------+-----------------------------------------+
| **           | Cause      | If the project calls for constructing   |
| Construction | conflict   | new fencing, ensure that such fencing   |
| of new       | with       | is consistent with local customary      |
| fencing**    | pa         | property and resource-use arrangements  |
|              | storalists | and will not interfere with the         |
|              | or         | movement of livestock belonging to      |
|              | c          | traditional pastoralists.               |
|              | ommunities |                                         |
|              |            | Site fencing to minimize impacts on     |
|              | Disruption | migratory species. Fully research       |
|              | of         | impacts on migratory animals, their     |
|              | migratory  | role in the ecosystem and the potential |
|              | patterns   | effects of fencing on reproduction.     |
|              | and        | Provide corridors which ensure that     |
|              | ecosystem  | migratory patterns are not jeopardized. |
|              | balance    | Monitor migration patterns against      |
|              |            | baseline conditions.                    |
|              | Damage     |                                         |
|              | natural    | Avoid cutting living trees for fence    |
|              | resources  | posts in areas where wood is scarce.    |
|              | viewshed   | Investigate the potential for live      |
|              | and        | fences as barriers. Assess the          |
|              | aesthetics | cost-effectiveness of solar powered     |
|              |            | electric fencing.                       |
|              |            |                                         |
|              |            | In or near protected areas, or areas of |
|              |            | unique scenic value, make efforts to    |
|              |            | construct fencing which is hidden from  |
|              |            | view or which minimizes impact on       |
|              |            | aesthetics.                             |
+--------------+------------+-----------------------------------------+
| **           | Degrade    | When installing new water supplies,     |
| Installation | large land | consider how access to water will       |
| of           | areas from | affect geographical and seasonal        |
| new/improved | o          | grazing patterns. In some cases, such   |
| water        | vergrazing | as in a semi-arid climate, it may be    |
| supply**     |            | best not to construct water supply      |
|              | Compact    | improvements for livestock, since these |
|              | soil       | will almost certainly lead to           |
|              |            | environmental degradation.              |
|              | Reduce     |                                         |
|              | bi         | If the improvements are essential,      |
|              | odiversity | ensure that a mechanism for regulating  |
|              | and harm   | water use is in place to prevent        |
|              | ecosystem  | exhaustion of the water resources and   |
|              | and        | to help restrict the number of          |
|              | habitat    | livestock dependent on these sources.   |
|              |            | Water supply improvements should also   |
|              | Reduce     | be designed so that they minimize the   |
|              | water      | risks of water supply contamination by  |
|              | av         | animals and humans.                     |
|              | ailability |                                         |
|              |            | Monitor water supply quantity and       |
|              | Degrade    | quality.                                |
|              | water      |                                         |
|              | quality    | (See section on "Water Supply and       |
|              |            | Sanitation" in this volume for more     |
|              |            | information).                           |
+--------------+------------+-----------------------------------------+
| **Control of | Harm human | Evaluate latest information on          |
| livestock    | health     | integrated vector management (IVM) and  |
| disease      |            | integrated pest management (IPM)        |
| vectors**    | Damage     | alternatives to pesticides for control  |
|              | plant and  | of livestock diseases.                  |
|              | animal     |                                         |
|              | bi         | If pesticides are to be used to control |
|              | odiversity | ectoparasites, such as ticks and tsetse |
|              |            | flies, consider alternatives to cattle  |
|              |            | dipping and area treatment (e.g.,       |
|              |            | vaccines for tick-borne diseases and    |
|              |            | bait traps for tsetse).                 |
|              |            |                                         |
|              |            | Where cattle dipping and/or area        |
|              |            | treatment are used, ensure that those   |
|              |            | handling and applying pesticides are    |
|              |            | fully aware of the hazards, use         |
|              |            | appropriate equipment and protective    |
|              |            | clothing, and receive proper training   |
|              |            | in correct handling, storage,           |
|              |            | application and disposal. Use only      |
|              |            | pesticides approved by the U.S.         |
|              |            | Environmental Protection Agency.        |
|              |            |                                         |
|              |            | Ensure that cattle dips are designed to |
|              |            | avoid potential contamination of ground |
|              |            | or surface water with pesticide. Be     |
|              |            | especially aware of the potential for   |
|              |            | underground migration of chemicals over |
|              |            | distance to nearby wells and streams    |
|              |            | used for potable water, and the         |
|              |            | potential effects on aquatic organisms. |
|              |            |                                         |
|              |            | Monitor handling, storage, application  |
|              |            | and disposal of pesticides. Monitor     |
|              |            | potential effects on non-target         |
|              |            | organisms (both terrestrial and         |
|              |            | aquatic) and human health. Be aware of  |
|              |            | the potential for bio-accumulation.     |
|              |            |                                         |
|              |            | (See section on "Integrated Pest        |
|              |            | Management/Pesticides" in this volume   |
|              |            | for more information)                   |
+--------------+------------+-----------------------------------------+
| **Increased  |            | Design projects with attention to       |
| population   |            | mechanisms to maintain human and        |
| and disease  |            | livestock populations at sustainable    |
| burdens**    |            | levels below the upper limits of the    |
|              |            | ecosystem's carrying capacity,          |
|              |            | including the provision of health and   |
|              |            | family planning services and            |
|              |            | incentives. Consider use of permits and |
|              |            | quota systems to limit in-migration and |
|              |            | population growth in sensitive or       |
|              |            | threatened rangelands or mixed farming  |
|              |            | areas, as well as other areas of        |
|              |            | special value. Use pollution permits to |
|              |            | control pollution from industrial       |
|              |            | livestock operations, especially near   |
|              |            | communities and water resources.        |
|              |            | Monitor growth in population against a  |
|              |            | historical baseline.                    |
|              |            |                                         |
|              |            | Assess the medium- to long-term         |
|              |            | implications of epidemic diseases       |
|              |            | (e.g., HIV/AIDs, tuberculosis, sleeping |
|              |            | sickness) on livestock managers,        |
|              |            | pastoralists and farmers, as well as on |
|              |            | provision of technical assistance and   |
|              |            | support. Institute local health and     |
|              |            | HIV/AIDs education programs in          |
|              |            | conjunction with technical assistance   |
|              |            | and training in livestock management.   |
+--------------+------------+-----------------------------------------+

