**Session No. 4**

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# 

# Course Title: Hazard Mapping and Modeling

**Session 4: Geographic Information Systems in a Hazards Context**

**Andrew Curtis, Department of Geography & Anthropology, Louisiana State
University**

## Time: 6 hrs 

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**Overall Goal: This course is to contribute to the reduction of the
growing toll (deaths and injuries, property loss, environmental
degradation, etc.) of disasters in the United States by providing an
understanding of the significant role of mapping and modeling in the
management of hazards.**

**Session Goal: This session will introduce students to basic concepts
and principles of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) within a
bio-terrorism context**

**Objectives:**

1.  **Define definitions and concepts of a Geographic Information System
    (GIS).**

2.  **Describe different GIS data and mapping operations important for a
    community response**

3.  **Describe and explain GIS tools used to defining and characterizing
    social vulnerability**

4.  **Identify hazard GIS data types and sources**

5.  **Describe real-time GIS applications and tools in a disaster**

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**Scope:**

The instructor will ask the students if any have ever used a GIS before.
If any have, a further question will determine how much GIS experience
they have. If any student in the group has considerable experience,
he/she will be given *group leader*, status and will be expected to help
out their fellow classmates. The instructor will then ask the class to
give a brief overview of what they know about Bioterrorism. This session
will introduce students to GIS operations using screen shots. Students
will not be expected to be able to use the GIS at the end of the
session, but he/she will be expected to know what a GIS is and its
capabilities. The student, if operating an EOC would be expected to know
how GIS could help his/her decision-making capability.

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**General Readings:**

*Student Readings:*

Amdahl, G., Ed. (2001). [Disaster Response: GIS for Public
Safety]{.underline}, ESRI Press.

Kennedy, H., Ed. (2001). [The ESRI Press Dictionary of GIS
Terminology]{.underline}, ESRI Press.

*Additional Instructor Readings:*

(2000). *GIS for Health Organizations*, ESRI Press.

(2002). [Confronting Catastrophe: A GIS Handbook]{.underline}, ESRI
Press.

Longley, P. and M. Batty, Eds. (2003). [Advanced Spatial Analysis: The
CASA Book of GIS]{.underline}, ESRI Press.

Longley, P., M. Goodchild, et al., Eds. (2001). [Geographic Information
Systems and Science]{.underline}, John Wiley & Sons.

Mitchell, A. (1999). [The ESRI Guide to GIS Analysis Volume 1:
Geographic Patterns & Relationships.]{.underline}, ESR Press.

Sullivan, D. and D. Unwin (2002). [Geographic Information
Analysis]{.underline}, Wiley.

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**General Requirements:**

Power Point slides are provided for the instructor's use.

The instructor's course syllabus should be distributed to the students
following the instructor and student introductions.

It is recommended that students with little or no knowledge of GIS
should perform an internet search on *GIS class*. There are currently
many on-line course descriptions available.
[WWW.Esri.com](http://WWW.Esri.com/) is a good place to start.

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**Requirements:**

Use the PowerPoint slides provided. Proposed questions are suggested to
stimulate discussion. By the end of this session students should be
familiar with the basic concepts of a GIS and Geographic Information
Science. They should also have an understanding of what an Enterprise
GIS is, how GIS fits into a local community EOC, examples of responding
federal agencies using GIS, and why it is still important to have local
community GIS. The students should also be able to provide examples of
how a bio-terrorist attack.

Discuss with the students that they will not become proficient in GIS
use by the end of a 6 hour session. What is expected is that each will
gain an appreciation of the technology and the role it can play in
disaster science. Students will also be expected to develop a spatial
appreciation, to understand how the events of any disaster unfold
geographically

At the beginning of this session, if no previous introductions have been
performed, the instructor should provide an overview of his/her
background in disasters, and particularly, in using GIS. The instructor
will then ask each student in turn, whether he/she has had any GIS
experience. If a student has had experience, the instructor will
follow-up the question by asking the student to explain the software
he/she used, the types of tasks they performed, and a general estimate
of their proficiency. Any student with considerable GIS experience (left
to the instructors prerogative, probably based on his/her own GIS
experience), will be designated a *group leader* to help convey the
course to their fellow classmates.

**Remarks:**

**Objective 4.1 Define definitions and concepts of a Geographic
Information System (GIS).**

I. Elements of **GIS**.

> A. **GIS** can (broadly) be split between vector and raster data.

1.  **Vector data** means spatial features are captured as objects

> a\. All features being represented by:
>
> 1\) Points
>
> 2\) Lines
>
> 3\) Areas (commonly referred to as polygons).

Q: Ask the students for examples of each of these spatial data types
that would be useful in mapping a: hurricane, b: earthquake, c: railroad
chemical spill.

2.  **Raster data** (satellite or air phots, USGS DEM's, & flood grids)
    is complete spatial coverage data

> a\. A grid is laid over the entire area and each cell contains a
> value.
>
> b\. A cell may contain a height above sea level, or a land cover
> classification value.

Q: Ask the students for an example of complete coverage data that might
be useful in the event of a railroad chemical spill.

