###### *The President's Conference on*

**FIRE**

**PREVENTION**

![](media/image1.png){width="1.7020833333333334in"
height="1.6736111111111112in"}

***Report of the Committee on***

#### Building Construction,

#### Operation, and Protection

Departmental Auditorium

Washington, D.C.

##### May 6,7, and 8, 1947

> *"The serious losses in life and property resulting*
>
> *annually from fires cause me deep concern. I am*
>
> *sure that such unnecessary waste can be reduced.*
>
> *The substantial progress made in the science of fire*

####### prevention and fire protection in this country during

> *the past forty years convinces me that the means are*
>
> *available for limiting this unnecessary destruction."*

######## Harry S. Truman

A. HISTORY

Fire has been a major problem ever since this country was founded. Both
in peace and war it has been responsible for widespread destruction,
needless loss of life, and dislocation of business activity. Even in
colonial times it was a matter of real concern, as is evidenced by early
legislation against the use of thatched roofs and chimneys made of
mud-daubed sticks. The Indians were not slow to take advantage of the
vulnerability of the construction used by the early settlers, and their
flaming arrows all too frequently found their mark.

History fails to show, however, that knowledge of how to build so as to
reduce the hazards of fire kept pace with the rapid increase of
congested areas, where large quantities of combustible goods were
manufactured, stored, and sold, and where people lived. Firefighting
appliances were primitive in type, and little legislation existed to
regulate construction or to require proper precautions against the start
and spread of fire. As a consequence, an appalling amount of destruction
has been recorded, made up in large part of the sum of many individual
fires, but punctuated here and there by conflagrations.

New York had conflagrations involving large areas in 1833, 1839, and
1845; San Francisco in 1849, 1850, and 1851; Chicago was devastated in
1871, and Boston in 1872. Since those dates, Paterson, Baltimore, San
Francisco, Chelsea, Salem, Fall River, Atlanta, and many smaller places
have been visited by fire which swept uncontrolled through large areas
of dwellings, business buildings, and factories.

During World War II the principal damage to cities and communities was
by fire. In the devastated parts of London, as well as in Germany, it is
reported that destruction by fire was five times as great as that by
high-explosive bombs; and in Japan the destruction by fire was still
more effective and complete.

While there have been improvements in recent years in construction
methods and regulations, particularly in the larger cities, there are
still many communities that can be destroyed today and await only the
proper combination of circumstances involving time, place, force of
wind, occupancy conditions, and ignition. The alertness of our public
firefighting services is an important factor in interrupting dangerous
combinations of circumstances.

B. THE PROBLEM

Statistics show a property loss that has been rising steadily since
1934, with a peak in 1946, and an annual toll over that period of
thousands of deaths from fire.

Certainly the failure to reduce the number of, and total damage from,
fires cannot be blamed on any lack of technical knowledge. The
principles of fire prevention, as practiced by our better building
designers and fire protection engineers, have been known for many years.

Since all this technical information is available, what then is the
explanation for the high annual fire and life loss cited? The conclusion
seems to be inescapable that it results partly from failure of owners
and managers of buildings to apply this information; partly from their
failure to assume responsibility for the safety of the occupants; partly
from willful disregard or ignorance of the fundamentals of fire
protection; partly from ignorance of building laws; partly from
inadequacy of laws and facilities provided for their enforcement; but to
a greater degree the high annual loss is due to ordinary ignorance,
carelessness, and negligence.

Even through proper safeguards are incorporated in the design and
construction of buildings, and they are erected to conform to
established and accepted standards and codes, and the buildings is of
slow burning or fire resistive construction, serious danger of loss of
life and property may still be present. The degree of that danger
depends largely on the consideration given to safety in operation, to
maintenance of the structure and of its service equipment, and on the
character, quantity and arrangement of the materials present, and the
conditions or operations to which they are exposed.

In order that a fire may not involve too much too quickly, and that
there may be opportunity for its control and extinguishment, it is
proper to place suitable limits on the height and area of buildings. It
is especially important, in the occupancy of either new or old
buildings, to isolate by fire walls or fire resistant barriers those
special hazards of fire that attend the storage or presence of such
materials as flammable liquids, gases, dusts, or other readily ignitable
substances, or operations involving these materials.

Important though structural and operating conditions may be, the proper
degree of protection of life and property requires that effective means
of fire extinguishment be provided, commensurate with the conditions of
occupancy.

For efficiency of protection, fires must be extinguished while they are
still small. When it becomes necessary to use heavy hose streams, it is
certain that some fundamental measure for fire prevention and control
has been omitted or has not been effectively utilized.

###### C. FIRE LOSSES

Although the appalling waste of lives is the cumulative total of a great
number of small fires, the large annual property losses are mainly due
to a small number of large fires. The major causes of such fires are
readily identified. Of 585,000 fires reported by the National Fire
Protection Association in 1945, 491,000 could be classified as being due
to known and specific causes. That association classifies "large fires"
as those involving property losses over \$250,000. In 1940, which was an
average year, there were 34 in this class; but in 1946 there were 187
large-loss fires.

In 1946, over 50 percent of the large-loss fires was outstandingly the
result of inferior building construction. Only 6 large-loss fires
occurred in fire resistive buildings. In 81 fires, the fire areas were
excessive; and unprotected vertical openings, stairwells, and elevators
were important factors in the spread of fire in 71 cases. Other factors
in the vertical spread of fire in 90 buildings, involving large losses,
were unprotected vents and lack of fire stopping in concealed spaces. In
8 cases, ducts for air-conditioning systems and ventilation were
important factors.

Exposure or spread of fire to adjoining buildings was involved in 22 of
the 187 large fires. The flammability of contents, coupled with
congested storage conditions, was a major factor in 102 of 166
structural fires classified as "large fires."

Neither automatic sprinkler protection nor automatic fire detecting
systems were installed in 125 of the 154 cases where such protection was
applicable.

Delayed discovery was evidenced in 87 cases, and delayed transmission of
alarm in 117 cases. Without immediate notification of fire, it is
obvious that even the best-equipped public fire departments are severely
handicapped in their job of rescue and extinguishment.

The large-loss fires accounted for more than one-fifth of the total fire
loss in 1946. The smaller fires reflect the same general pattern as to
the construction, occupancy, and protection deficiencies.

###### D. RESPONSIBILITY

The primary responsibility for the prevention of life and property rests
with the owners and managers of the premises. It is their duty to
provide the necessary safeguards against fire for the occupants and the
admitted public. Secondary, but equally important, is the responsibility
of governmental authority in instituting and enforcing building codes
and ordinances, not only for the construction and protection of the
premises, but also for safety in operation and maintenance of buildings
and equipment.

The public itself is responsible for the protection of property and
lives of others, as well as for its own safety, and must be ever
conscious of the importance of fire safety and should constantly act in
conformity with this principle.

The continues increase in loss of life and property leads to the
inescapable conclusion that those charged with this responsibility have
been both careless and negligent.

###### E. PUBLIC REGULATION

Although the American public cries out against "regimentation" and
cherishes freedom of action, the pursuit of selfish freedom has been an
important factor in our economic fire waste and mounting loss of life.

Our fire losses have long since been recognized as a national problem,
and the adoption of more severe regulations, as well as their proper
enforcement, is therefore unavoidable if the welfare of the public is to
be safeguarded.

Any comprehensive study of present conditions will reveal the
difficulties involved in preparing laws and regulations to cope with the
situation. As will be described in this report, of those codes and
standards which have thus far been adopted, too many are obsolete, too
many are subjective to evasions, and uniformity is lacking.

There is need for the adoption, through enabling legislation, of uniform
building codes, regulations, and fire prevention ordinances that will
establish requirements for safety of operations and proper maintenance
of structures and of their service and fire protective equipment. The
enabling legislation should provide for the proper adoption, by
reference, of recognized national standards.

Codes and ordinances are of limited value unless they embrace adequate
power to enforce compliance, including the right of retroactive action
for the correction of certain conditions found especially dangerous to
the occupants or detrimental to the public welfare, and unless there is
an adequate staff to enforce them.

Governmental authority should be empowered by law to examine, approve,
and regulate operations and changes in occupancy or use of buildings,
with provisions for inspection by competent fire prevention and
protection experts. The infliction of penalties may be necessary to
effect corrective measures.

The requirement of annual licenses for places of public assembly,
supported by inspection service, is an effective means for the control
of operations to prevent abuses in fire safety matters.

Safety of life and limb is so compelling a consideration that
inconvenience and expense are not sufficient reasons for failing to take
reasonable measures that will bring buildings up to modern standards.
The possible loss of buildings that provide shelter and the means of
livelihood for many people is another powerful reason why action should
be taken in the public interest.

Pending complete or extensive code revision, which it is recognized is a
time-consuming process, consideration should be given to immediate
adoption of what might be termed emergency legislation dealing with the
correction of deficiencies in existing buildings.

**[THE REPORT]{.underline}**

It is the purpose of this report to call attention to the important
items of construction, operation, and protection that are contributing
factors to loss of life and property, and to suggest measures for the
improvement of conditions.