### Resources and references {#resources-and-references .unnumbered}

*LEAD Virtual Research and Development Center*: The LEAD (Livestock,
Environment And Development) Initiative, an inter-institutional project
with the secretariat in FAO supported by the [World
Bank](http://www.worldbank.org/), the [European
Union](http://europa.eu.int/) (EU), FAO and many donor countries. In
English, Spanish and French.
[http://www.virtualcentre.org/selector.htm](http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/frame.htm)[\
]{.underline}\
The project's main goals are to increase awareness, knowledge and
understanding of livestock and environment interactions; to identify
appropriate options for livestock and environment management at regional
and national levels, and to help build sound livestock management and
environmental concepts into government and donor policies and projects.\
\
The LEAD Virtual Research and Development Center provides access to
decision support tools, electronic conferences, online discussion
forums, a digital library, expert consultations, a who's who, a
directory, newsletters, and information on project research centers.\
\
Decision support tools include: the [Livestock and Environment
Toolbox](http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/dec/toolbox/homepage.htm),
Livestock Development Planning Systems, Fossil Fuel in Livestock Systems
computer models and planning tools, the Digital Library, and the
Livestock Environment Policy Dialog.

*LEAD [Livestock and Environment
Toolbox](http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/dec/toolbox/homepage.htm)*.
Part of LEAD Virtual Research and Development Center (see above)
[http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/dec/toolbox/homepage.htm.]{.underline}\
\
The Livestock and Environment Toolbox is an electronic decision support
tool for policymakers, planners and project leaders less familiar with
livestock environment interactions, to help them identify which ones
should be encouraged (beneficial) or mitigated (adverse). The toolbox
offers
[technical](http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/dec/toolbox/Tech/TechOpt.htm)
and [policy or institutional development
options](http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/dec/toolbox/Policy/PolOpt1.htm),
together with suggestions for [increasing
awareness](http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/dec/toolbox/Tepa/TEPA.htm#Awareness)
of the issues among policymakers, planners and extension officers.