II\. GIS as a database

A. A GIS is as a **database** that has been designed to work with
**spatial data**.

> 1\. An important ability of this system is to extract **information**
> from this spatial database and map it. ([Slide 1]{.underline}).
>
> B. A GIS provides a means of **manipulating spatial data** to
> investigate a problem.
>
> C. A GIS needs multiple spatial data layers
>
> D. A GIS allows you to **visualize and analyze map patterns**.
>
> 1\. [Slide 2]{.underline} shows a typical **GIS investigation**
>
> a\. The investigation provides a means for finding out whether there
> is a relationship between lead **exposure and crime**.
>
> 2\. Thinking about the question (exposure and crime) **spatially**
>
> a\. Identify the locations of chemical plants
>
> b\. Put a simple **buffer** around each to show a potential **area of
> exposure**.
>
> c\. Modeling the dispersion of a chemical hazard will provide a more
> accurate means for identifying these areas of exposure.
>
> d\. The chemical plant location may also be enlarged according to the
> amount of lead it produces.
>
> e\. Another type of lead exposure comes from **proximity** to heavily
> trafficked roadways.
>
> f\. Similarly, the Centers for Disease Control have acknowledged that
> pre 1950 housing can also result in lead exposure because of flaking
> paint and lead pipes (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
> 1997; Griffith, Doyle et al. 1998; Hanchette 1999).
>
> g\. Both these layers are also visible on Slide 2.
>
> h\. The final GIS layers

1)  Addresses of people arrested for drug violations

2)  Addresses of people who have died (in this year) of lung cancer.

***Q: Ask the students which of these spatial data layers are points,
lines and areas?***

III\. A further term often associated with GIS is **Geographic
Information Science** (GISc).

> A. GIS is associated with
>
> 1\. All aspects of spatial data input
>
> 2\. Manipulation
>
> 3\. Analysis
>
> 4\. Visualization.
>
> B. GIS includes:
>
> 1\. Technologies such as **Global Positioning System** (GPS)
>
> 2\. Databases
>
> 3\. Spatial analysis techniques (finding local area clusters and
> cartographic animation).

IV\. The events of September 11^th^, followed closely by the
"**Anthrax**" letters have made the American public realize how
vulnerable they are to a terrorist attack.

> A. One of the more feared attack **scenarios** could involve the
> release of an **infectious agent** such as Smallpox, Anthrax, or
> Plague.
>
> B. Many cities have conducted **tabletop exercises** based around the
> recognition of an agent release, including **scenarios for response
> and recovery.**
>
> C. Although many of these exercises use smallpox (Slide 3), an
> arguably more worrying scenario is the **salmonellosis attack in
> Oregon in 1984** (Torok, Tauxe et al. 1997).
>
> 1\. This attack highlighted that **any** community is vulnerable to
> attack.
>
> 2\. Every community should have some **mitigation, response and
> recovery plan** for such an occurrence.
>
> a\. Strategies developed specifically for a bio-terrorism incident may
> be designed with transferability to any disaster.
>
> b\. In order to reduce the inefficiency of resource duplication,
> Homeland Security presidential directive #8 on national preparedness
> states
>
> "*The term **"all-hazards preparedness"** refers to preparedness for
> domestic attacks, major disasters, and other emergencies"*.

Q: Ask the students to name five conditions that would be the same for
an emergency operations center (EOC) dealing with a bio-terrorist attack
as compared to any other disaster or hazard. Then name five differences
between the two events.

V. A **Bio-terrorism attack** also provides a good example of how
spatial a disaster can be.

> A. **The attack origin** can be located geographically by a coordinate
> (or possibly a line of coordinates if it was sprayed).
>
> 1\. This single **point of origin** would result in a diffusion of
> sickness as the disease spreads,
>
> a\) Through the physical terrain (such as being spread by water)
>
> b\) By contagious **person-to-person contact**.
>
> 2\. The EOC would have to decide whether an attack had taken place,
> and then **spatially organize** response teams.
>
> 3\. These response teams would have their own points of origin (such
> as a police station or hospital)
>
> B. The police would have to interact with other spatial locations
> (such as stockpiles of vaccines).

C.  **Spatial decisions** would have to be made.

> 1\. How is the disease spreading?
>
> 2\. Where should the **quarantine** barriers be placed?
>
> 3\. Where should the focus of vaccination efforts be placed?
>
> 4\. How do you identify **vulnerable populations**?

D.  All of these inputs and decisions are **spatial**

> E. GIS makes a perfect EOC tool.

Q: Ask the students to think about their local community and identify
spatial areas or infrastructure that might be vulnerable to a terrorist
attack.

> *(Stadium, food processing plant, public water tower, Federal Court
> House, or Post Office.)*

VI\. **Spatial Data Input**

A. Getting information such as **maps and field data** into the GIS.

B.  **Spatial Data manipulation** --

> 1\. Maps and spatial data can be **queried** in the GIS.
>
> 2\. It would be possible to identify how many people live within 5
> miles of a disease release.

C.  **Spatial Data analysis**

> 1\. Spatial analysis techniques can be run to identify patterns in the
> release data.
>
> 2\. A hotspot analysis of people displaying symptoms may help identify
> the origin of the attack.
>
> 3\. A plume model might also be required to identify **vulnerable
> populations** to an airborne release.

**C. Spatial Data visualization**

> 1\. Spatial data is meant to be viewed as maps
>
> 2\. The GIS allows the user to interactively change these maps.
>
> 3\. Adding on different spatial layers, such as where people live,
> transportation routes, quarantine areas.