**1. CONSTRUCTION**

a.  ***Building design and planning**.* - It has been well said that
    fire safety begins in the designer's office. This observation may
    well be expanded to state that unless adequate fire safety is
    established there, it may never be fully obtained, since the cost of
    installing safety features, although relatively minor at the time of
    construction of the building, may be so prohibitive at a later date
    as to permit only partial compliance with generally accepted
    standards.

Building practice is now so advanced a science that there is little
excuse for erecting buildings that are deficient in any safety
precautions. Structural design has progressed to the point where the
safety of the building, from the strength standpoint, is taken for
granted by the occupant. He has an equal right to assume that fire
hazards in his building have either been eliminated or controlled.

Nor should compliance with existing obsolete code requirements be
offered as justification for failure to build up to modern standards.
The competent designer is well acquainted with these standards, and safe
construction should be his moral, if not legal, responsibility. The
owner's responsibility to the occupants of his building should not
permit the designer's advice to be disregarded. The records show quite
clearly that the buildings in which the major losses of life by fire
have occurred have fallen short, in one or more respects, of generally
accepted standards.

Stated simply, the basic principles of design of buildings for fire
safety consist essentially of (1) the planning and construction of the
building so as to minimize the chances of fire starting in the first
instance, or of spreading beyond the point of origin, (2) the providing
of sufficient and adequate exitways, so that occupants can be quickly
and safely evacuated if the need arises, (3) provision for the prompt
discovery and reporting of fires and the necessary facilities for their
extinguishment, and (4) attention to details that will minimize the
hazards of smoke and noxious gases.

Like accidents, fires do not just happen. In the final analysis, the
cause can generally be traced to ignorance, carelessness, or negligence
on the part of the individual. In designing the building to minimize the
chances of fire starting, attention must be directed toward eliminating
as many of these potential danger spots as is humanly possible. A study
of the cause of fire will indicate the most promising points of attack.
To mention but a few, the heating system should be adequate so as not to
be readily overtaxed; clearance of furnaces, fire places, chimneys,
smoke pipes, and ducts from combustible materials should be sufficient
to avoid one frequent cause of fires; chimneys and incinerators should
be carefully built to contain the gases and flame; buildings should have
ample spacing from neighboring buildings to avoid exposure fires, and
where this cannot be accomplished, exterior opening should be protected,
if necessary, to prevent entrance of fire; electrical wiring should not
be exposed and should be designed to avoid overloading; flammable
liquids should be isolated; roofs should be resistant to sparks and
flying brands; and so on down the list. Attention to these obvious
danger spots will aid materially in reducing the chances for fires to
start. The human equation, however, is always present; and as a defense
against this, dependence must continue to be placed on constant
vigilance and supervision, and on the cooperation of owners, management,
tenants, and enforcing officials in carrying out fundamental rules of
housekeeping.

No mention has been made of the materials of construction of the
building, in this phase of the discussion, for the reason that, except
possibly in the case of a building struck by lightning, or in exposure
fires, discussed elsewhere, fires do not usually start in the materials
of the structure, but rather in some added component, such as the wiring
or heating system, or in the contents of the building. True enough,
certain types of construction may promote fire more readily than others;
but even here it has been found possible to apply protective measures,
such as in the flameproofing of tents. The ideal condition would be that
in which the materials of construction and the contents of the building
were incombustible; but that, of course, is impractical for obvious
reasons. Moreover, the records show that in many of the fires involving
large loss of life, the actual burning of the building itself accounted
for but few, if any, of the deaths -- smoke, toxic gases, and panic
being the primary causes.

b.  ***Barriers to spread of fire**.* -- Assuming that fires will
    continue to start in buildings, an important step in the design is
    to insure that barriers are provided to prevent the fire from
    spreading either in a horizontal or vertical direction or through
    concealed spaces. In rooms the partitions and self-closing doors
    should form the barrier to horizontal spread of fire. As to larger
    areas, it is customary in building codes to limit the area within
    fire resistive enclosures, the limits being partially determined by
    the nature of the occupancy and use, the type of construction, and
    by the extent of the fire protective measures provided. This
    practice limits the amount of combustibles exposed to any fire,
    permits more effective action by the fire department, and limits the
    number of people who may be exposed to the fire, thus improving
    their chances for getting out. Where it is necessary to have
    excessively large areas, as in mass production industries, and fire
    resistive division walls are undesirable or impracticable, a strong
    barrier to the spread of fire is afforded by automatic sprinklers in
    areas where there is a continuity of combustibles.

With respect to barriers to vertical spread, the simple rule is that no
opportunity should be afforded for fire, smoke, or gases to spread from
story to story. This means that all vertical openings, such as stairways
and elevator shafts, should be enclosed in fire resistive walls, and
that openings in such enclosures should be provided with doors of a
standard approved type that will close automatically and tightly.
Likewise, all openings around pipes, ducts, and conveyors which might
permit the passage of smoke or gases should be properly closed. It is
important to remember that many lives have been lost by asphyxiation
from such causes, on floors considerably removed from the one on which
the fire occurred. Considerable progress has been made in the study of
venting of gases by mechanical means. The storage or use of certain
kinds of hazardous materials, such as films, records, and highly
combustible, flammable, or explosive materials, may require complete
isolation or special separation from other occupancies. Special
attention should be given to the venting of such spaces.

c.  ***Concealed spaces**.* -- Among the primary causes of loss of life
    and property from fire has been the ability of the fire to spread
    through concealed spaces in the structure, such as within partitions
    and walls, underneath or within floors, and above hung ceilings. It
    should be a basic principle of design that all concealed spaces
    between studs and joists, behind paneling and wainscoting, at eaves,
    above hung ceilings, and beneath floor finishes should be
    effectively fire-stopped with suitable material. Again, it should be
    remembered that it is not necessary for actual flame to spread
    through such spaces, as heated gases will accomplish the same
    effect.

d.  ***Exitways**.* -- If the buildings or their contents burn, they may
    be replaced, but not so with human lives. Insufficient or
    inadequately protected exitways may well be placed at the top of the
    list of causes of loss of life from fires. This was certainly true
    in many of the spectacular fires of record. Yet the fundamental
    principles of exitway design have been available for many years in
    recognized standards on this subject, which are under constant study
    to effect improvement in their recommendations. Once again it may be
    pointed out that our great fire losses are due not so much to a lack
    of information as to a disregard of fundamentals.

Expressed briefly, the basic principle of exitway design is that at
least two safe and separate means of exit should always be conveniently
available. If given freedom of operation, the competent designer would
need no further guide, since all other code requirements on this subject
are but detailed specifications that tell how the desired result should
be obtained. The basic principle itself is filled with meaning. The
requirement of "two safe means of exit" is a minimum. Additional exits
must be supplied if the persons accommodated per exit exceed a certain
number, which depends on the kind of occupancy and relative fire danger.
The word "safe" implies that the exitway (stairway, for example) should
be in an enclosure of adequate fire resistance, including self-closing
doors; that the exitway should be free from obstructions, properly
lighted, and suitably marked as an exit and have directional signs; that
the protected means of exit should be continuous and preferably direct
to the street or to some other place of refuge; that the stairway should
be of adequate size to accommodate the flow of traffic and suitably
proportioned; and that paths (corridors) leading to and from the
stairway should protect the occupant from fire. It should also be
remembered that smoke and gases may be as hazardous to life as fire
itself, and that suitable measures should be taken to keep stairways
free from such dangers. The expression "conveniently available" implies
that the distance to an exit should not exceed that recommended by
generally recognized standards for the given occupancy and fire hazard,
and that the stairways should be so located as to minimize the length of
dead-end spaces in which persons might be trapped.

Another point sometimes overlooked is that means must be provided to
enable firemen to get at the fire. Well designed exits are valuable in
this connection. In a recent fire in a building having a single
stairway, it was necessary for the firemen to follow the fire up the
building by means of this one stairway, instead of attacking from
several points at once. In windowless buildings, some provision must be
made for access of firemen to stories above the ground. This is
particularly important in buildings without sprinklers. Suitable access
panels have been provided in some designs for this purpose.

e.  ***Installation of fire extinguishing equipment**. -* The
    installation of fire extinguishing equipment should be considered in
    the design of all new buildings. Nationally accepted standards
    covering such equipment are available and should be used. Since
    these installations require provisions, in some cases, for elevated
    tanks, fire pumps, and other water supplies and piping, they are
    frequently difficult of accomplishment after the building is
    erected. It is important that fire extinguishing equipment be
    provided during the progress of construction. Any needed supply
    mains and hydrants should be extended to the site and be available
    before the start of construction.

f.  ***Occupancy and use considerations.*** -- Running throughout the
    whole theory of design of buildings for fire safety is the matter of
    occupancy and use. Each type of occupancy and use has special
    characteristics that must be taken into account. It is for this
    reason that building codes classify occupancies. Thus we may find
    they may be classified as residential, business, mercantile,
    institutional, assembly, storage, industrial, and high-hazard. These
    main classifications may also be subdivided to take account of
    differences in characteristics. Thus under the institutional
    classification we may find two major subdivisions; one dealing with
    people who are harbored for medical or other care or treatment,
    including hospitals, for example, and another dealing with people
    who are detained for penal or correctional purposes, which would
    include prisons and asylums.