*CGIAR System-wide Livestock Programme (SLP): Annual Report 1997--98*,
International Livestock Research Institute, Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), USAID, 1999, 53 pages.
Available at <http://www.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNACH705.pdf>\
\
Poverty, food insecurity and a deteriorating environment threaten the
livelihoods and even the lives of millions of rural people in developing
countries. Smallholder farmers in these countries have few resources or
opportunities to improve their situation, but one widely available
option is to integrate crop and livestock production. These systems help
farmers improve farm productivity while protecting natural resources.
CGIAR' SLP combines crop-livestock research with research on the
management of natural resources.

P.J. Brandjes, J. de Wit, H.G van der Meer and H. Van Keulen, 1996.
*Environmental Impact of Animal Manure Management*. FAO/World
Bank/USAID, Rome. Working Document: Livestock and the Environment:
Finding a Balance.
<http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/dec/toolbox/Refer/IACman.PDF>

ILRI and USAID, 2000. *ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute)
1999 Annual Report: Making the Livestock Revolution Work for the Poor*.
86 pages. Available at
[www.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNACK019.pdf](http://www.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNACK019.pdf)[.\
]{.underline}\
This report focuses on a farm in central Ethiopia, whose mixed
crop--livestock producers were just beginning to participate in the
expanding dairy market of the country's capital, Addis Ababa. The study
also explores what has happened and what may likely happen to supply and
demand for different livestock products in different parts of the world.
It discusses the implications for equity, the environment and human
health, and then briefly reviews some of the policy, institutional and
technological interventions needed to ensure benign outcomes. Many of
the suggested interventions are part of the research program of ILRI and
its partners around the world.

ILRI and USAID, 2000. *ILRI Strategy to 2010: Making the Livestock
Revolution Work for the Poor*. 107 pages. Available at
[www.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNACK021.pdf](http://www.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNACK021.pdf)[.\
]{.underline}\
Major implications for livestock research are identified from analysis
of the major factors expected to influence livestock development over
the next decade. This framework is based on ex ante, or preventive,
assessment of probable economic surplus from different research
investments, taking into account five criteria: contribution to poverty
reduction; expected economic impact; expected environmental impact;
international relevance of recommendations under consideration; and
expected impact on research capacity in developing countries.

ILRI and USAID, 1998. *ILRI 1997: Livestock, People and the
Environment*. 73 pages
<http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/pubs/a-report/ar97.cfm>[.]{.underline}\
\
The Institute's Annual Report including a collection of articles on
topics highlighting different facets of livestock-human-environment
interactions and relationships. Articles include:

-   [livestock and nutrient cycling: maintaining a
    balance](http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/pubs/a-report/nut97.pdf) showing
    how livestock support intensified agricultural production systems;

-   [making sense---and use---of genetic
    diversity](http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/pubs/a-report/gene97.pdf):
    highlighting the role for indigenous animal genetic resources in the
    low---external---input production systems used by the vast majority
    of the world\'s smallholder farmers;

-   [aspects of biotechnology research at
    ILRI;](http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/pubs/a-report/biotec97.pdf)

-   [d](http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/pubs/a-report/biotec97.pdf)[iagnostics
    and the
    environment](http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/pubs/a-report/diagno97.pdf):
    demonstrating approaches to alleviating the disease constraints
    facing smallholder livestock production;

-   [smallholder dairying---intimate links between people and
    livestock](http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/pubs/a-report/dairy97.pdf); and

-   articles on the impact and control of trypanosomiasis and other
    livestock diseases

David John Pratt, Francois Le Gall and Cornelis de Haan, 1997.
*Investing in Pastoralism: Sustainable Natural Resource Use in Arid
Africa and the Middle East.* World Bank Technical Paper No. 365. 174
pages Available at
[www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2000/02/24/000009265_3971110141434/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf]{.underline}\
\
This document offers guidelines for development in arid lands where
pastoralism is practiced. It focuses on natural resource management
(NRM) on arid rangelands used by pastoralists in Africa and Middle East.
Chapter 2 introduces NRM.