***Q: Ask the students to describe what would be useful features to
include on a map during a bio-terrorism attack.***

VII\. A **GIS** is an information system.

> A. It can provide a centralized information collection and decision
> making center for an EOC.
>
> B. The key inputs to an bio-terrorist attack would be:
>
> 1\. The origin,
>
> 2\. Infected persons,
>
> 3\. Spreading mechanisms,
>
> 4\. Response team locations,
>
> 5\. Quarantine barriers,
>
> 6\. Vaccination strategies etc.
>
> C. All of these data are spatial and as such can be located within the
> GIS.
>
> D. During a time of emergency the EOC should have access to several
> useful data layers, such as:

1.  Aerial photography,

2.  Scanned topographic maps,

3.  Socio economic data, or

4.  Road networks.

E. **Field data** may need to be collected from the field during the
attack

> 1\. Data may be collected using a **PDA running a hand-held GIS/GPS**.
>
> F. **Real-time data** could feed into the EOC GIS allowing for
> informed decisions to be made.
>
> 1\. Characterizes **an "enterprise GIS"**
>
> a\. Involves **multiple data inputs** (for example, data from the
> police or hospitals) inputting into the GIS
>
> b\. Continually **updating data.**
>
> 2\. Analysis results available for users (ie: air modeling results)
>
> 3\. Available for download from a **secure web site** ([Slide
> 7]{.underline}).

***Q: Ask the students to name likely input and output data sources for
the Enterprise GIS.***

> *New subdivisions and streets, residential and commercial addresses
> for emergency response dispatch, fire and rescue station capabilities,
> health care resources, or hazardous materials response resources.*

VII\. Every community should have a **GIS in its EOC**

> A. Federal agencies work with GIS (Slides 8 -- 14).

**Q: Why would any local community need its own GIS?**

> *Although Federal agencies provide many useful data layers, local
> governments often recognize the need to update these layers and add
> additional layers that are not used by Federal agencies. Federal and
> state transportation agencies may provide local governments with a
> bridge data set, but local agencies might want to add additional
> information concerning dates of inspections, repairs or capacity.*
>
> B. These federal agencies, such as **FEMA's Mapping and Analysis
> Center**, and the **Interagency Geospatial Preparedness Team**,
> provide valuable services.
>
> C. Federal agencies such as USGS may require local entities to adopt a
> **common data standard**
>
> 1\. Data that is collected for one city or community should be in a
> standard format that could be used in any **GIS anywhere**.

VIII\. Need for a **local GIS**?

> A. In a bio-terrorism event it will take 72 hours before federal
> resources are adequately mobilized to the area under attack.
>
> B. **Federal resources** may not be available for other disasters as
> well.
>
> C. In other words, for the first three days the local community will
> be somewhat alone.

D.  **Time** is important in a bio-terrorism event

E.  The attack will **be limited** if:

> 1\. The **origin and spreading** mechanisms is identified
>
> 2\. Appropriate **quarantine and vaccination strategies** put in
> place.
>
> 3\. If the disease is **contagious**, then the fewer cases infected,
> the easier it is to control.
>
> F. The local **EOC may have to stand by itself**, at least in the
> beginning.
>
> 1\. If the attack is **multiple site**, either within the same state
> or across the nation, then federal resources will be stretched and
> unavailable initially to local jurisdictions.

G. Local GIS advantages

> 1\. The local EOC GIS analysts will **know local data sources**
>
> 2\. The **local data limitations**, better than any federal analyst.
>
> 3\. This local analyst will be able to **interpret model outputs**
> with a rationale eye.
>
> 4\. Federal model will also require local data inputs (such as plans
> of the building where an attack occurred, and the vulnerable
> populations in close proximity).

H. **Benefits of using a GIS** in a bio-terrorism attack (Slides 15-16).

1.  The local community EOC would use the GIS

> a\. To **identify** if a bio-terrorism attack was occurring,
>
> b\. The **methods** of diffusion and likely subsequent victims.
>
> c\. The GIS would be used to identify the origin of the attack (partly
> because of future prosecution needs, and partly because the disease
> strain at this location would be purest and not have gone through any
> mutation)
>
> 2\. This could help in correctly identifying whether the outbreak was
> an attack or not.***4***

**Student Group Exercise 1: Have students in groups of four put together
an EOC plan for a bio-terrorism attack on their community.**

**What spatial data should already be available?**

**What additional spatial data will be needed?**

**Which agencies will supply data and which agencies will require
data?**

> **What local data may be specific to their community as compared to
> other communities?**

**Objective 4.2 Describe different GIS data and mapping operations
important for a community response**

**Requirements:**

Use the PowerPoint slides provided. Proposed questions are suggested to
stimulate discussion. By the end of this section students should be
aware of two common GIS data layers, **1:24,000 Quadrangles and Digital
Orthophoto Quarter Quadrangles (DOQQ)** and how each can be used to
create new GIS layers through **heads-up digitizing**. Students should
also be familiar with the concept of **buffering**.

**Remarks:**

I. GIS Layers in **Emergency Operations**

> A. Certain **GIS data layers** are invaluable for EOC response
> decisions.