Included within these general classifications would be all buildings
having similar characteristics, and in which the combustible contents
and the fire hazard are comparable. The characteristics take into
account the ability of the occupants to evacuate the buildings promptly
in case of fire and involve consideration of whether the occupants are
young or old, able-bodied or infirm; whether they are asleep or awake
during the period of occupancy; whether they have freedom of movement;
whether large crowds must be dealt with as in places of assembly; and
whether the hazard of panic is present. The bearing which these various
considerations have on the design of exitways, the type of construction
of the building, the allowable areas between fire resistive walls, and
the height of the building is obvious.

Control over the occupancy of buildings is customarily exercised through
a certificate of occupancy. This is issued when the building is built
and certifies that the building conforms to the provisions of the law
under which it was built. The certificate states the purposes for which
the building may be used in its several parts, the maximum permissible
live loads on the several floors, and sometimes the number of persons
that may be accommodated in the several stories. Codes also customarily
require that no change in the occupancy classification of a building
shall be made until a certificate of occupancy for the new
classification shall have been issued. The certificate is of great
importance in maintaining lawful conditions and is of value to the owner
of the building as evidence that the building conforms to the law under
which it was built.

g.  ***Fire zoning and exposure.*** -- The creation of fire zones of
    fire districts is a well established method of reducing the hazard
    of fire spreading from one building to adjoining structures. The
    probability of a fire assuming conflagration proportions is measured
    by the amount of fuel available for it to feed upon, and this
    increases as structures become crowded together in certain
    districts.

The fire limits should include all closely built mercantile and
adjoining manufacturing districts and surrounding blocks on all sides
which constitute a particular fire exposure to the district, or within
which new construction of a mercantile or manufacturing character is
developing. Buildings in fire districts should be restricted to those
types of construction that afford an appropriate degree of protection
against the spread of fire.

As a further precaution against conflagration, buildings in the fire
district, unless adequately separated, should be required to have
lot-line exterior walls of a definite fire resistive rating. Provision
should also be made for suitable protection of openings in buildings
within the fire district, to prevent the spread of fire from one
building to another.

**2. BUILDING CODES**

a.  ***Municipal codes.*** -- Thus far, emphasis has been placed upon
    the responsibilities of designers and owners to make use of well
    recognized principles. Unfortunately, as has been indicated, these
    principles are frequently ignored or violated, and so experience has
    taught the need for legal regulations that would force compliance.
    The quality of such regulations varies. The effect of building codes
    regulating new construction is certain to be gradual, applying as
    new buildings are erected. At the same time, existing buildings
    usually are not required to be changed adequately to meet modern
    requirements. Nevertheless, there can be no doubt that modern
    building regulations, if generally adopted and adequately enforced,
    would bring about a significant reduction in our national fire
    losses. Lack of alertness in keeping municipal building codes
    abreast of technical progress in the science of building
    construction is illustrated by the following figures from the files
    of the National Bureau of Standards, covering 3,322 municipalities
    in 1945:

> 236 had codes dated from 1942 to 1946.
>
> 387 had codes dated from 1937 to 1941.
>
> 228 had codes dated from 1932 to 1936.
>
> 484 had codes dated from 1927 to 1931.
>
> 612 had codes over 20 years old.
>
> 33 had codes with no dates.
>
> 1,342 had no building codes.

Although figures are not available, it is possible that several hundred
of these municipalities are revising their codes, or planning the
inauguration of codes, thus improving the situation to some extent. The
picture presented is far from satisfactory, however, with reference to
the number of municipalities not having codes, and with reference to the
number where the code requirements are obviously obsolete. Much good
work could be done by local organizations and the responsible public
officials if they would investigate their own codes critically and take
steps to improve them. Consideration might well be given to the
suggestion that the building official be required at stated intervals to
review the local code and recommend needed changes therein to the
appropriate legislative authority.

Communities have a way of growing. More comprehensive requirements
invoked during the process of growth will serve to prevent, at a later
date, the existence of fire traps that may become the scenes of
disasters such as have recently taken place.

For areas where municipal building regulations do not apply,
consideration should be given to the adoption of State requirements,
especially in the case of factories, hospitals, schools, and places of
public assembly.

b.  ***Modernization of codes.*** -- Material is not lacking for use in
    preparing and revising municipal building codes. A great deal of
    attention has been given to the development of improved requirements
    by such organizations as the American Standards Association, the
    Building Officials Conference of America, the National Board of Fire
    Underwriters, the National Bureau of Standards, the Pacific Coast
    Building Officials Conference, the Southern Building Code Congress,
    and other bodies. The problem is one of selection rather than
    improvisation. A further constructive step would be the adjustment
    of remaining differences, so that technical requirements would be
    the same, so far as is possible. This would tend to prevent
    confusion in the public mind, would facilitate the free flow of
    building materials in commerce, and would provide better safety
    conditions throughout the country.

c.  ***Uniformity.*** -- The difficulty of persuading more than 2,000
    municipalities to adopt reasonably uniform requirements is admitted,
    even though the various recommendations mentioned above should be
    brought into approximate agreement. At present, municipal codes vary
    widely, not only in technical requirements, but also in size,
    arrangement, typography, and other features, with the result that
    extensive study is necessary to determine whether their requirements
    are adequate or not. While complete uniformity may not be reached in
    view of varying local conditions, the advantages to be gained point
    to the need for exploring some method by which reasonable uniformity
    could be achieved.

d.  ***Enforcement.*** -- There is a rather general belief that the mere
    passing of new laws will be effective in reducing fire losses.
    Disappointment is likely to follow if adequate provisions is not
    made for proper enforcement. Law depends on its administration for
    its effectiveness, and administration depends on the work of the
    chief administrator and the adequacy of the administrative machinery
    supplied him.

To mention but one branch of administration, the building departments of
many of our municipalities are decidedly deficient in those things that
are necessary to good enforcement of laws. It is a mistake to regard the
office of building official as of minor importance. Considering the
features of health and safety involved, the complexity of designs
submitted for approval, and the volume of construction that goes on each
year, the office is one of great responsibility. The administrator
should therefore be well qualified for the office. While there are a
number of able building officials, it is an unfortunate fact that the
salaries paid by many of our municipalities are too low to attract first
class administration or to retain them after they have become
experienced in their jobs. This condition usually extends throughout the
department, and, as a result, most of the building departments are so
understaffed as to make it impossible to carry out proper inspection of
buildings to determine compliance with the law. A lack of such technical
assistance, moreover, is often responsible for failure to modernize the
local code. And even though the local code is adequate, its
effectiveness is frequently lost because of this defect in the
enforcement machinery.

The budgets for such departments should be determined in accordance with
the importance or quantity of the work to be performed. Hence,
notwithstanding present increased cost of government, attention should
be directed toward examining the present composition of local building
and fire departments, to see that they are properly staffed and that
rates of pay are sufficient to attract and retain first class
administrators.

At the present time, the respective functions of the building and fire
departments are not adequately defined in many cities, with the result
that the possibility of misunderstanding, friction, and evasion of
responsibility is always present. When the enforcement of building
ordinances, fire prevention ordinances, and the operations of the fire
department are not administrated by a single authority, the legislative
authority should clearly define the duties and responsibilities of the
respective agencies.

As a general rule, the enforcement of the provisions of the building
code, unless specific exceptions are made, should be the responsibility
of the building department. Any exceptions should clearly place the
responsibility for their enforcement.

The duties of the fire department should cover the supervision of
housekeeping and maintenance of buildings, so far as they pertain to
fire prevention; the maintenance of fire extinguishing equipment; the
storage of combustibles and inflammables; and the extinguishment of
fires.

In any event, the closest cooperation and harmony between the respective
enforcement agencies is imperative, and each should report hazardous
conditions and violations of law to the official having jurisdiction.

**3. DEFICIENCIES IN EXISTING BUILDINGS**

a.  ***Relative importance.*** -- It has already been indicated that
    life and property loss will probably not be so serious in buildings
    to be erected in the future, both because of the very gradual
    increase in the number of such buildings as compared with the total
    in existence and because the means are at hand for avoiding past
    mistakes in design and construction. The problem of how to bring
    existing buildings up to reasonable standards, however, is a very
    pressing one and calls for vigorous and intelligent action.
    Fortunately, the legal basis for such action is fairly well
    established in the principle that public authorities have the power
    to require the correction of unsafe and unhealthful conditions. This
    is true even though the buildings concerned complied with the laws
    in effect at the time of their erection. Wise and effective use of
    this power requires that only those measures should be demanded that
    are clearly reasonable and practicable in the light of experience
    and of modern standards of design and construction. This may mean
    that existing buildings cannot be brought up to the level of new
    buildings in all respects, but it opens the way to correction of
    many hazardous conditions that are indefensible in our present state
    of knowledge.

b.  ***Major deficiencies. -*** Principal points of weakness in existing
    buildings have been repeatedly demonstrated in actual fires. The
    presence of open stairways and elevator shafts; the improper
    disposition or inadequate protection of combustible contents,
    construction, or interior finish; the lack of adequate means for
    restricting spread of fire; and the omission of devices that will
    give prompt notice of excessive temperatures are all familiar
    features of older types of buildings. Many others could be cited.