> Part One provides advice on preparing for project interventions.
> Effective pastoral development has four basic requirements: (a) to
> differentiate the type of pastoral system(s) (chapter 2 and annex D);
> (b) to assess population pressure and societal coping mechanisms in
> order to establish whether present population pressure seriously
> impedes progress (chapter 3); (c) ensure that enabling policies and
> infrastructure are in place to support pastoral development (chapters
> 4 and 5); and (d) ensure a project design that combines participation,
> flexibility and the prospect of sustainability (chapter 6 and Annex
> E).
>
> Part Two provides guidelines for specific project components,
> addressing five essentials of pastoral development projects: (a)
> herder organizations (chapter 7), (b) support systems (chapter 8), (c)
> drought management (chapter 9), (d) phasing of technical inputs
> (chapter 10), (e) process monitor (chapter 11). A concluding chapter
> considers the broader implications for international agencies such as
> the World Bank. Eight annexes provide additional background
> information and advice, and a user's guide.

Cornelis de Haan et al, 2001. *Livestock Development: Implications on
Rural Poverty, the Environment, and Global Food Security*. World Bank,
80 pages. Price: \$15.00.\
\
This book argues for a people-focused approach to livestock development,
giving high priority to the public-goods aspect of poverty reduction,
environmental sustainability, food security and safety, and animal
welfare. It outlines the primary policy/technology framework for the
main production systems and concludes with an eleven-point action plan
for the sector.

Timothy O. Williams, 1998. *Multiple Uses of Common Pool Resources in
Semi-arid West Africa: A Survey of Existing Practices and Options for
Sustainable Resource Management*. Overseas Development Institute,
Natural Resources Perspectives Number 38. [Available at]{.underline}
[www.odi.org.uk/nrp/38.html](http://www.odi.org.uk/nrp/38.html)[.\
]{.underline}\
Common pool resources such as rangeland, forests, fallow fields and
ponds provide an array of social and economic benefits for a wide
variety of users in semi-arid West Africa. However, poor definition and
enforcement of the institutional arrangements governing the use of these
resources sometimes lead to social conflicts and resource degradation.
This paper examines why institutional arrangements are at times weak,
and suggests what action can be taken.

M.A. Jabbar, J. Pender and S.K. Ehui (eds), 2000. *Policies for
Sustainable Land Management in the Highlands of Ethiopia: Summary of
Papers and Proceedings of a Seminar Held at ILRI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
22--23 May 2000*. International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi,
Socio-economics and Policy Research Working Paper 30. 68 pages.
Available at
<http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/InfoServ/Webpub/Fulldocs/Workp30/Contents.htm>[\
]{.underline}\
The papers presented at this seminar provided information about the
interrelated problems of land degradation, low agricultural productivity
and poverty in the Ethiopian highlands (emphasizing the administrative
regions of Tigray, Amhara and Oromiya);

-   the proximate and underlying causes of those problems;

-   the responses of individuals, communities and governments to the
    problems;

-   the impacts of some of those responses; and

-   the constraints and opportunities affecting the potential in the
    future for more productive, sustainable and poverty-reducing
    development pathways in the Ethiopian highlands.

Charlotte Boyd with Roger Blench, David Bourn, Liz Drake and Peter
Stevenson, 1999. *Reconciling Interests among Wildlife, Livestock and
People in Eastern Africa*: *A Sustainable Livelihood Approach*. Overseas
Development Institute, Natural Resource Perspectives Number 45.
Available at
[www.odi.org.uk/nrp/45.html](http://www.odi.org.uk/nrp/45.html)[.]{.underline}\
\
From the perspective of local livelihoods this paper explores the
complex interactions between wildlife, livestock and people, and options
for integrated wildlife and livestock management in the semi-arid
rangelands of eastern Africa. The paper draws on the sustainable
livelihoods approach which explicitly considers whether households have
access to the assets required to engage in an activity, and how that
activity fits with existing livelihood activities.

Joshua Ramisch. 1999 *The Long Dry Season: Crop-livestock Linkages in
Southern Mali*. Agricultural Ecosystems Research Group, Agronomy
Department, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI. Available at
[http://www.iied.org/pdf/dry_ip88english.pdf..]{.underline}