**Q. Ask the class which layers would be essential in an emergency
response to a hazardous materials spill or a flood.**

*Location and capabilities of hazardous spill response resources for a
chemical spill*

> *Transportation routes and capacity of these routs for evacuations of
> large residential, businesses, schools, health care sites.*

*Health care providers including emergency medical services and
hospitals*

*Appropriate locations for roadblocks or traffic detours*

*Staging areas for medical treatment or other response activities*

*Locations of chemical monitoring equipment*

*Location of various emergency response activities including shelters*

> B. GIS layers may already be available before an event occurs so as
> not to waste time searching for them.
>
> 1\. Slide 17 shows a selection of these **data layers**
>
> **2. Data layers vary**

a.  **Images** of the environment (such as maps or aerial photographs),
    human

    b\. **Political and socio economic data**,

> c\. Actual physical layers, such as elevation data.

II\. USGS 1:24,000 **Quadrangle** Maps

> A. One extremely useful GIS layer are **scanned and geo-registered 7 ½
> minute quadrangles (**also known as **Digital Raster Graphics
> (DRGs)**.
>
> 1\. These maps are **digital copies** of the maps you commonly see as
> folded navigation aides.
>
> 2\. Scanned and geo-registered means an **electronic picture** has
> been taken of the map and known **coordinate locations** (such as
> benchmarks or street intersections) have been added.
>
> 3\. Additional layers may be placed over the electronic picture
> (roads, hospitals, or water features) as additional GIS features.
>
> 4\. Slides 18, and 19 show that the Quadrangle maps have
> **considerable detail**.

Q: Ask the students what vulnerable buildings can be seen on this DRG.

III\. Heads-up digitizing

> A. Slide 19 displays the state capital which has been heads-up
> digitized
>
> 1\. This means that the outline of the building has been drawn -- this
> now forms a new GIS layer.
>
> B. Information could be added into this new layer, what is commonly
> referred to as attribute data.
>
> 1\. For the state capital this could be the number of people estimated
> inside at different times of day.

IV\. Buffering

A. Slide 20 shows a common GIS procedure, known as buffering.

> 1\. This places a geographic cordon around a feature
>
> 2\. The cordon could be circular, linear or following the exact shape
> of the feature.
>
> 3\. In this case an area of 50 meters has been drawn around the state
> capital.
>
> a\) For example, an explosion is expected to detonate in the building,
> the EOC may require all buildings within this range to be evacuated.
>
> 3\. Notice the DRG also shows a school (luckily this is outside the 50
> meter buffer).

V. Heads-up digitizing and buffering with USGS Digital Ortho Photo
Quadrangles

A. Another excellent base data layer are **aerial photographs** (for
example DOQQs prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey).

1\. These provide the perfect **base maps**

a\) Non-GIS audiences as we all feel comfortable looking at photographs

b\) We can usually identify features on these maps quicker than on a
DRG.

2\. The DOQQs have been **scanned and geo-registered** in the same way
as the DRGs.

3\. This means these photographs can also be used for heads-up
digitizing of new GIS layers. Slides 21 to 24 show chemical tanks
associated with an industrial plant.

4\. Obviously this could be a potential terrorist target. It could also
be the site of an industrial accident.

Q: Ask the students to identify other features on the DOQQ. (Roads,
water features, wetlands, or other landmarks)

**Objective 4.3 Describe and explain GIS tools used to defining and
characterizing social vulnerability**

**Requirements:**

Use the PowerPoint slides provided. Proposed questions are suggested to
stimulate discussion. By the end of this section students should be
aware of the data layer needed to **locate human events** into a GIS,
and know how that address matching assignment works. Students will also
be shown different **political boundaries** and the **socio economic
data** found inside. The issue of **spatial aggregation error** will be
discussed. The concept of point-in-polygon will also be discussed, this
will allow sample data to be placed into the **political boundaries** so
that **social vulnerability** surfaces can be mapped.

**Remarks:**

**I.** Census Bureau **Tiger line files and address matching**

A. When working with any disaster, **addresses** (residential,
commercial, industrial, or government) will be important.

1\. Addresses of people impacted

2\. Addresses of key infrastructure facilities

3\. Addresses of response team supplies.

a). For example, Slide 24 shows addresses overlaid onto the DOQQ
containing the **chemical tanks**.

b\) If there was an explosion and people had to be evacuated within a
**certain range** (as identified by running a **plume model** or even by
creating a **simple buffer**)

c\) Some means would be needed to match those at risk with a means to
distribute a warning.

B. Need for **accurate addresses**

1\. **An EOC may have automated telephone systems** that can call all
persons living within a given zip code.

2\. This same automated calling system could be used on address ranges.

C. Using Addresses in a bio-terrorist attack.

1.  During a bio-terrorism attack, reports could be received from
    hospitals of **victims displaying similar symptoms**, such as
    pustules on the soles of the feet and palms of the hands (a typical
    symptom of smallpox)

2.  The **addresses of these victims** would need to be plotted

> a\) To identify a possible disease pattern
>
> b\) A possible point of origin
>
> c\) Identify a potential spreading mechanism.