Much good could be accomplished through the preparation of a check list
of such deficiencies, which could be used in surveys of existing
structures with a view to recording their worst features. Such a list
should serve as a useful means of enlisting the attention and
cooperation of building owners and, in many cases, should lead to
voluntary corrective measures. In fact, education in this and other ways
should provide a sound basis for better understanding of the need for
improvement and, in many cases, may be expected to bring about changes
without the necessity for orders from public authorities.

c.  ***Corrections . -*** Each building owner is on constructive notice
    as to his obligation under a building code, and many owners will no
    doubt be willing to make necessary changes in existing buildings,
    once the necessity for doing so is appreciated. However, no general
    improvement can be counted upon without enforcement of minimum
    measures by public authorities. Such measures may take the form of
    adequate enclosure of elevator shafts; separating banks of elevators
    into not more than three in the same enclosure; adequate enclosure
    of stairways; a requirement that doors opening into an exitway shall
    be self-closing; adding stairways or other means of exit where
    provision of means of escape is deficient; subdividing excessively
    large areas; elimination of grills in exitways; closing of movable
    transoms and substituting wired glass for plain glass in them;
    avoidance of ventilating systems (natural or mechanical) that
    exhaust air from assembly or sleeping rooms into exitways; and
    providing suitable alarm and extinguishment devices. The extent to
    which such changes will be required will vary with the occupancy,
    greatest emphasis being placed on improving the protection to those
    occupancies where people are infirm or are confined, or where
    sleeping quarters are provided. Especially in need of attention are
    old hotels in small communities, buildings converted to multi-family
    occupancy, and farm residences and resort hotels, particularly where
    they are outside the firefighting zone and are of substandard
    construction.

**4. FIRE PROTECTION**

It is unfortunately true that the property owner, all too often, gives
little attention to the provision of proper fire protection necessary to
safeguard life and prevent economic waste. He relies heavily on the
public fire department for the protection of his property and the lives
of its occupants. Also, reliance is too often placed on insurance
organizations to determine the degree of protection required at any
property, and the owner is prone to think in terms of monetary
protection and does not consider the possible loss of life and property.
Under such conditions, it is easy for the property owner to shirk his
responsibility to himself and the community.

Fire prevention and protection, like building design and construction,
is a science, and standards have been established that indicate the
extent of protection required. The degree of protection is determined by
the nature of the occupancy, the type of the construction, and, in some
cases, the exposure from nearby structures.

All large fires start from small ones, for which reason it is important
that fires be discovered and attacked in their incipiency. When they
reach such proportions that it becomes necessary to use heavy hose
streams for extinguishment, some fundamental measure for fire prevention
and control has been omitted or has not been effectively utilized.

a.  ***Hand equipment.*** -- In buildings where people are always
    present, simple hand equipment, for application of water or suitable
    chemical materials, will enable the extinguishment of most fires
    with slight loss, if the equipment is conveniently placed and is
    used intelligently. In fact, fire records indicate that at least
    half the fires are so extinguished. This equipment includes water
    and sand pails, carbon dioxide, dry powder, carbon tetrachloride,
    and other chemical type extinguishers and small hose hand lines.

b.  ***Automatic sprinklers***. -- Wherever there is considerable and
    continuous combustible material present, either in a structure or in
    its contents, means for the prompt automatic application of water or
    other extinguisher is a basic consideration.

Automatic sprinkler protection has a long proven record for controlling
fires in their incipiency, for limiting property loss, conserving water
supplies, and preventing loss of the lives of occupants of buildings and
of firemen in fighting fires. Automatic sprinklers may also be applied
to offset, in some cases, the danger in existing buildings.

The modern sprinkler system is equipped with an automatic alarm,
actuated by the flow of water through the pipes. Thus a sprinkler system
serves three purposes. It discovers the fire, applies water promptly,
and sounds an alarm. Some alarms are connected electrically to central
stations; and within a few minutes after a fire starts, even in
unattended properties, the fire department is enroute to the fire.

So efficient is this form of protection that statistics taken from
detailed reports of many thousand fires in sprinklered buildings of all
occupancy classes over a period of 49 years show that 96 percent of the
fires was extinguished or controlled by sprinkler action. Records also
indicate that the total losses in such fires were about 10 percent of
those in properties without sprinkler protection. To be effective,
sprinklers must, of course, be fed by an ample water supply and be
properly maintained.

The provision of properly maintained automatic sprinkler protection in
many of the older mercantile and general occupancy buildings that line
the "Main Streets" of the Nation would bring a material reduction in the
national fire waste and reduce the threat of conflagration that exists
in many such built-up areas. In many modern buildings of fire resistive
construction, including hotels and places of public congregation,
automatic sprinkler protection is urgently needed in basements, service
and storage areas, incidental mercantile occupancies, and other
vulnerable parts, as a safeguard for the lives of occupants.

It is especially unfortunate that property value considerations have
often precluded the installation of needed automatic sprinkler
protection in many dormitories, hospitals, and homes for children, the
aged and infirm, in which the construction is inferior, thereby unduly
exposing the lives of the occupants to loss by fire.

c.  ***Special extinguishing equipment***. -- There are certain
    occupancies and hazards that require special extinguishing
    equipment. These include storage and manufacturing operations
    involving the use of highly volatile liquids and materials, where
    the use of plain water is ineffective or undesirable. This
    extinguishing equipment includes foam, carbon tetrachloride, carbon
    dioxide, inert gas, dry powder, and fine water spray, all of which
    may be manually or automatically controlled, depending upon the
    conditions involved. Such equipment should be designed and installed
    according to recognized standards.

d.  ***Standpipes and hydrant systems.*** -- For multistoried buildings
    or industrial plants of very large area, a well designed and
    properly equipped and maintained standpipe system constitutes an
    effective means for the extinguishment of fire particularly where
    there is no automatic sprinkler protection. Standpipes are designed
    for use by fire departments and those trained in handling heavy fire
    streams. The standpipe system furnishes the most reliable and
    quickest means of obtaining effective hose streams in the upper
    stories of high buildings. Some standpipes are supplied by public
    water or private water supplies; others, particularly for use in
    very high buildings, are dry and have connections on the street for
    the use of public fire engines.

In isolated and country areas great reliance is placed on yard hydrants
for heavy fire streams, and in many cases these hydrants are the
principal fire protection. Where private water supplies are provided for
hydrants, standpipes, and sprinklers, hydrants should be used with
judgment, particularly by public fire departments, in order not to
deplete the water supplies.

Recognized standards for standpipes and hydrant systems are available
and should be used.

e.  ***Alarm systems.*** -- The prompt discovery of fire is a prime
    requisite of efficient extinguishment and, in most cases, it is of
    vital importance that immediate steps be taken to warn and evacuate
    the occupants of a structure and to summon assistance.

A properly designed alarm system can serve both life safety and property
protection.

1\. *Public alarms.* -- Public fire alarm systems are provided in all
large cities and in many of the smaller communities. While in general
the pull boxes on the street are reasonably well located, there is need
for more complete utilization of this service, so that the full value of
the public fire department can be realized. The public, watchmen, and
occupants of buildings should be trained to "Call the Fire Department
Before Attacking the Fire." Convenient means of notification should
always be available, particularly at schools, institutions, hospitals,
hotels, large apartments, theatres, and all places of public assembly
where safety to life is a compelling factor.

2.  *Private alarms.* -- Fire alarm warning systems are an essential
    precaution in many buildings where safe evacuation of the occupants
    is a prime consideration, such as in schools, dormitories, and
    hotels. Warning systems should receive special attention where
    possibilities for panic exist.

3.  *Fire detecting systems.* -- It is again emphasized that prompt
    discovery is a prime requisite of efficient extinguishment. Where
    buildings and areas are equipped with sprinklers, the water-flow
    alarms can be utilized for discovery, warning, and to summon
    assistance. For areas not so equipped, automatic fire detecting
    devices and systems are available for these purposes. They can be
    used to advantage where conditions do not warrant automatic
    sprinklers, at properties not constantly attended, and in important
    areas with combustible construction or contents. These systems are
    operated by thermostatic or smoke detecting devices.

4.  *Supervisory and central station service.* -- The dependability of
    all alarms and signaling systems depends upon their maintenance and
    upon the testing and supervision service, including those for
    automatic sprinkler systems and watchman patrol service. Various
    organizations that maintain central station service for all types of
    alarms have been established and are available in most cities.

These organizations serve as an important adjunct to the public fire and
police departments. This service provides not only the supervision of
electric circuits for the alarm and signaling equipment, but also
includes a central station with constant attendance, where alarms are
immediately transmitted to the fire department. Such organizations
maintain runners who are familiar with the premises so protected and
respond to all alarms or trouble signals. They inspect and test all
equipment at regular intervals. This dependable service is generally
desirable at locations involving large values and at all locations where
hazards to life is an important factor.

f.  ***Watchman service.*** -- An important adjunct to the fire
    protection of a property is the watchman service. The value of the
    service is no greater than the reliability of the man. For the
    protection of the owner and the watchman, it is desirable that his
    rounds be recorded on a standard watchman's clock, unless central
    station supervisory service is provided.

It should not be overlooked that the normal property, which operates
during daylight hours only, is under the absolute and sole supervision
of the watchman for as much as two-thirds of the time during the year.
Therefore, an active, intelligent, and well trained person should be
selected for this job, instead of one who is merely a clock-puncher or
who is not far from the unemployment stage.