**Q: Ask students what errors might be found when address-matching.**

*(Individual provides incorrect address such as wrong street number or
reference to a road, lane, or highway; the address range is not included
in the GIS layer, or the new road feature or subdivision is not included
in the GIS layer).*

**II. Address matching** or **geo-coding** works on a proportional
allocation routine.

A. Slide 25 shows a typical **road network** in a GIS.

B. These are usually derivative of the Census Bureau **TIGER line
files**.

C. Each road segment has a **node** at the beginning and end (where
other roads cross).

D. If a stretch of road has no other cross roads, **nodes may be placed
at regular intervals**.

E. For each road segment an **address range** is found on either side.

F. The geo-coding algorithm places an address **proportionally along a
road segment** (Slide 26).

1\. For example, if a road begins at 1 and goes to 101, and the road
segment is 100 meters long, an address of 60 would be placed 60 meters
from the roads beginning.

**III.** Using GIS layers in **emergency operations**.

A. Slides 27 to 34 show several of the previous mentioned data layers
and operations as they would be employed if a **bio-terrorist** threat
was phoned in for a **city park**.

B. The threat might be abstract, claiming that an explosive device with
an aerosol capacity was planted somewhere in the park.

C. Unfortunately no GIS was already available of the park, so a **DOQQ
was used to create spatial layers of key features**, such as trees,
water bodies, pathways.

D. These GIS layers were immediately relayed to a field team working
with a **PDA running a hand held GIS/GPS unit.**

E. The **field team** were also collecting data, such as trash cans,
using the GPS. The device was discovered in one trash can identified by
the red circle.

F. This **location** was relayed back to the EOC and an immediate threat
buffer was placed around the trashcan.

G. It is immediately obvious that some residences are within the
**threat buffer**.

H. By overlaying a road file, **all addresses could be matched** to a
database and contacts made by phone, even before police response team
had knocked on all doors.

**Q: Ask the students to come up with another scenario based around a
sports event.**

**IV.** Need for **Social Vulnerability Mapping**

A. In the previous example it would also be useful to understand the
general characteristics of the **population under threat**.

B. If a disaster strikes, there are certain populations that **need to
be relocated or sheltered** immediately.

1\. For example, if an explosive device is expected to detonate, or a
hurricane is expected to make landfall, it is prudent to relocate all
under threat.

C. However, many other situations present **fuzzy spatial areas** under
threat.

1\. For example, if there is a chemical release, a large area may be
impacted to some degree, **but is the impact enough to relocate
everyone?**

2\. Similarly, a hurricane's landfall may cover many hundreds of miles,
**so should some priority be placed on certain populations?**

3\. A large amount has been written about **vulnerable populations**,
with the **traditional risks**

a\. Poverty

b\. Minorities

c\. Women as head of households

d\. Women as head of households with young children in the house

e\. The physically and mentally challenged

f\. The infirm

g\. All residents of hospitals and clinics, and elderly homes

F.  Each population presents significant **logistical problems for
    response teams**.

> 1\. Some of these problems may be physical, for example many poor
> families have **no transport**, so how do you relocate them?

2\. This is a traditional problem with New Orleans every time a
hurricane nears.

# V. Types of vulnerability {#v.-types-of-vulnerability .unnumbered}

A. If it were possible to know where all these vulnerable populations
were, maybe mitigation strategies could be developed before an emergency
happens.

B. A further point of consideration is the fact that a community will
also have to work through **recovery as well as response**.

C. This is a commonly overlooked problem.

1\. **Poor populations**, especially if they lose everything, are likely
to suffer from a form of **posttraumatic stress**, which may be coupled
with a lack of ability to gain professional diagnosis and help.

2\. If these types of problems can be identified spatially, the
traumatic impact of a disaster can be lessened.

VI\. The targeting and mapping of **vulnerable communities**

A.  This is not a new approach (Walker 1995; Diaz and Pulwarty 1997).

B.  Justification

    1.  We must target those **areas of vulnerability** so that
        appropriate mitigation and response strategies can be
        formulated.

VII\. **Risk Categories** (Hill and Cutter 2001)

> A. **Individual Choices**

B. **Social (**surrounding neighborhood), and

C. **Bio-physical**.

VIII\. **Vulnerability elements** (Morrow 1999).

A. **Individual characteristic** (the activity space),

> B. The **physicality of environments** (location and construction of,
> and owner status of, the home).
>
> C. The **surrounding social and political fabric.**

IX\. V**ulnerability Landscapes**

> A. Comprised of **social, racial, and economic layers** overlaid on
> the community's physical and service infrastructure.
>
> B. The reaction of **different cohorts** (families in a neighborhood
> or individual family members) can vary in the face of the same risk.

C.  The **hazard** must be placed into the context of **those it is
    likely to impact**

    1.  **Macro** (city) and **micro** (neighborhood / individual)
        decision making strategies being involved in any response plan.

X. Spatial Vulnerability Surfaces

A. It is possible to use GIS to produce complex **spatial vulnerability
surfaces**

> 1\. Based solely on the overlay of **"at-risk" cohorts** and
>
> 2\. C**ommunity infrastructure**
>
> 3\. The most common being maps expressed as graduated colors.
>
> B. Commercial and public **GIS packages**
>
> Everyday commercial GIS packages can be used to perform most
> vulnerability analysis.
>
> Freeware GIS such as **MARPLOT** has been tailored to access various
> infrastructure and socio-economic data sources suitable for disaster
> response (for a review of these approaches as response and training
> tools see Hill and Cutter 2001).
>
> B. Copies of MARPLOT V or VI may be obtained from the Census Bureau.
> Version V of MARPLOT is available for each state from:
> [http://atlas.lsu.edu](http://atlas.lsu.edu/)

Q: Ask the students to identify other vulnerable populations, and
brainstorm EOC procedures that could be used to help lessen the impact
of a disaster on these populations. Also see if the students can
identify areas of their community where they think these risks would be
the highest.

*Individuals with a significant handicap*

*Single head of households*

*Older members of the community*

*Individuals without transportation*

# XI. Political Boundaries and Socioeconomic Data {#xi.-political-boundaries-and-socioeconomic-data .unnumbered}

**A.** The simplest form of spatial vulnerability mapping is to create a
**choropleth map** of the risk variable.

1\. A **choropleth map** colors area according to the intensity of the
risk.

2\. Many useful datasets can be found through the US Census.

B. Unfortunately mapping these vulnerability surfaces comes with many
potential **pitfalls.**

1\. Firstly, **what spatial unit should be used?** Slide 36 displays six
possible aggregation areas;

**a.** **Census Tracts,**

**b. Census Block Groups,**

**c. Census Blocks,**

**d. Zip Codes,**

**e. Traffic Analysis Zones**

**f. Voting Districts**.

2\. Most socioeconomic information is available for these **census
aggregation areas**.

3\. Most non-government data is collected at the **zip code level**
because people often include this when filling in personal information.

4\. Slide 38 shows how the mapping of risk information

a.  In this case mothers as head of household with a young child at
    home, can display different patterns depending on the **spatial
    aggregation chosen**.

b.  In addition, the type of **classification scheme** chosen and the
    **number of classes** chosen can also change these map patterns.

    **Q: Ask the students to name 10 activities where they give out
    their zip code. How many of these times do they know or suspect the
    zip code is used for more than just mailing to them.**

    XII\. **Point-in-Polygon and Spatial Aggregation**

    A. The data mapped in Slide 38 is the result of an individual
    survey.

    B. Useful information is available from the **Census Bureau**

    1\. Average number of children in a household

    2\. Household income

    3\. Proportion of women as head of household

    C. It might be useful to survey the residents of a community for
    **other vulnerability information** (ie: household members with
    special needs by type).

    D. Not everyone can be asked these questions, therefore a **spatial
    sample** is needed.

    1\. Sampled people are asked a series of vulnerability questions,
    and these answers are considered to be **representative of their
    neighborhoods**.

    2\. This is achieved in the GIS by a **point-in-polygon process**

    a\. By assigning the **spatial aggregation unit** (such as the zip
    code) to each sampled person's address

    b\. Then **summing** how many addresses occurred in each area (zip
    code).

    3\. Notice how the resulting maps display quite **different
    patterns**

    4\. These show how dangerous it is to use any one map pattern as a
    **definitive social vulnerability surface**.