In addition to providing this service at properties that operate only
part-time, it is of utmost importance that recorded watchman service be
maintained in buildings occupied by the public at night, such as hotels
and hospitals, as well as institutions and dormitories.

g.  ***Public protection.*** --

1\. *Fire departments.* -- There is much evidence that the public fire
departments, which normally are employed with complete authority over a
property when they respond to an alarm, do not always understand or
appreciate the effectiveness of the expensive private protection that
has been provided by the property owner. Some fire departments are often
guilty of closing automatic sprinkler valves upon arrival at the
property, when such protection was controlling or at least confining the
spread of fire. The public fire department at times is not familiar with
the arrangement of the interiors of the building or with the specially
hazardous locations where the blind application of water from hose
streams could be detrimental to efficient extinguishment. While great
strides are being made in the education of public firemen, it behooves
all property owners to invite and, where necessary, to insist that the
public fire department visit and become familiar with their premises. It
is usually a worth while investment to take the necessary time to guide
the firemen through the building and explain in detail the hazardous
processes, the proper procedure to be followed, and the private
protection that has been installed. It is necessary that the owner
cooperate with and assist the public fire department before the fire.

2.  *Public water system.* -- Public water systems play an important
    part in both fire department and private protection. These systems,
    which are permanent installations, are costly to install, and in
    many communities they have not kept pace with the building expansion
    and increased demands for water. Normal improvements have been
    delayed in the last 5 years by war and material shortages. Postwar
    demands for water have increased, rather than decreased. The
    governmental authorities, as well as the water department operators,
    whether public or private, have an obligation to the community to
    maintain adequate water supplies and pressures for firefighting
    service. Some systems are great sources of income to the
    municipality, and governing bodies hesitate to make improvements
    lest they jeopardize this income. They are wary of bond issues,
    raising of rates or other major expenditures, until an emergency
    arises.

Excessive charges made by some water departments for the use of public
water for automatic sprinklers and other private fire protection have
discouraged the installation of such protection. They fear that water
from fire protection systems will be wasted or used for domestic
purposes. Such fears are for the most part unfounded. Automatic
sprinklers actually conserve water supplies, since they attack the fire
in its incipiency. Records indicate that 90 percent of all fires in
sprinklered properties is extinguished with less than 10 sprinklers and
80 percent with less than 5 sprinklers. The public fire departments must
invariably use much larger quantities of water for extinguishment.

If public water officials were better informed as to the function and
operation of private protection, they would do more to encourage public
water connections for fire service.

**5. OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE**

In addition to good design of buildings and equipment and the provision
of adequate protection, effective measures in regard to the operation or
use of a property are imperative, in order to reduce our national waste
of life and material resources by fire.

There are certain fundamentals in operation and maintenance for fire
safety common to all types of buildings and occupancies. These are
supervision, organization, education and training of personnel, good
housekeeping, precautions against smoking, care and restriction in the
use of flammable liquids, open flames and lights; and the maintenance of
buildings, service equipment, and fire protective equipment in
serviceable and operative condition.

a.  ***Management supervision.*** -- The very occurrence of fire is
    largely influenced by the extent to which the management directs its
    attention toward fire safety. The instigation of every precaution
    and safe practice is a measure of the efficiency of management
    supervision, just as carelessness, poor housekeeping, poor
    maintenance, and disregard of fire hazards indicate ineffective
    supervision.

It is necessary that management closely supervise all operations and
personnel and be particularly attentive to elimination of fire hazards.
The instigation and successful consummation of a fire safety program,
incorporating those features specified in this report, is urged.
Attentive supervision of the procedures established is necessary.

b.  ***Personnel training.*** -- The training and education of the
    personnel in fire protection principles and practices are essential
    parts of a fire safety program. In a large organization, a separate
    department may well be established, in charge of a qualified fire
    protection expert, to whom should be delegated the necessary
    responsibility and authority to direct and enforce necessary fire
    safety measures.

In smaller organizations, the magnitude and scope of the training
program will be correspondingly less. Department heads, after themselves
being trained, may be utilized to train other employees. Qualified
persons may be brought in from the outside for lectures and short
courses.

Such a program may be developed by the holding of periodic instructive
meetings and lectures, and by the use of visual education, bulletin
board notices, instruction sheets, pay-roll envelope stuffers, and
well-placed signs designating location of fire protection equipment,
exits, building service controls, and areas or rooms of special hazard,
etc. Education and interest in fire protection may be augmented by
simulating competitive interest among employees, holding contests,
issuing prizes, and using suggestion boxes. Public address systems,
where provided, may be utilized for broadcasting of fire safety
messages.

Personnel training should include instruction in proper procedures in
case of fire. The importance of notifying the public fire department as
soon as fire is discovered should be stressed. During periods of
alteration and repair, the workmen, whether employees of the property or
outside contractors, should be bound by the established regulations at
any property. The importance of carefulness and good housekeeping should
be impressed upon all employees.

The organization and training of a plant fire brigade should be a part
of the personnel program. Thorough training and instruction are needed
in the location, care, and handling of firefighting equipment, method of
firefighting, safeguarding of undamaged property, and in assisting
occupants to evacuate the premises. Members should have full knowledge
of the operation of all fire protection equipment. It is important that
all watchmen be included in training programs and be given special
instructions for proper emergency procedures when in sole charge of the
premises.

The number of persons in the brigade and the scope of their training and
duties will depend upon the nature of the occupancy, magnitude of the
premises, total number of employees and periods worked, existence of
special hazards, and availability of outside aid. Regular drills should
be held to maintain the efficiency of the brigade.

c.  ***Training of the public.*** -- A comprehensive program of fire
    safety education is needed for the public, in order that each
    individual citizen may become informed and appreciate his
    responsibility in fire safety to himself, his associates, and the
    community at large. Favorable public opinion and cooperation, based
    on a sound educational program, is essential, and local agencies
    should lend their efforts to this end.

For the safety of the premises and of the admitted public, certain safe
practices should be followed. It is generally desirable that smoking be
curtailed and by all means not done in bed, whether in a hotel or in
one's own home. All fire protective equipment, such as extinguishers,
hose lines, and fire alarm boxes, etc., should be so located as to be
both visible and accessible. This can be accomplished by the use of
notices, signs, and posters. Where public address systems or radios are
available, safety messages can be transmitted.

Responsible management can accomplish much in training the public,
including its customers, by encouraging them to observe the safety
features it has established for its premises.

d.  ***Building maintenance.*** -- It is important that a building be
    maintained in good repair, and that protective features incorporated
    in the design and construction of the building not be impaired or
    destroyed by building alterations, ornamentations, changes in
    occupancy, etc. The major structural parts of the building, such as
    a framework, floors, roof, walls, and enclosures for floor openings
    should be maintained in good repair, and the fire resistant
    character not adversely altered. Where wired glass windows, fire
    shutters, or outside sprinklers are provided as protection against
    exposure, it is desirable that they should not be removed unless the
    exposure is removed. This protection should be kept in good repair.

Fire doors in division walls and partitions, and stairway and elevator
doors, are important features for retarding the spread of fire and for
the protection of the occupants. The functions of these doors are not
only to confine fire to its area of origin, but also to retard the
fire's spread by elimination of draft, and to afford safe passage and
refuge for the occupants.

e.  ***Service equipment.*** -- The various items of service equipment
    provided in a building are likely causes of fire if they are not
    properly installed or are poorly maintained, overloaded, or
    otherwise abused.

1\. *Heating equipment.* -- The heating facilities for buildings or
manufacturing equipment contribute to the hazards of fire and
accordingly need careful and competent supervision. Sources of trouble
include obstructed, defective, or dirty chimneys and flues, improper
combustion of fuel, inadequate ventilation, poorly located fuel tanks,
oil leaks, improper maintenance of combustion safeguards, combustibles
stored too near to boilers, furnaces, and steam pipes, and the use of
combustible containers for ashes.

Other devices employing open flames or glowing metal are used
inadvisedly near flammable materials, liquids, and gases. Unless the use
of this equipment is carefully supervised and maintained, the hazard of
fire and explosion is appreciable.

As evidenced by the number and seriousness of the fires involving the
operation of kerosene or range oil heaters and stoves, particularly in
dwellings, camps, barracks, and on the farm, greater realization of the
hazard and greater care in operation are needed.

2\. *Electrical equipment.* -- The uses of electricity are so
diversified that fires attributed to failure of electrical equipment or
to faulty installations have been outstanding for many years in the list
of causes.

All electrical equipment should receive the best of maintenance, and due
regard should be given to the standards adopted and incorporated in the
National Electrical Code. The use of temporary wiring during alterations
is a frequent source of trouble and should be reduced to a minimum. Such
wiring should be replaced with a permanent installation as quickly as
possible. The improper use of fuses and the overloading of circuits
deserve careful attention.

Electrical equipment should receive frequent inspection by competent
persons. It is also important that electrical power be controlled by
central switches, which can be opened when power is not in use. The use
of warning or pilot lights and thermostatic controls is desirable on all
electrically heated devices.