    **XIII. Spatial sampling** can also be used as a recovery strategy
    to find out the needs of the community.

```{=html}
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```
A.  For example a spatial grid sampling scheme originally designed for
    determining smallpox vaccine coverage (Bennet, Woods et al. 1991),
    was modified for needs assessment in Hurricane Andrew (Hlady,
    Quenemoen et al. 1994)

B.  Then applied in war-torn Chechnya (Drysdale, Howarth et al. 2000).

    **Q: Ask the students to design a spatial sample for their local
    community -- who would they pick, and how would they get the data?
    What potential biases would be involved?**

    **Exercise: Have students visit the library, or use internet library
    searches to find a journal article that uses either point-in-polygon
    analysis, or compares results between spatial aggregations, or uses
    a spatial sample in a *health or disaster related context*.**

**Objective 4.4. Identify hazard GIS data types and sources**

**Requirements:**

Use the PowerPoint slides provided. Proposed questions are suggested to
stimulate discussion. By the end of this section students should be
aware of other useful spatial data in the hazard context, mainly
elevation data. Students will also be shown a useful internet resource
for many of the data types discussed throughout this session.

**Remarks:**

I. **Elevation data.**

A. Socioeconomic data are not the only useful GIS layers during a
disaster.

B. Types of elevation data

1\. **Digital Elevation Model (DEM)**

2\. **LIDAR data** are important for both modeling and risk assessment.

C.  Both types of data are relatively commonly available for all areas

> DEM data probably being more accessible
>
> **LIDAR data being more accurate** (Slides 39 to 41).
>
> LIDAR data may be obtained from state Internet sites such as
> [http://atlas.lsu.edu](http://atlas.lsu.edu/).
>
> D. There is information about the data set included with the data from
> this site -- this is called **"meta data."** (

Q: Ask students what sort of disasters would require a response needing
elevation data? Students will probably mention flooding, but push for
more specific answers. Also ask how a bio-terrorism attack would benefit
from elevation data.

II\. **Data Sources on the Internet**

A. Slide 42 displays an example of an internet data site.

B. All of the data described in this session is available for download
(for Louisiana) through this site.
[http://www.atlas.lsu.edu](http://www.atlas.lsu.edu/)

C. Other communities / states may have similar web sites for data in
their state.

D. Slides 43 to 52 display a national data download web site, with
examples of how to download data.

1\. Although the format of this website may change slightly over time,
the general procedures will remain the same.

2\. Although this website, the **Geography Network**, can be accessed
directly

3\. Slide 43 displays a link from the ESRI.com website

4\. ESRI is the maker of ARC GIS products (another useful website for
GIS information).

E. An important component of downloading any dataset is to read the
**metadata.**

1.  Metadata describes how the data were constructed

2.  Gives useful information

    a.  The **cartographic projection** used

    b.  **When these data were collected**

    c.  **Processing decisions**.

3.  It is always important to read these metadata.

    Student Exercise: Have students find internet sources for GIS data
    for their community. Split these sites into local and national
    origin. Each group should give the name of the web site, a list of
    the downloadable data available, and useful comments extracted from
    the metadata file. Have a competition of who can find the most GIS
    layers.

**Objective 4.5 Describe real-time GIS applications and tools in a
disaster**

**Requirements:**

Use the PowerPoint slides provided. Proposed questions are suggested to
stimulate discussion. By the end of this section students should be
aware of technologies and skills allowing for **immediate GIS response**
by the EOC during time of emergency. The technologies include **PDAs**
and the skills include the **scanning** and **registering of new data**,
along with applying GIS analysis. Examples will be provided in an
**agricultural terrorism attack**.

**Remarks:**

I. Need for data during a disaster

A**.** Although having **multiple spatial datasets** available in the
GIS is important for response to any disaster, it is likely that further
data will be required during an event.

B. As an example, in a bio-terrorism attack, new data could include:

1\. The plans of a building complex where an agent has been released

2\. These plans would be scanned and geo-registered into the GIS.

C. Existing spatial layers would be used to create new data

1\. The addresses of victims.

2\. Location of roadblocks

3\. Evacuation routes from specific areas

C. Irrespective of disaster type, it is likely that a degree of **field
validation** would also be needed.

1.  This means a field team would collect spatial information

2.  Including the amount of damage or the effectiveness of a quarantine
    barrier

3.  Relay this information as a GIS coverage back to the EOC (Slide 53).

# II. An Agricultural Terrorism Example {#ii.-an-agricultural-terrorism-example .unnumbered}

A. It should be remembered that a biological attack need not be aimed at
humans.

B. An attack could also be directed at the food and livestock industry
(Slide 54).

C. These types of attacks could either be:

1\. An indirect attack on humans (by polluting food sources),

2\. A purely economic attack, such as the effect foot and mouth disease
would have on the cattle and corn industry in the United States.

D. It is also possible that an agricultural attack would be part of a
two-pronged attack.

1\. The first sickening animals, and

2\. The second, designed to incapacitate the response teams.

E. In order to prepare an EOC for an agricultural attack, additional
data would have to be collected:

1\. Location of farms,

2\. The number of animals and species located in each,

3\. The input and output transportation network between farms.

F. Some of these data could be collected by surveys.

G.  Other data could be collected by placing GPS units on milk trucks to
    establish traditional transport movements between farms.

    Q: Ask the students what would be vulnerable agricultural targets in
    their local area. What other data would be useful to be collected
    before an attack?

    Slides 55 to 57 show how the GIS might be used by an EOC during a
    developing Agricultural attack. If word comes in that an attack has
    happened at or close by a certain farm, a DOQQ could be used to
    heads-up digitize all relevant features from the farm, such as
    fields, barns etc.

    Slide 56 displays the ways that attribute tables and maps are
    dynamically linked within a GIS, by clicking on a field, the number
    and species of animals in that field are shown as a highlighted
    record in the table. The field being selected also displays as a
    yellow color on the map. Hopefully this digitizing of field
    boundaries and livestock data would have been collected previously
    as part of a statewide inventory. If it has not, the digitizing
    could be done quickly within the EOC, with expert advice guiding the
    likely numbers of animals in each field. A field team could also be
    dispatched to provide a quick count.

    If it is known that the attack was part of a spray release along a
    highway, and the estimated dispersal was 250 meters, a buffer could