2.  *Air conditioning.* -- By the nature of the design of an air
    conditioning system incorporating ducts, it may readily be the means
    of conveying fire or smoke throughout a building, resulting in
    considerable property loss or even loss of life by creating a panic
    among the occupants. Dust accumulating in ducts, plenum chambers,
    and on filters is conducive to fire and capable of evolving
    considerable quantities of smoke when burning.

In addition to providing safeguards and protective equipment in the
design and installation of air conditioning equipment, it is necessary
that proper maintenance and cleanliness of the equipment be given
attention. Clean ducts and clean filters will mean the absence of fuel
for a fire within an air conditioning system, and proper maintenance of
the mechanical, electrical, refrigeration, and heating equipment of the
system will reduce causes of fires.

3.  *Miscellaneous service equipment.* -- Refrigerating equipment,
    elevators, escalators, and other miscellaneous service equipment
    require careful servicing and maintenance by competent men.
    Housekeeping features are also important. Waste and rubbish
    accumulations in the bottoms of elevator shafts, and lint and grease
    accumulations on the walls and elevator guides, are means for the
    quick vertical spread of fire and smoke. Leaks of refrigerant may be
    dangerous, and in buildings of public assembly the use of
    nonflammable and nontoxic refrigerants is recommended.

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f.  ***Fire-protective equipment.*** -- The proper maintenance of fire
    protective equipment is essential. Equipment should always be
    available and in operative condition. Good operating condition can
    best be assured by frequent inspection and tests.

Distribution of water from automatic sprinklers should not be obstructed
by high-piled merchandise, partitions, decks, and large tables.
Sprinklers should not be removed or omitted because they are considered
unsightly. Fear of water damage to contents or to electrical
installations from accidental operation is generally unfounded. At each
property, some trained and responsible person should be designated to
inspect and supervise all fire protective equipment.

The establishment of a self-inspection service has proved to be a most
valuable effective means of guarding property against fire and
maintaining a high standard of maintenance and safety. Written reports
of all inspections should be submitted to responsible management, and
prompt action taken to correct all faulty conditions. Chemical
extinguishers and other first aid fire extinguishing equipment must be
accessible and clearly visible to the occupants.

Effective supervision of valves, alarms, and water supplies is available
through central office supervisory service companies, and this service
is generally more effectual than local supervision.

Fire alarm and fire detecting (or thermostat) systems of all types
require frequent testing and inspection. The systems supervised by a
central station agency insure quicker response by public fire
departments; but it is usually advisable to have local alarm bells also.

The testing and maintenance of these alarm systems, as well as water
flow alarms for sprinkler systems, are the responsibility of the
management of the property.

g.  ***Operations problems.*** --

    1.  *Housekeeping.* -- Poor housekeeping is one of the most
        prevalent causes of fire. Good housekeeping is not the mere
        removal of waste material and rubbish, although this is of prime
        importance. The elements of good housekeeping also include the
        arrangement of storage in an orderly fashion, the segregation of
        hazardous processes and highly flammable materials to prevent
        undue exposure to other contents, and the avoidance of excessive
        floor loads and congestion. Small storerooms, janitor closets,
        pipe, electrical cable, and elevator shafts; basements, attics,
        and other places occupied infrequently; drug and anesthesia
        rooms, X-ray film vaults; oil, paint, and solvent storage rooms;
        mattress and furniture storage rooms, paper-bailing rooms, and
        repair shops are all areas requiring special attention if good
        housekeeping is to be maintained.

Surplus or supplemental furniture, machinery, and storage have no place
in halls, corridors, stairways, or building exits; for if they do not
contribute to the spread of fire, they frequently obstruct the passage
and free exit of the building occupants, or impair the action of the
firefighting forces.

The insistence on excellent housekeeping and orderly arrangement of
contents impress both the employees and the public and has been found to
be a profitable procedure.

2.  *Smoking and careless use of matches.* -- Smoking and the careless
    use of matches is one of the greatest sources of ignition. In
    addition, many of the fires attributed to unknown causes are
    undoubtedly the result of careless smoking and disposition of
    burning matches. The average smoker seldom realizes the hazards of
    his habit. Some act with deliberate and selfish disregard of their
    own safety or that of others.

It is possible for smoking to be done safely, if the smoker uses proper
precautions and chooses suitable locations. It is generally desirable
that smoking be restricted to safe areas and to places where suitable
equipment is provided for the disposal of burned matches and butts.

Control of smoking may be effected by collective cooperation between
management, employees' union, and the public in general. Furthermore,
the prohibition of smoking in dangerous areas may be enforced by
governmental authorities, through the adoption of suitable laws and
ordinances. Some cities have instituted such action. For example, New
York has been successful in a campaign against smoking in retail stores,
as well as other places, through the application of an ordinance against
smoking in places of public assembly, coupled with the enforcement of
compliance by arrests and fines.

To cope with this smoking problem, it is evident that the public must be
educated further regarding the hazard. It has been suggested that
manufacturers of matches print on the package or wrapper a notice of
warning or caution relating to the careless disposal of cigarettes and
matches. The same precautions should be displayed as part of the printed
matter on packs of cigarettes.

3.  *Special hazards flammable liquids, and gases.* -- In many
    buildings, there are operations or contents that are more hazardous
    than the normal or common hazards incidental to all properties in
    general. These are called "special hazards," and from the fire
    protection view point require special and individual attention.

The careless and improper use of flammable liquids and gases, whether in
the home, in buildings open to the public, or in manufacturing plants,
has resulted in many disastrous fires and much loss of life.

The use of flammable liquids for home dry cleaning, and careless use of
gasoline in repair shops and service areas, are extremely dangerous. The
substitution of less flammable liquids wherever possible should be
encouraged.

Where the use of the more flammable liquids and gases is necessary in
hospitals, industrial plants, and shops, the amount of these materials
should be limited to the daily needs, with main supplies stored in
properly ventilated and isolated tanks, vaults, or buildings.

Areas involving the use of large quantities of flammable liquids, highly
flammable materials such as pyroxylin plastics, magnesium, etc., and
manufacturing equipment subject to fire or explosion, require isolation
from main workrooms and areas housing large groups of people.

It is good practice to "Post" these areas and to warn everyone of the
hazards. It is extremely important that all employees engaged in
hazardous occupancies be fully instructed of the dangers involved and be
trained in proper procedures to meet an emergency.

4.  *Flammable fabrics and decorations.* - Long-nap fabrics of a
    material more flammable than wool, silk, and nylon, and other highly
    flammable materials, are extremely dangerous as wearing apparel.
    Celluloid buttons and trimmings and pyroxylin-coated materials are
    also dangerous. A garment should not be made of material so
    flammable that, if ignited, the wearer cannot take it off, without
    getting seriously burned.

Considerable progress has been made in removing garments and trimming of
a highly flammable nature from the market. This has been accomplished by
enactment of appropriate legislation, and through education by
interested technical and business associations.

Flammable draperies, decorations, upholstery, rugs, and bedding have
contributed to the spread of fire and the mounting loss of life,
particularly in residential buildings. Combustible decorative trim,
although part of the building structure, nevertheless falls in the same
category. Proxylin-coated upholstery fabrics are extremely hazardous.

Consideration should be given to the flame-proofing of flammable
fabrics, decorations, draperies, and clothing, or to avoiding the use of
such flammable materials when possible in buildings where the public is
admitted, such as hospitals, hotels, theatres, auditoriums, restaurants,
and night clubs.

h.  ***Technical organization aid.*** -- There are numerous private and
    public organizations actively engaged in the field of fire
    prevention and protection, which are in a position to render
    considerable assistance. Informative printed matter, including
    comprehensive technical data, is available to all. In addition, many
    trade associations, as well as technical and business organizations,
    frequently devote efforts to fire protection.

Insurance companies maintain large technical staffs of experienced
engineers to assist property owners and managers as to recommended
procedures and improvements. The services of private, practicing, fire
protection engineers are also available.

Management should seek information and assistance through these various
channels, heed the advice given, and comply with recommendations
submitted.

**[RECOMMENDATIONS]{.underline}**

The committee recommends that greater attention be given by designers of
buildings to the recognized standards of construction and to strict
compliance with established codes and regulations; that governmental
officials review the adequacy and extent of existing regulations; that
owners and managers of buildings adhere to safe practices and observe
standard rule of fire safety; that aggressive action be taken to
accelerate the installation of automatic fire protection in new and
existing buildings, particularly where safety to life is a compelling
factor; and that designers, owners, public officials, and the public in
general assume their full obligation for the elimination of fire
hazards. Specific measures to this end are recommended as follows:

###### CONSTRUCTION

a.  ***Planning and design.*** -- Every effort should be made to arouse
    owners, architects, and designers to a sense of their responsibility
    to the occupants of buildings, so that structures are erected with
    due regard to the fundamentals of fire safety. Special attention
    should be given to:

1\. The selection of construction materials with regard to the height,
area, occupancy or use, and the facilities that will be available for
fighting fires.

2\. The design, so that adequate vertical and horizontal barriers are
included, to prevent the spread of fire, smoke, and gases. All vertical
shafts should be in fire resistive enclosures, and all entrances to
shafts and stair enclosures should be equipped with self-closing doors.

3\. Exitways, so that two independent means of exit will always be
available and so that the venting of main areas into exitways is
avoided.

4\. The interior facing materials of walls, ceilings, and exitways, so
that they be selected with regard to their ability to resist spread of
flame, in keeping with the nature of the occupancy or use of the
building.

> 5\. The possibilities of a structure adding to the conflagration
> hazard in the district.

6\. Private fire protection, so that such protection is included in the
original design where needed; any needed water supplies are extended to
the structure prior to erection operations; and needed protection keeps
pace with construction.

b.  ***Building codes and fire protection ordinances.*** --

1\. Building code and fire protection ordinances should be provided for
all cities and large communities. Where existing legislation is obsolete
or inadequate, it should be modernized. State laws that involve
prohibitive costs for the publication of changes should be amended so
that publication is satisfied by posting new regulations in the office
of the building inspector, county court house, or post office.

2\. Consideration should be given to increased use of State enabling
acts permitting municipalities to adopt standards by reference.

3\. Legislation should be enacted or laws amended to give building
officials reasonable latitude in the approval of new materials or
methods of construction. Municipal authorities should ascertain that
their building and fire departments are adequately staffed for
enforcement, and that the rate of pay will attract and retain qualified
administrators.

4\. Provisions should be made in building codes for the issuance of
certificates of occupancy, as an aid to maintaining lawful conditions in
buildings and as a measure of control to prevent the development of
hazardous conditions.

5\. When the enforcement of building and fire prevention ordinances and
the operations of the fire department are not administered by a single
authority, the legislative authority should clearly define the duties
and responsibility of the respective agencies.

As a general rule, enforcement of building code requirements, unless
specific exceptions are made, should be the responsibility of the
building department. The duties of the fire department should cover the
supervision of housekeeping and maintenance of buildings, so far as they
pertain to fire prevention, the maintenance of fire extinguishing
equipment, storage of hazardous materials and liquids, and the
extinguishment of fires.

The closest cooperation between the enforcement agencies is imperative,
and each should report violations of law and hazardous conditions to the
official having jurisdiction.

c.  ***Deficiencies in existing buildings.*** -- The construction and
    protection in existing buildings have been responsible for many of
    the more serious losses to life and property. For correction of the
    outstanding deficiencies, the following procedure is advised:

1\. Exitways should conform with the basic principles of recognized
standards, and in places of public assembly exit facilities should
conform to standards required for new construction. (See sec. 1d.)

2\. Stairways and vertical shafts must be suitably enclosed and
protected, and horizontal barriers provided, to prevent the spread of
flame, smoke, and gases. (See sec. 1b.) Subdivision of fire areas by
fire resistive walls, and tight-fitting fire doors to provide for
horizontal exits, should be provided where the hazard to life is severe.

3\. In existing institutional or residential buildings (including
hospitals and hotels), the doors of individual rooms should be
constructed to retard the spread of fire and the gases of combustion.
The use of door grilles, movable transoms, or fixed transoms glazed with
plain glass should be prohibited. Corridor partition doors and stairway
doors should be self-closing and of fire resistive materials.

4\. Building owners should provide sufficient private protection for the
safety of the structure, and not protection based solely on insurance
credits. Where necessary, the financing of automatic extinguishing
equipment and other building construction improvements should be
investigated.

5\. Governmental authorities are urged to enact and enforce remedial
legislation for the correction of hazardous conditions in existing
structures where safety to life is a compelling factor.

###### FIRE PROTECTION EQUIPMENT

Fire loss records reveal notable deficiencies in the installation of
fire protection, including hand equipment, standpipes, automatic
extinguishing equipment, alarms, and water supplies, and attention
should be given to the provision of equipment as follows:

a.  ***Hand equipment.*** -- First aid fire extinguishing equipment
    (sand and water pails, extinguishers, and small hose) should be
    provided in every manufacturing, mercantile, and storage occupancy;
    in every school, hospital, hotel, dormitory, restaurant, institution
    for care, office building, and place of public assembly or
    entertainment, whether permanent or temporary.

b.  ***Automatic sprinklers.*** -- Automatic sprinklers should be
    installed more generally in all large industrial and mercantile
    buildings, schools, institution, and places of public assembly that
    are of combustible construction and in hazardous areas where fire
    might spread in fire resistive buildings.

c.  ***Special extinguishing equipment.*** -- Special extinguishing
    equipment, such as foam, carbon dioxide, fine water spray, and inert
    gas should be used more generally for the protection of flammable
    liquids and other specially hazardous materials.

d.  ***Standpipe and hydrant systems.*** -- Standpipe systems should be
    provided for public fire department and for private use in buildings
    of unusual height or area, in accordance with recognized standards.

e.  ***Alarm systems.*** --

1\. Public fire alarm signaling systems should be expanded, where
needed, to locations convenient to all large mercantile and industrial
properties and to locations convenient to all schools, hotels,
hospitals, public and private institutions for care, and places of
public assembly.

2\. Suitable fire alarm and warning equipment should be provided in all
schools, hotels, hospitals, institutions, and places of public assembly.

3\. Supervisory and central station service should be more fully
utilized, where available, for all alarm service, including private fire
alarms, fire detecting equipment, and automatic sprinkler systems.

f.  ***Watchman service.*** -- The quality of watchman service should be
    improved, and more active, intelligent, and well-trained men should
    be employed for this service. Watchman services should always be
    recorded. In addition to other protective features, night-watchman
    service should be provided in all hotels, hospitals, and
    institutions where a considerable number of people are sleeping or
    confined.

g.  ***Public fire departments.*** --

1\. Public fire departments should set up at least quarterly inspection
schedules for all buildings where there is a potential hazard to life,
and should check the operation and condition of all private
extinguishing and alarm equipment; the adequacy of public fire alarm
boxes for the property; and the storage and handling of flammable
liquids; and should insist upon maintenance of excellent housekeeping
conditions

2\. Building owners should advise public fire departments of any
impairment to automatic protection, or of any other unusual conditions
that could obstruct or interfere with normal procedures during a fire.

3\. Public fire departments should become more familiar with the value
and operation of private protection, particularly automatic sprinkler
equipment.

h.  ***Public water.*** --

1\. Public water officials should review the adequacy of distribution
systems and water supplies, and urge responsible officials to instigate
the appropriation of funds for needed improvements. Attention is
directed to war plants and large residential areas recently erected,
particularly areas expanded in outlying districts where normal
improvements have been delayed by the war and material shortages.

> 2\. Excessive costs for private fire service connections should be
> avoided.

###### OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE

Attention should be given to certain fundamentals in operation and
maintenance for fire safety common to all types of buildings and
occupancies. These are supervisions, organization, training of
personnel, building and equipment maintenance, housekeeping, smoking,
and handling of hazardous materials and flammable liquids. Adherence to
these fundamentals will affect the incident of fire.

a.  ***Suppression .*** -- The owners and managers of all buildings
    should set up hard-and-fast rules for fire safety at all structures,
    and such regulations should be strictly enforced.

b.  ***Training.*** --

1\. Measures should be instituted for the personal safety of the
admitted public, by the use of signs and other applicable means. All
floor men, and elevator and telephone operators, should be given special
instructions in procedures to be followed in emergencies.

2\. Fire brigades should be organized and drilled, and similar training
should be extended to all watchmen and key employees.

c.  ***Inspections***. - A responsible employee should be delegated to
    make periodic inspection of all exitways, fire doors, housekeeping,
    smoking, and fire protective equipment, and of all conditions
    relating to fire hazards and the safety of the occupants or visiting
    public. Responsible management should preferably require written
    reports and should insist that deficiencies be corrected.

d.  ***Building and service equipment maintenance.*** -- Competent
    mechanics should be employed to maintain all structures, including
    roofs, windows, stair and elevator enclosures, and fire doors, and
    all heating, lighting, power, air-conditioning, ventilating,
    refrigeration, and other service equipment, so that structural
    conditions or equipment will not cause fire or contribute to the
    spread of fire.

e.  ***Flammable liquids and gases.*** --

1\. The storage and use of flammable liquids and gases should be
arranged according to recognized standards. The use of flammable liquids
should be restricted wherever possible, substituting nonflammable or
nonexplosive liquids. The use of highly flammable or explosive cleaning
fluids in small shops and in the home should be avoided.

2\. Where large quantities of flammable liquids and gasses are necessary
to operation, as in industrial plants, the maintenance of adequate
ventilation, the prevention of ignition, and the installation of special
extinguishing equipment should be given careful consideration. Employees
in these areas should be fully instructed regarding the hazards involved
and the proper procedures to be followed.

f.  ***Flammable decorations.*** -- The use of flammable decorations,
    draperies, and highly combustible wall coverings should be avoided
    in all places of public assembly and where people sleep or are
    confined, as in hotels, hospitals, and institutions.

g.  ***Smoking.*** -- The hazard attending promiscuous smoking should be
    widely advertised. Where smoking is permitted, provision should be
    made for the safe disposal of butts and matches. "No Smoking" rules
    should be strictly enforced.

h.  ***Housekeeping.*** -- The importance of good housekeeping in
    preventing fires and reducing the extent of fires should be kept
    forcefully in mind by all persons responsible for the management and
    operation of buildings, and every means should be employed to
    acquaint the public with the need for utmost care in accomplishing
    this necessary end.