    be drawn around the highway bordering the fields of the farm.
    Although GIS would allow for the proportional estimation of how many
    animals would be infected in this buffer area of the field, given
    the mobility of livestock, it would be prudent to identify all
    animals in the field as being infected.

    III\. Mobile Technologies: PDA running GIS / GPS

    A. During an emergency, three general types of real-time GIS
    additions would likely be needed.

    1\. The scanning of images

    2\. The registering of images, resulting in the heads-up digitizing
    of features.

    3\. The third means of getting real time GIS into the EOC decision
    making structure, are field data collected using PDAs running GIS /
    GPS units (Slides 58 to 60).

    a\. These units allow field teams to navigate using spatial data
    they have downloaded from the EOC GIS

    b\. Allows field teams to collect spatial data and attributes (such
    as how many animals have sickened at a given location).

    c\. These data can be relayed back to the EOC as actual GIS files

    d\. Further informed EOC decisions can be made using this additional
    data.

    B. One example of how important these units would be in a disaster
    comes with prediction models based around the release of a
    biological agent.

    C. These models would predict where new cases would occur. Field
    teams could validate these models, to see if they are accurately
    predicting spread.

    Q: Ask the students what other field data would be useful to be
    collected in real time, broken down by different disasters.

    D. An Anthrax example on a Ranch

> 1\. An example of how a PDA running GIS / GPS in the field is
> displayed on slides 61 to 64.
>
> 2\. A dead cow has been found on a ranch, and it is thought the
> animals died from Anthrax.
>
> 3\. In order to test the soil for Anthrax spores, we need to know
> where it died and bled out.
>
> 4\. This is an important task as anthrax spores could be collected and
> used as a weapon.

2.  It is likely the bones have shifted since the death due to
    scavenging animals.

3.  Each bone's location is recorded using the GPS.

> 7\. Later, at the **GIS lab**, these bones are weighed.
>
> E. **A GIS hotspot method, a Kernel Density Analysis (KDA)** may be
> run to find the most likely death location. This is where soil samples
> will be collected.
>
> 1\. This whole process could also have been achieved in near real
> time.
>
> 2\. The coordinates of the bones could have been relayed back to the
> EOC.
>
> 3\. The size of the bones could have been estimated by the field team.
>
> 4\. The KDA could have been performed at the EOC with hotspot results
> sent back to the field units PDA.
>
> 5\. This would guide the field team where to collect soil.

F. Slide 61 and 62 show how **remote sensing** can help this field
investigation for Anthrax.

> 1\. These images display moisture and vegetation content.
>
> 2\. By knowing the ecology of Anthrax, it is possible to identify
> areas of the ranch where animals would most likely contract Anthrax.
>
> 3\. This type of remote sensing analysis has been useful in predicting
> several different disease surfaces ranging from Cholera in the ocean,
> to Lyme Disease in the North east of the United States.

4.  **Vectored diseases**

    a.  Means (usually) an insect is involved in the spread of the
        contagion.

    b.  Can also be predicted in this way due to the ecology of the
        insect involved.

    c.  Malaria provides a good example of how this technology can be
        used in epidemiology.

Exercise: Have the students visit the CDC's online journal, Emerging
Infectious Disease, and identify which diseases have been tracked or
predicted using remote sensing. Have the students identify which of
these diseases could be a possible threat to the United States.

> **IV.**

D. One of the most powerful aspects of a GIS is as an Spatial Analysis
to find "origins"

> A. Although GIS should be an important part of an EOC, it is also
> important to have qualified GIS analysts available to maximize the
> potential of the system.
>
> B. These analysts could manipulate and create spatial layers
>
> C. They may run methods of spatial analysis which could help inform
> EOC decisions.
>
> analysis tool (Slide 65).
>
> E. In the event of a bio-terrorist attack, it would be extremely
> useful to identify the origin of the attack.
>
> F. This is because the origin is where the purest strain of the
> disease would be found
>
> 1\. Could help vaccination strategies, and
>
> 2\. Future criminal investigations.
>
> G. Knowing the origin would also help determine diffusion patterns
>
> 1\. Could help limit spread by placing quarantine and ring
> vaccination.
>
> a\. Ring vaccination means vaccinating all people/ animals outside a
> buffer of infection.
>
> b\. So as not to let infection spread further, similar to a fire break
> in a forest.

**V.** (Slide 67). **Spatial analysis**

**A. Spatial Analysis** can be applied in a GIS as part of a traditional
hypothesis testing scientific investigation.

B. An example of spatial analysis could be: ,

1.  Is there a significant number of birth defects around a power plant,

2.  Spatial analysis may also be used as an exploratory tool.

    a.  Identify a pattern in the victims of the bio-terrorism attack.

    b.  One simple method of spatial analysis is KDA (Slides 68 to 70),
        as mentioned in the Anthrax example.

    c.  Results from this technique should be interpreted with the
        geographic concept of distance decay in mind.

    d.  This concept states that objects are more likely to be similar,
        or interact more frequently, with smaller distances.

    e.  Therefore the density hotspots as identified using KDA, with all
        things being equal, these hotspots being the starting point of
        the infection.

    f.  This only works for certain types of contagious diseases.

    g.  It is an over simplification of the epidemiological process.

    h.  It can give an EOC an immediate impression of where things
        started.

Review and Assessment of Student Learning:

Slides 71 to 87 display a scenario and learning assessment questions,
the instructor should present each visual, then show the questions on
the following slide. The time allowed for each set of questions is on
the bottom of the slide. Total assessment time 80 minutes (90 minutes
total when allowing for approximately 1 minute per visual slide).

This activity may be graded or used as a means of reviewing and
discussing the main elements of the session.

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Press.

Amdahl, G., Ed. (2001). [Disaster Response: GIS for Public
Safety]{.underline}, ESRI Press.

Bennet, S., T. Woods, et al. (1991). \"A Simplified General Method for
Cluster Sample Surveys of Health in Developing Countries.\" [World
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Drysdale, S., J. Howarth, et al. (2000). \"The Use of Cluster Sampling
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Hill, A. and S. Cutter (2001). Methods for Determining disaster
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Hlady, W., L. Quenemoen, et al. (1994). \"Use of a Modified Cluster
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Kennedy, H., Ed. (2001). [The ESRI Press Dictionary of GIS
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Longley, P. and M. Batty, Eds. (2003). [Advanced Spatial Analysis: The
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Torok, T., R. Tauxe, et al. (1997). \"A large community outbreak of
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