COMMITTEE ON BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION, AND PROTECTION

**CHAIRMAN**

ALFRED C. FULLER

*President and Chairman of the Board, Fuller Brush Co., Hartford, Conn.*

**SECRETARY**

GEORGE N. THOMPSON

*National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.*

**ASSISTANT SECRETARY**

J. H. COURTNEY

*American Standards Association, Washington, D.C.*

**ASSISTANT SECRETARY**

W. D. MILNE

*Eastern Inspection Bureau, New York, N.Y.*

**ASSISTANT SECRETARY**

J. MILTON WRIGHT

*Associated Reciprocal Exchanges, New York, N.Y.*

K. W. Adkins, *Missouri Inspection Bureau, St. Louis, Mo.*

John Ashmead, *The Phoenix Insurance Co., Hartford, Conn.*

George R. Bailey, *Albert H. Wetten & Co., Chicago, Ill.*

Albert H. Baum, *City Hall, St. Louis, Mo.*

Arthur J. Benline, *Superintendent, Housing and Buildings, Municipal
Building, New York, N.Y.*

H. E. Bilkey, *H. E. Bilkey Corp., New York, N.Y.*

Clinton T. Bissell, *National Board of Fire Underwriters, New York,
N.Y.*

Carter Bowser, *State Fire Marshal, Indianapolis, Ind.*

John J. Bradley, *Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.*

Frank Burton, *Burton Abstract and Title Co., Detroit, Mich.*

W. E. Cheesman, *Improved Risk Mutuals, New York, N.Y.*

Wharton Clay*, National Mineral Wool Association, New York, N.Y.*

M. L. Clement, *Southern Building Code Congress, Birmingham, Ala.*

Hal Colling, *Pacific Coast Building Officials Conference, Los Angeles,
Calif.*

R. C. Corson, *Factory Mutual Laboratories, Boston, Mass.*

W. S. Credle, *State Department of Education, Raleigh, N.C.*

W. A. Danielson, *Danielson Associates, Inc., Memphis, Tenn.*

T. Seddon Duke, *Star Sprinkler Corp., Philadelphia, Pa.*

John W. Dunham, *Public Building Administration, Washington, D.C.*

John Fies, *National Housing Agency, Dallas, Tex.*

E. W. Fowler, *National Board of Fire Underwriters, New York, N.Y.*

William C. Freeman, *Federal Public Housing Authority, Washington, D.C.*

G. J. Halpin, *American La France Foamite Corp., Elmira, N.Y.*

George C. Hawley, *State Fire Insurance Department, Austin, Tex.*

John L. Haynes, *Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.*

T. R. Higgins, *American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., New
York, N.Y.*

Roy Hudenberg, *American Hospital Association, Chicago, Ill.*

A. C. Hudson, *New Hampshire Board of Underwriters, Concord, N.H.*

Captain Harold K. Hughes, *United States Navy, Washington, D.C.*

Winthrop M. Jones, *Factory Insurance Association, Hartford, Conn.*

Ferdinand Kautholz, *Federal Works Agency, Washington, D.C.*

R. G. Kimbell, *National Lumber Manufacturers Association, Washington,
D.C.*

R. C. Loughead, *Michigan Inspection Bureau, Detroit, Mich.*

Henry F. Ludorf, *American Institute of Architects,* *Hartford, Conn.*

Robert W. McChesney, *National Electrical Contractors Association,
Washington, D.C.*

James M. McCormack, *Commissioner of Insurance, Nashville, Tenn.*

Joseph A. McGuckin, *Philadelphia Electric Co., Philadelphia, Pa.*

H. L. Minor, *E. I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co., Wilmington, Del.*

N. D. Monfalcone, *War Department, Washington, D.C.*

John A. Neale, *Underwriters Laboratories , Inc., Chicago, Ill..*

George C. North, *Northwestern Mutual fire association, Chicago, Ill.*

George C. Parsons, *Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Department of Public
Safety, Boston, Ma..*

J. F. Peelle, *The National Metalclad Door Association, Buffalo, N.Y.*

H. E. Plummer, *Inspector of Buildings, Portland, Oreg.*

L. H. Provine, *University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.*

H. N. Pye, *South-Eastern Underwriters Association, Atlanta, Ga..*

Raymond C. Roberts, *Fire Marshal, Washington, D.C.*

Bernard A. Savage, *Building Officials Foundation, New York, N.Y.*

F. R. Scherer, *National Council on Schoolhouse Construction, Rochester,
N.Y.*

Glenwood J. Sherrard, *Parker House, Boston, Mass.*

A. E. Smith, *American District Telegraph Co., New York, N.Y.*

A. G. Smith, *Travlers Fire Insurance Co., Hartford, Conn.*

George E. Strehan, *Building Officials Conference of America, New York,
N.Y.*

E. A. Taylor, *Fire Marshal Department, Salem, Oreg.*

Victor H. Tousley, *National Fire Protection Association, Chicago, Ill.*

W. V. Van Cott, *Federal Housing Administration, Washington, D.C.*

Joseph Wolff, *Commissioner, Department of Buildings & Safety
Engineering, Detroit, Mich.*

Bert L. Wood, *American Iron & Steel Institute, New York, N.Y.*

Lloyd H. Yeager, *Gypsum Association, Chicago, Ill.*

**CONFERENCE ORGANIZTION**

**GENERAL CHAIRMAN**

Maj. Gen. PHILIP B. FLEMING, *Administrator, Federal Works Agency*

**EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR**

A.  BRUCE BIELASKI, *Assistant General Manager, National Board of Fire
    Underwriters*

> **COORDINATING COMMITTEE**
>
> **CHAIRMAN**
>
> W. E. REYNOLDS, *Commissioner of Public Buildings*

O. J. Arnold, *President, Northwestern National Life Insurance Co.*

Frank Bane, *Executive Director, Council of State Governments.*

Paul Betters, *Executive Secretary, United States Conference of Mayors.*

Ernest B. Brown, *President, Ernest W. Brown, Inc.*

Frank A. Christensen, *President, National Board of Fire Underwriters.*

J. H. Craig, *Chairman, Fire Marshals' Section, National Fire Protection
Association.*

Dr. Ned H. Dearborn, *President, National Safety Council.*

Charles A. Delaney, *President, International Association of Fire
Chiefs.*

Robert E. Dineen, *President, National Association of Insurance
Commissioners.*

Jas. R. Edmunds, Jr., *President, American Institute of Architects.*

Wallace J. Falvey, *Chairman, Advisory Committee, National Conservation
Bureau.*

Hovey T. Freeman, *President, Manufacturers Mutual Fire Insurance Co.*

A. V. Gruhn, *General Manager, American Mutual Alliance.*

W. K. Jackson, *President, Chamber of Commerce of the United States.*

Leroy A. Lincoln, *President, Metropolitan life Insurance Co.*

W. E. Mallalieu, *General Manager, National Board of Fire Underwriters.*

Earl D. Mallery, *Executive Director, The American Municipal
Association.*

James H. Mooney, *President, Building Officials' Conference of America.*

James H. Park, *President, Pacific Coast Building Officials Conference.*

Curtis W. Pierce, *President, National Fire Protection Association.*

George J. Richardson, *Secretary and Treasure, International Association
of Fire Fighters.*

Mrs. Pearl Wanamaker, *President, National Education Association.*

Guy T. Warfield, Jr., *President, National Association of Insurance
Agents.*

Frank M. Whiston, *President, National Association of Building Owners
and Managers.*

**TECHNICAL ADVISORY GROUP**

H. R. Bassford, *Metropolitan Life Insurance Co.*

Robert B. Beach, *National Association of Building Owners and Managers.*

James V. Bennett, *Federal Interdepartment Safety Council.*

George W. Booth, *National Board of Fire Underwriters.*

A. L. Brown, *Associated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Cos.*

Percy Bugbee, *National Fire Protection Association.*

W. C. Clark, *Federal Fire Council.*

Theodore I. Coe, *American Institute of Architects.*

John P. Coyne, *International Association of Fire Fighters.*

Dr. Robert W. Eaves, *National Education Association.*

Hubert R. Gallagher, *Council of State Governments.*

Donoh W. Hanks, Jr., *The American Municipal Association.*

Julien H. Harvey, *National Conservation Bureau.*

A. L. Kirkpatrick, *Chamber of Commerce of the United States.*

West Shell, *National Association of Insurance Agents.*

Fred Shepperd, *International Association of Fire Chiefs.*

J. C. Stennett, *American Mutual Alliance.*

**CONFERENCE STAFF**

A. BRUCE BIELASKI, *Executive Director.*

LEWIS A. VINCENT, *Assistant Executive Director.*

William J. Chattin, *Technical Assistant.*

John L. Werheim, *Technical Assistant.*

Douglas H. Timmerman, *Conference Arrangements.*

John B. West *Technical Assistant.*

Russell R. McGuire, *Publicity.*

Hester M. Bell, *Secretary.*

**STAFF CONSULTANTS**

A. C. Hutson, F. C. McAuliffe, R. E. Truman, R. E. Verner, R. E. Wilson

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1948

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office,

Washington 25, D.C. -- Price 10 cents